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Development of Refuse Derived Fuel for

Cement Factories in Turkey
a a a b
Mustafa Kara , Esin Günay , Yasemin Tabak , Ufuk Durgut ,
c c
Şenol Yıldız & Volkan Enç
a
TUBITAK MRC (Marmara Research Center) Materials Institute ,
Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
b
AKÇANSA Cement Industry and Trade Co. , Büyükçekmece,
İstanbul, Turkey
c
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and
Waste Materials Valuation Industry and Trade Co.
Published online: 23 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Mustafa Kara , Esin Günay , Yasemin Tabak , Ufuk Durgut , Şenol Yıldız & Volkan
Enç (2010) Development of Refuse Derived Fuel for Cement Factories in Turkey, Combustion Science
and Technology, 183:3, 203-219, DOI: 10.1080/00102202.2010.512580

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 Combust. Sci. and Tech., 183: 203–219, 2011
Copyright # TUBITAK MRC
ISSN: 0010-2202 print=1563-521X online
DOI: 10.1080/00102202.2010.512580

DEVELOPMENT OF REFUSE DERIVED FUEL FOR

CEMENT FACTORIES IN TURKEY

Mustafa Kara,1 Esin Günay,1 Yasemin Tabak,1 Ufuk Durgut,2

Şenol Yıldız,3 and Volkan Enç3
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1
TUBITAK MRC (Marmara Research Center) Materials Institute,
Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
2
AKÇANSA Cement Industry and Trade Co., Büyükçekmece, İstanbul,
Turkey
3
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and
Waste Materials Valuation Industry and Trade Co.

The authors present an investigation of the development of refuse derived fuel (RDF)
materials from nonrecycling wastes and the determination of its potential use as an alterna-
tive fuel in cement production. RDF produced from municipal solid waste was analyzed and
its effects on cement production process were examined. The contribution of RDF on clinker
production was determined and the produced clinker has been characterized. For this pur-
pose, produced RDF was mixed with the main fuel (petrocoke) in different ratios. Then
chemical and mineralogical analyses of produced clinker were made. Emission values were
measured during the experiments at an industrial scale rotary cement kiln. The results were
below the limit values of directives and acceptable in cement industry. It is believed that
successful results of this study are a good example for municipalities and cement industries
in order to achieve both economic and environmental benefits.

Keywords: Cement; Emission; Municipal solid waste (MSW); Refuse derived fuel (RDF); Waste
management

1. INTRODUCTION
The increasing amounts of municipal solid wastes (MSW) in developing
countries, especially in municipal areas, has become a very big problem and is in
need of proper management. There are many barriers to proper municipal solid
waste management (MSWM), such as the lack of management capacity, financial
resources, expertise, and knowledge. MSWM affects the local, regional, and global
environments. The major concern is the release of pollutants such as acid and green-
house gases. MSW should be managed under integrated solid waste management
(ISWM) hierarchy. ISWM hierarchy is given in Figure 1.
Combustion is one of the ways to utilize these resources. Combustion can
reduce the quantity of waste being sent to landfill by 90% and hence saves landfill

Received 22 January 2009; revised 6 July 2009; accepted 29 July 2010.

Address correspondence to Mustafa Kara, TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Materials
Institute, P.O. Box 21, 41470, Gebze-Kocaeli, Turkey. E-mail: mustafa.kara@mam.gov.tr

203
 204 M. KARA ET AL.
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Figure 1 Integrated SWM hierarchy.

space. Also, RDF is one form of energy recovery from waste. Therefore, it is in the
third rank of integrated MSWM hierarchy.
Global warming is one of the most critical environmental problems that
humankind is facing. The Kyoto protocol aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission, lessen dependency on fossil fuels, and encourage the use of renewable
energy. In this regard, production and utilization of RDF can positively contribute
to the global and local environments. The cause of global warming is the increase of
GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. One of the major GHG from human activi-
ties is carbon dioxide (CO2). Its concentration in the atmosphere is rapidly increasing
upon combustion of fossil fuel oil, coal, and gas (Nithikul, 2007).
MSW recycling is very environmentally friendly. With MSW energy, society
receives a double benefit. MSWM means finding ways to eliminate millions of tons
of MSW each and every year. Global warming and the state of the environment
means that scientists have to find a source of energy that does not rely on fossil fuels
such as oil and natural gas. Also the composition of MSW varies significantly from
country to country, due to cultural differences and to the level of source separation
and other recycling and processing of wastes carried out in different countries. In
general terms, the quality of the MSW also reflects the level of industrialization,
and the quantities of paper and plastic sheet used in packaging (United Nations
Environment Programme [UNEP], 2003).
The issue of solid waste may be evaluated also as a management problem,
which requires developing collection, transportation, and disposal practices for
wastes, and raising awareness among local authorities and the public. In addition,
the main goal that aims to carry on solid waste servicing in management organiza-
tion is to collect and dispose waste in the most effective and suitable economic way to
address environmental, social, and technical issues.
Furthermore, urbanization in Turkey has two important characteristics with
respect to SWM issues. The first is fast and chaotic urbanization. This leads to more
than acceptable urban solid waste production; the second is the accumulation of
 DEVELOPMENT OF RDF FOR CEMENT FACTORIES IN TURKEY 205

garbage in rural areas that becomes a major problem for cities. Increasing solid
wastes, both in mass and volume, forces municipalities to carry on SWM in limited
capacity, and this is a major concern for urban as well as rural areas (Kara et al.,
2008).
Refuse derived fuel (RDF) is a kind of alternative solid fuel, which is derived
from municipal or industrial solid wastes, recyclable materials such as plastic, glass,
metal, or after decomposing burnable hard-to-recycle materials. Therefore, this high
calorific value fuel is used in cement factories and energy producing plants. The cal-
orific value of RDF is about 4000 kcal=kg. The reason for high calorific value comes
from plastic, paper, or cardboard contents. In addition, RDF has also high biomass
value. This technology is generally applied only at very large MSW facilities. RDF is
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commonly prepared by shredding, sorting, and separating out metals to create a

dense MSW fuel in a pelletized form of uniform size (Pekin, 2005).
Most cement plants do not directly burn unsorted MSW due the heterogeneous
nature of the waste and components, which could pose quality and environmental
concerns. MSW is used after sorting and balling into RDF in cement kilns in
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, and the Netherlands. In Belgium and Denmark
the RDF coincinerated in cement kilns is produced after some mechanical sorting of
mixed household waste while in Austria, Germany, and Italy the RDF is the residual
of mechanical biological treatment (MBT) plants, or in the Netherlands, it is a mechani-
cally sorted pelletized and compressed paper and plastic (Gendebien et al., 2003).
Higher fossil fuel prices are increasingly forcing cement plants to consider the
use of alternative fuels for clinker production. It is well known that RDF save large
amounts of money, based on various experiences in mostly European countries,
where well-developed waste collection and disposal systems combine with high
disposal costs (Lechtenberg and Partner, 2008).
In cement kilns, combustion takes place under very high flame temperatures
(
C) and relatively long residence times (minutes). These conditions are favorable
for the burning of refuse waste. Based on technical and environmental considera-
tions, the analysis of burning refuse-derived fuel (RDF) in a cement kiln shows that
no special firing technology has to be installed except that of the RDF handling sys-
tem, that there is an upper limit to the total fuel consumption (no more than 30%)
for firing RDF and that there is no increase in the emission levels of air pollutants
(including acid gases, dioxins, and furans; Lockwood and Ou, 1993).
The main problem regarding the use of RDF by cement kilns is the chlorine
content. When the chlorine content is high, it weakens the concrete in terms of 2,
7, and 28 days’ compressive strength. The chlorine compounds and alkali-silica reac-
tions create salts. These salts generate microcracks and the compressive strength
decreases (European Committee for Standardization [ECS], 2002a). Also, chlorine
creates the oxidation of iron in concrete. However, the cement industry estimates
that up to 20% of the heat from RDF could supply the load of a cement kiln, and
the cement kiln could also burn other wastes, such as tires, at the same time
(Gendebien et al., 2003).
The aim of this study is to produce RDF materials from nonrecycled wastes
leaving the separation unit; these wastes are sent to the landfill areas in present
systems after being processed at İSTAÇ Co. Compost and Recovery Facilities, for
use as supplementary fuel in cement kilns.
 206 M. KARA ET AL.

RDF samples before and after clinker production were analyzed and its
influences on cement production processing were examined. RDFs’ effect on clinker
quality has been investigated.

2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
2.1. RDF Manufacturing
Solid wastes larger than 80 mm obtained by sieving were taken to recycling
bands and recyclable plastic, metal, paper, and derived materials were sorted at
İSTAÇ Co. Compost and Recovery Plant. Wastes different from these recyclable
wastes treated in a decomposing unit (e.g., nonrecyclable plastic wastes, nappies,
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wood pieces, paper wastes, textile wastes, organics) were collected and transported
to regular storage areas; these daily wastes, which amount to approximately
300 tons, create an intensive operation and occupy large volumes.

Figure 2 RDF manufacturing flow diagram of İSTAÇ.

 DEVELOPMENT OF RDF FOR CEMENT FACTORIES IN TURKEY 207

The RDF manufacturing process is explained along with the flow diagram
given in Figure 2. Firstly, MSW is treated in a preshredder and magnetic separator
at the İSTAÇ Compost and Recycling Plant. Then, it is sent to a ballistic separator
to separate the low calorific value wastes. The rest of the waste is sorted as metals
and the others, the metal-free part is sent to fine (final) crushers for an appropriate
size that can be used in cement factories. In this way, the fuel produced from wastes
is called RDF. The waste is then sent to RDF stock area.

2.2. Characteristics of RDF

The composition of the waste sent to RDF (dry basis) plant is given in Table 1.
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This waste was decomposed from organic parts and recyclable solid wastes (e.g.,
paper, metals, plastic) and RDF was obtained.
The most important criteria in selecting alternative fuels used in cement factor-
ies are moisture percentage and calorific value. Values of these parameters are used
in determining the ratio of alternative fuels into actual fuels during the process. Total
moisture percentage of produced RDF was determined as 25% and it was decreased
to approximately 10–15% by drying before feeding into rotary cement kiln. The
developments in this system decreased the amount of organic waste and the limit
value of humidity. The specimen generally includes nylon pack, paper, and tetrapack
cover. The low calorific value of produced RDF in this study is 3,500 kcal=kg. The
picture of produced the RDF is given in Figure 3.
Chemical and trace element analysis of RDF is indicated in Tables 2 and 3.
There are no limitations regarding physical and chemical characteristics of this pro-
duct because RDF production is being realized in Turkey for the first time. However,
there are limit values established for characteristics of RDF because significant pro-
gress regarding this issue was made in Germany. As it is indicated on Tables 2 and 3,
characteristics of RDF produced at İSTAÇ Co. are compared with the limit values
of RDF produced at MVW Lechtenberg in Germany.

Table 1 Analyses of waste characterization

Composition of MSW coming from Composition of MSW going

Waste RDF Plant (%) from RDF Plant (%)

Textile 17.1 66.0

Paper 25.4 17.1
Organic fraction 22 0
Plastic bag 15.2 13.3
Napkin 7.0 0
Other combustible 3.7 0
PET-plastic 3.2 3.6
Wood 1.9 0
Bone 0.3 0
Tetrapac 1.2 0
Sack 0.5 0
Tin 0.6 0
Glass 0.7 0
Aluminium 0.4 0
Stone 0.8 0
 208 M. KARA ET AL.
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Figure 3 The picture of RDF.

2.3. Other Inputs

The main raw material of clinker production is the raw meal. The components
of raw meal are the oxides of calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron. Calcium mainly
originates from raw materials such as limestone, marl, or chalk. The silica, alu-
minium, and iron components as well as other elements are provided from clay,
shale, and other materials. All the natural materials mentioned also contain a wide
variety of other elements in small quantities (European Cement Association, 1997).
Component and module of raw meal used in this study are given in Table 4.

Table 2 Chemical analysis of RDF

Parameters Petrocoke RDF analyses Standard limits for RDF( )

Total Carbon, % 58
Inorganic Carbon, % 0.5
Organic Carbon, % 57.5
Ash, % 5.60 7.7 % 8–12
Volatile Compound, % 16.10 81.60 % 50–80
pH 6.7
Moisture, % 0.44 25 % <20
Bulk density, gr=l 154
Lower calorific value, kcal=kg 7,904 3,500
Upper calorific value of petrocoke 8,070
at air (kcal=kg)
Conductivity, us=cm 3.04
Sulphur, % 4.58 0.46 % <0.5
Chlorine, % 0.9519 % <1
Combustible sulphur in dry 4.10
petrocoke at air (%)

(Lechtenberg, D., 2008.).
 DEVELOPMENT OF RDF FOR CEMENT FACTORIES IN TURKEY 209

Table 3 Trace element analysis of RDF

Elements RDF analysis (ppm) Standard limits ( ) (ppm)

As 0.9 10
Cd 1.6 5
Cu 18.4 150
Hg 0.3 1
Ni 54.6 50
Pb 26.5 100
Sb 2.9 20

Note. Lechtenberg, 2008.

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Table 4 Component and modules of raw meal

Component & modules Amount (%)

CaO 43.00
SiO2 13.69
Al2O3 3.20
Fe2O3 2.13
MgO 0.77
K2O 0.58
Cl 0.0633
Na2O 0.08
TiO2 0.35
SO3 0.07
MnO 0.00
LOI (loss of ignition) 36.05
Total 99.98
Standard of Lime 98.84
Silica Module 2.57
Hydraulic Module 2.26
Aluminium Module 1.50

Generally, petrocoke is used as the main fuel in cement production. The

properties of petrocoke used in this study are given in Table 2.

3. MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES IN A CEMENT PLANT

The cement process involves gas, liquid, and solid flows with heat and mass
transfer, combustion of fuel, and reactions of clinker compounds and undesired
chemical reactions that include sulfur, chlorine, and alkalis. It is important to under-
stand these processes to optimize the operation of the cement kiln, diagnose oper-
ational problems, increase production, improve energy consumption, lower
emissions, and increase refractory life.
A flow diagram of typical process in AKÇANSA Co. cement production is
given in Figure 4, a summary of the measured and calculated results for the four
stages of the preheater kiln with grate cooler is given in Table 5, and the energy
balance is given in Table 6.
 210 M. KARA ET AL.
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Figure 4 Flow diagram of typical process in AKÇANSA Co. cement production.

4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

TUBITAK MRC (Marmara Research Center), İSTAÇ Co., and AKCANSA
Co. carried out clinker production using different RDF ratios in an industrial scale
rotary cement kiln located at AKCANSA Büyükçekmece Cement facilities. The pur-
pose of this study is to use RDF as supplementary fuel and to determine RDF per-
formance by assessing RDFs’ effect on clinkering process and characterization of
clinker obtained. For this purpose, RDF, which was produced in this study, was
added to main fuel (petrocoke) in ratios of 0%, 8%, 12%, and 15%. Chemical and
mineralogical analyses of produced clinker are made. Clinker production is achieved
according to results of bulk density tests made during clinker production. It is con-
firmed that the values obtained from chemical analysis fall within limit values of
Portland cement and as a result of the tests, it is understood that Portland cement
clinker is produced. The clinker specimen produced by using 15% RDF þ 75%
petrocoke is shown in Figure 5.
At the end of this study, the type of CEM I 42.5 R cement had been obtained
by a 95% clinker and 5% limestone mixture. Setting time, compressive strength (2,
7, 28 days), water demand, fineness, specific gravity, and Le Chatelier’s tests are
applied to cubic samples. These results compared with TS EN 197=1 are compatible
 DEVELOPMENT OF RDF FOR CEMENT FACTORIES IN TURKEY 211

Table 5 Summary of the measured and calculated results for 4-stages preheater kiln with grate cooler

Variable Units Results

Mass flow–raw meal kg=h 90,167

Mass flow–clinker kg=h 56,354
Raw meal clinker factor 1.60
Fuel–petrocoke kg=h 5,168
Fuel–RDF kg=h 1,601
Raw gas volume flow Nm3=h 86,835
Specific raw gas volume flow Nm3=kg cli 1.54
Spesific kiln inlet volume flow Nm3=kg cli 1.54
Specific secondary air volume flow Nm3=kg cli 0.76
Nm3=kg cli
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Specific cooling air volume flow 1.92

Specific cooler exhaust air volume flow Nm3=kg cli 1.03
Raw gas enthalpy kcal=kg cli 186
Cooler exhaust air enthalpy kcal=kg cli 97
Wall heat loss–preheater kcal=kg cli 35
Wall heat loss–rotary kiln kcal=kg cli 72
Wall heat loss–cooler kcal=kg cli 6
Traw gas Co 353
Tgas, kiln inlet Co 1,100
Tsecondary air Co 916
Tcold clinker Co 189
Tcooler exhaust air Co 320

with the values of TS EN 197=1. A chemical analysis of clinker is given in Table 6.

As seen in Table 7, the chemical and module analyses normally made for Portland
clinker are similarly made for the clinker produced in our process. As a result, it
was found that the results are in the limit ranges. The composition of clinker in
the view of main components is given in Figure 6. The clinker composition was
analyzed for four different petrocoke and RDF blends. The main component per-
centages were found to be fixed with Portland cement clinker. The chemical and
mechanical analyses of cement are given in Table 8. As seen in Table 8, the mech-
anical and physical properties for produced cement are determined from TS EN
197-1 (ECS, 2002a) and after experimental studies it was seen that the obtained
values are similar with standard values. Especially compressive strength is found
to be high for 15% RDF–petrocoke blend.
Emissions were measured during experimental study at the industrial-scale
rotary cement kiln. Emission values are below the limit values given in Turkish direc-
tives named as Directives About General Rules for the Use of Wastes as an Sup-
plemental Fuel (Anonymous, 2005). Combustion gas emission results of stack gas
measurement (dust, TOC, and halogens) is given in Table 9, combustion gas emis-
sions of stack gas measurement (Heavy Metals) are given in Table 10. It was found
that emission measurement results are as similar as the values used in cement indus-
try. Air emission limit values for the coincineration of waste were calculated by the
formula given subsequently according to the mentioned directive.

Vwaste Cwaste þ Vprocess Cprocess

¼C
Vwaste þ Vprocess
 212 M. KARA ET AL.

Table 6 Energy balance sheet

Item kcal=kg cli

Input
Fuel 830.70
Petrocoke þ RDF 830.70
Sensible heat 0.62
Kiln feed 13.09
Injected water 0.00
Air 3.75
Mech. Power 3.44
Total 851.61
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Output
Clinkerization react. enthalpy 384.24
Evaporation of water 0.00
Heat lost in waste gas 0.00
Preheater waste gas 186.41
Cooler exhaust air 97.33
Bypass gas 0.00
Dust loss 8.28
Incomplete burning 5.82
Clinker 32.24
Radiation and convection 0.00
Preheater 34.79
Precalcinator 0.00
Rotary kiln 71.88
Tertiary air duct 0.00
Cooler þ kiln good 6.47
Waste geat (heat escape) 0.00
Total 827.46
Balance difference, % 2.836

Figure 5 Clinker specimen produced by using 15% RDF þ 75% petrocoke.

 DEVELOPMENT OF RDF FOR CEMENT FACTORIES IN TURKEY 213

Table 7 Chemical analysis of clinker

0% 8% 12% 15%
Component & RDF þ 100% RDF þ 92% RDF þ 88% RDF þ 85% Limit
modules Petrocoke Petrocoke Petrocoke Petrocoke valuea

CaO, % 66.24 66.29 66.41 66.61 60–67

SiO2, % 21.27 20.95 20.88 21.09 17–25
Al2O3, % 4.83 4.81 4.89 4.84 3–8
Fe2O3, % 3.57 3.62 3.64 3.53 0.5–6
MgO, % 1.19 1.17 1.38 1.15 0.1–4
K2O, % 0.81 0.80 0.77 0.82 0.2–1.3
Cl, % 0.0268 0.0275 0.0366 0.0314 Max. 0.1
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Na2O, % 0.3576 0.3500 0.4233 0.3642 0.2–1.3

TiO2, % 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.29
SO3, % 1.14 1.18 1.07 1.09 1–3
MnO, % 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Undeterminable 0.22 0.46 0.15 0.13
Total 99.78 99.54 100.00 99.87
LS (lime standard) 98.10 99.41 99.72 99.36 92–96%
LSF (lime saturation 0.97 0.98 0.96 0.98
factor)
Silica module 2.53 2.49 2.45 2.52 2.3–2.7
Aluminium module 1.35 1.33 1.34 1.37 1.3–1.6
Hydraulic module 2.23 2.26 2.26 2.26
Free lime 1.86 1.60 1.76 1.78 Max. 2
Density, g=l 1,284 1,244 1,249 1,290 1,200–1,300
Liquid phaseb, % 26.00 26.06 26.49 25.90 25–27
a
The values in the table were taken from Oxide and Quantities Occurring Portland Cement Table of a
book by Prof. Dr. Turhan Y. Erdoğan, Questions and Answers of Concrete Materials (Cements, Aggre-
gates, Water) pp: 39, Turkish Ready-Mixed Concrete Association.
b
Material phase changing ratio (%) was found by ampric formula at 1338
C.

Here Vwaste is the additional combustion gas volume that occurred as a result of
combustion in plant conditions based on the lowest heat value of waste (Nm3=h).
However, if waste calorific value is less than 10% of total calorific value, combustion
gas volume is used as instead of waste equal to 10% calorific value. Calculation of
Vwaste was made for each RDF ratio separately, according to tables given in Annex
5 in Turkish Directives about General Rules for the Use of Wastes as an Supplemen-
tal Fuel (Anonymous, 2005). Cwaste represents emission limit values for incineration
plants given in Annex 2 (mg=Nm3); Vprocess represents stack gas volume occurring as
a result of process (not combustion) in normal process conditions (Nm3=h), and is
calculated as 196.000 Nm3=h during the experimental studies made in AKCANSA
Co.; Cprocess represents emission limit values (not combustion) in normal process
condition (mg=Nm3), taken from Annex 3; and C represents applicable limit values
(mg=Nm3)
The use of suitable alternative materials generally does not have any negative
impact on emissions. Alternative fuels do not lead to higher NOx emissions—in some
cases, NOx emissions can even be lower but have no influence on total SO2 emissions
(ECS, 2009). As seen in Table 9, during the industrial experiments in AKÇANSA, it
was seen that the amount of NOx decreased inversely proportional to increasing
 214 M. KARA ET AL.
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Figure 6 The composition of clinker in the view of main components.

amount in RDF. As it was known, the formation of NOx is dependent on the flame
temperature. The flame temperature proportionally decreased because of higher
humidity content and lower calorific value of RDF according to petrocoke. NOx
value decreased parallel to this proportion. In terms of fuel and raw material input,
it was seen that the highest sulfur input originated from petrocoke. Alkalines found
in raw materials can leave the system as a solid phase in clinker body by forming
sulfur unless it was exposed to high flame temperature and reductive atmosphere
in rotary cement kiln. Sulfur amount in the system relatively decrease when RDF
takes place to petrocoke. This situation was seen during the experiments and it
was determined that the SO2 emission values were really low.
As seen in the Table 10, the amount of heavy metal (Tl, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, V)
emissions decreased with increasing the amount of RDF. RDF has a higher
humidity content and a lower calorific value than petrocoke, and this causes lower
flame temperature and higher humidity content inside the rotary cement kiln.
Because of the nature of the process, there is an alkaline atmosphere inside the kiln,
which provides convenient conditions for heavy metals to leave the gaseous phase by
bonding as own metal hydroxides. Due to these conditions, heavy metal emissions
decrease with the increase of RDF. The amount of dioxins and furans decreases
as the ratio of RDF increases. But it is not possible to explain this tendency just
within the framework of the measurements carried out in this investigation. The
main factor in dioxin furan formation is feeding raw material or fuel including chlor-
ine to the rotary cement kiln incineration unit. RDF is also a kind of fuel that
includes chlorine in a specific amount. But formation of dioxin furan should not only
be explained only by chlorine input, but also with existing complex thermochemical
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Table 8 Chemical and mechanical analysis of cement

Fineness Setting time (min) Compressive strength (MPa)

Experiment code Initial setting Final setting Water Specific gravity Le Chatelier
and date 45 mM 90 mM Blaine time time demand (%) (g=cm3) (mm) 2 days 7 days 28 days

0% þ 100% Petrocoke 22.7 4.1 2,970 122 179 23.6 3.18 3 20.9 36.3 50.8

215
8% þ 92% Petrocoke 23 4.2 3,140 116 167 23.8 3.16 2 23.4 39.6 51.4
12% þ 88% Petrocoke 24.7 3.8 2,960 139 192 23.6 3.16 2 18.5 33.8 47.0
15% þ 85% Petrocoke 21.5 2.9 3,270 137 195 23.6 3.16 1 25.7 41.9 52.6
TS EN 197=1 – – – 60 – – – 10 20.0 – 42.5  62.55

Note. There is no Turkish standard for fineness. But preferred minimum fineness for produced Portland cement according to ASTM C-204 is 2800 cm2=g.
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Table 9 Combustion gas emission results of stack gas measurement results (Dust, TOC, and halogens)

8% RDF þ 92% Petrocoke 12% RDF þ 88% Petrocoke 15% RDF þ 85% Petrocoke

0% RDF þ 100% Measurement C limit Measurement C limit Measurement C limit

Parameter Petrocoke result valuea result value result value

CO2, % 7.7 9.3 11.7 8.2

CO, mg=Nm3 122.7 900.2 2,268 2,503
SO2, mg=Nm3 14.27 <0.286 295.844 <0.286 293.511 <0.286 292.019

216
NO, mg=Nm3 1,191 1,045 506 475.8
NOx, mg=Nm3, NO2 1,880 1,639 1,262.592 785 1,241.633 733.2 1,228.169
Dust, mg=Nm3 14.37 20.3 116.259 12.20 114.160 22.47 112.817
HCl, mg=Nm3 1.81 1.21 31.247 2.76 31.947 1.80 32.394
HF, mg=Nm3 0.16 0.15 4.958 0.13 4.935 0.13 4.920
Total organic carbon 19.86 18.33 288.362 11.58 281.832 14.62 277.653
(TOC), mg=Nm3
PAH 6.332 3.844 1.972 2.680
a
Calculated using Turkish Directives about General Rules for the Use of Wastes as an Supplemental Fuel (Anonymous, 2005).
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Table 10 Combustion gas emission results of stack gas measurement results (heavy metals)

8% RDF þ 92% Petrocoke 12% RDF þ 88% Petrocoke 15% RDF þ 85% Petrocoke

% 0 RDF þ % Measurement C limit Measurement C limit Measurement C limit

Heavy metal 100 Petrocoke result valuea result value result value

Thallium and compounds (as TI), mg=Nm3 0.084 0.014 Total 0.098 0.006 Total 0.097 0.008 Total 0.096
Cadmium and compounds (as Cd), mg=Nm3 0.003 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Mercury and compounds (as Hg), mg=Nm3 <0.001 <0.001 Total 0.098 <0.001 Total 0.097 <0.001 Total 0.096
Chromium and compounds (as Cr), mg=Nm3 0.023 0.010 Total 0.979 0.005 Total 0.968 <0.003 Total 0.960
Copper and compounds (as Cu), mg=Nm3 0.003 0.006 0.004 0.003

217
Cobalt and compounds (as Co), mg=Nm3 <0.003 0.003 0.003 <0.003
Manganese and compounds (as Mn), mg=Nm3 0.035 0.031 <0.027 0.028
Nickel and compounds (as Ni), mg=Nm3 0.023 0.005 <0.003 0.003
Lead and compounds (as Pb), mg=Nm3 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003
Antimony and compounds (as Sb), mg=Nm3 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Tin and compounds (as Sn), mg=Nm3 <0.015 <0.013 <0.014 <0.013
Arsenic and compounds (as As), mg=Nm3 <0.007 <0.007 <0.007 <0.007
Vanadium and compounds (as V), mg=Nm3 0.004 0.014 0.004 <0.001
Dioxin and Furan, ng=Nm3 0.00176 0.00154 0.1 0.00112 0.1 0.00074 0.1
a
Calculated using Turkish Directives about General Rules for the Use of Wastes as an Supplemental Fuel (Anonymous, 2005).
 218 M. KARA ET AL.

reactions occurring in the incineration unit and their structure. Apart from this, at
the same time, another thermochemical reaction having similar complexity takes
place to remove dioxin furan from rotary cement kiln. All these formation and
removal reactions mainly depend on the effect of incineration facility operating con-
ditions substantially. The operating conditions have a dynamic character and can be
always changeable.
Possibilities of using RDF material, which was derived from domestic wastes
with high organic waste contents as supplementary fuel in cement factories in Tur-
key, were investigated in this study. As a result of these studies, it is confirmed that
clinker quality conforms to the standards when RDF material is supplied, this feed-
ing percentages are problem-free and similar to cement factories up to 15%; however
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it is closely related with plant technological facilities.

5. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, we investigated the potential use of RDF materials from wastes
leaving the isolation unit and not being recycled wastes as supplementary fuel
(instead of fossil fuels) in cement kilns. RDF, which was produced in this study,
was added to main fuel (petrocoke) in ratios of 0%, 8%, 12%, and 15%. Chemical
analyses of produced clinker were made according to the TS EN 196-2 standard
(ECS, 2002b). Also, mineralogical analyses were made by using XRD. Clinker
production was achieved based on the results of density tests made during clinker
production. The values obtained from chemical analysis are within the limit values
of Portland cement, which clearly reveals that Portland cement clinker is produced.
Setting time, compressive strength (2, 7, 28 days) according to TS EN 196-1 (ECS,
2009), water demand, fineness, specific gravity, and Le Chatelier’s testes are applied
to the cubic samples standard. Emission measurements were required during
experimental study at industrial scale rotary cement kiln. Results of the emission
is available in cement industry.
Results obtained in this study are the following:

. It is the first time that process of alternative fuel usage and combustion technology
is developed in Turkey; this should reduce fossil fuel import from abroad. Recy-
cling processes should provide protection of natural resources.
. The use of RDF as a supplemental fuel in cement production is an economically
viable option to reduce fuel costs and landfill disposal. When 15% RDF is used as
supplementary fuel together with petrocoke in cement production, it does not
cause any disadvantages in the view of clinker quality and stack gas emission
values. If the RDF value is taken as 15%, the rest is 85% petrocoke. It was seen
that depending on a calculation based on thermal value, which was obtained in
rotary kiln in AKÇANSA Co., and according to the acceptances, petrocoke sav-
ing is supplied. So, this causes an economical advantage in this process.
. RDF produces beneficial effects on air emission and ash residue when used as a fuel.
. RDF produces a more homogeneous fuel, which burns more evenly at a higher
temperature and thereby making combustion control easier.
. Optimum blend ratio for RDF has been determined according to the industrial
scale application.
 DEVELOPMENT OF RDF FOR CEMENT FACTORIES IN TURKEY 219

. It was seen that the use of RDF has no unfavorable effect on cement quality.
. Emission values are below the limit values given in directives named as Turkish
Directives about General Rules for the Use of Wastes as an Supplemental Fuel
(Anonymous, 2005).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of TUBITAK (The
Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey), Project no: 105G108

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