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THE SCIENCE OF
PSYCHOLOGY
5
An Appreciative View

LAURA A. KING
University of Missouri, Columbia

1
 i

2
THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY: AN APPRECIATIVE VIEW, FIFTH
EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121.
Copyright © 2020 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the
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All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an
extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: King, Laura A. (Laura Ann), author.
Title: The science of psychology: an appreciative view / Laura A. King,
University of Missouri, Columbia.
Description: Fifth edition. | New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education, [2020]
Identifiers: LCCN 2019018566 | ISBN 9781260500523 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology—Study and teaching.
Classification: LCC BF77 .K53 2020 | DDC 150.76—dc23 LC record available
at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019018566

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication.
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accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered

ii

4
for Sam
iii

5
about the author

©Lisa Jensen

LAURA A. KING
Laura King did her undergraduate work at Kenyon College, where,
already an English major, she declared a second major in psychology
during the second semester of her junior year. She completed her AB in
English with high honors and distinction and in psychology with
distinction in 1986. Laura then did graduate work at Michigan State
University and the University of California, Davis, receiving her PhD in
personality psychology in 1991.
Laura began her career at Southern Methodist University in Dallas,
moving to the University of Missouri in 2001, where she is now a
Curators’ Professor of Psychological Science. In addition to seminars in
the development of character, social psychology, and personality
psychology, she has taught undergraduate lecture courses in introductory
psychology, introduction to personality psychology, and social
psychology. At SMU, she received six different teaching awards,

6
including the “M” award for “sustained excellence” in 1999. At the
University of Missouri, she received the Chancellor’s Award for
Outstanding Research and Creative Activity in 2004.
Her research, which has been funded by the National Institute of
Mental Health and the National Science Foundation, has focused on a
variety of topics relevant to the question of what it is that makes for a
good life. She has studied goals, life stories, happiness, well-being, and
meaning in life. In general, her work reflects an enduring interest in
studying what is good and healthy in people. In 2001, she earned
recognition for her research accomplishments with a Templeton Prize in
Positive Psychology. In 2011, she received the Ed and Carol Diener
Award for Distinguished Contributions to Personality Psychology. In
2015, she received the Society for Personality and Social Psychology
Award for service to the field, in part for her efforts in bringing the
science of psychology to students. In 2019, she received the Jack Block
Award for distinguished contributions to personality psychology. Laura’s
research (often in collaboration with undergraduate and graduate
students) has been published in American Psychologist, the Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Psychological Bulletin, and
Psychological Science.
Laura has held numerous editorial positions. She is currently the
editor of Perspectives on Psychological Science. She was editor-in-chief
of the Personality and Individual Differences section of the Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology and the Journal of Research in
Personality and associate editor for the Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology and Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, as well as
on numerous grant panels. She has edited or coedited special sections of
the Journal of Personality and American Psychologist.
In “real life,” Laura is an accomplished cook and enjoys hosting
lavish dinner parties, listening to music (mostly jazz vocalists and singer-
songwriters), running with her faithful dogs Bill and John, and
swimming and debating with her son Sam.
iv

7
BRIEF
CONTENTS
Preface

CHAPTER 1 What Is Psychology?

CHAPTER 2 Psychology’s Scientific Method

CHAPTER 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior

CHAPTER 4 Sensation and Perception
CHAPTER 5 States of Consciousness
CHAPTER 6 Learning
CHAPTER 7 Memory
CHAPTER 8 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
CHAPTER 9 Human Development
CHAPTER 10 Motivation and Emotion
CHAPTER 11 Gender, Sex, and Sexuality
CHAPTER 12 Personality

8
CHAPTER 13 Social Psychology
CHAPTER 14 Industrial and Organizational Psychology
CHAPTER 15 Psychological Disorders
CHAPTER 16 Therapies
CHAPTER 17 Health Psychology

Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index

v
vi

9
CONTENTS
Preface

1
What Is Psychology?
Defining Psychology
The Psychological Frame of Mind
Psychology as the Science of All Human Behavior
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Does Birth Order Matter to Personality?

Psychology in Historical Perspective

Wundt’s Structuralism and James’s Functionalism
Darwin’s Natural Selection
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Explore Evolution from Giraffes to Human
Beings

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

The Biological Approach
The Behavioral Approach
The Psychodynamic Approach
The Humanistic Approach
The Cognitive Approach
The Evolutionary Approach
The Sociocultural Approach
Summing Up the Seven Contemporary Approaches

10
What Psychologists Do
Careers in Psychology
Areas of Specialization
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Questions That Psychology Specialists Ask

The Science of Psychology and Health and Wellness

How the Mind Impacts the Body
How the Body Impacts the Mind
INTERSECTION Health Psychology and Social Psychology: Can
Difference-oriented Interventions Buffer the Stress of Coming to
College?
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge

2
Psychology’s Scientific Method
Psychology’s Scientific Method
Step 1. Observing Some Phenomenon
Step 2. Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions
Step 3. Testing Through Empirical Research
Step 4. Drawing Conclusions
Step 5. Evaluating the Theory
Types of Psychological Research
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Miserable but Helpful?
Experimental Research
INTERSECTION Emotion and Social Psychology: Why Not Just Say
“Thanks”?
Applications of the Three Types of Research
Research Samples and Settings

11
 The Research Sample
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY How Do We Know Participants Are Who
They Say They Are?
The Research Setting
Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Descriptive Statistics
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Experimentation in a Natural Setting
Inferential Statistics
Conducting Ethical Research
Ethics Guidelines
Ethical Treatment of Research Animals
Thinking Critically About Psychological Research
Avoid Overgeneralizing Based on Little Information
Distinguish Between Group Results and Individual Needs
Look for Answers Beyond a Single Study
Avoid Attributing Causes Where None Have Been Found
Consider the Source of Psychological Information
The Scientific Method and Health and Wellness
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge
vii

3
Biological Foundations of
Behavior
The Nervous System
Characteristics of the Nervous System
Pathways in the Nervous System
Divisions of the Nervous System

12
Neurons
Specialized Cell Structure
The Neural Impulse
Synapses and Neurotransmitters
Neural Networks
Structures of the Brain and Their Functions
How Researchers Study the Brain and Nervous System
How the Brain Is Organized
INTERSECTION Neuroscience and Language: What Is a Word to a Dog?
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY The Brain in Different Species
The Cerebral Cortex
The Cerebral Hemispheres and Split-Brain Research
Integration of Function in the Brain
The Endocrine System
Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair
The Brain’s Plasticity and Capacity for Repair
Brain Tissue Implants
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Can Brain Injury Lead to Personality
Change for the Better?

Genetics and Behavior

Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
The Study of Genetics
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Identical Twins
Genes and the Environment
Psychology’s Biological Foundations and Health and Wellness
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge

4
Sensation and Perception

13
How We Sense and Perceive the World
The Processes and Purposes of Sensation and Perception
INTERSECTION Sensation and Neuroscience: How Does the Brain
Respond when Senses Disagree?
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Old Woman or Young Woman?
Sensory Receptors and the Brain
Thresholds
Signal Detection Theory
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Subliminal Perception: Working Up a
Thirst
Perceiving Sensory Stimuli
Sensory Adaptation
The Visual System
The Visual Stimulus and the Eye
Visual Processing in the Brain
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Can We Read Two Words at Once?
Color Vision
Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy
The Auditory System
The Nature of Sound and How We Experience It
Structures and Functions of the Ear
Theories of Hearing
Auditory Processing in the Brain
Localizing Sound
Other Senses
The Skin Senses
The Chemical Senses
The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses
Sensation, Perception, and Health and Wellness
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge

14
 5
States of Consciousness
The Nature of Consciousness
Defining Consciousness
Consciousness and the Brain
INTERSECTION Consciousness and Comparative Cognition: Do
Marmosets Recognize the Minds of Others?
Levels of Awareness
Sleep and Dreams
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Why Do We Need Sleep?
Stages of Wakefulness and Sleep
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Taking a Ride on the Sleep Cycles
viii
Sleep Throughout the Life Span
Sleep and Disease
Sleep Disorders
Dreams
Psychoactive Drugs
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Drug Use by U.S. Teenagers
Uses of Psychoactive Drugs
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Does Legalized Medical Marijuana Reduce
Opioid Abuse and Overdoses?

Hypnosis
The Nature of Hypnosis
Explaining Hypnosis
Uses of Hypnosis
Consciousness and Health and Wellness: Meditation
Mindfulness Meditation

15
 Lovingkindness Meditation
The Meditative State of Mind
Getting Started with Meditation
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge

6
Learning
Types of Learning
Classical Conditioning
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Can Machines Truly Learn?
Pavlov’s Studies
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY From Acquisition to Extinction (to
Spontaneous Recovery)
Classical Conditioning in Humans
Operant Conditioning
Defining Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning
Shaping
Principles of Reinforcement
INTERSECTION Psychology of Learning and Rehabilitation: Can Limbs
Relearn Reflexes After Spinal Cord Injury?
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Schedules of Reinforcement and Different
Patterns of Responding
Applied Behavior Analysis
Observational Learning
Cognitive Factors in Learning
Purposive Behavior

16
 Insight Learning
Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning
Biological Constraints
Cultural Influences
Psychological Constraints
Learning and Health and Wellness
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge

7
Memory
The Nature of Memory
Memory Encoding
Attention
Levels of Processing
Elaboration
Imagery
Memory Storage
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY The Inner Workings of Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Memory Retrieval
Serial Position Effect
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY The Serial Position Effect: Lost in
Midstream
Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task
Special Cases of Retrieval

17
INTERSECTION Neuroscience, Cognition, and Emotion: How Can We
Explain Déjà Vu?
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY When is Your First Memory?

Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Retrieval Failure
Study Tips from the Science of Memory
Memory and Health and Wellness
Keeping Memory Sharp—and Preserving Brain Function
Memory and the Shaping of Meaningful Experiences
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge
ix

8
Thinking, Intelligence, and
Language
The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology
Thinking
Concepts
Problem Solving
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Thinking Outside the Box
Reasoning and Decision Making
Thinking Critically and Creatively
INTERSECTION Cognitive Psychology and Developmental Psychology:
Can Young Children be More Rational than Adults?
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY How Does Open-Minded Thinking Relate to
Views of Climate Change?

18
Intelligence
Measuring Intelligence
PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY The Normal Curve
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Extremes of Intelligence
Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Language
The Basic Properties of Language
Language and Cognition
Biological and Environmental Influences on Language
Language Development over the Life Span
Thinking, Problem Solving, and Health and Wellness
Cognitive Appraisal and Stress
Cognitive Reappraisal
Summary
Key Terms
Apply Your Knowledge

9
Human Development
Exploring Human Development
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology
How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development?
What Is the Developer’s Role in Development?
Are Early or Later Life Experiences More Important in Development?
Child Development
Prenatal Development
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Can an Unpredictable Childhood Predict
Better Cognitive Function?
Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood

19
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 154—Young larva of Stylops on a bee's-hair. Greatly magnified.
(After Newport.)

There is no exact information as to how the young triungulins find

their way to the bee-larvae they live in. Here again the discrepancy
of opinion that prevails is probably due to great difference really
existing as to the method. When a Stylops carried by an Insect (a
Hymenopteron, be it noted, for we have no information whatever as
to Hemiptera) produces young, they cover the body of the host as if
it were powdered, being excessively minute and their numbers very
great; many hundreds, if not thousands, of young being produced by
a single Stylops. The species of the wasp genus Polistes are
specially subject to the attacks of Stylops; they are social Insects,
and a stylopised specimen being sickly does not as a rule leave the
nest; in this case the Stylops larva may therefore have but little
difficulty in finding its way to a Hymenopterous larva, for even though
it may have to live for months before it has the chance of attaching
itself to a nest-building female, yet it is clearly in the right
neighbourhood. The bee genus Andrena has, however, quite
different habits; normally a single female makes her nest
underground; but in the case of a stylopised female it is certain that
no nest is built, and no larvae produced by a stylopised example, so
that the young triungulins must leave the body of the bee in order to
come near their prey. They can be active, and have great powers of
leaping, so that it is perhaps in this way possible for them to attach
themselves to a healthy female bee.
 Fig. 155.—Portion of early stages of Xenos rossii. (After von Siebold.)
A, Small male larva; B, small female larva; C, full-grown male
larva; D, full-grown female larva; E, the so-called "cephalothorax"
and adjacent segment of adult female. (The newly-hatched larva
is very much like that of Stylops shown in Fig. 154.)

We have still only very imperfect knowledge as to the structure and

development of Strepsiptera. Indeed but little information has been
obtained since 1843.[160] Before that time the mature female was
supposed to be a larva, and the triungulins found in it to be
parasites. Although the erroneous character of these views has been
made clear, the problems that have been suggested present great
difficulties. Apparently the change from the triungulin condition (Fig.
154) to the parasitic larvae (Fig. 155, A, B) is extremely great and
abrupt, and it appears also that during the larval growth considerable
sexual differentiation occurs (Fig. 155, C, D); details are, however,
wanting, and there exists but little information as to the later stages.
Hence it is scarcely a matter for surprise that authorities differ as to
which is the head and which the anal extremity of the adult female.
Von Siebold apparently entertained no doubt as to the part of the
female that is extruded being the anterior extremity; indeed he called
it a cephalothorax. Supposing this view to be correct, we are met by
the extraordinary facts that the female extrudes the head for
copulatory purposes, that the genital orifice is placed thereon, and
that the young escape by it. Meinert[161] contends that the so-called
cephalothorax of the adult is the anal extremity, and that fertilisation
and the escape of the young are effected by the natural passages,
the anterior parts of the body being affected by a complete
degeneration. Nassonoff, in controversion of Meinert, has recently
pointed out that the "cephalothorax" of the young is shown by the
nervous system to be the anterior extremity. It still remains, however,
to be shewn that the "cephalothorax" of the adult female
corresponds with that of the young, and we shall not be surprised if
Meinert prove to be correct. The internal anatomy and the processes
of oogenesis appear to be of a very unusual character, but their
details are far from clear. Brandt has given some particulars as to the
nervous system; though he does not say whether taken from the
male or female, we may presume it to be from the former; there is a
supra-oesophageal ganglion, and near it a large mass which
consists of two parts, the anterior representing the sub-oesophageal
and the first thoracic ganglia, while the posterior represents two of
the thoracic and most of the abdominal ganglia of other Insects; at
the posterior extremity, connected with the other ganglia by a very
long and slender commissure, there is another abdominal ganglion.
[162]

It is a matter of great difficulty to procure material for the prosecution

of this study; the fact that the instars to be observed exist only in the
interior of a few Hymenopterous larvae, which in the case of the bee,
Andrena, are concealed under ground; and in the case of the wasps,
Polistes, placed in cells in a nest of wasps, adds greatly to the
difficulty. It is therefore of interest to know that Strepsiptera occur in
Insects with incomplete metamorphosis. They have been observed
in several species of Homoptera; and the writer has a large
Pentatomid bug of the genus Callidea, which bears a female
Strepsipteron apparently of large size. This bug[163] is abundant and
widely distributed in Eastern Asia, and it may prove comparatively
easy to keep stylopised examples under observation. Both v. Siebold
and Nassonoff think parthenogenesis occurs in Strepsiptera, but
there appear to be no facts to warrant this supposition. Von Siebold
speaks of the phenomena of Strepsipterous reproduction as
paedogenesis, or pseudo-paedogenesis, but we must agree with
Meinert that they cannot be so classed.

The males of Strepsiptera live for only a very short time, and are
very difficult of observation. According to Hubbard the males of
Xenos dash about so rapidly that the eye cannot see them, and they
create great agitation amongst the wasps in the colonies of which
they are bred. Apparently they are produced in great numbers, and
their life consists of only fifteen or twenty minutes of fiery energy.
The males of Stylops are not exposed to such dangers as those of
Xenos, and apparently live somewhat longer—a day or two, and
even three days are on record. The individuals of Andrena
parasitised by Stylops are apparently greatly affected in their
economy and appear earlier in the season than other individuals; this
perhaps may be a reason, coupled with their short lives, for their
being comparatively rarely met with by entomologists.

Fig. 156.—Abdomen of a wasp (Polistes hebraeus) with a

Strepsipteron (Xenos ♀) in position, one of the dorsal plates of the
wasp's abdomen being removed. a, Projection of part of the
parasite; b, line indicating the position of the removed dorsal
plate.

It is not possible at present to form a valid opinion as to whether

Stylopidae are a division of Coleoptera or a separate Order. Von
Siebold considered them a distinct Order, and Nassonoff, who has
recently discussed the question, is also of that opinion.
 CHAPTER VI

LEPIDOPTERA—OR BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

Order VI. Lepidoptera.

Wings four; body and wings covered with scales usually

variegate in colour, and on the body frequently more or less like
hair: nervures moderate in number, at the periphery of one wing
not exceeding fifteen, but little irregular; cross-nervules not more
than four, there being usually only one or two closed cells on
each wing, occasionally none. Imago with mouth incapable of
biting, usually forming a long coiled proboscis capable of
protrusion. Metamorphosis great and abrupt; the wings
developed inside the body; the larva with large or moderate
head and strong mandibles. Pupa with the appendages usually
adpressed and cemented to the body so that it presents a more
or less even, horny exterior, occasionally varied by projections
that are not the appendages and that may make the form very
irregular: in many of the smaller forms the appendages are only
imperfectly cemented to the body.

Lepidoptera, or butterflies and moths, are so far as ornament is

concerned the highest of the Insect world. In respect of intelligence
the Order is inferior to the Hymenoptera, in the mechanical
adaptation of the parts of the body it is inferior to Coleoptera, and in
perfection of metamorphosis it is second to Diptera. The mouth of
Lepidoptera is quite peculiar; the proboscis—the part of the
apparatus for the prehension of food—is anatomically very different
from the proboscis of the other Insects that suck, and finds its
nearest analogue in the extreme elongation of the maxillae of certain
Coleoptera, e.g. Nemognatha. The female has no gonapophyses,
though in certain exceptional forms of Tineidae, there are
modifications of structure connected with the terminal segments, that
have as yet been only imperfectly investigated. As a rule, the egg is
simply deposited on some living vegetable and fastened thereto.
Lepidoptera are the most exclusively vegetarian of all the Orders of
Insects; a certain number of their larvae prey on Insects that are
themselves filled with vegetable juices (Coccidae, Aphidae) and a
very small number (Tinea, etc.) eat animal matter. In general the
nutriment appears to be drawn exclusively from the fluids of the
vegetables, the solid matter passing from the alimentary canal in
large quantity in the form of little pellets usually dry, and called frass.
Hence the quantity of food ingested is large, and when the
individuals unduly increase in number, forest trees over large areas
are sometimes completely defoliated by the caterpillars.

Fig. 157.—Metamorphosis of a Lepidopteron (Rhegmatophila alpina,

Notodontidae). (After Poujade, Ann. Soc. ent. France, 1891.)
Europe. A, Egg; B, young larva, about to moult; C, adult larva; D,
head and first body-segment of adult larva, magnified; E, pupa, ×
2⁄1; F, male moth in repose; G, female moth in repose.

Lepidoptera pass a larger portion of their lives in the pupal stage

than most other Insects do; frequently during nine months of the year
the Lepidopteron may be a pupa. In other Orders of Insects it would
appear that the tendency of the higher forms is to shorten the pupal
period, and when much time has to be passed between the end of
the feeding up of the larva and the appearance of the imago, to pass
this time as much as possible in the form of a resting-larva, and as
little as may be in the form of a pupa; in Lepidoptera the reverse is
the case; the resting-larva period being usually reduced to a day or
two. Hence we can understand the importance of a hard skin to the
pupa. There are, however, numerous Lepidopterous pupae where
the skin does not attain the condition of hardness that is secured for
the higher forms by the chitinous exudation we have mentioned; and
there are also cases where there is a prolonged resting-larva period:
for instance Galleria mellonella spins a cocoon in the autumn and
remains in it as a resting larva all the winter, becoming a pupa only in
the spring. In many of these cases the resting-larva is protected by a
cocoon. It is probable that the chief advantage of the perfect
chitinous exudation of the Lepidopterous pupa is to prevent the tiny,
complex organisation from the effects of undue transpiration.
Bataillon has suggested that the relation of the fluid contents of the
pupa to air and moisture are of great importance in the physiology of
metamorphosis.

The duration of life is very different in various forms of Lepidoptera. It

is known that certain species (Ephestia kuehniella, e.g.) may go
through at least five generations a year. On the other hand, certain
species that feed on wood or roots may take three years to complete
their life-history; and it is probable that some of the forms of
Hepialidae are even longer lived than this.

Lepidoptera have always been a favourite Order with entomologists,

but no good list of the species has ever been made, and it would be
a difficult matter to say how many species are at present known, but
it can scarcely be less than 50,000. In Britain we have about 2000
species.

The close affinity of the Order with Trichoptera has long been
recognised: Réaumur considered the latter to be practically
Lepidoptera with aquatic habits, and Speyer pointed out the
existence of very numerous points of similarity between the two.
Brauer emphasised the existence of mandibles in the nymph of
Trichoptera as an important distinction: the pupa of Micropteryx (Fig.
211) has however been recently shown to be similar to that of
Trichoptera, so that unless it should be decided to transfer
Micropteryx to Trichoptera, and then define Lepidoptera and
Trichoptera as distinguished by the condition of the pupa, it would
appear to be very difficult to retain the two groups as distinct.

Structure of Imago.—The head of a Lepidopteron is in large part

made up of the compound eyes; in addition to these it frequently
bears at the top a pair of small, simple eyes so much concealed by
the scales as to cause us to wonder if seeing be carried on by them.
The larger part of the front of the head is formed by the clypeus,
which is separated by a well-marked line from the epicranium, the
antennae being inserted on the latter near its point of junction with
the former. There is sometimes (Saturnia, Castnia) on each side of
the clypeus a deep pocket projecting into the head-cavity. The other
parts of the head are but small. The occipital foramen is very large.
[164]

Fig. 158—External structure of a female butterfly, Anosia plexippus.

(After Scudder.) a, Base of antenna; b, pronotum; b2, scutum of
mesothorax; c, clypeus; cx, coxa; d, scutellum; d1, scutellum of
metathorax; e, post-scutellum (= base of phragma); em,
epimeron; ep, episternum; f, scutum of metathorax; m, basal part
of proboscis (= maxilla); o, eye; p, labial palp; r, mesosternum; s,
prothoracic spiracle; t, tegula; tr, trochanter; 1-9, dorsal plates of
abdomen.

The antennae are always conspicuous, and are very various in form;
they are composed of numerous segments, and in the males of
many species attain a very complex structure, especially in
Bombyces and Psychidae; they doubtless function in such cases as
sense-organs for the discovery of the female.

The largest and most important of the mouth-parts are the maxillae
and the labial palpi, the other parts being so small as to render their
detection difficult. The labrum is a very short, comparatively broad
piece, visible on the front edge of the clypeus; its lateral part usually
forms a prominence which has often been mistaken for a mandible;
Kellogg has applied the term "pilifer" to this part. In the middle of the
labrum a small angular or tongue-like projection is seen just over the
middle of the base of the proboscis; this little piece is considered by
several authorities to be an epipharynx.

Fig. 159—Mouth of Lepidoptera. Tiger-moth, Arctia caja. A, Seen from

front; B, from front and below, a, Clypeus; b, labrum; c,
epipharynx; d, mandibular area; d′, prominence beneath
mandibular area; e, one side of haustellum or proboscis; f,
maxillary palp; g, labial palp.

Mandibles.—Savigny, Westwood, and others considered the parts

of the labrum recently designated pilifers by Kellogg to be the
rudimentary mandibles, but Walter has shown that this is not the
case.[165] The mandibles are usually indistinguishable, though they,
or some prominence possibly connected with them,[166] may
frequently be detected in the neighbourhood of the pilifers; they are,
according to Walter, largest and most perfectly developed in
Eriocephala, a genus that was not distinguished by him from
Micropteryx and was therefore termed "niedere Micropteryginen," i.e.
lower Micropteryges. The opinion entertained by Walter that
Micropteryx proper (his "höhere Micropteryginen") also possesses
rudimentary mandibles is considered by Dr. Chapman, no doubt with
reason, to be erroneous.[167] The mandibles, however, in the vast
majority of Lepidoptera can scarcely be said to exist at all in the
imago; there being only an obtuse projection—without trace of
articulation—on each side of the labrum; and even this projection is
usually absent. Meinert recognised these projections as mandibles in
Smerinthus populi, and Kellogg in Protoparce carolina, another large
Sphinx moth. They appear to be unusually well developed in that
group. In Castnia they are even more definite than they are in
Sphingidae.

The Maxillae are chiefly devoted to the formation of the proboscis.

Their basal portions are anatomically very indefinite, though they
exist very intimately connected with the labium. Each usually bears a
small tubercle or a segmented process, the representative of the
maxillary palpus. The proboscis itself consists of the terminal, or
outer, parts of the two maxillae, which parts are closely and
beautifully coadapted to form the spirally coiled organ, that is
sometimes, though incorrectly, called the tongue. The exact
morphology of the Lepidopterous proboscis has not been
established. The condition existing in the curious family Prodoxidae
(see p. 432), where a proboscis coexists with another structure
called a maxillary tentacle, suggests a correspondence between the
latter and the galea of a typical maxilla; and between the proboscis
and the lacinia or inner lobe of a maxilla: but J. B. Smith is of opinion
that the tentacle in question is a prolongation of the stipes. The
condition of the parts in this anomalous family (Prodoxidae) has not,
however, been thoroughly investigated, and Packard takes a
different view of the proboscis; he considers that "it is the two galeae
which become elongated, united and highly specialised to form the
so-called tongue or glossa of all Lepidoptera above the
Eriocephalidae."[168] The proboscis in some cases becomes very
remarkable, and in certain Sphingidae is said to attain, when
unrolled, a length of ten inches. In some cases the maxillary lobes
do not form a proboscis, but exist as delicate structures, pendulous
from the mouth, without coadaptation (Zeuzera aesculi, the Wood-
leopard moth). In other forms they are absent altogether (Cossus,
e.g.), and in Hepialus we have failed to detect any evidence of the
existence of the maxillae. On the other hand, in Micropteryx the
maxillae are much more like those of a mandibulate Insect; and
various other Microlepidoptera approach more or less a similar
condition. In the genus last mentioned the maxillary palpi are largely
developed, flexible and slender. According to Walter various forms of
palpus intermediate between that of Micropteryx and the condition of
rudimentary tubercle may be found amongst the Microlepidoptera.
[169]

Labium.—The labial palpi are usually largely developed, though but

little flexible; they form conspicuous processes densely covered with
scales or hairs, and curve forwards or upwards, rarely downwards,
from the under side of the head, somewhat in the fashion of tusks.
The other parts of the labium are frequently represented merely by a
membranous structure, united with the maxillae and obstructing the
cavity of the pharynx. Where the proboscis is absent it is difficult to
find any orifice leading to the alimentary canal, such opening as may
exist being concealed by the overhanging clypeus and labium. In
some forms, Saturnia, e.g., there appears to be no buccal orifice
whatever. In Hepialus the labium is in a very unusual condition; it
projects externally in the position usually occupied by the labial palpi,
these organs being themselves extremely short. It is very difficult to
form an opinion as to the structure of the labium and other mouth-
parts when the maxillae are not developed, as in these cases the
parts are of a delicate membranous nature, and shrivel after death.
This is the explanation of the fact that in descriptive works we find
vague terms in use such as "mouth aborted" or "tongue absent."

The mouth of the Lepidopterous imago is a paradoxical structure; it

differs very greatly from that of the larva, the changes during
metamorphosis being extreme. We should thus be led to infer that it
is of great importance to the creatures; but, on the other hand, the
various structures that make up the mouth, as we have remarked,
are frequently absent or reduced to insignificant proportions; and
even in forms where the apparatus is highly developed the
individuals seem to be able to accomplish oviposition without taking
food, or after taking only very minute quantities. It is therefore difficult
to understand why so great a change should occur during the
metamorphosis of the Insects of this Order. It has been ascertained
that in some forms where the mouth is atrophied the stomach is in a
correlative condition; but we are not aware that any investigations
have been made as to whether this correspondence is general or
exceptional.

The exact mode in which the proboscis acts is in several respects

still obscure, the views of Burmeister and Newport being in some
points erroneous. Towards the tip of the proboscis there are some
minute but complex structures considered by Fritz Müller to be
sense-organs, and by Breitenbach to be mechanical instruments for
irritating or lacerating the delicate tissues of blossoms. It is probable
that Müller's view will prove to be correct. Nevertheless the
proboscis has considerable power of penetration; there being a
moth, "Ophideres fullonica" that causes considerable damage to
crops of oranges by inserting its trunk through the peel so as to suck
the juices.[170] The canal formed by each maxilla opens into a cavity
inside the front part of the head. This cavity, according to Burgess,
[171] is a sort of sac connected with five muscles, and by the aid of
this apparatus the act of suction is performed: the diverticulum of the
alimentary canal, usually called a sucking-stomach, not really
possessing the function formerly attributed to it.

The Prothorax is very small, being reduced to a collar, between

the head and the alitrunk, of just sufficient size to bear the front pair
of legs. Its most remarkable feature is a pair of processes, frequently
existing on the upper surface, called "patagia." These in many cases
(especially in Noctuidae) are lobes capable of considerable
movement, being attached only by a narrow base. In Hepialus, on
the contrary, they are not free, but are merely indicated by curved
marks on the dorsum. The patagia are styled by many writers
"tegulae." They are of some interest in connection with the question
of wing-like appendages on the prothorax of Palaeozoic insects, and
they have been considered by some writers[172] to be the
equivalents of true wings. The Mesothorax is very large, especially
its upper face, the notum, which is more or less convex, and in the
higher forms attains a great extension from before backwards. The
notum consists in greater part of a large anterior piece, the meso-
scutum, and a smaller part, the meso-scutellum behind. In front of
the scutum there is a piece termed prae-scutum by Burgess. It is
usually small and concealed by the front part of the scutum; but in
Hepialus it is large and horizontal in position. It is of importance as
being the chief point of articulation with the prothorax. The scutellum
is more or less irregularly rhomboidal in form; its hinder margin
usually looks as if it were a lobe or fold placed in front of the base of
the abdomen or metathorax, according to whether the latter is
concealed or visible. In some of the higher forms this meso-scutellar
lobe is prominent, and there may be seen under its projection a
piece that has been called the post-scutellum, and is really the base
of the great mesophragma, a chitinous piece that descends far down
into the interior of the body. In addition to the front pair of wings the
mesothorax bears on its upper surface another pair of appendages,
the tegulae: in the higher forms they are of large size; they are
fastened on the front of the mesothorax, and extend backwards over
the joint of the wing with the body, being densely covered with scales
so that they are but little conspicuous. These appendages are
frequently erroneously called patagia, but have also been called
scapulae, pterygodes, paraptera, and shoulder-tufts, or shoulder-
lappets. The lower surface of the mesothorax is much concealed by
the large and prominent coxae, but the sternum and the two pleural
pieces on each side, episternum and epimeron, are easily detected.
The area for attachment of the anterior wing on each side is
considerable, and appears to be of rather complex structure; its
anatomy has been, however, but little studied.

The Metathorax is small in comparison with the preceding

segment, to which it is intimately co-adapted, though the two are
really connected only by delicate membrane, and can consequently
be separated with ease by dissection. The metanotum consists of (1)
the scutum, which usually appears externally as an anterior piece on
each side; (2) the scutellum, forming a median piece placed behind
the scutum, which it tends to separate into two parts by its own
extension forwards. In order to understand the structure of the
metathorax it is desirable to dissect it off from the larger anterior
segment, and it will then be found that its appearance when
undissected is deceptive, owing to its being greatly arched, or folded
in the antero-posterior direction. A broad, but short phragma
descends from the hind margin of the metascutellum into the interior
of the body. It should be noted that though the metanotum is forced,
as it were, backwards by the great extension of the mesonotum in
the middle line of the body, yet at the sides the metanotum creeps
forward so as to keep the points of attachment of the hind wings
near to those of the front wings. In many forms of Hesperiidae,
Sphingidae, Noctuidae, etc. the true structure of the metanotum is
further concealed by the back of the mesoscutellum reposing on,
and covering it.

Difference of opinion exists as to the thoracic Spiracles; there is one

conspicuous enough in the membrane behind the pronotum, and it is
thought by some writers that no other exists. Westwood and
Scudder, however, speak of a mesothoracic spiracle, and Dr.
Chapman considers that one exists. Minot describes[173] a structure
behind the anterior wing, and thinks it may be an imperfect spiracle,
and we have found a similar stigma in Saturnia pavonia. At the back
of the thorax there is on each side in some Lepidoptera (Noctuidae,
Arctia, etc.), a curious large cavity formed by a projection backwards
from the sides of the metasternum, and a corresponding
development of the pleura of the first abdominal segment. Minot and
others have suggested that this may be an organ of hearing.

The Abdomen differs according to the sex. In the female seven

segments are conspicuous dorsally, but only six ventrally, because
the first segment is entirely membranous beneath, and is concealed
between the second abdominal ventral plate and the posterior
coxae. Besides these segments there are at the hind end two others
smaller, more or less completely withdrawn into the body, and in
certain cases forming an ovipositor. These nine segments are
usually considered to constitute the abdomen; but according to
Peytoureau,[174] a tenth dorsal plate is represented on either side of
the anal orifice, though there is no trace of a corresponding ventral
plate. In the male the segments, externally conspicuous, are one
more than in the female. According to the authority quoted,[175] this
sex has also truly ten abdominal segments, the ninth segment being
withdrawn to a greater or less extent to the inside of the body, and
modified to form part of a copulatory apparatus; its dorsal portion
bears a process called the "uncus"; the anal orifice opens on the
inner face of this process, and below it there is another process—
developed to a greater or less extent—called the "scaphium." The
ventral portion of the ninth segment bears a lobe, the "saccus"
(Peytoureau, l.c.). On each side of the ninth abdominal segment
there is a process called the "valve," the internal wall of which bears
some hook-like or other processes called "harpes"; it is continued as
a membrane surrounding the "oedeagus," or penis, and—bearing
more or less distinct prominences—connects with the scaphium. In
many forms the parts alluded to, other than the valves, are
concealed by the latter, which come together when closed, and may
be covered externally with scales like the rest of the abdomen.
Peytoureau considers that the uncus is really the dorsal plate of a
tenth segment, and that the scaphium is the tenth ventral plate.
Thus, according to this view, the ninth segment is extensive and
complex, being very highly modified in all its parts: while the tenth
segment is greatly reduced. The structure of the male organs is
simpler in Lepidoptera, and less varied than it is in the other great
Orders of Insects. There are seven pairs of abdominal spiracles on
the upper parts of the membranous pleurae.

Fig. 160—Acherontia atropos. The termination of ♂ body, one side

removed. IX, Ninth dorsal plate; IX’, ninth ventral; s, lobe, saccus,
of ninth ventral plate; X, tenth dorsal plate, or uncus; sc,
scaphium, or tenth ventral plate; a, position of anus; b, chitinised
band of scaphium; V, valve or clasper; c, hooks, or harpes, of
clasper; p, penis (or oedeagus). (After Peytoureau.)

Legs.—The legs are long, slender, covered with scales, and chiefly
remarkable from the fact that the tibiae sometimes bear articulated
spurs on their middle as well as at the tip. The front tibia usually
possesses on its inner aspect a peculiar mobile pad; this seems to
be in some cases a combing organ; it also often acts as a cover to
peculiar scales. The tarsi are five-jointed, with two small claws and a
small apparatus, the functional importance of which is unknown,
between the claws.

Wings.—The wings are the most remarkable feature of this Order; it

is to them that butterflies owe their beauty, the surfaces of the wings
being frequently adorned with colours and patterns of the most
charming and effective nature. These effects are due to minute
scales that are implanted in the wing-membrane in an overlapping
manner, somewhat similar to the arrangement of slates on the roof of
a house. The scales are very readily displaced, and have the
appearance of a silky dust. We shall describe their structure and
allude to their development subsequently. The wings are usually of
large size in comparison with the Insect's body: in the genus
Morpho, the most gorgeous of the butterflies, they are enormous,
though the body is small; so that when deprived of these floats the
Insect is insignificant. The great expanse of wing is not correlative
with great powers of flight, though it is perhaps indicative of flying
with little exertion; for the small-winged Lepidoptera, Sphingidae,
etc., have much greater powers of aërial evolution than the large-
winged forms. The area of the wing is increased somewhat by the
fact that the scales on the outer margin, and on a part or on the
whole of the inner margin, project beyond the edges of the
membrane that bears them: these projecting marginal scales are
called fringes. In many of the very small moths the actual size of the
wing-membranes is much reduced, but in such cases the fringes
may be very long, so as to form the larger part of the surface,
especially of that of the hind wings. Frequently the hind wings are of
remarkable shape, being prolonged into processes or tails, some of
which are almost as remarkable as those of Nemoptera in the Order
Neuroptera.
The wings are very rarely absent in Lepidoptera; this occurs only in
the female sex, no male Lepidopterous imago destitute of wings
having been discovered. Although but little is known of the
physiology of flight of Lepidoptera, yet it is clearly important that the
two wings of the same side should be perfectly coadapted or
correlated. This is effected largely by the front wing overlapping the
hind one to a considerable extent, and by the two contiguous
surfaces being pressed, as it were, together. This is the system
found in butterflies and in some of the large moths, such as
Lasiocampidae and Saturniidae; in these cases the hind wing always
has a large shoulder, or area, anterior to its point of insertion. In most
moths this shoulder is absent, but in its place there are one or more
stiff bristles projecting forwards and outwards, and passing under a
little membranous flap, or a tuft of thick scales on the under face of
the front wing; the bristle is called the "frenulum," the structure that
retains it a "retinaculum." In Castnia (Fig. 162) and in some
Sphingidae there is the unusual condition of a highly-developed
shoulder (s) coexisting with a perfect frenulum (f) and retinaculum
(r). The frenulum and retinaculum usually differ in structure, and the
retinaculum in position, in the two sexes of the same moth; the male,
which in moths has superior powers of flight, having the better
retaining organs. Hampson says "the form of the frenulum is of great
use in determining sex, as in the males of all the forms that possess
it, it consists of hairs firmly soldered together so as to form a single
bristle, whilst in nearly all females it consists of three or more bristles
which are shorter than that of the male; in one female Cossid I have
found as many as nine. Also in the large majority of moths the
retinaculum descends from the costal nervure in the male, while in
the female it ascends from the median nervure."[176] This sexual
difference in a structure for the discharge of a function common to
the two sexes is a very remarkable fact. There are a few—very few
—moths in which the bases of the hind wings are not well coadapted
with the front wings, and do not possess a frenulum, and these
species possess a small more or less free lobe at the base of the
front wing that droops towards the hind wing, and may thus help to
keep up an imperfect connexion between the pair; this lobe has been
named a jugum by Professor Comstock. Occasionally there is a
jugum on the hind as well as on the front wing. There is usually a
very great difference between the front and the hind wings; for
whereas in the front wing the anterior portion is doubtless of great
importance in the act of flight and is provided with numerous veins,
in the hind wing, on the other hand, the corresponding part has not a
similar function, being covered by the front wing; hence the hind
wing is provided with fewer nervures in the anterior region, the
divisions of the subcostal being less numerous than they are in the
front wing. In the moths possessing a jugum the two wings differ but
little from one another, and it is probable that they function almost as
four separate wings instead of as two pairs.

Wing-nervures.—The nervures or ribs of the wings are of great

importance in Lepidoptera, as at present they furnish the chief
characters for classification and for the discussions of phylogeny that
are so numerous in entomological literature. On looking at wings that
have been deprived of their scales it will be noticed (Fig. 161) that
the ribs are much more numerous at the outer margins than they are
near the points of attachment of the wings, and that there is usually
but one cell (or area completely enclosed by ribs). This latter point is
one of the chief peculiarities of the Lepidopterous wing; in Insect-
wings generally the number of cells in proportion to the area of the
wings and to the number of nervures is greater than it is in
Lepidoptera, for in the latter there are few or no cross-nervures.
Hence there is sometimes no closed cell at all on the wing (Fig. 161,
II. B). The maximum number of closed cells is six; this is found in
some species of Micropteryx, while in Hepialus there may be three
or four; but the rule is that there is only one cell in the Lepidopterous
wing. When the number of cells is increased this is not necessarily
due to an increase in the cross-nervures; and in fact it is generally
due to irregular forking or to the sinuous form of the longitudinal
nervures themselves (see wing of Castnia, Fig. 162, A.). Some
authorities consider that all transverse or cross-veins in Lepidoptera
are merely portions of longitudinal veins having diverted courses.
When a portion of a nervure beyond the basal or primary portion
serves as a common piece to two forked parts external to it, it is
called a stalk (Fig. 162, A, e). There are cases in which the furcation
takes place in the opposite direction, so that a nervure is double at
the base of the wing (Fig. 161, I, A, 1a, and B, 1b). This important
condition has not yet been adequately discussed.

Fig. 161.—Wing-nervuration of Lepidoptera. I, Diagram of moths' wings

(after Hampson); II, of a butterfly's wings (Morpho menelaus ♂ ,
after Staudinger and Schatz). A, front, B, hind wing. I.—c, costal;
sc, subcostal; m, median; 1a, 1b, 1c, internal nervures; f,
frenulum; 2, 3, 4, branches of median nervure; 5, lower radial; 6,
upper radial; 7-11, divisions of the subcostal; 12, termination of
costal; c, cell; d, discocellular nervure. II.—C, costal; SC,
subcostal; M, median; SM and SN, submedian nervures; 1A,
inner-margin nervure; UR, lower radial; OR, upper radial; SC1 to
SC5, divisions of subcostal; M1 to M3, divisions of median nervure;
C, cell; DC, discocellulars.

Turning to the mode of designation of the nervures,[177] we may

commence by remarking that no system satisfactory from a practical
as well as from a theoretical point of view has yet been devised. The
diagrams given in figure 161 will enable us to explain the methods
actually in vogue; I. representing the system, dating from the time of
Herrich-Schaeffer, chiefly used by British naturalists, and II. that
adopted by Staudinger and Schatz in their recent great work on the
Butterflies of the world. The three anterior nervures in both front and
hind wings correspond fairly well, and are called, looking at them
where they commence at the base of the wing, "costal," "subcostal,"
and "median" nervures. The nervures near the inner margin of the
wing (that is the lower part in our figures) differ much in the front and
hind wings, consisting either of two or of three separate portions not
joined even at the base. British entomologists call these "branches
or divisions of the internal nervure": the Germans call the more
anterior of them the "submedian," and the more internal the "inner-
margin nervure"; they are also frequently called anal nervures. The
cross-nervure that closes the cell is called discocellular; when
apparently composed of two or three parts joined so as to form
angles, the parts are called, according to position, upper, lower, and
middle discocellulars. One or more short spurs may exist on the front
part of the basal portion of the hind wing; these are called
praecostal. The branches or terminal divisions of the nervures
should be called nervules; they are usually mentioned by the
numbers shewn in the diagram (Fig. 161, I.). In addition to this, it is
only necessary to remember that number 2 is always assigned to the
posterior division of the median nervure, the nervules below this
being all called 1, and distinguished by the addition of a, b, c when
requisite. This course is necessary, because if it were not adopted
the corresponding nervules on the front and hind wings would bear
different numbers.

The use of this system of numbers for the nervules is becoming

general, and it answers fairly well for practical purposes. On the
other hand, extreme discrepancy exists as to the nomenclature of
the nervures and nervules, and there are almost as many systems
as there are authorities.

The normal number of nervules is, on the front wing, 11 + 1 or 2

inner marginal, and on the hind wing 7 + 2 or 3 inner marginal. In the
aberrant moths of the genus Castnia the nervuration is unusually
complex and irregular (Fig. 162), and an analogous condition occurs
in our common Goat-moth (Cossus ligniperda). In Hepialus and
Micropteryx (the jugate moths of Comstock) the hind wings are less
dissimilar in nervuration from the front wings than they are in other
Lepidoptera.[178]