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The Beethoven Syndrome
 The Beethoven
Syndrome
Hearing Music as Autobiography

M A R K EVA N B O N D S

1
 3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bonds, Mark Evan, author.
Title: The Beethoven syndrome : hearing music as autobiography / Mark Evan Bonds.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2020] |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019020718 | ISBN 9780190068479 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780190068509 (online) | ISBN 9780190068486 (updf) | ISBN 9780190068493 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Music—Philosophy and aesthetics—History. |
Expression (Philosophy)—History. | Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770–1827—Appreciation—History.
Classification: LCC ML3800 B75 2019 | DDC 781.1/7—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019020718

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

Oxford University Press gratefully acknowledges the Joseph Kerman Endowment of the
American Musicological Society, funded in part by the National Endowment for the
Humanities and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, for support in
the publication of this book.
To Sam Hammond
 Table of Contents

List of Figures ix
Acknowledgments xi
Abbreviations xiii

Introduction: The Instrumental Self 1

PA RT O N E T H E PA R A D IG M O F O B J E C T I V E
E X P R E S SIO N : 1 7 7 0 –​1 8 3 0 19
1. The Framework of Rhetoric 21
Expression as a Means of Persuasion 22
The Composer as Actor 25
Mimesis 33
2. Toward the Perception of Subjective Expression 38
Art as a Window on the Self 40
The Prestige of the Passions 50
Lyric Poetry 54
3. Hearing Composers in Their Work 58
Fantasy 58
Humor and Irony 73
Beethoven’s Subjectivity in an Age of Objectivity 82

PA RT T WO T H E PA R A D IG M O F SU B J E C T I V E
E X P R E S SIO N : 1 8 3 0 –​1 9 2 0 95
4. The Framework of Hermeneutics 97
The Perception of Sincerity 98
The Perception of Oracularity 106
5. First-​Person Beethoven 120
From Rhetoric to Hermeneutics 120
The Heiligenstadt Testament 128
Biographies 134
viii Table of Contents

6. After Beethoven 143

Written Lives 143
Audible Lives 146
Form versus Content 154
Later Composers 157
Retrospective Subjectivity 161
Two Categories of Music 166

PA RT T H R E E DUA L PA R A D IG M S : SI N C E 1 9 2 0 169
7. The Return of Objectivity 171
The Composer as Chameleon 175
The Composer as Medium 178
The Composer as Engineer 179
8. The Endurance of Subjectivity 183

Conclusion: Tracking Comets 197

Notes 201
Bibliography 277
Index 307
 Figures

1.1 Title page of Charles Batteux, Les beaux arts réduits à un même principe,
2nd ed. (Paris, 1747) 35
5.1 Detail from Rochlitz’s publication of Beethoven’s Heiligenstadt Testament,
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 29 (17 October 1827): 709–​10 130
5.2 Hugo Höppener (“Fidus”), “Beethoven,” Die Jugend 11 (1903): 171 141
6.1 Edouard Jean Conrad Hamman, Haydn Composing His “Creation” 162
 Acknowledgments

I am grateful to the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Institute

for Advanced Study, and the Austrian National Science Foundation (FWF),
whose support during the period 2015–​17 allowed me to complete the bulk
of this study. It is particularly fitting that my time in Princeton at the Institute
for Advanced Study was made possible by a fellowship endowed by the late
Edward T. Cone, whose writings on the compositional persona provided an
important starting point for my research.
I have also benefitted from ongoing conversations with departmental
colleagues at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, particularly
Andrea Bohlman, Tim Carter, Annegret Fauser, and Stefan Litwin. The staff
of the Music Library there—​Philip Vandermeer, Diane Steinhaus, and Carrie
Monette—​provided its consistenly unfailing support.
Colleagues at other institutions with whom I wish I could have had more
conversations include Francesca Brittan (Case Western Reserve), Todd
Cronan and Kevin Karnes (Emory), Ryan Ebright (Bowling Green State
University), James Hepokoski (Yale), William Kinderman (University of
Illinois), Tomas McAuley and David Trippett (Cambridge), Christopher
Reynolds (University of California, Davis), William Robin (University of
Maryland), Gilbert Sewall (Phillips Academy), Elaine Sisman (Columbia),
Christian Thorau (Universität Potsdam), and Jeremy Yudkin (Boston
University). My year in Vienna on a stipend from the Lise-​ Meitner-​
Programm was especially valuable, and I will always have fond memo-
ries of discussions with my sponsor there, Birgit Lodes (Universität Wien),
and with her colleagues John D. Wilson and Elisabeth Reisinger. Evenings
with the “three M’s” from the Universität für Musik und darstellende Kunst
Wien—​ Marie-​ Agnes Dittrich, Martin Eybl, and Melanie Unseld—​ were
as delightful as they were thought-​provoking. And I owe special thanks to
Michael Morse (Trent University), who somehow managed to make sense
of a very early draft of this book and pointed out the many ways in which it
could be improved.
At Oxford University Press, Suzanne Ryan, was once again the ideal editor
and Barbara Norton the ideal copy editor.
xii Acknowledgments

As always, my family helped in far more ways than they could possibly re-
alize. While often indirect, those ways were no less important to bringing this
project to fruition. To Dorothea, Peter, and Andrew: Thank you.

***

Portions of ­chapters 3 and 5 draw on my essay “Irony and Incomprehensibility:

Beethoven’s ‘Serioso’ String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 95, and the Path to the
Late Style,” JAMS 70 (2017): 285–​356. Brief passages in c­ hapter 7 appeared in
a slightly different form in c­ hapter 13 of my Absolute Music: The History of an
Idea (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).
 Abbreviations

19CM 19th-​Century Music

AfMw Archiv für Musikwissenschaft
AmZ Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
BAmZ Berliner Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
BGA Ludwig van Beethoven, Briefwechsel: Gesamtausgabe, 7 vols., ed. Sieghard
Brandenburg (Munich: G. Henle, 1996–​98).
JAMS Journal of the American Musicological Society
KdU Immanuel Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft, ed. Heiner F. Klemme
(Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 2001).
KFSA Friedrich Schlegel, Kritische Friedrich-​Schlegel-​Ausgabe, ed. Ernst Behler
et al. (Munich: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1958–​).
MQ Musical Quarterly
NZfM Neue Zeitschrift für Musik

Unless otherwise noted, emphases in quotations appear in the original, and

all translations are my own.
The Beethoven Syndrome
 Introduction
The Instrumental Self

Beethoven struggled with many things during his life, but neglect was not
one of them. By the time he died in 1827, his contemporaries had written
so much about his music that the most recent anthology of their collected
criticisms runs to almost seven hundred pages.1 Yet aside from a few reviews
from the composer’s final years that speculate on the effects of his increasing
deafness, these commentaries make almost no attempt to relate his works
to his life or vice versa. The overwhelming majority of critics at the time in
fact knew little or nothing about him beyond the barest outlines of his ca-
reer, and the few who did, based mostly in Vienna, did not consider his per-
sonal self particularly relevant to the music he was creating. Writing from
faraway Thuringia in his 1812 biographical dictionary of musicians, Ernst
Ludwig Gerber acknowledged the “serious and gloomy” nature of many of
Beethoven’s works but explained this by pointing to the wartime conditions
being endured by so many composers in German-​speaking lands during a
period of seemingly endless conflict.2 In short, no one during Beethoven’s
lifetime perceived his music as an expression of his inner self.
Yet by the middle of the nineteenth century listeners were routinely
hearing Beethoven’s music as a revelation of his soul, and they regarded his
soul, in turn, as the key to understanding his music. Critics eagerly mapped
his life onto his works and his works onto his life. This new way of listening,
moreover, extended well beyond Beethoven: audiences were now predis-
posed to hear the music of all composers—​particularly their instrumental
works—​as a personal outpouring of the self, a form of sonic autobiography.
What changed? Why did listeners begin to hear music in such a fundamen-
tally new way in such a short span of time? And why, in turn, has this mode
of listening become increasingly suspect over the past hundred years? The
inclination of listeners to hear composers in their music—​the “Beethoven
syndrome”—​is so deeply ingrained that it is easy to forget just how novel and
powerful it was for almost a century. “Syndrome” is not too strong a term.

The Beethoven Syndrome. Mark Evan Bonds, Oxford University Press (2020) © Oxford University Press.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190068479.001.0001
2 introduction

As in medicine, it is used here to indicate a pattern of symptoms, in this case

behaviors that point to an underlying condition. The predisposition to hear
music as a form of autobiography began in responses to Beethoven but soon
extended to the output of composers in general and dominated musical crit-
icism for almost a hundred years. Listeners routinely turned to biography to
explain the general tendencies of what they were hearing in any given artists’
output, as well as any unusual exceptions to those tendencies. The rapid de-
cline of such habits of listening in the 1920s reflects a general recognition
that this predisposition, while not wholly without foundation, had gone
too far. This mode of listening nevertheless remain with us today, even if in
diminished form.
The Beethoven Syndrome: Hearing Music as Autobiography explores the
changing perceptions of music as a subjective outpouring of the composi-
tional self. Beethoven is the central figure in this account, and his instru-
mental music was an important catalyst for the new mode of listening that
took hold in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. But this change
cannot be ascribed to his works alone. It arose out of the convergence of
aesthetic, philosophical, cultural, economic, and technological forces. New
conceptions about the nature of all the arts, changing constructions of the
self, the rising philosophical prestige of the emotions, and the growth of a
mass-​market music culture all contributed to a new way of hearing music—​
and above all instrumental music—​as a medium of self-​revelation.
The discourse on the perception of compositional subjectivity centers
on changing conceptions of musical expression and falls into three broad
phases:

(1) 1770–​1830. Not until the closing decades of the eighteenth century did
critics begin to address the relationship between a composer’s output and
innermost self. Commentators had long kept the two quite separate, for
they conceived of expression not as a subjective outpouring of the self, but
as an objective construct, which is to say, as the projection of a text (in the
case of vocal music) or the representation of an emotion (in the case of in-
strumental music), consciously crafted in either case to evoke a calculated
response in listeners.

(2) 1830–​1920. The growing prestige of instrumental music in the late

eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries raised fundamental questions
about the source and nature of the expression heard in those works. Critics
 the instrumental self 3

continued to perceive vocal music primarily as the projection of a text,

but they now began to hear instrumental music as a manifestation of its
creator’s unique individuality. The tendency to hear composers’ selves in
their instrumental works took hold with remarkable speed in the years
just after Beethoven’s death. Composers encouraged this perception by
advocating an aesthetics of subjectivity in their own writings on music and
through their strategies of self-​promotion within an increasingly public
and competitive marketplace.

(3) Since 1920. In the wake of World War I, the assumption that all expres-
sion came from the inner self lost its dominant position almost as quickly
as it had attained it: many leading composers and critics returned to an
outlook that openly acknowledged expression—​and art in general—​as
an artifice. This renewed conception of expression as an objective con-
struct became a key element of modernist aesthetics, beginning with
the New Objectivity of the interwar years and running through the high
modernism of mid-​century. The inclination to hear a musical work as
an audible manifestation of its composer’s essential being has neverthe-
less proven remarkably resilient. The notion of works as life continues to
flourish in the public mind, particularly in the realm of popular music, and
it continues to play a role in the ways we hear the works of composers from
both the past and present.

The three parts of this book correspond to these changing conceptions

of musical expression. Part One, “The Paradigm of Objective Expression,”
surveys the period between approximately 1770 and 1830, when music func-
tioned as an essentially rhetorical art, in which it fell to composers (and,
working on their behalf, performers) to move listeners in a particular direc-
tion, to persuade them emotionally. Rhetoric is a theory of poetics: it pro-
vided a framework of composition in both the oratorical and musical senses
of the term, and within this framework, expression was understood as a
vital means to the end of moving an audience. Practitioners of the rhetorical
arts, whether verbal or musical, anticipated the responses of their audiences
and applied their craft accordingly. Listeners of the time, in turn, regarded
composers as highly skilled artisans who could be identified through their
distinctively individual styles, but not as individuals who had somehow
imbued their creations with their own personal identities. Part Two, “The
Paradigm of Subjective Expression,” examines the period from roughly 1830
Another random document with
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glycerin, gr. 1/100, has also been of benefit. For the paræsthesiæ and
anæsthesia of the early stage the faradic brush has been applied,
and for the motor weakness the faradic current, with the effect of
relieving but not curing these symptoms. During the attacks of
neuralgia morphine may be employed.

Inflammation.—The most important trophic disturbances are those

which consist of an actual disintegration of tissue. These are very
numerous. Herpes zoster, certain forms of eczema and pemphigus,
lepra anæsthetica, scleroderma, acute ulceration of the fingers,
perforating ulcer of the foot, acute bed-sores, keratitis with
anæsthesia of the cornea, sympathetic ophthalmia, and various
forms of joint disease, are examples of such trophic diseases.88 For
the discussion of the skin and eye diseases mentioned the reader is
referred to special articles on those subjects. In regard to lepra
anæsthetica, it may be mentioned that in this disease lesions have
been found both in the sensory nerves and in the posterior cornua of
the spinal cord.89
88 Leloir, “Tropho-neuroses,” Nouveau Dictionnaire de Médecine et Chirurgie
practiques, 1885.

89 Virchow, “Nerven Lepra,” Geschwülste, ii. 521; Tschirijew, Travaux du Laboratoire

de Vulpian, 1879.

I have reported90 a case of acute ulceration of the ends of the fingers

and toes occurring in an anæmic girl aged twelve, and persisting for
more than a year, associated with cyanosis of the hands and feet,
and with a tendency to rapid ulceration of any part of the body which
happened to be exposed to pressure. The hair of the eyebrows,
eyelids, and to a less extent that of the scalp, fell out during the
disease. There was no local asphyxia and no appearance of
gangrene; hence the case was not one of Raynaud's disease. Its
symmetrical distribution, the lack of any constitutional organic
disease or of any local cause for the production of the ulceration,
and the anæmic and nervous condition present, all pointed to a
disturbance of the central nervous system. It did not yield to
treatment, either local or general or electrical. Mills has seen a
similar case.91
90 Journal Nerv. and Ment. Disease, Feb., 1886, clinical cases.

91 Mills, Amer. Journ. Med. Sci., Oct., 1878.

Perforating ulcer of the foot begins on the sole, beneath any of the
metatarso-phalangeal articulations, preferably the first or the fifth, or
under the heel, as a small pustule under the epidermis. This
ruptures, and the ulcer which results begins to extend in a direction
vertical to the surface, involving the deeper tissues or even opening
into the joint and destroying the bone. It appears rather like a sinus
than an ulcer, and is remarkable from the fact that it is not painful
and is insensitive to touch, although it may prevent the patient from
walking on account of extreme tenderness. The epidermis around
the sinus is thickened and insensitive, and there may be anæsthesia
of the entire sole of the foot, and even of the leg, although this is due
to the neuritis present, which is also the cause of the ulcer, rather
than to the ulceration. The circulation is sluggish in the affected
extremity; it becomes cyanotic on exposure to cold, and seems
peculiarly liable to become œdematous. The œdema may go on to
suppuration, and involve the articulations, and ankylosis of the
smaller joints may follow. This, too, is to be traced to the neuritis.
The skin of the foot becomes pigmented, and may be dry or covered
with offensive sweat. As the patient cannot walk while the ulcer
remains, the condition demands treatment. Rest, moist warm
applications, antiseptic lotions, scraping out the sinus, and other
surgical means appropriate to the treatment of ulcers and sinuses do
not often prove of benefit, and in obstinate cases recourse has been
had to amputation of the foot. Electrical treatment has been tried in
vain.

Such perforating ulcers may occur symmetrically on both feet, and

may be numerous. They also occur rarely on the hands. They have
been observed not infrequently in locomotor ataxia, occurring either
early or late in the disease,92 and have appeared in patients suffering
from dementia paralytica. The only constant lesion found is a
degeneration of the peripheral nerve supplying the affected part.
92 For bibliography see Ross, Diseases of Nervous System, 2d ed., i. p. 256, and
Blum, Berliner klin. Wochen., 1875, Nos. 13-15.

Acute bed-sores (decubitus) develop in many cases of spinal and

cerebral disease, but not in all. It is argued that anæsthesia of a part
or simple pressure upon a part or irritation of an anæsthetic part will
not explain their occurrence, and that they must be traced to a
destruction of trophic centres in the cord or brain. No amount of
attention to the position and cleanliness of the patient is thought to
be sufficient to prevent them in some cases, and their progress is
often so rapid as to remove them from the category of simple
ulceration. Their most frequent seat is upon the buttocks, over the
sacrum, on the heels, and over the scapulæ; but it is believed that in
the conditions in which they appear in these places pressure on any
part may cause one. They begin within a few hours after the
occurrence of the lesion as irregular mottled patches of redness, in
which there soon appear small or large vesicles filled with dark
serum. These rupture, leaving little areas of ulcerated surface, which
soon unite to form a large ulcer with softened, infiltrated, and bloody
base and ragged edges. The tissues around and within the ulcer
have a tendency to slough and to become gangrenous, and the
process goes on rapidly until a considerable area of the surface is
completely destroyed, together with the deeper structures, fat,
muscles, and fasciæ, down to the bone, which may become
necrosed. Acute cystitis is so frequently associated with acute bed-
sore that it is traced to the same nervous cause, though here, again,
another explanation is possible. The constitutional disturbance
produced by these two affections may be increased by a true
septicæmia, to which the patient succumbs; or metastatic abscesses
may be formed, and pyæmia cause death; or, lastly, the ulcer on the
back may lay bare the vertebræ and erode their ligaments, thus
opening a way for the extension of suppuration to the meninges of
the spinal cord. The duration may be from a few days to two weeks,
and the prognosis is very grave.
Chronic bed-sores develop in a similar manner, although all the
processes described occur more slowly and are much less severe.
They do not show the tendency to extend so widely or so deeply, nor
to become gangrenous. They remain stationary after attaining a
certain size, and the tissues seem to lack all tendency to
reproduction and repair. When the central lesion which they follow
begins to pass away they heal; sometimes local treatment is
successful; but in many cases they persist for years, always
threatening the life of the patient from the possibility of their sudden
aggravation or from the occurrence of the complications already
mentioned in connection with the acute process.

Since neither form of decubitus occurs after lesion of the anterior

cornua of the spinal cord, nor in sclerosis of the posterior or lateral
columns, nor in those cases of locomotor ataxia in which extensive
invasion of the posterior cornua is present, while they are particularly
frequent as a complication of general myelitis, hemorrhage in the
cord, and syringo-myelitis, it is argued that the trophic centres whose
destruction is the cause of these bed-sores lie in the central gray
matter of the cord, near to the central canal. In unilateral lesion of the
cord the bed-sore occurs on the anæsthetic side of the body—i.e. on
the side opposite to the seat of the lesion—a fact which may indicate
a decussation of the trophic nerve-fibres in the cord,93 but which has
also been urged in proof of the theory that the sore is always due to
irritation of an insensitive surface.
93 Recklinghausen believes that these cases of disturbance of nutrition can be
explained by injury of anæsthetic parts in which vaso-motor disturbances of central
origin exist (Handbuch d. Path. d. Ernahrung, pp. 236, 237).

The treatment of bed-sores belongs to the domain of surgery, the

same methods being pursued as in the case of any large ulcer. The
application of electricity to the sore has been tried, but the results are
not sufficiently encouraging to warrant its recommendation.

Joint affections of neurotic origin are discussed in the articles upon

Locomotor Ataxia, Hemiplegia, and Hysteria.
It is evident from this review that the nervous centres have some
influence upon the activity of the cells of which the body is made up,
and that they control the processes of growth, function, repair, and
reproduction. The facts are too numerous, too varied, and too
positive to admit of any other explanation. Trophic disturbances must
therefore be considered as a set of symptoms referable to various
lesions of the nervous system. It is evident from the preceding
discussion that they may be produced by disease of the peripheral
nerves; by disease of the ganglionic cells, which nourish those
nerves; by disease of the spinal cord, especially in the region of the
central gray matter; and, finally, by disease of the brain. Whether in
the last condition the effect is a direct one, or is produced
secondarily by an irritation of the spinal centres, cannot yet be
determined. There are no trophic centres as yet localized in the
cerebrum, but the pathological facts already mentioned warrant the
conclusion that such centres will not long elude search. Certain facts
observed in cases of infantile hemiplegia point to the motor area of
the cortex as the seat of trophic centres for the motor mechanisms;
since it is found that when the motor cortex is destroyed in early life
the bones and muscles which it controls fail to develop properly.
Trophic centres for sensory mechanisms are not yet discovered.
Certain investigations of Luciani recently published94 point to the
cerebellum as the part of the brain which governs the general
nutrition of the body, but these need confirmation.
94 Alienist and Neurologist, July, 1885.

CONCLUSION.—While an attempt has been made here to consider

vaso-motor and trophic neuroses separately, it must be admitted that
in very many conditions the two are coincident. This follows
inevitably from what has been stated regarding the localization of the
vaso-motor and trophic centres in the spinal cord, and regarding the
course of the vaso-motor and trophic nerves from the spinal centres
to the periphery. These two classes of centres and nerves lie side by
side in the central and peripheral organs, and it is less surprising that
they should be jointly affected than that one should ever be involved
alone. In any case of lesion of the peripheral nerves or of the central
nervous system they may be expected. In all cases they are to be
regarded as symptoms of such lesions rather than as distinct
diseases.

INDEX TO VOLUME V.

A.

Abdomen, state of, in lead colic,

684

in tubercular meningitis,

726

727
Abscess of the brain,

791

792

of the spinal cord,

808

Achromatopsia, hysterical,

247

Aconite and aconitia, use of, in neuralgia,

1224

1227
 hypodermically in exacerbations of cerebral syphilis,

1015

Acoustic sensory disturbances in nervous diseases,

40

41

Acrodynia,

1254

Acute affections produced by heat,

387

alcoholism,

586
 cerebral anæmia,

776

encephalitis,

791

myelitis, spinal,

810

poisoning by alcohol in lethal doses,

596

simple meningitis,

716

spinal meningitis,

749

pachymeningitis,

747
Æsthesodic system of encephalon, localization of lesions in,

81

of spinal cord, localization of lesions in,

69

Affective mental disease,

153

Age, influence on causation of acute spinal meningitis,

750

of catalepsy,

315

of cerebral anæmia,
777

of chorea,

441

of chronic lead-poisoning,

680

686

688

of disseminated sclerosis,

883

of embolism and thrombosis of cerebral veins,

951

of epilepsy,

470
 of family form of tabes dorsalis,

871

of general paralysis of the insane,

77

of hæmatoma of the dura mater,

707

of hysteria,

216

of hystero-epilepsy,

293

of insanity,

116

117
 of intracranial hemorrhage and apoplexy,

927

of labio-glosso-laryngeal paralysis,

1173

of migraine,

406

1230

of myxœdema,

1271

of neuralgia,

1217

of paralysis agitans,

433
 of progressive unilateral facial atrophy,

694

of syphilitic affections of nerve-centres,

1000

of tabes dorsalis,

856

of the opium habit,

650

of thrombosis of cerebral veins and sinuses,

983

of tubercular meningitis,

725

of tumors of the brain,

1029

spinal cord,

1090

of writers' cramp,

512

relation of, to limitation of the myelitis in infantile paralysis,

1147

Agraphia in hemiplegia,

957

Akinesis in nervous diseases, definition of,

42-44
Alalia (see

Speech, Disorders of

).

Alexia in nervous diseases,

31

Albuminuria in chronic lead-poisoning,

682

689

Alcohol, influence on causation of acute meningitis,

716

of cerebral hyperæmia,

765
 of intracranial hemorrhage and apoplexy,

929

933

of tabes dorsalis,

854

of writers' cramp,

512

use of, in alcoholism,

642

644

in cerebral anæmia,

789
 in heat-exhaustion,

388

in insomnia,

380

381

in the chloral habit,

677

in the opium habit,

673

675

in thermic fever,

397
Alcoholic abuse as a cause of epilepsy,

472

insanity,

175

202

630-633

LCOHOLISM

573

Classification,

573

Definition,
573

Diagnosis,

637

of acute alcoholism,

637

of chronic alcoholism,

638

of dipsomania,

639

of hereditary alcoholism,

639

Etiology,

575