The Product of a Semi Dihedral Group And a Cyclic Group

Hao Yu1
Capital Normal University,
School of Mathematical Sciences,
Beijing 100048, People’s Republic of China
arXiv:2310.00345v1 [math.GR] 30 Sep 2023

Abstract
Let X(G) = GC be a group, where G is a semi dihedral group and C is a cyclic
group such that G ∩ C = 1. In this paper, X(G) will be characterized.

1 Introduction
A group G is said to be properly factorizable if G = AB for two proper subgroups A
and B of G, while the expression G = AB is called a factorization of G. Furthermore, if
A ∩ B = 1, then we say that G has an exact factorization.
Factorizations of groups naturally arise from the well-known Frattini’s argument, in-
cluding its version in permutation groups. One of the most famous results about factorized
groups might be one of theorems of Itô, saying that any group is metabelian whenever
it is the product of two abelian subgroups (see [16]). Later, Wielandt and Kegel showed
that the product of two nilpotent subgroups must be soluble (see [37] and [18]). Douglas
showed that the product of two cyclic groups must be super-solvable (see [6]). The factor-
izations of the finite almost simple groups were determined in [29] and the factorizations
of almost simple groups with a solvable factor were determined in [28]. There are many
other papers related to factorizations, for instance, finite products of soluble groups, fac-
torizations with one nilpotent factor and so on. Here we are not able to list all references
and the readers may refer to a survey paper [1].
In this paper, we shall focus on the product group X = X(G) = GC, for a finite
group G and a cyclic group C such that G ∩ C = 1. Recently, X(G), where G is either
a dihedral group or a generalized quaternion group, has been characterized ([10]). The
core-free property of C is frequently referenced in this article. Suppose that C is core-free.
Then X is also called a skew product group of G. Recall that the skew morphism of a group
G and a skew product group X of G were introduced by Jajcay and Širáň in [17], which
is related to the studies of regular Cayley maps of G. For the reason of the length of the
paper, we are not able to explain them in detail. Recently, there have been a lot of results
on skew product groups X of some particular groups G. (1) Cyclic groups: So far there
1
Corresponding author: 3485676673@qq.com.
Keywords factorizations of groups, semi dihedral group, skew-morphism
MSC(2010) 20F19, 20B20, 05E18, 05E45.

1
 Table 1: The forms of M, MX and X/MX
Case M MX X/MX
1 haihci haihci Z2
2 ha2 ihci ha2 ihc2 i D8
3 ha2 ihci ha2 ihc3 i A4
4 4 3
4 ha ihci ha ihc i S4
5 ha4 ihci ha4 ihc4 i (Z4 × Z2 ) · Z4
6 ha3 ihci ha3 ihc4 i S4

exists no classification of such product groups. For partial results, see [4, 5, 8, 19, 20, 25].
(2) Elementary abelian p-groups: a global structure was characterized in [9]. (3) Finite
nonabelian simple group or finite nonabelian characteristically simple groups: they were
classified in [2] and [3], respectively. (4) Dihedral groups: Based on big efforts of several
authors working on regular Cayley maps (see [4, 13, 26, 21, 22, 23, 32, 24, 34, 35, 40, 41,
42]), the final classification of skew product groups of dihedral groups was given in [13].
(5) Generalized quaternion groups: they were classified in [14], [27] and [10].
Let X(G) = GC be a group, where G is a semi dihedral group and C is a cyclic group
such that G ∩ C = 1. In this paper, we shall give a characterization for X(G) and some
property of X(G).
Throughout this paper, set

C = hc | cm = 1i ∼= Zm , m ≥ 2,
D = ha, b | a = b2 = 1, ab = a−1 i ∼
n
= D2n , n ≥ 2.
(1)
Q = ha, b | a2n = 1, b2 = an , ab = a−1 i ∼
= Q4n , n ≥ 2.
4n 2 b 2n−1 ∼
SD = ha, b | a = b = 1, a = a i = SD8n , n ≥ 2.

Let G = SD and X = X(G) = GC = ha, bihci. Then haihci is unnecessarily a subgroup

of X. Clearly, X contains a subgroup M of the biggest order such that hci ≤ M j haihci.
This subgroup M will play an important role in this paper. From now on by SX we denote
the core ∩x∈X S x of X in a subgroup S of X.
There are two main theorems in this manuscript. In Theorem 1.1, the global structure
of our group X is characterized.
Theorem 1.1 Let G = SD and X = X(G) = Ghci, where o(c) = m ≥ 2 and G∩hci = 1.
Let M be the subgroup of the biggest order in X such that hci ≤ M j haihci. Then one
of items in Tables 1 holds.
Clearly, M is a product of two cyclic subgroups, which has not been determined so far,
as mentioned before, However, further properties of our group X is given in Theorem 1.2.

Theorem 1.2 Let G = SD and X = X(G), and M defined as above. Then we have
ha4 , ci ≤ CX (hciX ), |X : CX (hciX )| ≤ 8 if n is odd, ha2 , ci ≤ CX (hciX ), |X : CX (hciX )| ≤

2
4 if n is even. Moreover, if hciX = 1, then MX ∩ ha4 i ⊳ MX . In particular, if hciX = 1
and M = haihci, then ha4 i ⊳ X.

After this introductory section, some preliminary results will be given in Section 2,
Theorems 1.1 and 1.2 will be proved in Sections 3 and 4, respectively.

2 Preliminaries
In this section, the notation and elementary facts used in this paper are collected.

2.1 Notation
In this paper, all the groups are supposed to be finite. We set up the notation below,
where G and H are groups, M is a subgroup of G, n is a positive integer and p is a prime
number.

|G| and o(g): the order of G and an element g in G, resp.;

H ≤ G and H < G: H is a subgroup of G and H is a proper subgroup of G, resp.;
[G : H]: the set of cosets of G relative to a subgroup H;
H ⊳ G and H char G: H is a normal and characteristic subgroup of G, resp.;
G′ and Z(G): the derived subgroup and the center of G resp.;
MG := ∩g∈G M g , the core of M in G;
G ⋊ H: a semidirect product of G by H, in which G is normal;
G.H: an extension of G by H, where G is normal;
CM (G): centralizer of M in G;
NM (G): normalizer of M in G;
Sylp (G): the set of all Sylow p-subgroups of G;
[a, b] := a−1 b−1 ab, the commutator of a and b in G;
Ω1 (G): the subgroup hg ∈ G | g p = 1i of G where G is a p-group;
n
℧n (G): the subgroup hg p | g ∈ G of G where G is a p-group;
Sn : the symmetric group of degree n (naturally acting on {1, 2, · · · , n});
An : the alternating group of degree n (naturally acting on {1, 2, · · · , n});
GF(q): finite field of q elements;
AGL(n, p): the affine group on GFn (q).

3
2.2 Elementary facts
Proposition 2.1 [31, Theorem 1] The finite group G = AB is solvable, where both A
and B are subgroups with cyclic subgroups of index no more than 2.

Recall that a group H is said a Burnside group if every permutation group containing
a regular subgroup isomorphic to H is either 2-transitive or imprimitive. The following
results are well-known.

Proposition 2.2 [36, Theorem 25.3 and Theorem 25.6] Every cyclic group of composite
order is a Brunside group. Every dihedral group is a Burnside group.

Proposition 2.3 [39, Corollary 1.2] Every semi dihedral group of order 8n (n ≥ 3) is a
Brunside group.

Proposition 2.4 [11, Satz 1] Let N ≤ M ≤ G such that (|N|, |G : M|) = 1 and N
be an abelian normal subgroup of G. If N has a complement in M, then N also has a
complement in G.

Proposition 2.5 [15, Theorem 4.5] Let H be the subgroup of G. Then NG (H)/CG (H)
is isomorphic to a subgroup of Aut (H).

Proposition 2.6 [30, Theorem] If G is a transitive permutation group of degree n with

a cyclic point-stabilizer, then |G| ≤ n(n − 1).

Proposition 2.7 [16, Satz 1 and Satz 2] Let G = AB be a group, where both A and B
are abelian subgroups of G. Then

(1) G is meta-abelian, that is, G′ is abelian;

(2) if G 6= 1, then A or B contains a normal subgroup N 6= 1 of G.

Proposition 2.8 [15, Theorem 11.5] Let G = haihbi be a group. If |hai| ≤ |hbi|, then
hbiG 6= 1. If both hai and hbi are p-groups where p is an odd prime, then G is matecyclic.

Proposition 2.9 [38, Corollary 1.3.3] Let G = AB be a group, where both A and B are
subgroups of G. And let Ap and Bp be Sylow p-subgroups of A and B separately, for some
prime p. Then Ap Bp is the Sylow p-subgroup of G.

Proposition 2.10 [12, Theorem 12.5.1] Let p is an odd prime. Then every finite p-group
n−1
G containing a cyclic maximal subgroup is isomorphic to (1) Zpn ; (2) ha, b | ap = bp =
n−1 n−2
1, [a, b] = 1i, n ≥ 2; or (3) ha, b | ap = bp = 1, [a, b] = ap i, n ≥ 3.

4
 Table 2: The forms of M, MX and X/MX
Case M MX X/MX
1 haihci haihci Z2
2 ha2 ihci ha2 ihc2 i D8
3 ha2 ihci ha2 ihc3 i A4
4 ha4 ihci 4 3
ha ihc i S4
5 ha3 ihci ha3 ihc4 i S4

Proposition 2.11 [7, Lemma 4.1] Let n ≥ 2 be an integer and p a prime. Then
AGL(n, p) contains an element of order pn if and only if (n, p) = (2, 2) and AGL(2, 2) ∼
=
S4 .

Recall that our group X(D) = DC and X(Q) = QC, where D is a dihedral group of
order 2n, Q is a generalized quaternion group of order 4n and C is a cyclic group of order
m such that D ∩ C = 1, where n, m ≥ 2. Then we have the following results.

Lemma 2.12 Suppose that X(D) is a solvable and has a faithful 2-transitive permuta-
tion representation relative to a subgroup M, which is of index a composite order. Then
X(D) ≤ AGL(k, p). Moreover,

(i) if X(D) contains an element of order pk , then X(D) = S4 ;

(ii) if the hypotheses holds for M = C where C is core-free, then X(D) = A4 .

Lemma 2.13 Let G ∈ {Q, D} and X = X(G) = ha, bihci, and let M be the subgroup of
the biggest order in X such that hci ≤ M j haihci. Then one of items in Tables 2 holds.

Lemma 2.14 Suppose that G = D, X = X(D), haihci ≤ X and hciX = 1. Then ha2 i ⊳
X.

Recall that our group X(SD) = SDC, where SD is a dihedral group of order 8n and C
is a cyclic group of order m such that SD ∩ C = 1, where n, m ≥ 2. Then we have the
following result.

Lemma 2.15 Suppose that X(SD) is a solvable and has a faithful 2-transitive permuta-
tion representation relative to a subgroup M, which is of index a composite order. Then
X(SD) ≤ AGL(k, p). Moreover,

(i) if X(SD) contains no element of order pk ;

(ii) if the hypotheses holds for M = C where C is core-free, then there no exists X(SD).

5
Proof Set Ω = [X(SD) : M]. Let N be a minimal normal subgroup of X(SD). Since
X(SD) is solvable, N ∼ = Zkp for some prime p and integer k. Since X(SD) is 2-transitive,
it is primitive, which implies that N is transitive on Ω and so is regular on Ω. Therefore,
X(SD) = N ⋊ X(D)α ≤ AGL(k, p), for some α ∈ Ω. Since X(SD) is 2-transitive and
|Ω| = pk , we know |X(D)α | ≥ pk − 1 for any α ∈ Ω.
(i) Arguing by contradiction, assume that X(SD) contains an element of order pk . By
Proportion 2.11, we get (k, p) = (2, 2) so that X(SD) = S4 , reminding |Ω| is not a prime.
But it is impossible, a contradiction.
(ii) Arguing by contradiction, assume that X(SD) exists. Let M = C where C is core-
free. Set C = hci and o(c) = m. Then X(SD) = N ⋊ hci, where hci is a Singer subgroup
of GL(k, p). Then both SD and N are regular subgroups, that is |SD| = 8n = |Ω| = pk ,
which implies p = 2. Now, we have |X(SD)| = 2k (2k − 1) = 8n · m = pk · m and so
m = 2k − 1. Since both N and SD are Sylow 2-subgroups of X(SD) and N ⊳ X(SD),
we get SD = N. Since SD is not an abelian group, we get a contradiction. 
Using Lemmas 2.3 and 2.15, we get the following lemma.

Lemma 2.16 Every semi dihedral group of order 8n (n ≥ 3) and let X be a permutation
group containing a regular subgroup isomorphic to G. If X contains a point stable subgroup
of a cycle, then X is imprimitive.

To show Theorems 1.1 and 1.2, we need some examples.

Example 2.17 Let G = SD16 or SD24 and X(G). If hci is core-free and G ⋪ X(G),
then in the isomorphic sense, we have the following result.
(i) Suppose that G = SD16 .
Case X(G)
1 ha, b, c | a = b = c = 1, ab = a3 , ac = a7 c2 , bc = ac2 i
8 2 3

2 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c4 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = a3 , bc = abc2 i
3 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c6 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = bc5 , bc = a3 c5 i
4 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c6 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = a2 bc2 , bc = a4 bc2 i
5 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c8 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = a5 , bc = abc4 i
6 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c8 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = a, bc = abc4 i
7 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c8 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = abc2 , bc = a2 bc4 i
8 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c8 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = abc2 , bc = a6 bc4 i
9 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c8 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = a2 bc2 , bc = ac6 i
10 ha, b, c | a8 = b2 = c8 = 1, ab = a3 , ac = a2 bc2 , bc = a5 c6 i
(ii) Suppose that G = SD24 .

6
 Case X(G)
1 ha, b, c | a = b = c = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a9 c2 , bc = bc2 i
12 2 3

2 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c3 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a9 c2 , bc = a8 bi
3 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c4 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = bc3 , bc = a8 bi
4 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c4 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a, bc = a3 bc2 i
5 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c4 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a5 , bc = abc2 i
6 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c6 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = abc2 , bc = a8 bc4 i
7 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c6 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a3 bc5 , bc = a4 c3 i
8 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c6 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a9 c2 , bc = a2 bi
9 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c6 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a3 c2 , bc = bc2 i
10 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c6 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a3 c2 , bc = a2 bi
11 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c12 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = a, bc = abc6 i
12 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c12 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = abc4 , bc = a10 bc4 i
13 ha, b, c | a12 = b2 = c12 = 1, ab = a5 , ac = bc10 , bc = a3 c6 i

Example 2.18 Let G = ha, b | a4 = b2 = 1, ab = ai ∼ = Z4 × Z2 and X(G). If hci

is core-free and G ⋪ X(G), then in the isomorphic sense, we have the following result.
Case X(G)
1 ha, b, c | a4 = b2 = c2 = 1, ab = a, ac = a, bc = a2 bi
2 ha, b, c | a4 = b2 = c2 = 1, ab = a, ac = a3 , bc = bi
3 ha, b, c | a4 = b2 = c2 = 1, ab = a, ac = ab, bc = bi
4 ha, b, c | a4 = b2 = c4 = 1, ab = a, ac = a, bc = a3 bc2 i
5 ha, b, c | a4 = b2 = c4 = 1, ab = a, ac = abc2 , bc = a2 i

3 Proof of Theorem 1.1

To prove Theorem 1.1, let G = SD, defined in Eq(1). Let X = X(G) = Ghci. Let
M be the subgroup of the biggest order in X such that hci ≤ M j haihci, and set
MX = ∩x∈X M x . By Proposition 2.1, X is solvable.
Before showing Theorem 1.1, we shall show a special case which plays an important
role in the proof of Theorem 1.1.

Lemma 3.1 Let G = SD, hci ∼ = Zm and X = X(G). Suppose that hciX = 1, H =
ha , bihci ≤ X and there exists no nontrivial element aj ∈ X such that haj ihci ≤ X. Then
p

n 6= p where p is a prime and more than 3.

Proof By Example 2.17, we know n > 3. Arguing by contradiction, assume that n = p

is a prime and more than 3. If GX 6= 1, we get that haiX 6= 1 as p is a prime and more
than 3, which implies haiX hci ≤ X, a contradiction. So in what follows, we assume that
GX = 1.

7
 Set hc1 i := hciH and a1 := ap . Consider H = H/hc1 i = hap , bihci. Since hap , bi ∼
= Z4 ×
Z2 and there exists no nontrivial element aj ∈ H such that haj ihci ≤ H, by Example 2.18,
we get that H ∼ = (Z4 × Z2 ) · Z4 and the forms of H only have the following one case:
2 c
H = ha1 , b, c | a41 = b = c4 = 1, ab1 = a1 , a1 c = a1 bc2 , b = a21 i.

Then we get 4 | m. Let a0 and c0 be involutions in hai and hci, respectively. Noting that
in the above forms, we get
c
b = a0 , ac0 = b, (a0 b)c = a0 b. (2)

Since hc1 i⊳H, we know c ∈ CH (hc1 i)⊳H. Then by the definition of H, we get ha2p , b, ci ≤
CH (hc1 i). Then in the perimage X, Eq(2) corresponds to

bc = a0 ci0 , ac0 = bcj0 , (a0 b)c = a0 bck0 , (3)

where i, j, k ∈ {0, 1}. If c0 ∈

/ hc1 i, then we get that i = j = k contradicting with GX 6= 1.
So c0 ∈ hc1 i. Since GX = 1, we know that (a0 b)c = a0 bc0 and the pair (i, j) is either (0, 1)
or (1, 0). Then Eq(3) is either

bc = a0 , ac0 = bc0 , (a0 b)c = a0 bc0 ,

or
bc = a0 c0 , ac0 = b, (a0 b)c = a0 bc0 .
Then one can check that for any subgroup N of H, if N ⊳ H and a0 ∈ N, then b ∈ N.
l l l l
Consider HX . Since a1 ∈ ∩l3 H a 3 = ∩l1 ,l2 ,l3 H c 1 b 2 a 3 = HX , we get that ha1 i ≤ HX .
Since a0 ∈ HX and HX ⊳ H, we get that b ∈ HX . Since HX ⊳ X, we get a2 ∈ HX , a
contradiction. 
Proof of Theorem 1.1 Let G = SD so that X = X(SD). Remind that m, n ≥ 2, |X|
is even and more than 32. Let X be a minimal count-example. Then we shall carry out
the proof by the following two steps.
Step 1: Show that MX = 1.
Arguing by contradiction, assume that MX 6= 1. Set M = hai ihci for some i. Since
l l l l l
ai ∈ ∩l2 ,l3 M a 2 b 3 = ∩l1 ,l2 ,l3 M c 1 a 2 b 3 = MX , we get that MX = MX ∩ (hai ihci) = hai ihcr i
for some r. Set X := X/MX = Ghci. Then we claim that G ∩ hci = 1. In fact, for any
g = c′ ∈ G ∩ hci for some g ∈ G and c′ ∈ hci, we have gc′−1 ∈ MX , that is g ∈ hai i
and c′ ∈ hcr i, which implies g = c′ = 1. Therefore, G ∩ hci = 1. Let M0 /MX = haj ihci
be the largest subgroup of X containing hci and contained in the subset haihci. Then
haj ihci = hcihaj i. Since

haj ihciMX = haj iMX hci = haj ihai ihci and hcihaj iMX = hciMX haj i = hcihai ihaj i,

8
we get hai , aj ihci ≤ X. By the maximality of M, we have hai , aj i = hai i so that M0 = M.
Consider X. Note that G is one of a dihedral group, a generalized quaternion group
and a semi dihedral group. Suppose that G is either a dihedral group or a generalized
quaternion group. Then noting M0 /MX = M/MX is core-free in X, by Lemma 2.13,
we get that X is isomorphic to Z2 , D8 , A4 or S4 , and correspondingly, o(a) = k, where
k ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}, and so ak ∈ MX . Since M = hai ihci and MX = hai ihcr i, we know that
hai i = hak i, which implies that i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}. Clearly, if X = Z2 , then MX = M; if
X = D8 and o(c) = 2, then MX = ha2 ihc2 i; if X = A4 and o(c) = 3, then MX = ha2 ihc3i;
if X = S4 and o(c) = 4, then MX = ha3 ihc4 i; and if X = S4 and o(c) = 3, then
MX = ha4 ihc3 i. This is a contradiction. Suppose that G is a semi dihedral group. By the
minimality of X = Ghci, with the same as the above, we also get a contradiction.
Step 2: Find a contradiction.
Suppose that MX = 1. Since both haiX and hciX are contained in MX , we get
haiX = hciX = 1. By Example 2.17, we get |G| ≥ 32 as the minimality of X. Now we
shall show GX = 1. Arguing by contradiction, assume that GX 6= 1. If |GX | 4, then by
G = ha, bi ∼= SD8n we get haiX 6= 1, a contradiction. So |GX | ≤ 4. Since GX ⊳ G ∼= SD8n ,
we know that |G : GX | ≤ 4, which implies |G| ≤ 16, contradicting to |G| ≥ 32. Therefore,
GX = 1.
Next, we consider the faithful (right multiplication) action of X on the set of right
cosets Ω := [X : hci]. Since X contains a regular subgroup G ∼ = SD8n (n ≥ 3), by
Lemma 2.16, we get X is imprimitive. Pick a maximal subgroup H of X which contains
hci properly. Then H = H ∩ X = (H ∩ G)hci = has , b1 ihci  X, for some b1 ∈ G \ hai and
some s. Note that the order of b1 is either 2 or 4, and has i = H ∩ hai. Using the same
argument as that in Step 1, one has as ∈ HX . Set X = X/HX . Consider the faithful
primitive action of X on Ω1 := [X : H], with a cyclic regular subgroup of hai, where
|Ω1 | = s. By Proposition 2.2, a cyclic group of composed order is a Burnside group, we
know that either s is a prime p such that X ≤ AGL(1, p) or s is composite such that X
is 2-transitive on Ω1 . In what follows, we consider these two cases, separately.
Case (1): as = 1.
In this case, we get that b1 is an involution as H ∩ hai = has i = 1. Replacing b1 with b,
we know H = hci ⋊ hbi and X = hc, bi.hai. Since o(a) = 4n, we know that s is composite.
Then X is 2-transitive on Ω1 . By Proportion 2.12, X ≤ AGL(l, q) for some prime q, which
contains a cyclic regular subgroup hai of order q l . By Lemma 2.11, X ∼ = S4 and o(a) = 4
so that o(a) = 4 (as HX ≤ hb, ci), which implies |G| = 8, contradicting with |G| ≥ 32.
Case (2): as 6= 1.
Firstly, show s = p, a prime. To do that, recall X = X/HX , H = H/HX and
Ω1 := [X : H]. Arguing by contradiction, assume that s is composite. Then X is 2-

9
transitive on Ω1 , with a cyclic regular subgroup hai. Since as ∈ HX , we get HX 6= 1
and of course HX  hci. Suppose that haj ihci ≤ H. Then aj ∈ M. Using the same
arguments as that in the first line of Step 1, we get aj ∈ MX = 1. Therefore, there exists
an l such that bcl ∈ HX , which implies H = hci. Then X = haihci, a product of two
cyclic subgroups, cannot be isomorphic to S4 . But by Lemma 2.11, we get X ∼ = S4 , a
contradiction. Therefore, s = p, a prime and X/HX ≤ AGL(1, p).
Since a2n ∈ H, we can choose an involution in H \ hai, namely b for convenience, such
that H = has , bi. Secondly, we consider the quotient group H := H/hciH = hcihap , bi,
taking into account s = p, a prime. Then hciH = 1 and o(ap ) = o(ap ). Let H0 /hciH =
hapj ihci be the biggest subgroup of H containing hci and contained in the subset hap ihci.
Since |H| < |X| and G is either a dihedral group or a semi dihedral group, by Lemma ??
or the induction hypothesis on H, we know that H0 /hciH = hapk ihci, for one of k in
{1, 2, 3, 4}, which implies hapk ihcihciH = hcihapk ihciH = hcihapk i, giving hapk ihci ≤ H ≤
X. Since MX = 1, we have apk = 1 where k ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}. Note that ap 6= 1 and
4 | o(a). Thus, we have that the order of a is 4p. Therefore, only the following groups
are remaining: G = SD8p , where p is a prime and p ≥ 5. But by Lemma 3.1, we get
G 6= SD8p , a contradiction. 

4 Proof of Theorem 1.2

The proof of Theorem 1.2 consists of the following two lemmas.
Lemma 4.1 Suppose that hciX = 1 and M = haihci. Then haiX 6= 1.
Proof Since hciX = 1, by Proposition 2.6, we have m < |G|. So S := G ∩ Gc 6= 1,
otherwise |X| ≥ (8n)2 |X|. Let M = haihci, where o(a) = 4n ≥ 8 and o(c) = m.
Arguing by contradiction, assume that haiX = 1. If n ≥ m, then by Proposition 2.8,
haiM 6= 1 and then haiX 6= 1 is a contradiction. So in what follows, we assume that
n + 1 ≤ m. m
Since hciM 6= 1, we take z := c p ≤ hciM for a prime p. Since hciX = 1, we know that
hz b i =
6 hzi so that N := hzi × hz b i ⊳ X. Then N contains an element ax cy for some x 6= 0
4n
and y. Set a1 = a p .
We claim that z ∈ Z(M). Suppose that p = 2. Then z ∈ Z(M), as desired. Suppose
that p is odd. Then p | n as hciX = 1. Let N ≤ P ∈ Sylp (M). By Proposition 2.8, P is
a metacyclic group and so we know that N = ha1 i × hzi. Since hzi = hciM , we may set
z a = z i and z b = aj1 z l , where j 6= 0. Then
2n−1 2n−1 2n−1
(z a )b = (z b )a = (aj1 z l )a = aj1 z li and(z i )b = aji li
1z ,
j(i−1)
which implies a1 = 1, that is i = 1, and so z ∈ Z(M) again.
Since z ∈ Z(M)⊳X, we get z b ∈ Z(M) which implies N ≤ Z(M). Thus ax cy ∈ Z(M),
which implies ax ∈ Z(M), and then hax i ⊳ X for some x 6= 0 is a contradiction.

10
Lemma 4.2 Suppose that G = SD, X = X(SD), M = haihci and hciX = 1. Then
ha4 i ⊳ X.

Proof Take a minimal counter-example X. In the following Step 1, we show that the
possible groups for G are SD8pk , where p is a prime and k ≥ 2; and in Step 2, we show
that G cannot be these groups.
Step 1: Show that the possible groups for G are SD8pk , where p is an odd prime and
k ≥ 2.
By Lemma 4.1, we know haiX 6= 1. Suppose that a2n ∈ haiX . Then ha2n i ⊳ X and
ha ihci ≤ X. Set ha2n ihc0 i := (ha2n ihci)X . Since ha2n ihc0i ⊳ X and hciX = 1, we get
2n

c20 = 1. Consider X := X/ha2n ihc0 i = Ghci. Noting that G is a dihedral group, hciX = 1
and haihci ≤ X, by Lemma 2.14, we get ha2 i ⊳ X. Then ha4 i char ha2 i ⋊ hc0 i ⊳ X.
Therefore, we get ha4 i ⊳ X, as desired. So in what follows, we assume that a2n ∈ / haiX .
4
Then we know that the order of haiX is odd and haiX < ha i by minimality of X.
4n
Let p be the maximal prime divisor of |haiX | and set a0 = a p ∈ haiX < ha4 i. Set X =
X/ha0 i = Ghci and hciX = hc0 i. Since p is odd, we know G is a semi dihedral group. (i)
Suppose that that hciX = 1. Then by the minimality of X we get ha4 i ⊳ X, which implies
ha4 i ⊳ X, a contradiction. (ii)Suppose that that hci ⊳ X. Then X/CX (hci) ≤ Aut (hci),
′ ′ ′
which is abelian and so X ≤ CX (hci). Then a4 ∈ G ≤ X ≤ CX (hci), that is [a4 , c] ∈ ha0 i,
which implies ha4 i ⊳ X, a contradiction. By (i) and (ii), we have 1 6= hciX = hc0 i < hci.
Reset
K = ha0 i ⋊ hc0 i, X = X/K = Ghci and H = ha4 , c0 i.
If o(a0 ) < o(c0 ), then {1} $ hcj0 i = Z(K) ⊳ X, for some j, is a contradiction. Therefore,
1 < o(c0 ) ≤ o(a0 ). Then we have the following two cases:
Case 1: K = ha0 i ⋊ hc0 i ∼
= Zp ⋊ Zr is a Frobenius group, where r ≥ 2.
In this case, by the minimality of X, we have H/K = ha4 i ⊳ X, that is H = ha4 i ⋊
hc0 i ⊳ X. Since K ⊳ X, we know that ha4 i/ha0 i and hc0 iha0 i/ha0 i are normal in H/ha0 i.
Then [a4 , c0 ] ≤ ha0 i. So one can write

H = ha4 , c0 |a4n = cr0 = 1, (a4 )c0 = a4 aj0 i.

Let P ∈ Sylp (H). Then P char H ⊳ X so that P ≤ haiX . Clearly, one can check Z(H) =
k
ha4p i, which implies ha4p i ⊳ X. Then ha4p i ≤ haiX . Note that ha4p , P i = ha4p , a4n/p i =
ha4 i, where pk || 4n, so that a4 ∈ haiX is a contradiction again.
Case 2: K = ha0 i × hc0 i ∼
= Z2p .
With the same reason as that in Case 1, we have H = ha4 i ⋊ hc0 i ⊳ X.
Let H1 be the p′ -Hall subgroup of H. We get that H1 is also the p′ -Hall subgroup of
4
ha i as o(c0 ) = p. Then H1 ⊳ X, which implies H1 ≤ haiX . Suppose that H1 6= 1. Let a1

11
 Table 3: The forms of X
Case X
2
1 4
ha, b, c | a = b = c = 1, ab = ai
2 c
2 ha, b, c | a4 = b = c2 = 1, ab = ac = a, b = a2 bi
2 c
3 ha, b, c | a4 = b = c2 = 1, ab = a, ac = a3 , b = bi
2
4 ha, b, c | a4 = b = c4 = 1, ab = ac = a, cb = ac3 i

be an element of order q in H1 , where q < p is an odd prime as the maximality of p and

|hai|X is odd. Consider X := X/ha1 i = Ghci. Similarly, we have 1 6= hciX := hc2 i < hci
and H0 := ha4 i ⋊ hc2 i ⊳ X. Let P ∈ Sylp (H0 ). Then P char H and so P ⊳ X, which
implies P ≤ haiX . Noting hH1 , P i = ha4 i, we therefore get a4 ∈ haiX , a contradiction. So
H1 = 1, which means that G is SD8pk where p is an odd prime and k ≥ 2.
Step 2: Show that the possible values of m are pq e , for a prime q (may be equal to p)
and an integer e.
Arguing by contradiction,m
assume that m = pq e m1 where e ≥ 1, m1 6= 1 and q ∤ m1 .
4pk−1
Recall a0 = a , c0 = c p and set a2 = a4 . Then H = ha2 , c0 i = ha2 i ⋊ hc0 i. Note that
H is a p-group and ha2p i = ℧1 (H) char H ⊳ X. Thus ha4p i ⊳ X. Since H ⊳ X, we get
Hhci ≤ X and consider X = X/(Hhci)X = Ghci. Note that G ∼ = Z4 × Z2 , hciX = 1 and
haihci ≤ X. Then by Example 2.18, in the isomorphic sense, we get the form X as shown
in Table 3.
Then we have the following four cases:
2
(1) Suppose that X = ha, b, c | a4 = b = c = 1, ab = ai. Then in X = X/H = hci ⋊ G,
e e
we get hcq i⊳X and hcm1 i⊳X, which implies X1 = ha, bihcq i < X and X2 = ha, bihcm1 i <
X. By the minimality of X, we get ha2 i ⊳ X1 and ha2 i ⊳ X2 . Thus, ha2 i ⊳ hX1 , X2 i = X
is a contradiction. Therefore, m = pq e . Suppose that e = 0. Then c0 = c. Consider
X3 = ha2 , bihci. If hciX 6= 1, then hci ⊳ X3 and we get ha2 i ⊳ X, as H = ha2 i ⋊ hci, a
contradiction. So hciX = 1. Since ha2 , bi is a dihedral group, by Lemma 2.14, we get
ha2 i ⊳ X3 , which implies ha2 i ⊳ X, a contradiction. Therefore, m = pq e , where q is a
prime and e ≥ 1.
2 c
(2) Suppose that X = ha, b, c | a4 = b = c2 = 1, ab = ac = a, b = a2 bi. Then 2 | m
e
and we set q = 2. Consider X = X/H. Then one can check X1 = ha, bihc2 i < X and
X2 = ha, bihcm1 i < X. By the minimality of X, we get ha2 i ⊳ X1 and ha2 i ⊳ X2 . Thus,
ha2 i ⊳ hX1 , X2 i = X is a contradiction.
2 c
(3) Suppose that X = ha, b, c | a4 = b = c2 = 1, ab = a, ac = a3 , b = bi. Then 2 | m
e
and we set q = 2. Consider X = X/H. Then one can check X1 = ha, bihc2 i < X and
X2 = ha, bihcm1 i < X. By the minimality of X, we get ha2 i ⊳ X1 and ha2 i ⊳ X2 . Thus,
ha2 i ⊳ hX1 , X2 i = X is a contradiction.

12
 2
(4) Suppose that X = ha, b, c | a4 = b = c4 = 1, ab = ac = a, cb = ac3 i. Then 4 | m
e
and we set q = 2. Consider X = X/H. Then one can check X1 = ha, bihc2 i < X and
X2 = ha, bihcm1 i < X. By the minimality of X, we get ha2 i ⊳ X1 and ha2 i ⊳ X2 . Thus,
ha2 i ⊳ hX1 , X2 i = X is a contradiction.
Therefore, we get m = pq e , e ≥ 1, and in particular, if X/(Hhci)X is the forms of Case
2,3,4 in Table 3, then q = 2.
Step 3: Exclude the case m = pq e , for a prime q and an integer e ≥ 1.
Set X4 := (H.hcq i).ha, bi = ha, bihcq i < X. By the minimality of X4 , we get ha2 i ⊳ X4 ,
that is X4 = (ha2 i ⋊ hcq i).ha, bi and X4 /(ha2 i ⋊ hcq i) is abelian. Clearly, ha2 i = G′ ≤
X4′ ≤ ha2 , cq i. So set X4′ = ha2 , c3 i for some c3 ∈ hcq i. Since hap2 i ⊳ X, by Proportion 2.5,
both X/CX (hap2 i) and X4 /CX4 (ha2 i) are abelian, which implies that X ′ ≤ CX (hap2 i) and
X4′ ≤ CX4 (ha2 i). Then X4′ is abelian as ha2 i ≤ X4′ . The p′ -Hall subgroup of X4′ is normal,
contradicting with hcq iX4 = 1, meaning that X4′ is an abelian p-group.
k
Set L := H ⋊ ha2p i = ha2 ihc0 i < X4 . We claim that L 5 X. Arguing by contradiction,
assume that L ⊳ X. If H is abelian, then we get that either ha2 i = Z(L) char L ⊳ X, a
k
contradiction; or L is abelian, forcing ha2p i char L ⊳ X, a contradiction again. Therefore,
H is non-abelian. Note that X4′ = ha1 , c3 i for c3 ∈ hcq i. If c3 6= 1, then c0 ∈ hc3 i ≤ X4′
as o(c0 ) = p, which implies that H = ha2 , c0 i is abelian, a contradiction. Therefore,
k k
X4′ = ha2 i, which implies L = ha2 i ⋊ hc0 i. Noting that ha2p i char L⊳X, we get ha2p i⊳X,
k
contradicting to a2p ∈ / haiX .
Case (1): q is an odd prime.
Suppose that q is an odd prime. Then X/(Hhci)X is in Table 3. In X = X/H =
2
(hci ⋊ ha2 i).ha, bi, we get that ca = c−1 as q is odd, which implies ha2 , cqp i ≤ X4′ ≤ ha2 ihcq i.
Note that X4′ is the abelian p-group. Thus either q 6= p and e = 1; or q = p. Suppose that
q 6= p and e = 1, that is o(c) = pq. Consider M = haihci⊳X. Then by Proportion 2.7, M ′
is abelian. Note that hciX = 1 and haiX is the p−group. Thus M ′ is an abelian p-group
with the same argument as the case of X4′ . Noting ha2 ihcp i is the p′ -Hall subgroup of M,
we get [a2 , cp ] ∈ ha2 ihcp i∩M ′ = 1, which implies ca2 = c in X = X/H, a contradiction. So
2
in what follows, we assume q = p, that is o(c) = pe+1 . Note that ca = c−1 in X = X/H
and ha2 i ≤ X4′ . Thus X4′ is either ha2 ihcp i or ha2 i, noting X4′ = ha2 i only happens when
e = 1.
Suppose that X4′ = ha2 ihcp i. Note that H ≤ X4′ . Thus H = ha2 i ⋊ hc0 i is abelian.
k
Note that both ha2 i and hci are p-groups and X = (H.hci) ⋊ hap , bi. Set

ac2 = as2 ct0 and cb = au2 cv ,

where s ≡ 1(mod p) and p ∤ v. Then for an integer w, we get

w
ac2 = ax2 1 cwt
0 and cb0 = ax2 cv0

13
for some integers x1 and x2 . Since (ac2 )b = (as2 ct0 )b , there exist some integers x and y such
that
cv
(ac2 )b = (a−1
2 ) = a c0
x −vt
and (as2 ct0 )b = ay cvt
0 ,

which gives t ≡ 0(mod p). Then ha2 i ⊳ X is a contradiction.

Suppose that X4′ = ha2 i. Then o(c) = p2 and c0 = cp . Note that X4 = G ⋊ hcq i =
k 2pk 2
H ⋊ hbi. Thus [c0 , a2p ] = 1. Set ca = ax c−1+yp as ca = c−1 in X = X/H. Then
2pk )2
c = c(a = ax (ax c−1+yp )−1+yq = ax c1−yp a−x cyp ,
2pk
= ax . Then [ax , c] = 1. Note that c0 = cp and c0 = ca02 = (ca
1−yp
which implies (ax )c )p =
ax c−p for some x. Thus we get c20 = 1, contradicting with o(c0 ) = p.
Case (2): q = 2.
In this case, consider X = X/H = (hci ⋊ ha2 i).ha, bi. If e = 1, that is X = (hci ×
ha2 i).ha, bi, then we get L = ha2 ihc0 i ⊳ X, a contradiction. So e ≥ 2. Then we get that
2 e−1
X4 = ha, bihc2 i ⊳ X and ca is either c−1 or c±1+2 as L ⋪ X. Note that a2 ∈ X4′ ,
X4′ char X4 ⊳ X and X4′ is the abelian p-group. Thus X4′ = H, which implies that H is
ablian.
e−1 2
We shall show ca2 = c1+2 in X/H. Arguing by contradiction, assume that ca is ei-
e−1
ther c−1 or c−1+2 . Then (c2 )a2 = c−2 , which implies ha2 , c4 i ≤ X4′ . Then c4 ∈ hc0 i, which
implies e = 2 as e ≥ 2. But when e = 2, we get ca2 = c−1 = c1+2 , a contradiction. There-
2 e−1 k k
fore, ca = c1+2 in X/H. By Proportion 2.9, we get that hap , ai bihcp i and hap ihcp i are
k k
Sylow 2-subgroups of X and M. Note that hap , ai bihcp i = (hcp i ⋊ ha2p i).ha, ai bi. Then
2pk e−1 e−1
(cp )a = cp+2 p and e ≥ 2, which implies c2 p ∈ M ′ .
2pk k
Suppose that e = 2. Then (cp )a = c−p . Since |hap i| ≥ |hcp i|, by Proportion 2.8, we
k k k
get ha2p i ⊳ hap ihcp i. Since a2p is an involution, we get [a2 , cp ] = 1, a contradiction. So
k
in what follows, we assume e > 2. And set a3 = a2p .
e e−1
Noting hcp i ⋊ ha3 i = ha3 , cp |a23 = c2 p = 1, (cp )a3 = c(1+2 )p i, there are only three
involutions in hcp i ⋊ ha3 i: a3 , c2 p and a3 c2 p . Since hap , ai bi ∼
e−1 e−1 k
= Z4 × Z2 , by Table 3,
2p pk i p pk 2e−1 p e−1
we get hc i ⊳ ha , a bihc i for Case 1,2,3. Then we get [a , c ] = [ai b, c2 p ] = 1
Recall M = haihci. By Proportion 2.7, M ′ is abelian. Let M2 be the Sylow 2-subgroup
e−1
of M ′ . Note that M2 char M ′ char M ⊳ X, c2 p ∈ M ′ , hciX = 1 and a3 is an involution.
Thus we get M2 ∼
e−1
= Z22 , which implies M2 = hc2 p , a3 i. Consider HM2 ≤ X. Since
M2 ⊳ X, H ⊳ X, H ∩ M2 = 1 and p is odd prime, we get HM2 = H × M2 ⊳ X, which
e−1 k e−1 e−1
implies a2 normalises hc2 p i. Since X = ha, b, ci and [ap , c2 p ] = [ai b, c2 p ] = 1, we
e−1
get hc2 p i ⊳ X, a contradiction. So in what follows, we assume that Case 4 in Table 3,
2
that is X/(Hhci)X = ha, b, c | a4 = b = c4 = 1, ab = ac = a, cb = ac3 i.
In this case, we know e ≥ 2 and set

ac = a1+4i c4j , cb = a1+4k c3+4l . (4)

14
Noting that X1 = ha, b, c2 i = ha, bihc2 i < X, by the minimality of X, we get ha1 i ⊳ X1 .
Consider X = X/ha0 i. Since hc0 i ⊳X and H = ha1 i ×hc0 i, we get ha1 , ci ≤ CX (hc0 i) ⊳
X. By Eq(4), we get ha, ci ≤ CX (hc0 i). Then we know Hhai = hai ⋊ hc0 i. Consider
X = X/H. Since hc4 i ⊳ X, we get ha, ci ≤ CX (hc4 i) with the same as the above. By
Eq(4), we get ac = ac4j . Since o(a) = 4, we know that o(c4j ) is 1, 2 or 4.
Arguing by contradiction, assume that o(c4j ) ≤ 2. Then we get (a2 )c = a2 , which
implies Hha2 i ⊳ X. Since Hha2 i = ha2 i ⋊ hc0 i, we get
k
hap i char Hha2 i ⊳ X,
k
which implies ap ∈ haiX . Since the order of haiX is odd, we get a contradiction. Thus,
m −2 m −2
o(c4j ) = 4, which implies 16 | m and m1 ≥ 4. Set c2 = c2 1 and c3 = c2 1 p . Then we
can reset ac = a1+4i cj2 . Moreover, we get (a2 )c = a2 in X = X/H.
2

Recall K = ha0 i × hc0 i ∼ = Z2p . Consider X = X/K = Ghci. Since hciX = 1 and G
is a semi dihedral group, by the minimality of X, we get ha1 i ⊳ X. Note that hai ≤
CX (ha1 i) ⊳ X. Since ha1 i is cyclic, we know X/CX (ha1 i) is abelian. By Eq(4), we know
k
that c2 ∈ CX (ha1 i). By Proportion 2.9, we know that hap , bihcp i is a Sylow 2-subgroup
of X. By Eq(4) again, we can set (ap )c = ap cj3 . Since (a2 )c = a2 in X = X/H, we get
k p k 2

k 2p k k k k
(a2p )c = a2p . Then we know ha2p i ⊳ X1 . Since a2p is an involution, we know a2p ∈
k
Z(X1 ). We claim that a2p is a unique involution in Z(X1 ). Arguing by contradiction,
assume that ax by cz ∈ Z(X1 ) is an involution. Since 1 = [ax by cz , c] = [ax by , c], we get
k
(ax by )2 = (cz )2 = 1 as (ax by cz )2 = 1. If y = 0, then ax by cz = a2p c23 ∈ Z(X1 ), recalling
m −1 k
c23 = c2 1 p , and we get c23 ∈ Z(X1 ), as a2p ∈ Z(X1 ), contradicting to hc2 iX1 = 1. So
in what follows, we assume that y = 1. Then ax by cz = ax bc23 ∈ Z(X1 ), which implies
ax bc2 c2
ax bc23 ∈ Z(X1 /K). But a1 3 = a1 implies a13 = a−1 2
1 , contradicting with c ∈ CX (ha1 i).
k
Thus, a2p is a unique involution in Z(X1 ). Then
k
ha2p i char X1 ⊳ X,
k
which implies ap ∈ haiX . Since the order of haiX is odd, we get a contradiction again. 
Note that for G ∈ {D, Q}, if hai ⊳ X(G) and hciX(G) = 1, then G ⊳ X. We shall
consider the case, that is G = SD, hai ⊳ X(G) and hciX(G) = 1, and find something
interesting that differs from the case of G ∈ {D, Q}. Then we have the following lemma.

Lemma 4.3 Suppose that G = SD, X = X(G), hciX = 1 and M = haihci. If hai ⊳ X,
then c2 ∈ NX (G), and especially G ⊳ X if b ∈ NX (ha2 ihci).

Proof X = (hai ⋊ hci).hbi, and so we may write ac = ai and cb = ak cj . If j = 1, then

2
G ⊳ X. So in what follows, we assume that j 6= 1. Since b2 = 1, we get c = cb . Then

c = (cb )b = (ak cj )b = a−k+2kn (ak cj )j = a2kn cj (ak cj )j−1.

15
 Table 4: The forms of M, MX and X/MX
Case M MX X/MX
1 haihci haihci Z2
2 ha2 ihci ha2 ihc2 i D8
3 ha2 ihci ha2 ihc3 i A4
4 4 3
4 ha ihci ha ihc i S4
5 ha4 ihci ha4 ihc4 i (Z4 × Z2 ) · Z4
6 ha3 ihci ha3 ihc4 i S4

We claim that k is odd. Arguing by contradiction, assume that k is even. Then

1−j
c = (ak cj )j−1 = (cj−1)b , so that b normalizes hc1−j i. Since X = X/CX (hai) ≤ Aut (hai)
which is abelian, we get c = cb = cj , that is c1−j ≤ CX (hai) so that [c1−j , a] = 1. Thus we
get hc1−j i ⊳ X. It follows from hciX = 1 that j = 1, a contradiction. Therefore, k is odd.
Noting that k is odd, we get c = (cb )b = a2n cj (ak cj )j−1 . Since a2n is an involution of
X and hai ⊳ X, we get a2n ∈ Z(X). Since (c2 )b = ak cj ak cj = ak(1+i ) c2j , we get that
−j

c2 = ((c2 )b )b = (ak(1+i
−j )
c2j )b = c2j (ak(1+i
−j )
c2j )j−1 .

With the same as the above, we get 2(j − 1) ≡ 0(m). Then (c2 )b = ak(1+i
−j )
c2 , which
implies that c2 ∈ NX (G) as hai ⊳ X, as desired. 

5 Conjecture
Let X(G) = Ghci be a group, where

G = ha, b | an = 1, b2 = at , ab = ar , r 2 ≡ 1(mod n), t(r − 1) ≡ 0(mod n)i ∼

= Zn .Z2

and C is a cyclic group such that G ∩ C = 1. Then X = X(G) = Ghci = ha, bihci. Let
X contain a subgroup M of the biggest order such that hci ≤ M j haihci. Then we have
the following conjecture.

Conjecture 5.1 Let G = ha, b | an = 1, b2 = at , ab = ar , r 2 ≡ 1(mod n), t(r − 1) ≡

0(mod n)i and X = X(G) = Ghci, where o(c) = m ≥ 2 and G ∩ hci = 1. Let M be the
subgroup of the biggest order in X such that hci ≤ M j haihci. Then one of items in
Tables 4 holds.

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