COMMUNICATION SKILLS SUMMARIZED NOTES

Communication skills: these are skills that we use to remove or reduce barriers to
allow the effective sharing or exchanging of information.

The communication skills include –

speaking skills, listening skills, writing skills and reading skills

COMMUNICATION

The word “communication” is derived from the Latin word communis: meaning to share. It is the transmission of a
message from a sender to a receiver in an understandable manner.

The communication process is the guide towards realizing effective communication. It is through the communication
process that the sharing of a common meaning between the sender and the receiver takes place.

 For communication to be complete and effective it has to achieve the desired objectives as intended by the
communicator.
 Thus, communication can be defined as a process of sharing or exchange of ideas, information, knowledge, attitudes
or feelings among two or more persons through certain signs and symbols leading to a desired response as intended
by the communicator.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

This Is When The Intended Messages Has Reached The Receiver And Is Understand And

The Desired Feedback/Response Is Given

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Clarity of message, reinforcement of ideas, selection of appropriate channel, motivation,

proper environment and feedback.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

1. For organizations to share visions and plans with employees or stake orders.
2. To coordinate and control
3. To resolve conflict
4. To give feedback
5. To provide guidance
6. To give instructions
7. To influence or persuade others
8. To provide leadership
9. To network
10. To share ideas
11. Communication skills tops the list of skills sort after by employers.

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 Functions of communication
CONTROL-MOTIVATION-EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION-INFORMATION
1. Sharing of Information: Information is key to progress in any society. Communication plays an important role in
information dissemination related to any form of human activity, such as social, political, economic, educational and
developmental. Regular exposure to information over a period of time generates awareness on a given issue, problem
or matter of concern. Communication provides us with information about the environment we are placed in. It helps
in moulding our opinions, formulating decisions and in turn making 'informed choices' to safeguard our interests as
well those of the society
2. Education and Training: Communication results in sharing of information, which in turn makes people knowledgeable
and thus productive members of the society. we do not cease to learn when we grow up as we continue to learn
throughout our lives. effective communication results in effective teaching and training.
3. Socialization: For the well being of the society, nation and culture it is crucial that we are exposed to different view
points so that we understand and appreciate the need for plurality of ideas and diversity of views. Communication
fosters the feeling of oneness in a society by exposing the various social groups to different views.
4. Entertainment: To break the monotony of human life, we need to be exposed to art, literature, music, films, dance,
drama, sports and other modes of entertainment. entertainment is an equally important function of communication.
However, of late, this element has overtaken other functions especially in various mass communication media.
5. Motivation: A motivated individual plays a useful and active role in a society. Communication motivates and persuades
individuals to meet the mutually agreed upon goals. Sharing success stories of those who have overcome the odds in
life and have been able to achieve their goals can do this.
6. Persuasion/control: . This may be to influence us towards a new idea, technique or a product and also to persuade us
to buy these products. The industrial and corporate houses and advertising agencies, while taking messages of new
products to potential consumers far and wide have amply exploited this function.
7. Preservation of culture: Communication helps to preserve the culture and heritage of a nation and society. Through
communication, stories from the epics, such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bible, Koran, etc. are shared with the younger
generation. The transmission of values from one generation to another has been taking place orally as well as through
written texts, over the ages. In the modern world different mass communication media have taken up this function.
8. Emotional expression

PATTERNS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Vertical[upward and downward]
2. Horizontal
3. Grapevine(gossip), this is an informal type of communication

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication process is made up of four key components/elements. These components include encoding,
medium of transmission, decoding and feedback. There are also two other factors in the process, and these are the
sender and the receiver.

[elements: sender, receiver, feedback, effect, message, context, medium/channel, noise]

The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication. The sender is initially responsible
for the success of the message. The sender’s experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture
influence the message.

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 The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. This simply means translating information into a
message in the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. The symbols can take numerous forms such as
languages, words, or gestures.

To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also called a medium). The channel is the
means used to covey the message. Most channels are called oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming
more common as technology expands. Common channels include the telephone and a variety of written forms such as
memos, letters and reports. The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the characteristics of
the communication. For instance, when immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication channels are more
effective because any uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a situation where the message must be delivered
to more than a small group of people, written channels are often more effective.

If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not reach the right receivers. That is
why senders need to keep in mind that selecting the appropriate channel will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the
receiver’s understanding. The sender’s decision to use either an oral or a written channel for communicating a message
is influenced by several factors. The sender should ask himself/herself different questions so that they can select the
appropriate channel.

After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the decoding stage of the communication
process. Decoding is done by the receiver. It is the interpretation of the symbols sent by the sender, translating the
message to the receiver‟s set of experiences in order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication
takes place when the receiver correctly interprets the sender’s message.

The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed.

All interpretations by the receiver are influenced by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions and
culture

Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving a message, the receiver responds
in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh,
a written message, a smile, or some other action. Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has
interpreted the message correctly.

Feedback is the key component in the communication process because it allows the sender to evaluate the
effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides an opportunity for the sender to take corrective action to
clarify a misunderstood message

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION allows better understanding of situations or people which goes a long way in resolving
differences or conflicts and problem solving.

MESSAGE: information conveyed by words(in speech, or writing) and/or other signs and symbols. It can be verbal or
non verbal or both. It is the main content of the of the communication process.

Modern business environments demand that individuals should be able to;

1. Communicate effectively with customers

2. Present themselves as confident and capable
3. Save valuable time and cost by engaging ineffective written communication
4. Make effective presentation.

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 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Intrapersonal communication: The word 'intra' denotes 'within' therefore, intrapersonal communication
means communicating within ourselves. This can take the form of thinking, analyzing, dreaming or introspecting. Day
dreaming, self-talk and memories are all facets of intrapersonal communication.
 Intrapersonal communication is a kind of internal dialogue that takes place within an individual while
contemplating, conceptualizing and formulating our thoughts or ideas before we actually express them.
Due to individual differences, the levels of intrapersonal communication may vary from one person to
another. Writers, thinkers and philosophers generally devote more time to intrapersonal communication.
2. Interpersonal communication: This occurs between individuals, it mainly involves a small number of people
for example, When two persons communicate with each other. The messages exchanged are often a mix of feelings
and ideas, a number of sensory channels are involved and feedback is immediate because the physical distance is often
short. In interpersonal communication, the roles of the sender and receiver become interchangeable. There are many
sensory channels used and feedback is immediate. It allows you to clarify your views, persuade or motivate another
person more effectively than any other mode of communication.
Interpersonal communication has been analysed from two perspectives: contextual and developmental. The
contextual view does not take into account the relationship between those who interact whereas the developmental
one defines it as communication that occurs between persons who have known each other for some time. It argues
that our interaction with a salesperson is different from our interaction with friends and family members
3. Group communication[primary-relation, while secondary has to do with purpose] : This is
an extension of interpersonal communication where more than two individuals are involved in the process of
communication. The groups can be both formal as well as informal depending on the type and objectives of
communication but generally they have common interests and goals. Sometimes the group can turn into a mob. For
example, a peaceful demonstration of students may turn unruly due to break down of the communication process with
the management of the school. The communication process in a group depends on its size, nature, objectives and
dynamics. For example, communication in a small group with members at the same place will be close to interpersonal
communication as the receiver can see the sender of the message closely and follow his/her facial expressions, body
language etc. S/he can pose questions and get the doubts clarified and thus obtain feedback. However, when the size of
the group increases, there is less scope for understanding and deciphering the movements, body language and other
such things about the speaker. The sender may not follow the response of the individual receiver and thus the feedback
is reduced. All members of a group may not be able to freely participate in deliberations, as some may be dominant
speakers while others too shy or reluctant to express themselves thus affecting a free flow of communication. All these
factors have greater implications in group communication. Classroom communication also falls under group
communication in which these factors play an important role
Group communication is useful in taking collective decision on a problem, an issue or a matter of common interest.
Depending on the quality of group members and leaders, effective decisions can be made incorporating divergent point
of views.
4. Mass communication this is a type of communication which is different from all this forms of communication.
In mass communication, the communicator is separated from the audience in terms of time and place. Communication
takes place simultaneously with the help of an electronic device, in which an institution is involved. These electronic
devices are known as mass media such as print, radio, television, the Internet, etc. The audience is 'mass' i.e. it has a
heterogeneous profile, are unknown to each other and located in widespread locations. Feedback in mass
communication is considered to be weak and delayed as compared to group and interpersonal communication. Today
with developments in the field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), communication through electronic

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 media may be interactive and feedback may not be delayed. Even now print medium for instance, newspapers, journals,
news broadcast, etc., engaged in mass communication do not generate as much feedback as the other types of
communication. Due to advancements in the field of ICT and widening accessibility to it, interpersonal and group
communication today do not necessitate the physical presence of the communicators. We spend long durations while
communicating through telephone, sending and checking e- mails , conferencing, etc
5. Public communication, public communication can fall under group. For example we can consider these examples
church gathering, political rally.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Oral communication
It involves the exchange of messages or information using spoken words, it is referred to as communication by word
of truth. It occurs in different set ups such as meetings, talks, discussions, presentations, interviews, speeches so & on
2. Written communication
This form of communication entails the creation of a hard copy o message or simply written messages or words in the
form of business letter, report, research paper, article, note taking etc.
3. Non-verbal communication
This an essentially wordless type of communication, cues or signs are the main tools used. The use of body language is
the main distinguishing feature. Eg posture, facial expression, eye contact, tension, breathing, tone, etc.
Tips the different forms of communication
Oral communication Written communication Interpersonal communication
Empathy Mind the text Body language
Use of visual aids in presentations Appropriate length of document Emotional intelligence

Encourage feedback from audience Structuring of argument Posture

Mind the tone of voice Appropriate level of detail in Active listening

document
Maintain eye contact Font type and size
Mind the position and body posture Referencing

Know something about your audience. Spacing

Structure of document

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)

EI was coined in 1990s. it distinguishes individuals who are intellectually intelligent from those who are both
intellectually intellingent and succeful in relating with others at business level and personal level.

Emotional intelligence it he ability to identify or perceive ones emotions, regulate them and those of others for the
purpose of managing relationships and interacting with others.

One of the common barrier to effective communication which is often ignored is emotions and lack of appreciation of
peoples different personalities.

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 EI is an important role in enhancing effective communication because it draws peoples attention to emotions and
personalities. EI is often associated with interpersonal communication it is also important in distinguishing leaders.
Many successful leaders and managers are emotionally intelligent because they are able to read people’s emotions,
moods and their own and regulate them.

The four main aspects of emotional intelligence

1. Self-awareness
2. Self-management
3. Social awareness
4. Relationship management

Apart from appreciating peoples emotions, it is also important to identify and understand peoples personalities as this
enhance communication because once you identify and understand an individuals personality; you will know how to
communicate with them.

DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE.

1. Cantankerous: they engage in provocative type of communication as they hardly mind other peoples opinion
2. Overconfident: they assume they are the jack of all trade and often think they know everything and may easily
intimidate or despise others.
3. Stingy or judicious: they often like to keep information and ideas to themselves, they are not willing to share their
information and they often don’t want to interact with others and are almost anti-social.
4. Social: often talkative and noisy and may cause confusion if not watched as they don’t keep quiet and may say a lot of
irrelevant things.
5. Inept: they have the ideas, information and opinions, usually want to share but are unable to articulate or express
themselves.

Models of communication

1. Aristotle –rhetoric
2. Shannon and Weaver
3. Lasswell
4. Schramnts
5. Osgood and Schramiun

ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1) SOURCE/SENDER/SPEAKER The source of the communication transaction is the originator of the message
2) MESSAGE In the simplest sense, a message maybe thought of as an idea, concept, emotion, desire, or feeling that a
person desires to share with another human being. A message may be in verbal or non-verbal codes. The purpose of a
message is to evoke meaning in another person
3) CHANNEL A channel is the means by which a message moves from a person to another. The channel is the medium or
vehicle by which we are able to transmit the message to the recipient
4) RECEIVER: communication cannot take place if there is no receiver.
5) FEEDBACK/EFFECT “the information which the sender receives from the way in which the receiver accepts the message.
if you talk to somebody and they smile, it suggests a positive feedback. Feedback is that integral part of the human

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 communication process that allows the speaker to monitor the process and to evaluate the success of an attempt to
get the desired response from the receiver. Also called “return signals
6) NOISE “interference that keeps a message from being understood or accurately interpreted. “It is, therefore, any
interference in the communication process and may occur anywhere along the communication line. Noise may be
physical, physiological or psychological in nature. Physical noise is also referred to as external noise where as
psychological noise is also referred to as internal noise.
7) CONTEXT/SETTING context- the when and where of a communication event. Communication context vary depending
on the need, purpose, number of communicators and the ways exchange is taking place. Communication can be
interpersonal, group, organizational, cultural or public. Communication does not take place in a vacuum.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

A barrier to communication is anything that affects the flow of communication in an organization. It result in
undesirable reaction and unfavourable response. Barriers to communication are caused by environmental, physical,
semantic, attitudinal and varying perceptions of reality amongst many other reasons.

1. Information overload - refers to a situation where a person receives too many messages at the same time, amount of
information is too much and is coming too fast, the receiver may have serious difficulties to interpret it.
2. Lack of sensitivity to receiver In any communication act, it is important to recognize the receiver‟s needs, social status,
and knowledge of the subject and language skills.
3. Lack of basic communication skills The ability to choose precise words needed and to arrange them in a grammatically
correct sentence is what maybe referred to as basic communications skills. It is worth noting that grammatically
incorrect sentence cannot effectively communicate a message
4. Insufficient knowledge of the subject The receiver is likely to receive an unclear message if the sender does not have
sufficient knowledge of the subject matter. It is, therefore, important that the sender understands precisely what he
wants to communicate before he communicates it to the receiver.
5. Information distortion “the name given to barriers which arise at the encoding and decoding stages.” It is a situation
where the sender uses language or signs that do not convey the intended message to the receiver. distortion refers to
a situation where people from different countries or different parts of same country use the same word to mean
different things
6. Use of wrong medium/channel the form in which ideas, information or opinions are to be conveyed – must be selected
with great care and only after considering all the factors involved.” It would be inappropriate, for instance, to write a
letter to a person whose command of English is poor. This is because the letter may contain words phrases that the
reader does not understand. The best option would be face to face conversation so that anything not clear can be
explained straight away.
7. Physical barriers These are sometimes referred to as environmental barriers that physically disrupt communication,
classroom located near a construction site making it difficult for the learners to hear the teacher. It is, however
important to note that physical barriers do not always come from sound
8. System design faults
9. Attitudinal barriers These come about as a result of problems with staff in an organization. personality conflicts which
can result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitude of individual employees which may be
due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work brought about by insufficient training to enable them carry out
particular tasks or just resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.
10. Psychological barriers These refer to one‟s state of mind during the communication act. They refer to a situation where
the receivers or senders are thinking about something other than the communication that is taking place. Anger and

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 hunger are other examples of psychological barriers to communication for they tend to make someone lose focus on
the present moment.
11. Linguistic barriers/ Semantic Barriers/language barriers are those barriers associated with language problems. Before
getting to communicate with your audience you level of education and knowledge as well as the social and and
background of your audience. Linguistic barriers manifest manifest themselves in various ways. Among them are:
i) Different interpretation of the same word between the sender and the receiver.
ii) Failure to give correct interpretation to idiomatic expressions, phrasal verbs and euphemisms.eg
A. idiomatic expressions
“Crocodile tears” meaning – tears which are not genuine. “Blow your top” meaning – to lose your temper. “Have an
exe to grind” – meaning – to have long term grudge against someone. “Hit the sack” meaning – to go to bed.

b. Euphemisms A euphemism is a generally harmless word, name or phrase that substitutes an offensive or suggestive
one
- Carnal knowledge - sexual intercourse
- Adult movie - pornography
- Being in a family way - to be pregnant
- Pass on/away - to die
- Remains - dead body
- Physically challenged - handicapped
- Vertically challenged - short
c. Phrase verbs
Look (v) + after (prep). Meaning – to take care e.g. she is looking after the children. Give (v) + up (prep) meaning- to
stop e.g. I have decided to give up smoking. Find (v) + out (prep) meaning – to discover e.g. what will she say when
she finds out. Run (v) into (prep) meaning – meet by chance e.g. yesterday I ran into an old friend of mine.
iii) Confusion between denotative and connotative meaning. The emotions, feelings, qualitative judgments that
a word creates are called its connotative meaning.

The denotative meaning of a word is its literal word meaning,

Example worth considering is the word “chick Denotatively, the word means “a newly

hatched young domestic fowl” but in a connotative sense it may refer to a young woma

12. Time and space : when departments of organisations are geographicall separated quick face to face communicatin,
becomes much more difficulty. In global organizations, the time differences between collegues in other countries can
be a very key communications barrier.
13. Cultural Barriers: Understand and accept the cultural variations in individuals and groups. Appreciate them and adopt
your communication style to them.
14. Perception of Reality: Try to understand the different levels of perceptions of a situation and an issue. Be open, flexible
and transparent.
15. Noise : the interference that occurs between communicators. Npsie appears in many forms, it can be it can be
distraction due to pictures on the wall or objects in a room. Other forms of noise include, interruption by other people,
external noise such as traffic noise outside a building or some construction works/mining activities taking place
16. Poor listening skills: listening skills can have a major impact on the effectiveness of communication. A typical speaker
can speak about 125 works per minute while a listener receives about 400-600 words per minute. Therefore, 75% of

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 listening time is free time and it can distract the listener. Here the barrirer is that the listerner may not be paying
attention, or he might be daydreaming and some message gets lost in the communication process.
17. Mental attitude: the attitude of the sender and the receiver can act as an obstacle in the communication process.
Factors here include, respect, culture and assumption based on personal bias or stereotyping . lack of empathy
between the communicators can create a barrier as this entails puttuing aside preconception and prejudice. The
relation between the sender and the receiver is also important, if the relationship is good communication automatically
has a better chance of success. Another key fator here is emotions, if the speaker or liserner feels strong about a certain
subject this will influence the communication process.
18. Poor feedback: feedback is the receiver sending back the message to the sender sender as they have perceived.
Without feedback a it will be impposible for the sender to know if the message was understood and accepted. Feedback
occurs in many ways, if it was in an audience the listeners can ask to repeat what was said or a flown or nod can provide
feedback to the speaker. Feedback is important as it helps clarify muddled messages.
19. Gender:
20. Filtering: when the sender purposely manipulates information, with the aim to make it more favourable for the
receiver, in doing so the message might becomes distorted
21. Selective perception: the receiver sees and hears things in a selective way based on his needs, education, motivation,
experience/background.

Types of audiences
There are two types of audiences,

1. The primary audience: this is an audience that is likely to respond to

the speaker
2. Secondary audience: this is a type of audience that may not to respond
to the message but it has to be aware of it.

Others types of audiences include

3. Friendly
4. Primary
5. Apathetic
6. Uniformed
7. Hostile
8. Neutral
9. Academic and non academic
10. Executive
11. Technicians
12. Expert

Charatceristics of an audience, age, religion, cultural background, education, gender, political affiliation

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 NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
NVC, this is the oral or non oral communication expressed by other than linguistic means. About 55% of a message is
communicated through Non verbal interactions, however non verbal cues can be ambigious and their meaning can
vary with respect to culture, contrct and intention. Stlye of dress can also have a huge influence on NVC as this affect
peoples perceptions and stereotypes. Nvc helps regulate interaction

Nonverbal communication is an expression through nonlinguistic means, its actions or attributes of humans including
their appearance, use of object, sounds ,time, smell and space, that have social shared significance and stimulate mean
of others .agree that nonverbal massages, are culture bound cause,

Nonverbal cues can contradict or negate verbal messages imagine the man who repeatedly says ‘’hold me’ ’but goes
away to avoid being held, or taxi driver who has lost a great deal, shouting am not angry ‘’each of these verbal message
is negated by the source.

Nonverbal cues can emphasize or underscore a verbal messages, for example, when using nonverbal cues to
accentuate your words .this is when you raise or lower your voice or slow down the rate of speech so you can
deliberately stress a series of words.

Nonverbal can regulate or control person to person interaction, we use nonverbal cues to establish order of rule or
‘’turn taking during a talk, with eye contacts, gesture and voice, how they should speak next.

Nonverbal cues can substitute for or take the place of spoken words. Usually when people have a lost loved ones, we
don’t know how to express our sorrow, an embrace often suffices. Similarly when same one ask ‘’what do you want to
do tonight ‘’.a shrug of the shoulders is frequently, it means I don’t. The nonverbal cues foundation as symbol of the
verbal messages because they are widely understood. The up and down nod it means yes, just as forming I with your
hands. These are nonverbal messages that
The universal are using.

Joy is referred to as happiness, this showed by raising your mouth corners [an obvious smile] and tighting of the eye
lids. Surprise is shown by eyebrows arching, eyes opening wide and exposing more white, with the jaw dropping slight
fear symbolized by the upper eyelids raising, eyes opening and the lips stretching horizontally .

Anger symbolized by eyebrow lowering, lips pressing firmly and eyes bulging.

THE 6 BASIC NVC EXPRESSIONS BELIEVED TO BE THE UNIVERSAL MAN CULTURE.

SADFISH.L

S – SADNESS, A – ANGER, D – DISGUST, F – FEAR, I – INTEREST, S – SURPRISE, H – HAPPINESS, L - LOVE

Functions of non verbal communication

1. Complementing
2. Contradicting messages
3. Regulating
4. Substituting messages
5. Accenting(emphasizing messages) repeat verbal messages
6. Deceiving
7. To perform rituals such as greetings and goodbyes

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 CATEGORIES OF NVC

1. Kinesic(body language: facial expression, gesture, posture,silence)

2. Physical appearance(clothing, artifact)
3. Face and eye behavior (oculesics)
4. Para language/vocalics : how something is said and not wat is said.
1.1 Intonation: the rising and falling of the voice
1.2 Pitch: highest or lowness of the voice
1.3 Pause: short break
1.4 Volume: degree of loundness
1.5 Stress eg. Re’fuse and refuse
1.4 Accent: distinctive way of pronouncing words
5. Proxemics
1.1 Intimate space 0-45cm
1.2 Personal space
1.3 Social space
1.4 Public space
6. Haptics(fancy way of touch) touch is important for the development of the mind.
7. Olfactic: smell

8. time(Chronemics): clock time and relational time

NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

Note taking : paying attention, listening skills, interpreting and making meaning. ………passive

Note making : reading skills. ………………………………………………………………………………………..active

Listening is paying attention, interpreting and making notes. While hearing is the perception of physical
sound.

Why we listen ?

1. To build relations
2. To be entertained
3. To show empathy
4. To understand others
5. To learn
6. To gather information
7. To persuade or negotiate with others or to avoid misunderstanding

How to listen actively

1. Self awareness [notice the following when you are listening, body language, eye contact & posture]
2. Active listening. [Pay close attention, look at the speaker, stop mental chatter, ensure that the
environment is conducive, use of NVC to show that you listening]
3. Check for understanding through paraphrasing.

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 Passive listening is what you do when you watch a sitcom(situation comedy) on TV or have a casual
conversation with someone. Active listening is when you listen carefully to make sure you understand and
learn the information that is being conveyed.
 When you stay more focused on what is being said or what you are reading; you will be continuously
analyzing; you will be forced to think rapidly about what you see and hear.

Why take notes

1. Lecturers share information not available in textbooks and then make connections.
2. Notes serve as a file of information.
3. Taking notes helps become an active listener and a critical thinker.
4. Taking notes facilitates learning, by allowing you to become an effective learner.
5. Notes help you remember information.
6. Notes come in handy for making quick revision before exams
7. Lengthy lessons can be condensed in to short relevant pieces by making notes.
8. Notes help in understanding the texts better through summary writing.

How to prepare to take notes

1. Review the course syllabus.

2. Determine relationship between class and textbook information.
3. Identify the type of testing method.
4. Find a class buddy.
5. Clarify your feelings.
6. Adopt a questing attitude,

Note taking methods: Cornell note taking method, Outline, Mapping, Charting and Sentences or paragraphs

1. Cornell Note Taking Method(NT)(two column notes): a systematic format of condensing and organizing
notes without need for laborious recopying, by dividing paper into specitic sections.
Divide paper into three section; 5 cm on the left for cues, 16 cm main space on the right to make
notes and 2 inch column on bottom to summarize.
Advantages of Cornell method.
1. Saves time and effort
2. Simple and efficient
3. Easy format for pulling out major concepts and ideas
4. Provides an organsed and systematic means for recording and reviewing notes.
Title
Key Details
Headings(Cues) I. Big Idea
A. Key Point Graphs
1. Supporting Details
a. Details
Definitions Drawings

Vocabulary answers
Essential questions
Summary

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 Heading, main Summary of
Blank column
points, etc notes to use for
ideas that
2. Outline method come into
your head
Types of outlines
when reading,
I. Topic Outline for examples
II. Sentence Outline or for making
brief summary
When to use at exam tim
The Princeton method
1. When the lecture is organized sequential.
2. There is enough time in the lecture to think and make organizational decisions.

Advantages

1. Well organized if done correctly.

2. Reduces need to edit
3. Easy to turn main points into questions.

Disadvantages
1. Requires more thought in class for accurate organization.
2. May not show relationship by sequence when needed.
3. Doesn’t lend to itself to variety of review and question applications. 4. Very difficult if lecturer speaks fast.

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 Mapping(NT) : A graphic means of representing information, which relates each fact/idea to every other
fact or idea.
When to use mapping;
1. When lecture content is well organized
2. Often effective with guest lecturer and have no idea how lecture will be presented
3. Effective if you are mainly a visual learner.

STUDENT RE
ARC
H

SBE
PROGRAMS
1st yr courses
1ST
YEARCOURCES
URP

LECTURES CEM

Advantages Disadvantages

1. 1. Helps keep visual track of lecture 1. 1 .Can be visually overwhelming

2. 2. Relationships easy to use 2. 2. You may not hear changes in content from major
3. 3. Can cover lines of memory review and points to facts
relationship.

4. Charting method
This method involves using a table to make your notes. You can have separate columns for main points,
questions, details, etc. this method involves classifying your information so that you can easily access it.

When to use it.

1. When test will focus on both facts and relationships.

2. When you want to overview on one piece of paper in sequence

Method Description When to use it Advantages Disadvantages

Outline
Cornell
Mapping
Charting
Boxing

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 Advantages Disadvantages

1. Reduced amount of writing 1. 1. Need to learn how to develop effective

2. Facilitate both memorization and compare/relate categories
Provides easy review mechanisms 2. 2. Must be fully engaged in lecture

5. Sentence/paragraphs
Method:
1. Write every new thought, fact or topic in different lines and number them.
2. Use abbreviation

When to use

1. When the lecturer is organized

2. Heavy content which comes fast
3. Instructor presents in point fashion but not in list.

Advantages

1. Gets more or all of the information

Disadvantages

1. Cant determine major and minor points from numbered sequence

2. Difficulty to edit without having to totally rewrite

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 Five paragraph essay

Thesis statement: main idea of an essay, article paper, passage or book.

Topic sentence : main idea of/in a paragraph. Transitions : words that show progressive/relationship in a
document

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 Considerations when note taking

1. Concentrate on lecturer or what you are reading

2. Take notes selective, don’t wite everything
3. Use your own words
4. Be brief
5. Write legibly
6. don’t worry about grammar or spelling
7. take note of introductory remarks,
8. pay close attention to transitional words and phrases eg, therefore, firstly, in conclusion, etc.
9. listen to word phrases like, there are four types of, to sum up,
10. take note of repeated words points of emphasis

Why we listen

1. build relationship
2. to be entertained
3. to show empathy
4. to understand others
5. to learn
6. to gather information

How to listen actively - factors of good listening techniques

1. body language, self awareness. Face the speaker and maithain eye contact
2. pay close attention, but relax. Observe the nonverbal cues
3. stop any mental chatter, keep an open mind
4. listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying
5. don’t interrupt and impose ypur solutions
6. what for the speak to pause to ask clarifying questions
7. ask questons to ensure understanding
8. try to feel what the speaker is feeling
9. give the speaker regular feedback
10. check for understanding through paraphrasing

WRITING SKILLS WRITING PROCESS

1. Audience 1. Prewriting
2. Purpose 2. Drafting
3. Strategy 3. Composing Writing Draft 1.
4. Thesis Statement 4. Editing And Proof Reading
5. Topic Sentence 5. Revise Your Work
6. Supporting Sentences

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 How to write an introduction
1. Begin with a question
2. Gve an example
3. Use a quotation
4. Shocking statement
5. Anecdote/story of what you or someone went through
6. Fact(tested, tried and proven)
7. A definition

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
A technical description is a text that describes an object or process in terms of its function, organization, parts
and details.
Forms of technical writing

1. End user documentation

2. Operations guide
3. Technological marketing communication
4. Science communication
Pattern followed by a technical description

1. Write the name of the object or process, and describe its function
2. Give the overview of the object or process, including its size, parts and other relevant descriptors.
3. Give details of each significant component, providing explanation, location and physical descriptions
of each component.
Consideration

1. It short be short, only a few lines long or it may be many pages.

2. You must determine which element of a description to emphasize.
3. Define unfamiliar words to the reader.
4.
Process: these are events that occur over time and have an outcome. In process description we
focus on what a mechanism does
Order of writing

1. Describe the function of the process

2. List the steps on the process
3. Beginning with step one, describe each off the steps in the process in chronological order

Description: the presentation of qualitative and quantifiable details about some object.

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 Qualitative details(physical qualities): color, shape, size, texture, materials of construction
Quantifiable details: [measureable quantities] = weight, height, width, depth, and so on. For
example: “a computer diskette is a device used for storing electronic data” is not really description
in our sense of the word. It provides the function or purpose with little or no physical details.
However, the sentence ”the common computer diskette is 3.5 inches by 3.5 inches and
approximately 1/8inch thick” is very definitely description.

Standard Organization of a Description

 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
• Title
• Introduction: definition (purpose of the mechanism), general description, overview of parts.
 Part 1: purpose, size, shape, dimensions, attachment methods, color, texture, materials, location,
orientation, e.t.c
 Part 2: purpose, size, shape, dimensions, attachment methods, color, texture, materials, location,
orientation, etc.
 Part 3: purpose, size, shape, dimensions, attachment methods, color, texture, materials, location,
orientation, etc.
 Conclusion: operation of the mechanism just described (process).

Format and Organization of a Description

1. TITLE
• Begin with a descriptive title. e.g. Description of a Shan Yu Action Figure

2. INTRODUCTION
 Describe the object’s overall

 Function or purpose

 Describe the object’s overall appearance, including the following qualities whenever applicable to your
purpose and audience’s needs: Shape, Color, Material, Finish, Texture, Size

When describing the object, be as specific as possible:

• include exact measurements, weight, shapes, and so on.

• Use numerals for measurements: 3.8 cm, 1.9cm, 5.08cm, and so on.

o 2c. List the object’s parts in the order in which you plan to describe them

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 3. PART- BY- PART DESCRIPTION
 i. Describe each main part of the object.

 ii. Give each main part its own heading.

 iii. Describe the subparts of each main part in the same section.

 iv. Give each subpart a subheading.

 v. Use the list in 2b above

 NOTE: Use sketches/diagrams whenever possible to help your reader visualize what you are describing.

4. CONCLUSION
 Discuss the operating principles of the object.

 If the object merely exists rather than operates as in the Shan Yu Action Figure, you can sum up by saying
something like the following:

 Shan Yu is a hard, plastic action figure consisting of five movable parts:

 two torso parts, two arms, and a left hand. This object can be used for a variety of exciting games.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
• Here we describe how to write a process description (or process analysis), written to help a reader
understand how a change takes place over time, through a series of stages.

• You might use a process description to examine the photosynthesis of plants, the migration of animals, or
enrolling as a student at CBU.

• By contrast, the mechanism description focuses on an object in space (e.g. the physiology of a plant),
and instructions focus on actions the reader takes to make the process happen (e.g. how to care for a
plant).

Parts of a Process Description

 Title

 Introduction
• A good introduction is a concise paragraph that will accomplish two things:

• Define the overall process in a single sentence.

• describe the document (you are describing the scope and purpose of the document you are writing; this is
not the place to demonstrate your ability to introduce the field of knowledge you are about to draw on in
order to help your reader understand the process)

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 Process Definition

• Your introduction should be a concise paragraph that supplies a good sentence definition of the process.

• One of the greatest environmental threats to our nation’s agriculture is the growing acid rain problem

• This introduction is too general; the paper appears to be about “threats to our nation’s agriculture” instead
of acid rain

• Purpose and Scope of the Document

• Like any technical document, it should also state the scope and purpose of the paper.

Step-by-Step Description
• Fore each step in your description write a miniature process description
o Define the step
o State the purpose (or function within the process)
o Providing, the necessary context and
o Include brief mechanism description for any components that may be involved.

Conclusion
• Review the major steps in the process, walk the reader through one complete cycle, emphasing how the
completion of each stage contributes to the final overall effect.

A mechanism description explains the features of a specific device, like a scientific instrument or computer
program.

(Manual grass clippers, Fuel cell, Battery, Catalytic converter, Manual can opener, Your favorite computer or
video game, A specific car model)

• A process description explains how a complex event occurs, including a mechanical process (i.e. how donuts
are made) or natural event (i.e. how lightning is produced). You can choose a process that is specific to your
field, or one that people may be curious about:

• · How a specific drug works

• · How steel is made

• · How fuel cells work

• · How a computer compiles and executes a program

• · How your microwave works

• · How food products are irradiated

Sometimes you will have to describe a thing — this is called a mechanism description.

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 At other times you will have to explain the steps in a process — this is called a process description

 A mechanism is a device with at least two parts that work together to do something.

 To describe a mechanism, first provide a technical definition and state the mechanism's purpose:

 A cooling fan is an electromechanical device that uses an electrically-driven propeller to move air. Today,
many devices, including personal computers, generate substantial amounts of heat during operation. The
heat must be dissipated in some way, and the most common way to move heat out of a computer system
is active air cooling using a fan.

 Then focus on its physical attributes: size, shape, color, and material. You may use visuals to help you. For
example:

 A typical cooling fan is square in shape and measures 92mm diagonally. The housing is made of black
injection-molded ABS plastic. Each corner has a mounting hole, allowing the fan to be installed into a chassis
with the help of screws or rubber stems.

 Next, list its parts in the order you wish to describe them.

• Then, describe the first part, and follow the pattern you have established with all the remaining parts.

• Summarize the mechanism's function in a conclusion.

• Most descriptions of mechanisms contain many labeled visuals to help the reader follow the text.

• In a process description, we focus on what a mechanism does. Again, we begin with a technical definition of
the process:

• Active cooling is based on forced heat transfer, i.e. passing cool air over a heat-generating component(s),
as opposed to passive cooling, where the heat is dissipated by pure convection only. Air is moved through
the system by a cooling fan.

Instructions on how to write a research

1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Aims and objectives
4. Background
5. Methodology
6. Schedule and timeframe
7. Ethical approval
8. Research
9. Budget

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 DEFINITIONS
Study/Presentation preparation

Every technical definition can be evaluated using the criteria listed below.

1. What is the type of definition (parenthetical, sentence, expanded)?

2. Is the type of definition suited to its purpose and user’s needs?

3. Does the definition adequately classify the term?

4. Does the definition clarify, rather than obscure the meaning?

5. Is the definition adequately developed?

6. Is the definition unified and coherent?

7. Are visuals, if used, employed adequately and appropriately?

Defining a Technical Term

Below are three examples of definitions of technical terms. Read the following three examples of technical definitions,
which have been taken from web sites that are designed to provide information for general readers, and then evaluate
each example using the questions given below. Please use complete sentences.

What to Define The words you use will fall into one of the following categories:

1. Familiar words for familiar things (Example: amelioration for improvement, implement for carry out of fulfil)

2. Familiar words for unfamiliar things. These are everyday simple words that have special meaning in science and
technology. (Example: Puddle. This word is known in the familiar sense but not everyone knows that in the metallurgical
sense, it means a mass of molten metal. Other examples: apron, chase, cheater, dirty, lake).

3. Unfamiliar words for familiar things (Example: analgesic for painkiller) 4. Unfamiliar words for unfamiliar things. These
are specialized terms of professional groups. Examples: hydrosol, impedance, pyrometer siderite etc.).

Methods of Definition

1. Informal. Informal definition is the substitution of a familiar word or phrase for the unfamiliar terms used. Instead of
a single-word substitution, sometimes a phrase, clause, or even a sentence may be used in informal definition. a.
However, such definitions are partial, not complete. Informal definitions are adapted for use in the text of a discussion
(they can be fused easily without being too serious to avoid interruptions). If the definition reaches sentence length, it
lacks the formality and completeness of the sentence definition.

2. With formal definitions, there is a rigid formula, equation-like statement which is composed of three principal parts:
the species, the genus and the differentia. The species is the subject of the definition or the term to be defined. The
genus is the family or class to which the species belongs. The differentia is that part of the statement in which the
particular species’ distinguishing traits, qualities etc. are pointed out so that it is set apart from the other species.
Example

Species = Genus Differentia

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 Brazing is a welding process wherein the filler metal is a nonferrous metal or alloy …

Formal definitions involve two steps:

(1) identifying the species as a member of a family or class,

(2) differentiating the species from other members of the same class.

Where to put definitions in a report

1. In the text

2. In footnotes

3. In a glossary (at the end of a report), or in a special section in the introduction

1.1 It is also convenient to place explanatory notes or words as appositives. Appositives can sometimes act as a form of
a definition. You need to define terms familiar to the reader/listener in a different sense from that in which you are using
them;

1.2 terms unknown to your readers, but which name things that actually are familiar to them,

1.3 terms unfamiliar to the readers, and which name scientific and technical things and processes with which they are
also unfamiliar.

Four categories of definitions, each of which has its own appeal:

Parenthetical definition - When defining a word that the reader will easily understand if shown a synonym or alternative
phrase, show the synonym in parentheses immediately after the word. Example: The software has received many
reviewers' accolades (praises).

Defining phrase - It is sometimes beneficial to use a term as it is used by the profession you are writing about, and to
follow the term with a few words to explain it. Example: A technical writer should ask a colleague to proof each draft, to
read through it for errors.

Formal sentence - A formula is given for writing a definition in a sentence. Start with the word or phrase, state the class
(the category the word belongs to), and the distinguishing characteristics that make it different from other members of
its class. Example: An operational definition (phrase) is the specific meaning of a word or phrase (class) given to it by the
group of people who use the word in their specific context (distinguishing characteristics). Discussed in formal definition
above.

Extended definition - This version of a definition is the longest, offering the freedom to provide insight into the origin
of the term, additional meanings, synonyms and antonyms, and more. Additional terms are defined here that may be
used in definitions:

1. denotation - The most basic meaning of a term, usually the first meaning in a dictionary entry
2. connotation - The most familiar meaning of a term to a user
3. synonym - Another word or phrase that has the same or almost the same meaning
4. antonym - Another word or phrase that has the opposite meaning
5. description - As used here, a longer, more detailed description than is provided by a single formal sentence. This may
include a description of each part of a device.

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6. contrast - A discussion of the term as it compares to a term that has a different meaning
7. comparison - A discussion of the term as it relates to a term similar in meaning
8. analogy - This method uses similes or metaphors to explain a thing as being like something else. Example: a network
router is a device that works like an airport traffic controller, keeping network signals moving toward their destinations,
and avoiding collisions between them.
9. origin - An explanation of where a term comes from, who first used it, or the circumstances in which it was first used.
1. etymology - A more formal statement about the language roots of a word. Technical terms may not have actual roots of
this sort. The author explains that they are often acronyms that are better understood when the letters or parts of the
word are explained.

Common errors in definitions

Definition fallacies are errors a technical writer might make when writing definitions. Most are easily understood:

too technical - The writer has not explained plainly enough.

too broad - The writer has not focused on what the word means in context.

too narrow - The writer has not given a definition that is general enough that the reader might recognize other cases
of the thing being defined.

circular - Typically, the writer has defined a phrase using one of the words in the phrase, or defined a word using
another form of the same word.

THREE TYPES OF DEFINITIONS COMMONLY USED IN TECHNICAL WRITING

1. Parenthetical definitions
Parenthetical definitions are words that quickly explain a term.
• For example: Hungry Lion has been trying unsuccessfully for years to buy the equity stock (common stock) of
KFC(Kenturkey Fried Chicken)
A parenthetical definition may also be a longer phrase or clause

For example: Her uncle sells municipal revenue bonds, bonds issued to finance projects that will eventually generate
their own revenues, such as a toll bridge.

2. Sentence definitions

A sentence definition is a one-sentence explanation of a word or clause.

Sentence definitions are useful when your readers require a more formal or more informative clarification than
parenthetical definitions provide

• A sentence definition usually follows a standard pattern in which the item being defined is placed in a class or category
of similar items and then distinguished from them

For example: BASICS is a simple computer language, popularly used by students and microcomputer owners, in which
line numbers precede each statement.

3. Extended definitions

This is an important writing tool you will need, particularly if you are writing for non specialists

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 An extended definition is one or more paragraphs that attempt to explain a complex term

Some terms may be so important in your report , there may be so much confusion about them, or they may be so
difficult to understand that an extended discussion is vital for the success of your report

When you write reports, you may often discover that you need to explain certain basics before you can discuss the main
subject matter.

For example, in a report on new treatment for sickle cell anemia, you would need a section defining the disease.

• One of the first things to do when you write an extended definition is to compose the formal sentence definition of the
term you are writing about.

• Place it toward the beginning of the extended definition.

• It establishes the focus for the rest of the discussion

• It is “formal” because it uses a certain form

For example

1. Computer memory is one of three basic components of a computer which stores information for future use both data
that will be operated on as well as the programs that direct what operation must be performed.
2. Reservoir rocks are those rocks which have sufficient porisity and permeability to allow gas and oil to accumulate and
be produced in commercial quantities.

WRITING FORMAL SENTENCE DEFINITIONS

Formal sentence definitions: their components are the term being defined, the class it belongs to, and its distinguishing
characteristics

• Avoid vague reference to the class the term belongs to: for example, instead of calling a concussion an “injury” or
botulism a “medical problem,” call them something more specific like “a serious head injury” and “ a severe head injury”
and “ a severe form of food poisoning,” respectively

• Similarly, provide plenty of specific detail in the characteristics component of the formal sentence definintion.

• Readers need these details to begin forming their own understanding of the term you are defining.

COMMITTEES AND MEETINGS

A committee is a group of people appointed for a specific function by a large group typically consists of members.

A meeting is an assembly of people for a particular purpose.

Minutes : official record of what happened at a meeting.

Formal meetings are called by means of a “Notice of Meeting” • Meetings work according to an Agenda. Formal meetings
are taken as a record of the proceedings. • Formal meetings are run according to a constitution and a set of rules.

An agenda is a list of meeting activities in the order in which they are to be taken up, beginning with the call to order and
ending with and adjournment.

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Standard order of a meeting

1. Opening ceremony eg national anthem, prayer, reading of mission statement, etc.

2. Taking attendance
3. Review and adoption of the agenda ORDERS OF BUSINESS
4. Consent calendar
5. Reading and approval of minutes 1. OPENING
6. Reports of officers, boards and standing committees 2. PRESENT
7. Reports of special committees 3. ABSENT
8. Special orders 4. APPROVAL OF AGEND AND
9. Participants raise other points MINUTES
10.Unfinished business and general orders 5. A UNFINISHED BUSINESS
11.New business/adjourning 6. NEW BUSINESSS, include reports
12.Announcements from CEO, finance department,
committees, program heads of
Documents needed for a formal meeting staff
1. Agenda 7. Any other business AOB or
2. Attendance sheet supplements to the meeting.
3. Glossary of terms and acronyms 8. FUTURE ACTION
4. Code of conduct/ethics STEPS/adjournments and
5. Previous minutes allocating of persons for various
6. Taking notes(minutes) tasks.
7. Attachments to minutes 9. Closing
8. Presentation papers State the date and time for the
next meeting
How to plan a meeting - Signature by the secretary
and board president
1. Identify the purpose of the meeting
2. Make sure you really need the meeting
3. Develop a preliminary agenda
4. Select the right participants
5. Assign roles to participants
6. Decide the venue and the date, confirm availability of space at the venue
7. Send invitation and the preliminary agenda to key participants and stakeholders.

Elements of time wasting in a meeting

1. Poor preparation by meeting host

2. Inviting too many/wrong people
3. Latecomers and no-shows
4. Lack of clear, action-oriented agenda
5. Straying off-topics/letting people talk too much
6. Not diverting longer discussions into follow up meetings.

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 Elements of an effective meeting

1. Compelling
2. Clarity
3. Consistency
4. Conversation. Allow dialogue
5. Do take breaks guide the discussion
6. Close. End the meeting effectively by including a direct request.

Guideline for a successful interview

1. Prepare and practice

2. Prepare the common questions asked in interviews
3. Knowledge about organization and job description
4. Prepare lines to introduce
5. Dress up well
6. Be on time
7. Your first impression
8. Have confidence but be humble
9. Eye contact
10. Express professionally
11. Decent body language and use the appropriate language
12. Show enthusiasm and devotion
13. Be specific in your answers and give examples
14. Don’t talk too much
15. If your don’t know the answer, better say, ‘I am sorry I have no idea about that’ rather than giving
a wrong answer. If you have some idea, then start your answer with, ‘I am not sure but it is……’
16. End with thanking the interviewer.

Chairperson/president: This is the presiding officer,

Before the meeting During the meeting

1. Prepares the an agenda and sent off in good Opens the meeting
time.
2. Ensure that the time and place are Controls the meeting
appropriate
3. Give people advance warning if they have to Ensure that the meeting starts on time
prepare topics for the meeting
4. Ensure that all proposals have been correctly Make sure that everyone has the Agenda, and understands it
worded an are properly seconded
5. Check the venue to ensure that it is Move the business of the meeting along by enforcing the rules to
comfortable and has the right seating promote and maintain order
arrangements
6. Checks the sound systems and available Keep to the agenda
visual aids.

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7. Check that the minutes of th previous Discourage distracting behaviour such as: - not listening - people talking
meeting are sent out in advance, with the off the pint on their favourite subject -people talking past each other -
Notice of Meeting apathy
8. See that sub-committees have met and that Keep to the formal rules of debate where necessary
their reports are ready for the meeting
9. Prepare a Chairperson’s report and send that Keep the formal rules of the debate where necessary
out in advance.
10. Prepare a Chairperson’s report and send this Allocate an order for speakers
out in advance
11. Prepare thoroughly for the meeting Tie up lose ends
12. Ensures equal and fair participation of all members
13. Summarise the discussion if necessary
14. See that everyone has a fair chance to speak
15. • See that the Secretary records the exact wording of any decisions
taken. The names of proposers and seconders should be recorded • See
that the Secretary records financial transactions correctly.
• Where necessary , delegate responsibilities and have those recorded
• Act impartially throughout the meeting
Strive to be fair when decisions are made • Exercise a casting vote only
when no other way can be found of resolving a matter. • See that the
motions have been correctly put and seconded • See that votes have
been correctly counted and recorded • Summarise all decisions at the
end of the meeting and ensure that people know what they have to do
next.

Duties of treasurer

• A Treasurer’s duty is to keep accurate accounts of all financial transactions. (S) he also has to run the bank
account and prepare the accounts for annual auditing.
Before the meeting During the meeting After the meeting
Before a meeting the Treasurer During the meeting the Treasurer After the meeting, the Treasurer
should: should: Read out the financial should: Check with the Secretary
statement if appropriate that all financial transactions have
been correctly recorded
Ensure that all figures on the Agenda Present the accounts for ratification Pay any accounts as directed by the
have been correctly recorded Advise the meeting on all financial meeting
matters
Ensure that the Chairperson and the Answer any financial queries. Present Keep the Books of Account up to date
Secretary receive copies. The the cheque list since the last meeting
Secretary should place such for the group’s information
statements in the minute book
Prepare appropriate financial Record any financial transactions that Report to the Chairperson that
statements for the meeting have to be completed after the accounts have been paid.
meeting
Members duties: To attend the meeting, contribute, participate in all proceedings and to vote on all motions.

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 Secretary: this is the recording officers who keeps a permanent record of all proceeds, circulates the
agenda and minutes.

The Secretary is normally responsible for:

• Keeping the records of the meetings in Minutes book.

• Ensuring that the Chairperson is kept up to date with all the factors affecting the meeting

• Keeping a correspondence file

• Keeping an attendance register

Before the meeting During the meeting After the meeting

A notice of the meeting has been All minutes are up to date, and that
prepared and sent out within the time correspondence has been correctly
period prescribed in the constitution filed so that it can be presented at the
meeting
• The agenda has been properly set The venue has been booked and that
out with the correct wording. This the correct tables, chairs, microphone
should also be sent out in advance and audiovisual aids have been
booked. (S) he should also ensure that
the venue is ready for the meeting
Ensure that everyone signs the
attendance
• Ensure that all motions, with
proposers and seconders, have been
accurately recorded
Check that there is a quorum present,
according to the constitution
register Report to the Chairperson on
the numbers present
Read out the minutes of the previous
meeting if the minutes have been sent
out in advance
• Collect copies of the Chairman’s and
committee reports for filing.
Record the proceedings, ensuring that
exact wording, figures and names have
been recorded
. constitution have been correctly
• Record the numbers who voted
Record the names of those who have
to take further action, and deadline
dates for this action, where relevant.
After the meeting, the Secretary
should:
Write all letters as directed by the
Chairperson
Once the minutes have been checked,
file a copy and send copies to the
Chairperson and Executive Committee
where appropriate
Write up the minutes of the meeting
within seven days, and send them to
the Chairperson for checking
Brief the Chairperson on matters that
have to be followed up
• Brief sub-committees and individuals
if they undertook to do specific things,
before the next meeting. (S) he should
also remind them of deadline dates
. • Help the Chairperson prepare the
agenda for the next meeting
• Check that all rules in the
followed.

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 Motion: this it the formal recommendation put by a member of the meeting for a debate or consideration.

Two types of motions

1. Substantive motion: it deals with the business of the organization.

2. Procedural motion: it deals with the way a meeting is run.

Terms in procedural motion

1. Call to order – lets begin

2. Call question – exhausted discussion
3. lint of order – calling for things to be done in order
4. Recess – break
5. Tie – equal number, which can only be broken by the chairperson
6. Adjourn – to close a meeting
7. Table a meeting – to postpone a motion to the next meeting

SPEAKING SKILLS
How the speech is delivered is just as important perhaps even more so, than the message you are trying to convey to an
audience.

Speaking in public is more formal than talking. It means being prepared to use language correctly and appropriately for
the audience and the topic, to make eye contact with your audience, and to look like you know your topic very well.

Speaking allows for meaningful pauses, eye contact, small changes in word order, and vocal emphasis.

Reading is a more or less exact reproduction of words on paper without the use of any nonverbal interpretation.

Four Methods of Speech Delivery

1. Impromptu Speaking.
Impromptu speaking is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation. Impromptu
speeches often occur when someone is asked to “say a few words” or give a toast on a special
occasion. Eg introducing yourself in class. Or when you answer a question such as, “What did you think of
the documentary?”
• The advantage of this kind of speaking is that it’s spontaneous and responsive in an animated group
context.
• The disadvantage is that the speaker is given little or no time to contemplate the central theme of his or
her message.
• As a result, the message may be disorganized and difficult for listeners to follow.

Step-By-Step Guide When Asked To Give An Impromptu Speech.

1. Take a moment to collect your thoughts and plan the main point you want to make.
2. Thank the person for inviting you to speak.
3. Deliver your message, making your main point as briefly as you can while still covering it adequately and at
a pace your listeners can follow.
4. Thank the person again for the opportunity to speak.

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5. Stop talking.

• As you can see, impromptu speeches are generally most successful when they are brief and focus on a
single point.

2. Extemporaneous Speaking
• Extemporaneous speaking is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a
conversational manner using brief notes.
• By using notes rather than a full manuscript, the extemporaneous speaker can establish and maintain eye
contact with the audience and assess how well they are understanding the speech as it progresses.
• The opportunity to assess is also an opportunity to restate more clearly any idea or concept that the
audience seems to have trouble grasping.
• For instance, suppose you are speaking about workplace safety and you use the term “sleep deprivation.”
• If you notice your audience’s eyes glazing over, this might not be a result of their own sleep deprivation,
but rather an indication of their uncertainty about what you mean.
• If this happens, you can add a short explanation; for example, “sleep deprivation is sleep loss serious
enough to threaten one’s cognition, handto-eye coordination, judgment, and emotional health.”
• You might also (or instead) provide a concrete example to illustrate the idea.
• Then you can resume your message, having clarified an important concept.
This is the style most speeches call for.

Advantages of Extemporaneous Speaking

• It promotes the likelihood that you, the speaker, will be perceived as knowledgeable and credible.
• In addition, your audience is likely to pay better attention to the message because it is engaging both
verbally and nonverbally.

Disadvantages of Extemporaneous Speaking

 It requires a great deal of preparation for both the verbal and the nonverbal components of the speech.
 Adequate preparation cannot be achieved the day before you’re scheduled to speak.

3. SPEAKING FROM A MANUSCRIPT

• Manuscript speaking is the word-for-word iteration of a written message.

Manuscript speaking consists of reading a fully scripted speech. It is useful

when a message needs to be delivered in precise words.

• In a manuscript speech, the speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page except when using
visual aids.

• The advantage to reading from a manuscript is the exact repetition of original words.

• For example, reading a statement about your organization’s legal responsibilities to customers may
require that the original words be exact.

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• In reading one word at a time, in order, the only errors would typically be mispronunciation of a word or
stumbling over complex sentence structure.

Costs involved in manuscript speaking. First, it’s typically an uninteresting way to present. Unless the
speaker has rehearsed the reading as a complete performance animated with vocal expression and
gestures (as poets do in a poetry slam and actors do in a reader’s theater), the presentation tends to be
dull. • Keeping one’s eyes glued to the script precludes eye contact with the audience. • For this kind of
“straight” manuscript speech to hold audience attention, the audience must be already interested in the
message before the delivery begins.

• It is worth noting that professional speakers, actors, news reporters, and politicians often read from an
autocue device, such as a TelePrompTer, especially when appearing on television, where eye contact with
the camera is crucial.

• With practice, a speaker can achieve a conversational tone and give the impression of speaking
extemporaneously while using an autocue device.

• However, success in this medium depends on two factors:

(1) the speaker is already an accomplished public speaker who has learned to use a conversational tone
while delivering a prepared script, and

(2) the speech is written in a style that sounds conversational.

4. Speaking from Memory

Memorized speaking is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory.

• Actors, of course, recite from memory whenever they perform from a script in a stage play, television
program, or movie scene.

• When it comes to speeches, memorization can be useful when the message needs to be exact and the
speaker doesn’t want to be confined by notes.

• The advantage to memorization is that it enables the speaker to maintain eye contact with the audience
throughout the speech. Memorization allows the speaker to be free of notes.

• Being free of notes means that you can move freely around the stage and use your hands to make
gestures.

• If your speech uses visual aids, this freedom is even more of an advantage.

• However, there are some real and potential costs.

• First, unless you also plan and memorize every vocal cue (the subtle but meaningful variations in speech
delivery, which can include the use of pitch, tone, volume, and pace), gesture, and facial expression, your
presentation will be flat and uninteresting, and even the most fascinating topic will suffer.

• You might end up speaking in a monotone or a sing-song repetitive delivery pattern.

• You might also present your speech in a rapid “machine-gun” style that fails to emphasize the most
important points.

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 • Second, if you lose your place and start trying to ad lib, the contrast in your style of delivery will alert your
audience that something is wrong.

• More frighteningly, if you go completely blank during the presentation, it will be extremely difficult to
find your place and keep going.

Points to remember when communicating with someone orally.

(FACTORS OF EFFECTIVE VERBAL COMMUNICATION)

1. Think before you speak

2. Speak with confidence
3. Be clear and concise. Less is more. Only talk when you have something to say.
4. Be aware of your non-verbal communication cues
5. Be a good listener
6. Be logical
7. Practice and time your presentation.
8. Use visuals sparingly but effective.
9. Think about the perspective of your audience
10. Vary your vocal tone.

Oral presentation is usually between 5-10 minutes depending on the task.

ORAL PRESENTATIONS 10 STEPS TO SUCCESS

1. Analyses your purpose

1.1 Inform
1.2 Persuade Inspire or motivate
1.3 Entertain
1.4 A combination eg inform and entertain
2. Analyse your audience
2.1 Who will be listening?
2.2 What do they already know about your topic?
2.3 What is their age group and background?
2.4 You will need to adjust your language, content and method of delivery to suit your audience
3. Analyse and brainstorm your topic
3.1 Try to select a topic you are interested in or know something about
3.2 Look for key words in the topic
4. Prepare an outline.
4.1 Introduction Body
4.2 Argument/Point 1 – explain, support Argument/Point 2 – explain, support Argument/Point 3 –
explain, support
4.3 Conclusion
5. Research your topic.
5.1 Your time limit will determine how much information you need.
5.2 Do you need to define any words in the topic?
5.3 Do you need to do any primary research? eg questionnaire, survey, case study?

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5.4 What secondary sources will you use? Books, Databases?
5.5 Start your research early!!!
6. Organise your material
6.1 Gather your notes and compare with your outline.
6.2 Do you have enough information for each point or section of your presentation?
6.3 Write out your notes under the outline headings.
7. Prepare a draft of your presentation from this
8. Summarise your draft into points
8.1 You cannot read your presentation.
7.2 Put your main points and examples/evidence on to palm cards in the order you will discuss
7.3 Number your cards.
7.4 Do not try to memorise all of the presentation
8. Plan and prepare your visual aids. Do you need charts or posters? Maps? Diagrams? Tables?
Graphs? Objects that relate to your topic? Will you provide handouts at the end of your
presentation?
9. Rehearse your presentation
10.1 Time the presentation, it is common for students to talk more quickly
10.2 Practice in front of an audience.
10.3 Check the venue and the equipment to be used.
10.4 Practice! Practice! Practice!

Introduction

1. Get your listeners’ attention: Begin with:a question a story or anecdote (often from personal experience) a
startling comment a relevant quotation from a famous person
GET THE AUDIENCE INTERESTED!
2. State your purpose; for example: ‘I’m going to talk about...’ ‘This morning I want to explain…’
3. Provide a preview of your talk; for example: ‘I will focus on the following points: Firstly… …Then… This will
lead to… And finally…’

The Body

Present your main points one by one in logical order.eg make your point, explain, illustrate.
Provide signposts when you move to your next argument. For example: ‘Another important point is ...’ Use clear
examples to illustrate your points. Use visual aids to make your presentation more interesting.

Conclusion

Summarize the main points again, eg. “To sum up…” or “ In conclusion…” Provide a signal that you
are concluding your presentation End with a strong point as this is the last thing your audience will
hear. Thank the audience, and invite questions: ‘Thank you. Are there any questions?’

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 Oral Presentations – Delivery
1. Talk to your audience
2. Do not read your notes word for word
3. Maintain eye contact with your audience
4. Emphasize your main points Use hand and facial gestures to aid meaning
5. Your voice
Project your voice Speak slowly and clearly. Nervousness causes speakers to speed up. Practise the
pronunciation of key words Vary your voice volume and pitch to add interest Slow down for key
points. Use pauses—don't be afraid of stopping briefly to gather your thoughts. Avoid distracting
voice mannerisms eg um, ah, ok,

Physical Presence

1. Stand up straight and naturally.

2. Avoid too much moving around.
3. Make eye-contact with members of the audience, not just the lecturer.
4. Don't turn your back on the audience! If you need to read from the slides, turn side on
5. Avoid distracting mannerisms eg playing with your hair, touching your face etc

Question Time

1. Questions are a positive indication that your audience has been listening.
2. Encourage them! Repeat questions asked so everyone knows the question If you don’t know the
answer, be honest, admit it.
3. Ask if other members of the audience know the answer.
4. Offer to find out the answer. Be prepared if no questions are asked. What can you do?

Visual aids enhance your presentation.

1. They add interest and assist understanding.

2. Consider: Powerpoint presentations Charts, posters, tables, graphs Using the whiteboard Objects that can illustrate your
points
3. Use a plain typeface, and a minimum of size 18 font Use only a few points on each overhead Avoid too much detail and
crowding Make sure your audience can see the screen Using colour, pictures and graphs can make your slides more
interesting
Keep it simple for success. The KISS principle applies Tips for Group Presentations

Coping with nervousness 1. Allocate sections of the presentation

between group members so there is a
1. Practise giving your talk and be prepared Be organised. balance between the contribution of all
2. If you are well organised, your presentation will run smoothly. members
3. Slow down! When people are nervous, they tend to speak quickly. 2. Make use of the skills of each member
4. Use pauses to gather your thoughts if necessary where possible
5. Don’t apologise if you have left something out or make a mistake. 3. Try to vary your method of
The audience probably hasn’t even noticed! presentation so it is more interactive

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 LETTER WRITING

Letter Purpose and Structure

Letter Structure
A letter like a memo , an essay or a report, has an introduction , a body and a conclusion. However, within the constraints
of an introduction , a body and a conclusion there are three basic methods of presenting material: the direct method,
the indirect method and the AIDA formula for persuasive letters

Direct Method
This method is used for the neutral/good news letters. We write to achieve a particular goal that is to get or give
information, to get action, to request or extend credit, and we are more likely to achieve our goal if we have analysed
both our task and our audience.

In the direct method we come to the point – the object of the letter – immediately

This is where the subject line can be helpful, for it allows our reader to know immediately what we are writing about.
The first paragraph of the letter functions as an introduction It places the letter within a context and tells the reader
what we are writing about.It introduces us and our subject matter.

Introduction

The following are three examples of letter opening for good news or neutral letters

1. we have received your letter of 9 May asking for increased credit.

2. I am writing in response to your telephone call requesting enrolment information

3. I wish to apply for the position of administrator of Sales Person of MTN which you advertised in The Daily Mail of 29
June.

Each of the above opening sentences places the letter within a situation and tells the reader why we are writing. Each
opening sentence gives all the necessary information , such as relevant dates or references to previous communication,
that the reader needs to identify the communication

Body

Following paragraphs consist of the body or the letter and these expand on the first paragraph, providing additional
information and supporting detail. What follows are ways we could expand on the opening sentences in the examples
above

1. You have been a customer of this company for many years. Your credit rating has always been good and the increase
you request is within company guidelines. We are therefore, pleased to grant your request for increased credit.
2. 2. I enclose a copy of our general booklet ‘What You Need to Know About Enrolment’. This will give you general
information on the enrolment procedure. You will not be able to enrol until the official enrolment period which
begins on 30 January but all the information you need will be included on the enrolment forms which should reach
you within the next week

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3. I am interested in this position, not only because it is a logical career progression for me, but also because my family
are all now living in Kitwe, and working at MTN will enable me to relocate to the Copperbelt. You will see from my
résumé that for the last three years I have been Director of Sales at MTN. As a fully qualified sales person I have the
marketing qualifications and experience
Which will be of great use at MTN, although still relatively a smaller customer base the standard of quality is high. I also
have considerable administrative experience through my role at Airtel where I was directly responsible for a staff of 30
full – and part-time sales executives and assistants, as well as having delegated responsibility for an ancillary staff of 5
clerical staff

Conclusion
The final paragraph provides the conclusion and tells the reader what we expect to happen next; in other words what
we will do or what we want the reader to do. Remember that letters should finish on a positive, friendly note.
1. Please complete the enclosed credit form and return it to us. Your increased credit will begin as soon as we have
acknowledged receipt or the completed form.
2. If you have not received your enrolment forms within ten days , or if you need any more information please ring or
write to us.
3. Providing that I have sufficient warning to arrange for someone to take over my duties I can be available for interview
at any time. I can be contacted during office hours on (xx) CCCC CCC outside office hours. I look forward to hearing from
you

INDIRECT METHOD
No one likes to have requests refused

So if we use the direct method and give the bad news or refusal straight away it is likely that our audience will read no
further.

It is important for maintaining good will that our reader knows why we have had to refuse a request

So with refusal letters we delay the actual refusal until our audience has read the reasons for refusal.

We use indirect method of structuring our letter.

Introduction

Even though we are using the indirect method, the reader still needs to know immediately what the letter is about. So
the opening sentence will fulfill the functions of the introduction for the good news or neutral letter.

It will tell the reader why we are writing and will provided the reader with all the information necessary to put the
letter into context.It is however, important to do this without giving any indication of whether the request will be
granted or not. We have received your letter requesting a refund on tickets to the ‘Stars Under the Stars’ concert next
week.

Body

The next section of the letter, the body, gives the reasons for the refusal.

Providing a rationale for the refusal serves two purposes.

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• Firstly, it helps to maintain goodwill by demonstrating that there were valid reasons why it is not possible to agree to
the request.

• Secondly, it prepares the reader for the refusal.

By the time the reader has read through the reasons he or she already knows that the answer is going to be no.It is
better to avoid using vague generalities such as ‘company policy’ or ‘financial constraints ‘ as the reasons for refusal

The more specific we can keep our reasons the more credibility those reasons will have.

This has been a very expensive concert to mount. Using an outdoor venue has meant considerable set-up costs in terms
of preparation of the stage and the sound systems. It is, indeed , because the concert will take place in an outdoor venue
that we have had to make our tickets non-refundable. As you will see from the concert brochure and from the
information on the back of the ticket, no refunds can be given.

Notice that the actual refusal is written in the passive voice. This distances the writer from the action, implying a sense
of events outside the writer’s control.

Note, too, that the refusal is written as a subsidiary part of a sentence

It is not given the prominence of a sentence to itself. It is also preferable not to start a sentence or paragraph with the
refusal as this gives it prominence and we want to downplay the refusal rather than make it stand out in any way.

Conclusion

Finally, conclude the letter with some sort of positive alternative and goodwill close.The concert is on for two nights
and we may be able to arrange an exchange of nights. Alternatively you may find someone to purchase the tickets from
you. We hope you can come to the concert as it promises to be wonderful experience.

PERSUASIVE LETTERS

As mentioned earlier, all letters have elements of persuasion but in this section we are looking at letters that are
written primarily to persuade, whether what is being sold is a product or an idea.

A common method of structuring persuasive letters according to Galvin, Prescott & Huseman (1992), Andrews &
Andrews (1992) and Eunson (1996) among others, is the AIDA formula where A stands for Attention, I for Interest, D
for Desire and the final A for Action

Attention

Getting the attention of the reader is particularly important with persuasive letters.The more closely you can link the
message to the needs and desires of the reader the more successful will the persuasive appeal be

Therefore, we should start the letter with what the reader will consider the primary benefit of what we are selling.

We can begin the letter with a rhetorical question, some shocking statistics, a reference to current affairs….anything
that provides an attention getting opening relevant to what is being sold.

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 The last point is important

Because as well as getting the attention of the reader, the opening of the letter has to lead naturally into the body of
the letter detailing what we are selling.

Following are three possible opening sentences.

The first example is from a letter selling a dishwasher, the second is a letter asking for support for an environmental
organisation and the third is from a letter selling washable pens

1. if you have prepared just two meals a day for a family of three, you have washed 21, 900 pieces of crockery, cutlery
and pots and pans last year.

2. Do you want your children’s children to see trees only in picture books? We challenge you to write your name on
the wall with the enclosed pens

Notice that all the suggested openings emphasise the reader. They are written in a ‘you oriented’ style and they are
directly relevant to what the writer is selling

Interest

The interest and desire sections form the body of the letter. We will deal with interest and desire as two separate
sections here but often they will merge into each other and be difficult to separate.

After we have gained the reader’s attention we need to develop the attention into interest in the product.

Emphasise the benefits of the product or idea. Making close links between what the product or idea offers and how it
will benefit the reader.

Let us develop the dishwasher opening into the interest section for the AIDA formula. Imagine having a Dishwasher to
do all those dishes and pots and pans for you. Just think of all the interesting things you can do with the time you save –
play golf, play cards, sit in the sun , shop until you drop.

Desire

The desire section gives more product information. In this section the writer needs to develop reader interest, moving
the reader from a feeling of ‘ I am interested to this’ to ‘I really want this’

Action

This is the real purpose of the persuasive letter. This is where we tell the reader what we want him/her to do. Getting
your new Dishwasher is as easy as picking up your phone. Phone free call xxxxx xxxx for an obligation free trial of the
Dishwasher in your own home. What can you lose?

Job application tips

1. Emphasize your skills and abilities.

2. Stay concise.
3. Proofread the letter.
4. Review the job listing keywords.
5. Send a letter for every position to which you apply.

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 What is a job application letter?

An application letter is a standalone document you submit to a potential employer to express your
interest in an open position.

The job application letter explains who you are as a professional and an individual.

The letter should highlight your achievements and skills, helping to get the attention of the hiring
manager or recruiter responsible for reviewing applications.

When written well, this letter explains to the reader why they should ask you in for an interview and
highlights the key qualifications that make you a fit for the role.

It’s important to use your job application letter to showcase aspects of your personality.

How to write an application letter

When writing an application letter for a job, follow these steps to make sure you include information
about yourself and your professional experience that will appeal to a hiring manager:

• Review information about the company and position

• Use a professional format

• Create the heading

• Address the letter to the hiring manager

• Open the letter by describing your interest

• Outline your experience and qualifications

• Include aspects of your personality

• Express appreciation

• Close the letter

Try to keep your job application letter to one page.

If you send your job application letter via email, you can eliminate your name and contact information
from the header and put it at the bottom of the email after the signature instead.

• In your research, try to find the name of the person reviewing applications for the job.

• Address your letter to this person with a common business greeting, such as “Dear Mr./Ms.” and
their last name.

• If you’re not sure of the name or gender of the individual reviewing your application, you can use
the generic “To Whom It May Concern” or “Dear Hiring Manager.”

Example describing interest in the introduction: “I saw the posting for the Marketing Intern role on my
university’s online job board and I am very interested in the role. I am in my final year of earning my
bachelor’s degree in marketing with a minor in communications, so I feel my educational experience

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 has prepared me to work in a fast-paced marketing department like the one within your
organization.”

• If you are submitting a hard copy of the letter, include your signature above your typed name.

Letter Font and Spacing

• Properly space the layout of the business letters you write, with space between the heading, the greeting, each paragraph,
the closing, and your signature

• Single space your letter and leave a space between each paragraph. When sending typed letters, leave two spaces before
and after your written signature.

• Single space your letter and leave a space between each paragraph. When sending typed letters, leave two spaces before
and after your written signature.

• Left justify your letter, so that your contact information, the date, the letter, and your signature are all aligned to the left.

• Use a plain font like Arial, Times New Roman, Courier New, Calibri, or Verdana.

• Make sure that the font size you use is large enough that your reader won’t need to reach for their glasses – the standard
font size for these fonts is 10 point or 12 point.

• If you are submitting your business letter to a very conservative organization, it is best to use the traditional Times New
Roman 12 point font. • Do not, under any circumstances, use fancy fonts like Comic Sans or handwriting fonts like Lucida
on business correspondence.

BUSINESS LETTER ETIQUETTE AND TONE

• Salutation: It is still standard to use the recipient’s title (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., Professor, Judge) before their last names
in the salutation of formal business correspondence (Example: “Dear Mr. Smith”). The word “Dear” should always

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precede the recipient’s name; don’t simply use their name by itself as you might do in casual correspondence. By the
same token, avoid beginning business correspondence with openings like “Hello,” “Hi,” or “Good morning” – business
letters should always begin with “Dear [recipient’s title and name]” unless you use the salutation “To Whom It May
Concern” (in instances when you do not know the name of the recipient).

• Closing: Your closing needs to err on the side of the conservative. Acceptable closings to use include: “Sincerely,”
“Sincerely yours,” “Best regards,” “Regards,” “Thank you,” “Thank you for your consideration,” “Respectfully,” and “Very
Respectfully” (this, often abbreviated “V/R,” is common in military business correspondence). Do not use casual closings
like: “Later,” “Cheers,” “Cordially,” “Thanks!,” “TTYL,” or “Warmly.”

• Word Choice and Grammar: Although your word choice for business letters should not be too stilted, flowery, or
ornate, you should also avoid using slang, abbreviations/acronyms, emojis, or text-speak.

• By no means should you use the sentence fragments that are commonly used when texting.

• Instead, use complete sentences, watching out for comma splices (where two complete sentences are joined by a
comma).

• Proofread carefully for spelling errors and grammatical mistakes.

• Paper: If you are drafting a formal business letter to be mailed as opposed to an email, the paper you use should be a
standard white bond paper of a decent weight – don’t use the sort of colored or flamboyant stationery that might be
used in marketing “junk mail” • It’s fine to include a simple business logo at the top of the paper.

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Letters are in general written to people outside the organisation :– to customers or clients, to suppliers, to government
bodies, to competitors, to any one of the multitude of people any organisation communicates with to pursue and
achieve its goals.

E-mail messages can be written to people both within and outside the organisation

If a salutation has been used then a complimentary close must be used.

The complimentary close may be ‘Yours sincerely’, ‘Yours truly’, ‘Sincerely yours’, or whatever the writer considers most
appropriate.

However, if the salutation is ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’ the complimentary close must be ‘Yours faithfully’

PS NOTATION

PS stands for ‘postscript’, which means something added after the letter has been written. Originally it enabled the writer
to add something which had been forgotten but in today’s professional letters it is used to give prominence to a
particular point by separating it from the body of the letter

ENCLOSURE OR CC NOTATION

Frequently material will be included with a letter.This may be a cheque, a brochure or price list, a copy of correspondence
or any other material the writer thinks the reader needs.

When material is enclosed with the letter the notation ‘enc’, or ‘encs’ if there is more than one enclosure, signals the
reader to the fact that there is more than just the letter in the envelope. This is important if the enclosure is small and
valuable like a cheque in which case the enclosure notation will often include ‘cheque’, for example ‘Enc: cheque’

Copies of letters are indicated by cc notations, short for carbon copy in the days when copies of letters were made by
placing pieces of carbon paper between the sheets of typing paper. These notations let the reader know that someone
else has a copy of the letter.

For example, in responding to a letter of complaint it can be useful to signal to the reader that the complaint has been
passed on to the appropriate person and the ‘cc’ notation enables the writer to do that.

MEMORANDUM
Memos- or inter-office memorandums, or just memoranda – are always written to people within the organisation

This can be someone in another town, or even in another country in the case of multinational companies But memos
are never written for people outside the organization.

The major layout differences come from the fact that the memos are in-house documents, distributed only to people
within the same organization This eliminates the need for an inside or return address. There is also no salutation or
complimentary close.

Elements of the memo, To: the inside readers From: sender, date, subject,

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45 | P a g e
 REPORTS
Report is a one kind of tool for communication . It is considered report as upward communication tool.
Reports can be classified in various aspects depending on their functions, working arena, Time interval, Subject Matter,
Geography, Length and Direction.
1.Oral Report:
It is simple and easy to present, because there is no problem of writing.
Such report can be designed at any time and can easily raise confusion because there is no written evidence at all.
Such report is not used so commonly because of its less benefits.
2. Written Report:
Written report is given in a black and white.
Such report can be acted as evidence for any incident and can be used as future reference.
3. Formal Report:
A report which is prepared in a prescribed form and presented to a concerned authority according to established procedure
is known as formal report. There are usually seen two types of Formal reports depending on mandatory of law:

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 (i) Statutory Report:
A formal report prepared and submitted as required by law is called a statutory report e.g. Report of directors to
shareholders, Auditors Report, Annual Report etc. This report must be prepared for legal bindings.
(ii) Non-Statutory Report:
A formal report which is not required under any law but prepared to help the managerial activities is known to be non-
statutory report. e.g. Manager's Report etc.
4.Informal Report:
An informal report is usually in the form of a person to person communication. It does not follow the rules and
procedure prescribed by an organization. It may be prepared in one page or may require several pages.
Such report is quickly prepared and does not require any extended planning to make it. Generally, Informal report
follows natural language and style.
5. Informative Report:
Informative report presents the facts, events or issues related to particular situation.
It does not make analysis, explanation, conclusion or recommendation. e.g. financial statement, work record for
employees and workers, list for assets etc.
6. Interpretative Report:
If the report contains both presentation of facts or data or event as well as analysis and explanation of data is known
to be interpretative report.
Here, the report writer does not draw any conclusion nor make recommendations.
These are left to the readers to derive. Such report are usually self-explanatory.
7. Analytical Report:
It is the one kinds of report which attempts to solve the problems.
Such report includes presentation of facts as well as analysis, explanation, conclusion and recommendations.
Reports of scientific research, feasibility reports are the best examples of analytical report.
8. Periodic Report:
A report prepared and issued at regular intervals for routine activities of the business is known as periodic report.
Such report may be issued daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, semi-annually or annually.
For example: Performance report, Inspection report, Inventory report, Annual confidential report etc. are the example
of periodic report.
9. Special Report:
Special report is a report which is related to a single occasion or situation.
It is also called one-time-only report. e.g. Report on proposal of a new branch, Report regarding problems among staff
etc.

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 10. Financial Report:
A report containing financial information is known as a financial report.
Usually it comprises of income statement and balance sheet.
These two provides information to make decision and know about the financial condition of respective organization.
11. Performance Report:
This type of reports is submitted to higher authority stating evaluation of workers, employees or learners.
In many cases, the progress or stage of completion of project work is submitted also to the higher authority through
performance report.
12. Technical Report:
Technical report is report which provides information relating to specialized or technical subject.
It is prepared with or without recommendation and only technical experts prepare such reports.
For example: Weather report, Laboratory report, Quality report etc. are the example of Technical report.
13. Geological Report:
A report that supplies information not only on a particular subject but also on many subjects generally is known as
geological report.
It provides information relating to overall conditions of the organization.
14. Internal Report:
Such report moves within the organization.
They are prepared to help business operation as well as administration.
It is also known as administrative reports.
15. External Report:
Such report is prepared for distribution information among the outsiders who are interested and related to the
company e.g. Annual reports are prepared for shareholders, creditors, investors, bank, regulatory bodies, tax authority
and the society as a whole.
16. Short Report:
The report that contains topics of medium or moderate length and having no special need for formal presentation are
called short report.
Most short reports include the minimum supporting materials such as problems, methods, findings and conclusions.
17. Long Report:
The name of such report clearly tells us about the scope and size of such report.

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When there is major investigation of large and complicated matters, long report is prepared for high level
administration.
18. Vertical Report:
Report that moves upward and downward in an organisation is known to be vertical report.
They help management for control.
Most of the time. such report is prepared for top level management.
19. Lateral Report:
Such report travels between the same units of an organization.
It helps coordination among the various departments of the same organization.

20. Schematic report

It presents arguments in a visual and creative way. The pages have a presentation-like style rather than a
pure narrative style. Mix or narrative and visuals. This style emphasizes picture, tables, charts and images
rather than relying on words alone.

Kenny Malunga RESPONSE TO A COMPLAINT LETTER

General Manager’s Office
Chramino Hospitality
15th November, 2014.
Michael Kunda
6105 Pamodzi Mapungwana
Ndola.
Dear Mr Kunda,
Thank you for alerting me to the rude treatment you received from our receptionist Norbert Malambo.
That particular receptionist is sorting out some very difficult personal matters that I am afraid affected his
ability to be courteous. I am working with him. He desperately needs employment and I hope give him a
chance. I hope too, that you will tolerate his curtness this once. Naturally, should it happen again, would
appreciate another report. I convey my deep regret that the situation had to reach to an extent of assault.
Please, my door is open to you at any time, you may come through we discuss further about issue. Let’s
hope for the best and thank you for patronizing.
Sincerely
Kenny Malunga, MG.

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Sepo Muwema COMPLAINT LETTER

Private Bag 1
Chipata.

21 /11/2013

Mr F Chibesa
The Manager
Computer World
P .O Box 89743
Lusaka.

Dear Mr Chibesa

Re:DELIVERED A WRONG PRODUCT

I would first of all like to appreciate your delivery team for job well done. I received my laptop safe and
on time as agreed.
It was only after five days when i realised that i received a wrong laptop referring to the order and features
of the laptop I order.i discovered the first problem when i was checking my files,i found out that the
memory was 250gb instead of 500gb.considering my customer relationship with your company,i decided
to over look the problem. One month passed another problem,it was during my daughters birthday party.
As i tried to make a video for the party.I discovered that the laptop didn’t have a web comera.This
disturbed me so much that i failed to overlook it. With this i was totally convinced that it was not the
laptop i saw in the news paper and bought via airtel money. As your good customer i strongly suggest that
you look into this matter and deliver the right product as agreed.Enclosed in is the invoice which shows
the features of the laptop i bought.
I would appreciate your earliest attention to this matter.
Yours sincerely
Sepo muwema

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