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Climate Change and Soil
Interactions
Climate Change and Soil
Interactions

Edited by
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India

Marcin Pietrzykowski
University of Agriculture in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
Elsevier
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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ISBN: 978-0-12-818032-7

For Information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Candice Janco

Acquisitions Editor: Laura S. Kelleher
Editorial Project Manager: Devlin Person
Production Project Manager: Swapna Srinivasan
Cover Designer: Mark Rogers
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents
List of contributors .......................................................................................................... xix
About the editors .......................................................................................................... xxvii
Preface ........................................................................................................................... xxix
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... xxxi

CHAPTER 1 Soil biodiversity conservation for mitigating climate

change ........................................................................................................... 1
Jan Frouz
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Soil Biodiversity and Soil Functions.................................................. 3
1.3 Major Anthropogenic Threats to Soil Biodiversity ........................... 6
1.3.1 Disruption of litter input to soil and changes in litter
quality........................................................................................6
1.3.2 Tillage and other soil disturbances...........................................7
1.3.3 Manipulation of nutrient status.................................................8
1.3.4 Biological invasion ...................................................................8
1.3.5 Pesticides and other agrochemicals ..........................................9
1.3.6 Global climate change and soil biota .....................................10
1.4 How to Protect Soil Biota................................................................. 10
1.4.1 Soil biota protection in close to nature, protected,
areas.........................................................................................11
1.4.2 Soil biota protection in agricultural landscapes .....................12
1.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 14
Acknowledgment ....................................................................................... 14
References.................................................................................................. 14
Further Reading ......................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER 2 Potential changes in forest soil carbon stocks under different

climate change scenarios ............................................................................ 21
M.V. Marek, I. Marková, M. Pavelka, K. Havránková,
J. Macků, K. Rejšek and D. Janouš
2.1 Material and Methods ....................................................................... 23
2.1.1 Carbon content estimation ......................................................24
2.1.2 Climatic conditions .................................................................24
2.1.3 Predictions of the soil carbon stock changes .........................25
2.2 Results ............................................................................................... 26
2.3 Discussion ......................................................................................... 31
2.4 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 34
Acknowledgment ....................................................................................... 34
References.................................................................................................. 34
Further Reading ......................................................................................... 36

v
vi Contents

CHAPTER 3 Methane emission from unsustainable crop production in Nepal,

system of rice intensification as an option for mitigation ........................ 37
Nani Raut, Bishal K. Sitaula, Roshan M. Bajracharya and
Sudeep Karki
3.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 38
3.2 Materials and Methods ..................................................................... 39
3.2.1 Soil sampling...........................................................................40
3.2.2 Laboratory analyses ................................................................40
3.2.3 Gas flux measurement ............................................................40
3.2.4 Data analysis ...........................................................................41
3.3 Results and Discussion ..................................................................... 41
3.3.1 Cropping pattern and soil characteristics ...............................41
3.3.2 Temporal variability of CH4 flux in upland (Bari)
and lowland (Khet)..................................................................42
3.3.3 Accumulated flux....................................................................45
3.3.4 Temporal variability of CH4 flux and global warming
potential of system of rice intensification system..................45
3.3.5 System of rice intensification: an option for
mitigation of methane emission..............................................46
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................... 47
References.................................................................................................. 47

CHAPTER 4 Heavy metal mobility in surface water and soil, climate change,
and soil interactions.................................................................................... 51
Opeyemi A. Oyewo, Amos Adeniyi, Mokgadi F. Bopape and
Maurice S. Onyango
4.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 52
4.2 Sources of Heavy Metals.................................................................. 53
4.3 Heavy metals of Serious Concern .................................................... 54
4.4 Mobility and Bioavailability of Heavy Metals in the
Environment...................................................................................... 55
4.4.1 Assessment of heavy metals mobility on soil type ................56
4.5 Health and Environmental Effects of Heavy Metals on the Soil .... 57
4.5.1 Health effects ..........................................................................57
4.5.2 Environmental effects .............................................................59
4.6 Inevitability of Climate Change ....................................................... 61
4.6.1 Effects of climate change in the mobility of heavy
metals ......................................................................................63
4.6.2 Bioavailability of heavy metals with weather pattern
in South Africa........................................................................65
4.6.3 Assessment of heavy metals type based on
weather pattern........................................................................66
 Contents vii

4.7 Existing Technologies to Minimize Heavy Metals Mobility,

Bioavailability in Soil and Water, and their Limitations................. 67
4.7.1 Existing water treatment technologies for the removal
of heavy metals .......................................................................67
4.7.2 Existing technologies to minimize heavy
metals mobility, bioavailability, and their limitations
in soil.......................................................................................70
4.8 Novel/Current Technologies to Minimize Heavy Metals
Mobility Regardless of Climatic Change......................................... 73
4.8.1 Bioremediation ........................................................................73
4.8.2 Electrokinetic extraction .........................................................76
4.9 Currently Developed Prototype and their Activities in Reducing
the Mobility of Heavy Metals .......................................................... 77
4.9.1 Asymmetrical alternating current electrochemistry ...............77
4.9.2 Use of biochar .........................................................................78
4.10 Summary ........................................................................................... 80
References.................................................................................................. 80
Further Reading ......................................................................................... 88

CHAPTER 5 Managing organic amendments in agroecosystems to enhance

soil carbon storage and mitigate climate change...................................... 89
Paula Alvarenga, João Paulo Carneiro, David Fangueiro,
Cláudia M.d.S. Cordovil and Maria Pilar Bernal
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 90
5.2 Benefits of Organic Amendments in the Improvement
of Soil Quality to Cope With Climate Change................................ 92
5.3 Overview of the Agronomic Practices to Minimize Soil
Organic Carbon Outputs ................................................................... 94
5.4 Use of Amendments to Maximize Soil Carbon Inputs.................... 97
5.4.1 Relevant organic amendments: biowaste-based
amendments, manures, and animal slurries............................97
5.4.2 Negative effects of the use of biowaste-based
amendments, manures, and animal slurries
as soil amendments ...............................................................112
5.4.3 Strategies adopted to overcome the negative effects
of using biowaste-based amendments, manures, and
animal slurries as soil amendments ......................................120
5.5 Study Case: The Efficiency of Different Fertilization
Systems With C Emissions............................................................. 122
5.6 Concluding Remarks....................................................................... 127
References................................................................................................ 127
Further Reading ....................................................................................... 141
viii Contents

CHAPTER 6 Seed priming: state of the art and new perspectives in the era
of climate change.......................................................................................143
Vipin Kumar Singh, Rishikesh Singh, Sachchidanand Tripathi,
Rajkumari Sanayaima Devi, Pratap Srivastava, Pardeep Singh,
Arun Kumar and Rahul Bhadouria
6.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 143
6.2 Effect of Climate Change on Yield and Food Security................. 145
6.3 Effect of Climate Change and Geographical Distribution
of Crops........................................................................................... 146
6.4 Seed Priming................................................................................... 146
6.4.1 History of seed priming ........................................................147
6.4.2 Seed priming techniques.......................................................148
6.5 Knowledge Gap and Future Perspective ........................................ 152
6.5.1 Limitations in current priming techniques ...........................152
6.6 New Aspects in Seed Priming........................................................ 152
6.6.1 Magnetopriming (MFs).........................................................152
6.6.2 Ionizing radiation treatments ................................................158
6.7 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 161
Acknowledgments ................................................................................... 162
Conflict of Interest................................................................................... 162
References................................................................................................ 162
Further Reading ....................................................................................... 170

CHAPTER 7 Use of lysimeters for monitoring soil water balance parameters

and nutrient leaching.................................................................................171
Ralph Meissner, Holger Rupp and Lisa Haselow
7.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 171
7.2 Lysimeter Technique ...................................................................... 173
7.2.1 Soil filling procedure ............................................................173
7.3 Case Studies for Lysimeter Application ........................................ 182
7.3.1 Determination of soil water balance parameters..................182
7.3.2 Leaching of phosphorus........................................................190
7.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................... 200
Acknowledgments ................................................................................... 202
References................................................................................................ 202
Further Reading ....................................................................................... 205

CHAPTER 8 Consequences of land-use changes for soil quality and function,

with a focus on the EU and Latin America...............................................207
Agnieszka Józefowska, Juan Carlos Loaiza-Usuga and Olaf Schmidt
8.1 Land-Use Change in the International Agendas ............................ 208
8.2 The Direction of Land-Use Changes, Drivers, and Trends ........... 209
 Contents ix

8.3 The Influence of Land-Use Changes on Soil Quality and

Functions ......................................................................................... 211
8.3.1 Intensive and extensive use of arable land...........................215
8.3.2 Transformation of cultivated and grassland to forest
and its consequence ..............................................................217
8.3.3 Transformation of forest to crop or grassland......................219
8.3.4 Reclamation of the degraded land and restoration
of abandoned land.................................................................220
8.4 Conclusion and Implications for Industry, Policy, and Science.... 221
References................................................................................................ 223

CHAPTER 9 Soil as a complex ecological system for meeting food and nutritional
security........................................................................................................229
Fábio Carvalho Nunes, Lander de Jesus Alves,
Cláudia Cseko Nolasco de Carvalho, Eduardo Gross,
Thaı´s de Marchi Soares and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 229
9.2 Soil: A Complex Ecological System? ............................................ 231
9.2.1 Functions of soil and their importance to environmental
balance...................................................................................237
9.3 Soil Degradation: Impacts on Climate and Society....................... 247
9.4 Soil System: Modeling Difficulties................................................ 255
9.4.1 Soil arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi vegetation
interactions to ensure meeting food demand........................257
9.4.2 Soil conservation for nutritional security .............................258
Acknowledgments ................................................................................... 260
References................................................................................................ 260

CHAPTER 10 Microbial approach for alleviation of potentially toxic elements

in agricultural soils...................................................................................271
Lander de Jesus Alves, Fábio Carvalho Nunes,
Irailde da Silva Santos, Denise Morais Loureiro,
Patricia Alves Casaes, Eduardo Gross and
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 271
10.2 Global Scenario of Soils in Crops: Contamination and Climate
Changes ......................................................................................... 274
10.3 Toxic Elements in Agricultural Soils........................................... 275
10.3.1 Inorganic toxicants............................................................276
10.3.2 Organic toxicants ..............................................................278
10.4 Microbial Approach ...................................................................... 280
10.4.1 Bioremediation strategies for a balanced environment....281
10.4.2 Beneficial interactions between microorganisms and
plants: the main microorganisms in this scenario ............283
x Contents

10.5 Future Perspectives ....................................................................... 291

Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 292
References.............................................................................................. 292

CHAPTER 11 Alleviation of soil salinization and the management of saline soils,

climate change, and soil interactions ......................................................305
Nazia Talat
11.1 Introduction................................................................................... 306
11.2 Soil Salinization............................................................................ 307
11.2.1 Indicators of soil salinity ..................................................308
11.2.2 Measuring soil salinity......................................................309
11.3 Sources of Soil Salinization ......................................................... 310
11.4 Soil Salinization and Climate Change ......................................... 311
11.5 Impacts of Salinity........................................................................ 314
11.5.1 Effects on soil ...................................................................314
11.5.2 Effects on hydrosphere .....................................................314
11.5.3 Effects on plants................................................................314
11.6 Alleviating Soil Salinization......................................................... 319
11.7 Management of Saline Soils......................................................... 320
11.7.1 Water management ...........................................................321
11.7.2 Sustainable agriculture management practices.................323
11.8 Conclusions ................................................................................... 324
References.............................................................................................. 325
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 329

CHAPTER 12 Soil salinization and climate change .......................................................331

Bülent Okur and Nesrin Örçen
12.1 The Formation and Importance of Soil ........................................ 331
12.2 The Impact of Agricultural Activities on Climate Change ......... 333
12.3 Climate Change and Its Effects on Salinization .......................... 335
12.4 Salinization and Alkalization ....................................................... 337
12.5 Salinity and Alkalinity Problem in the World ............................. 339
12.6 Salinity and Alkalinity in Turkey................................................. 340
12.7 What are the Risks of Soil Salinity and Alkalinity?.................... 342
12.8 Management of Saline and Alkaline Soils and Plant
Production in These Soils............................................................. 343
12.9 Conclusion .................................................................................... 348
References.............................................................................................. 349

CHAPTER 13 Soil salinity risk in a climate change scenario and its effect
on crop yield.............................................................................................351
Alexandra Tomaz, Patrı´cia Palma, Paula Alvarenga
and Maria Conceição Gonçalves
13.1 Overview ....................................................................................... 352
 Contents xi

13.2 Soil Salinization Processes ........................................................... 355

13.2.1 Soil salinity .......................................................................356
13.2.2 Soil salinity indicators ......................................................357
13.2.3 Soil sodicity.......................................................................360
13.3 Crops Responses to Salinity ......................................................... 363
13.3.1 Salinity effects on plants...................................................363
13.3.2 Crops tolerance to salinity ................................................365
13.3.3 Combined effects of salinity and environmental
conditions on crop responses ............................................371
13.4 Assessment of Water Quality for Irrigation................................. 372
13.5 Modeling Soil Salinization ........................................................... 373
13.6 Salinity Management .................................................................... 376
13.7 Case Study—Evaluation of Water Quality for Irrigation,
and Its Potential Effects on Soil Structure and on Crop
Yields in the Alqueva Irrigation Area (South Portugal).............. 378
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 388
List of Symbols...................................................................................... 388
References.............................................................................................. 389

CHAPTER 14 Organic matter decomposition under warming

climatic conditions....................................................................................397
Aneta Kowalska and Anna Grobelak
14.1 The Scale of Climate Change Problem........................................ 397
14.2 Soil Warming and Organic Matter Content ................................. 400
14.3 Factors Affecting on Carbon Turnover Time .............................. 401
14.3.1 Dependence of organic matter decomposition
on the external condition ..................................................401
14.3.2 Deepening greenhouse effect and its possible effect
on carbon cycle .................................................................402
14.4 Labile and Nonlabile Soil Organic Fraction Content .................. 403
14.5 Models of Soil Organic Matter Decomposition in Climate
Warming........................................................................................ 404
References.............................................................................................. 406
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 412

CHAPTER 15 Organic matter decomposition under warming climate conditions ........413

Rosilaine Carrenho, Heloisa de Cesaro Krzyzanski and
Priscila Marques da Costa
15.1 Decomposition .............................................................................. 413
15.2 Global Warming and Soil Attributes............................................ 414
15.3 Global Warming: Changes in the Production and Quality
of Soil Organic Matter.................................................................. 417
15.4 Global Warming: Changes in the Composition of
Decomposer Communities in the Soil.......................................... 419
xii Contents

15.5 Efficiency and Speed of Decomposition Under Global

Warming........................................................................................ 423
15.6 Final Consideration....................................................................... 427
References.............................................................................................. 428

CHAPTER 16 Heavy metal mobility in soil under futuristic climatic conditions ..........437
Anna Grobelak and Aneta Kowalska
16.1 Heavy Metal Ability, Toxicity, and Migration ............................ 437
16.2 Correlation Between Heavy Metal Mobility and Toxicity .......... 439
16.3 Futuristic Climate Conditions and Heavy Metal Mobility .......... 441
16.4 Bioavailability of Heavy Metals Under Futuristic Climate
Conditions ..................................................................................... 443
16.5 Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soils Under
Futuristic Climate Change ............................................................ 444
16.6 Conclusion .................................................................................... 446
References.............................................................................................. 447
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 451

CHAPTER 17 Sustainability science—below and above the ground as per

the United Nation’s sustainable development goals...............................453
Anwesha Borthakur and Pardeep Singh
17.1 Introduction................................................................................... 453
17.2 “Soil” in the Sustainable Development Goals ............................. 456
17.2.1 SDG 2—“Zero hunger” and soil ......................................458
17.2.2 SDG 3—“Good health and well-being for people”
and soil ..............................................................................460
17.2.3 SDG 6—“Clean water and sanitation” and soil ...............461
17.2.4 Soil and SDG 11—“Sustainable cities
and communities” .............................................................462
17.2.5 Soil and SDG 14—Life below water ...............................464
17.2.6 Soil and SDG 15—Life on land .......................................465
17.3 Conclusion .................................................................................... 466
References.............................................................................................. 467
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 471

CHAPTER 18 Hydraulic properties of soil under warming climate...............................473

Ashok Kumar Indoria, Kishori Lal Sharma and Kotha Sammi Reddy
18.1 Introduction................................................................................... 473
18.2 Climate Change - Causes of Warming Climate........................... 475
18.3 Soil Hydraulic Properties.............................................................. 476
18.4 Role of Hydraulic Properties in Crop Production........................ 480
18.5 Factor Affecting the Soil Hydraulic Properties Under
Warming Climate.......................................................................... 481
 Contents xiii

18.5.1 Soil factors ........................................................................482

18.5.2 Soil-crop management and land-use factors ....................492
18.6 Effects of Warming Climate on Hydraulic Properties................. 493
18.7 Adaptation Strategies for Management of Hydraulic
Properties for Higher Crop Productivity Under
Warming Climate.......................................................................... 495
18.8 Conclusion .................................................................................... 497
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 497
References.............................................................................................. 498
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 508

CHAPTER 19 Methane and carbon dioxide release from wetland ecosystems ............509
J. Dušek, E. Dařenová, M. Pavelka and M.V. Marek
19.1 What Are Wetlands?..................................................................... 509
19.2 What Are Wetland Soils? ............................................................. 511
19.3 Soil Organic Matter and CH4 and CO2 Formation...................... 512
19.4 Processes of CH4 and CO2 Formation ......................................... 514
19.5 CH4 and CO2 Emission and Effect of Temperature .................... 516
19.6 How Are CH4 and CO2 Leaving a Wetland? .............................. 519
19.6.1 Gas emissions from the bare soil, sediments,
or free water surface .........................................................519
19.6.2 Emissions of gasses mediated by the plants ....................520
19.6.3 Spontaneous release of gasses by ebullition process .......523
19.7 Fluxes of CH4 and CO2 From Soils in Different Wetland
Ecosystems.................................................................................... 524
19.7.1 Fluxes of CH4 ...................................................................524
19.7.2 Fluxes of CO2 ...................................................................529
19.8 Fluxes of CH4 and CO2 From Wetland Soils Under
Changing Climate ......................................................................... 532
References.............................................................................................. 534

CHAPTER 20 The effect of climate change on mycorrhizae .........................................555

Rosilaine Carrenho and Heloisa de Cesaro Krzyzanski
20.1 Mycorrhizae: Plants, Fungi, and Soil ........................................... 555
20.2 Warming and Mycorrhizal Fungi ................................................. 556
20.3 Plant Alterations as a Regulatory Factor From Development..... 559
20.4 Soil Alterations as a Regulatory Factor for the Development
of Mycobionts ............................................................................... 562
20.4.1 Symbiosis and mycorrhizal benefits under warming
and environmental changes...............................................566
20.5 Changes in Plants, Fungi, and Symbiosis Influence the
Environment.................................................................................. 569
20.6 Final Considerations ..................................................................... 571
References.............................................................................................. 572
xiv Contents

CHAPTER 21 Exploring soil responses to various organic amendments under

dry tropical agroecosystems .....................................................................583
Rishikesh Singh, Pratap Srivastava, Pramit Verma, Pardeep Singh,
Rahul Bhadouria, Vipin Kumar Singh, Hema Singh
and A.S. Raghubanshi
21.1 Introduction................................................................................... 584
21.2 Status of Soil Health for Tropical Ecosystems ............................ 587
21.3 Role of Soil Productivity Under Present Climate Change
Scenario......................................................................................... 588
21.4 Emerging Ameliorating Agents for Restoring Soil Health.......... 589
21.4.1 Organic agriculture ...........................................................589
21.4.2 Microbial inoculants and biological fertilizers ................590
21.4.3 Vermicompost ...................................................................591
21.4.4 Biochar ..............................................................................591
21.5 Impact of Soil Amendments on Soil Physicochemical
Properties ...................................................................................... 592
21.6 Impact of Soil Amendments on Soil Biological Properties......... 596
21.7 Impact of Soil Amendments on Soil Respiration and
Microbial biomass......................................................................... 598
21.8 Constraints to Organic Agriculture in Tropical Soils .................. 601
21.9 Conclusion and Possible Recommendations ................................ 603
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 603
References.............................................................................................. 604

CHAPTER 22 Climate-resilient and smart agricultural management tools to cope with

climate change-induced soil quality decline............................................613
Cláudia M.d.S. Cordovil, Shabtai Bittman, Luis M. Brito,
Michael J. Goss, Derek Hunt, João Serra, Cameron Gourley,
Sharon Aarons, Ute Skiba, Barbara Amon, Maria Jose´ Vale,
Soraia Cruz, Rui Reis, Tommy Dalgaard and Nick Hutchings
22.1 Climate Change-Induced Impact on Soil Quality........................ 614
22.2 Land-Use Change With Agriculture Intensification as
a Driver for Soil Quality Decline................................................. 616
22.3 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies Toward
Climate-Resilient and Climate-Smart Agriculture—Direct
and Indirect Strategies to Cope With Climate Change................ 618
22.3.1 Land-use planning.............................................................618
22.3.2 Optimizing year-round production of primary and
cover crop—a climate change strategy in Canada...........621
22.3.3 How to optimize livestock/cropping systems based
on semivirtual farmlets .....................................................627
22.3.4 The role of composting and composts in soil quality......630
22.3.5 Microbial processes in soil organic matter.......................632
 Contents xv

22.3.6 Conservation agriculture ...................................................638

22.3.7 Reducing nutrient losses from agriculture and
increasing nitrogen-use efficiency to mitigate
greenhouse gas emissions .................................................641
22.3.8 Climate change, water availability, intensification
of animal industries and soil nutrient levels—an
Australian case study ........................................................645
22.4 Conclusion .................................................................................... 650
References.............................................................................................. 651
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 662

CHAPTER 23 Plant soil interactions in soil organic carbon sequestration

as a restoration tool ................................................................................663
Aneta Kowalska, Adrianna Pawlewicz, Maria Dusza,
Marta Jaskulak and Anna Grobelak
23.1 Introduction—The Importance of Organic Matter in the
Environment.................................................................................. 663
23.1.1 Structure and types of organic matter ..............................664
23.1.2 Organic matter and soil quality ........................................665
23.2 Soil Depletion Problem ................................................................ 668
23.2.1 The importance of the carbon loss problem
in a soil..............................................................................671
23.3 Soil Carbon Sequestration ............................................................ 675
23.4 Impact of Afforestation and Energy Plant Cultivation on
Sequestration Carbon in Soil ........................................................ 678
23.5 Summary ....................................................................................... 682
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 682
References.............................................................................................. 682
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 688

CHAPTER 24 Plant soil interactions as a restoration tool..........................................689

Subodh Kumar Maiti and Dipita Ghosh
24.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 689
24.1.1 Coal mining and land degradation ...................................691
24.1.2 Reclamation practices .......................................................692
24.2 Plant Soil Interaction .................................................................. 695
24.2.1 Types of interaction ..........................................................697
24.2.2 Factors influencing plant soil interaction .......................698
24.2.3 Soil as an agent for plant growth .....................................702
24.2.4 Plants affect the process of pedogenesis in coal
mine degraded soil ............................................................709
24.3 Plant Soil Interaction as a Restoration Tool .............................. 710
24.3.1 Plant soil interaction as a tool for bioremediation
in the mining area .............................................................712
xvi Contents

24.3.2 Phytoremediation ..............................................................713

24.3.3 Case study: development of technosol properties
and recovery of carbon stock after 16 years of
revegetation on coal mine degraded lands, India.............715
24.4 Conclusion .................................................................................... 724
Acknowledgment ................................................................................... 725
References.............................................................................................. 725
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 730

CHAPTER 25 Soil enzymes in a changing climate ........................................................731

Marta Jaskulak and Anna Grobelak
25.1 Introduction................................................................................... 731
25.2 Extracellular Enzymes in Soils—Synthesis and Functions ......... 734
25.3 Extracellular Enzyme Activity—Methods of Assessment........... 738
25.4 Direct and Indirect Extracellular Enzyme Activity Responses
to Climate Warming, Droughts, and Excess Water..................... 740
25.5 Influence of Climate Change on Interactions Between
Microbes and Plants...................................................................... 742
25.6 Alterations of Extracellular Enzyme Activity for Purposes
of Bioremediation or Carbon Sequestration................................. 743
25.7 Conclusion .................................................................................... 745
Acknowledgment ................................................................................... 745
References.............................................................................................. 745

CHAPTER 26 Soil health and climate change ...............................................................751

V. Girija Veni, Ch. Srinivasarao, Kotha Sammi Reddy,
Kishori Lal Sharma and Ashish Rai
26.1 Introduction................................................................................... 751
26.2 Temperature Sensitivity of Soil Organic Carbon and
Nitrogen ........................................................................................ 753
26.3 Situation of Soil Organic Carbon Storage in Croplands.............. 754
26.4 Impact of Climate Change on Soil Physical, Chemical,
and Biological Properties.............................................................. 755
26.5 Increasing Soil Organic Carbon to Mitigate Greenhouse
Gases and Increase Climate Resiliency........................................ 756
26.6 Models to Simulate Soil Health and Climate Change ................. 761
26.7 Conclusion .................................................................................... 762
References.............................................................................................. 763

CHAPTER 27 Soil carbon sequestration and carbon flux under warming climate.......769
Rosilaine Carrenho and Heloisa de Cesaro Krzyzanski
27.1 Atmospheric Carbon ..................................................................... 769
27.2 Increased Atmospheric CO2 and Plant Growth ........................... 771
 Contents xvii

27.3 Organic Compounds in the Tissues of Plants and Animals,

and in Cells of Microorganisms ................................................... 773
27.4 Carbon Sequestration in Terrestrial Ecosystems.......................... 775
27.5 Global Warming and the Sequestration of Carbon
in the Soil...................................................................................... 784
27.6 Final Consideration....................................................................... 788
References.............................................................................................. 789
Further Reading ..................................................................................... 794
Index ............................................................................................................................... 795
List of contributors
Sharon Aarons
Agriculture Research, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and
Resources, Ellinbank, Agriculture Victoria, Australia
Amos Adeniyi
Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tshwane
University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
Paula Alvarenga
Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food Research Unit (LEAF),
School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
Barbara Amon
Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Potsdam,
Germany; Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Engineering,
University of Zielona Góra, Zielona Góra, Poland
Roshan M. Bajracharya
Southasia Institute of Advanced Studies, NK Singh Marga-306, Min Bhawan-34,
Baneshowor, Kathmandu, Nepal

Maria Pilar Bernal

Department of Soil and Water Conservation and Organic Waste Management,
CEBAS-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Murcia, Spain

Rahul Bhadouria
Department of Botany, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Shabtai Bittman
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Agassiz Research and Development Centre,
Agassiz, BC, Canada
Mokgadi F. Bopape
Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tshwane
University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa

Anwesha Borthakur
Centre for Studies in Science Policy, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi,
India

Luis M. Brito
CIMO - Mountain Research Center, High School of Agriculture, Polytechnic Institute
of Viana do Castelo. Refóios, Ponte de Lima, Portugal

xix
xx List of contributors

João Paulo Carneiro

Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment and Society (CERNAS), Castelo
Branco, Portugal

Rosilaine Carrenho
Department of Biology, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil
Patricia Alves Casaes
Postgraduate Program in Biology and Biotechnology of Microorganisms, State
University of Santa Cruz (UESC), Ilhéus, Brazil
Cláudia M.d.S. Cordovil
Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture, and Food Research Unit (LEAF),
School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal

Soraia Cruz
School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, LEAF, Lisbon, Portugal
Priscila Marques da Costa
Post Graduation Program in Comparative Biology, State University of Maringá
(UEM), Maringá, Brazil
Tommy Dalgaard
Department of Agroecology, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark

E. Dařenová
Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences (CzechGlobe),
Brno, Czech Republic

Irailde da Silva Santos

Bahia Secretariat of Education and Culture (SEC), State College of Alagoinhas,
Alagoinhas, Brazil

Cláudia Cseko Nolasco de Carvalho

Department of Biology, State University of Alagoas, Santana do Ipanema, Brazil
Heloisa de Cesaro Krzyzanski
Post Graduation Program in Comparative Biology, State University of Maringá
(UEM), Maringá, Brazil
Lander de Jesus Alves
Postgraduate Program in Biology and Biotechnology of Microorganisms, State
University of Santa Cruz (UESC), Ilhéus, Brazil

Thaı́s de Marchi Soares

Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil
 List of contributors xxi

Rajkumari Sanayaima Devi

Department of Botany, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College (University of Delhi), New
Delhi, India

J. Dušek
Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences (CzechGlobe),
Brno, Czech Republic
Maria Dusza
Institute of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Infrastructure and Environment,
Czestochowa University of Technology, Czestochowa, Poland
David Fangueiro
Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture, and Food Research Unit (LEAF),
School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal

Jan Frouz
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic; Biology Centre, AS CR, Ceske
Budejovice, Czech Republic

Dipita Ghosh
Ecological Restoration Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science &
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, India

V. Girija Veni
ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India
Maria Conceição Gonçalves
National Institute of Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), Oeiras, Portugal

Michael J. Goss
School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

Cameron Gourley
Agriculture Research, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and
Resources, Ellinbank, Agriculture Victoria, Australia
Anna Grobelak
Department of Environmental Engineering, Czestochowa Univeristy of Technology,
Poland
Eduardo Gross
Postgraduate Program in Biology and Biotechnology of Microorganisms, State
University of Santa Cruz (UESC), Ilhéus, Brazil; Department of Agronomy and
Environmental Sciences, Electron Microscopy Center, Universidade Estadual de Santa
Cruz (UESC), Ilhéus, Brazil
Another random document with
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 General Directions
Fritters are crisper if fried in clarified fat than in lard.
In making fruit fritters dip each piece of fruit into batter. See that it
is well covered.
Drop fritters, a few at a time, into smoking hot fat, being careful
that they do not touch each other; fry a rich yellow. Take out with a
skimmer and set in the oven for a few minutes on soft paper to drain.
Sift sugar over the fritters and serve with a wine or fruit sauce.

Batter for Fritters—I

(French Receipt)
2 eggs
¹⁄₂ lb. flour
1 table-spoon olive oil
1 table-spoon brandy
¹⁄₂ cup water, milk or beer
Mix the flour and water, milk or beer, perfectly smooth. Add the
well-beaten yolks, the oil and brandy (which is optional) and a little
salt. Mix well and set aside for two or three hours. When the batter is
wanted, beat the whites until stiff and dry and add them.

Batter for Fritters—II

9 ozs. flour
1 table-spoon powdered sugar
4 eggs
8 table-spoons butter (melted)
¹⁄₂ cup white wine
2 table-spoons brandy
 Mix the flour, sugar and well-beaten yolks together. Beat until
smooth, adding a little salt. Stir in the melted butter, white wine and
brandy, and, just before using, the whites beaten until they are stiff
and dry.

Fruit Fritters
Fritters may be made of apples, bananas, oranges, apricots, pine-
apple, peaches, etc. The fruit should be ripe and perfect.
Cut apples across in slices about a third of an inch thick. Take out
the core from the centre of each piece.
Cut each slice of pine-apple into four pieces.
Slice bananas lengthwise, cutting each slice in half if too long.
Cut peaches and apricots in quarters.
All fruit for fritters is best soaked for a couple of hours in well-
sweetened brandy, rum or kirsch, to which a little ground cinnamon
and the finely grated peel and the juice of a lemon have been added.
The fruit must be well drained before it is dipped in batter.
When this is not done each piece of fruit should be sprinkled with
sugar, a very little lemon juice and spice.
For frying see general directions.

Henriettes
1 egg
¹⁄₂ gill cream
Salt
1 salt-spoon baking-powder
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla
1 tea-spoon brandy
Flour
 Beat the yolk and white separately. Mix all smoothly together with
sufficient flour to roll out. Roll as thin as possible, and cut into
squares and ribbons. Fry in boiling lard. Drain and sprinkle with
flavoured sugar (see p. 164).

Orange Fritters
Peel and divide several sweet oranges into sections. Scrape off all
pith with a sharp knife. Take out the seeds. Drop them into a syrup
made of water, sugar and a table-spoon of brandy, and let them
simmer for a few minutes. Take out and drain on a sieve. Dip in
batter and fry (see p. 41). Put in the oven to drain and sprinkle with
orange sugar (see p. 164).

Pine-Apple Fritters
1 pine-apple (fresh or tinned)
2 cups flour
1 table-spoon melted butter
1 egg
Water
Pare and grate the pine-apple. To the juice add the flour. Mix
perfectly smooth. Add the well-beaten yolk, a little salt and the butter.
If fresh pine-apple is used add sufficient water to make the batter
thin enough to drop from the end of spoon. Beat the white of egg to a
stiff froth and stir it in quickly and lightly when ready to fry. Drop into
the boiling fat by the table-spoon and fry a golden brown. Drain on
paper in the oven and dust with lemon sugar (see p. 164).

Portuguese Fritters
(Pain Perdu)
1 pint milk
1 yolk
 2 table-spoons sugar
Bread
2 ozs. butter
1 dessert-spoon orange-flower water
Boil the milk with the sugar, grated rind of a lemon, and orange-
flower water until it is reduced one half.
Cut several slices of bread half an inch thick. Take off the crust
and cut the bread into rounds about the size of the top of a tumbler.
Dip these in the milk and then in the well-beaten yolk. Fry in butter.
Sprinkle with lemon sugar (see p. 164) or put on each one a
spoonful of jam. Serve very hot.

Soufflé Fritters
(Beignets Soufflés)
1 cup water
2 ozs. butter
4 ozs. flour
1 tea-spoon powdered sugar
6 yolks
3 whites
Set the water on the fire. Add the sugar, butter and a little salt. As
soon as it boils add the flour all at once. Work it smooth with a
wooden spoon, and stir it over the fire for two or three minutes. Take
off the fire and add the yolks of six eggs, one after the other, beating
hard all the time. Beat the whites of three eggs to a stiff froth. Add
this to the batter stirring it lightly in. Divide into pieces about the size
of an egg, sprinkle them with flour and fry them in a very large
saucepan of clarified fat, giving each fritter room to swell without
touching another. The fat should not be too hot at first, but as the
fritters swell the heat should be increased. When a good colour take
them out, drain them and sprinkle them with sugar. Serve at once
very hot.
 Strawberry Fritters
Dip whole strawberries into batter No. II. Fry a good colour. Drain.
Sprinkle with sugar and glaze with a salamander.
 Omelets
PAGE
Sweet Omelet—I. 50
” ” II. 50
Foam ” 51
Orange ” 51
Rum ” 52
 General Directions
A special pan should be kept for omelets. It must be used for
nothing else. After being used it is best to scour it with a little salt and
vinegar in order to keep a perfectly smooth surface.
Melt a tea-spoon of butter in the pan, let it run well over it, but do
not let it burn. Pour in the eggs. Lift the egg mixture at the sides as it
cooks so as to let the uncooked part flow under. This must, however,
only be done at first or the surface will be roughened. When the egg
is firm underneath but still soft on top, fold one side carefully over the
other with a knife. Slip gently on a very hot plate. Serve quickly and
very hot. Add a little salt to the eggs whilst beating.

Sweet Omelet—I
3 eggs
Powdered sugar
Jam
Beat the eggs slightly with one table-spoon of powdered sugar.
Cook as directed. Before folding over spread with apricot or
strawberry jam. Fold. Sprinkle with powdered sugar, and score
several diagonal lines on the top with a clean red-hot poker or iron.

Sweet Omelet—II
3 eggs
2 tablespoons rich cream
Powdered sugar
Jam
Beat the yolks with one table-spoon sugar and the cream until very
light and frothy. Beat the whites to a stiff froth. Fold them lightly into
the yolks. Pour into a pan, and when firm set in the oven a few
moments to dry. Fold in half, sprinkle with sugar and score several
diagonal lines with a clean red-hot poker.

Foam Omelet
3 eggs
1 table-spoon powdered sugar
Beat the yolks and sugar together. Beat the whites to a stiff froth.
Add half of them to the yolks, folding lightly in. Pour into a pan, and
when the mixture is nearly set spread it with the rest of the whites,
flavoured with a little vanilla or lemon juice and sweetened. When
the whites are thoroughly heated, fold over. Sprinkle with sugar and
serve quickly.

Orange Omelet
3 eggs
Powdered sugar
Orange sugar
The finely grated rind of one orange
3 table-spoons orange juice
Beat the yolks and two table-spoons powdered sugar until creamy
and light. Add the juice and rind. Beat again. Fold in the whites
beaten to a stiff froth. Proceed as for sweet omelet No. II. Sprinkle
the omelet thickly with orange sugar (see p. 164).

Rum Omelet
3 eggs
Powdered sugar
Rum
Beat the eggs with one table-spoon sugar. Pour into the pan.
Sprinkle well with sugar before folding. Fold. Slip on a very hot dish.
Pour lighted rum over the omelet, basting the omelet with the rum
until it is extinguished. Serve quickly.
 Baked Soufflés
PAGE
Chocolate Soufflé 55
Coffee Soufflé 55
Maraschino Soufflé 56
Omelette Soufflée 56
Punch Soufflé 57
Soufflé Royal 57
Strawberry Soufflé 58
Vanilla Soufflé 58
 General Directions
Soufflés should be made in dishes made for the purpose and must
be served in the same. The dish should be spread with cold butter,
the soufflé mixed not a moment before it is time to put it in the oven
(which should be moderately hot), and served immediately it is taken
out. A soufflé is better underdone than overdone.
Great care must be taken to whisk in the whites of eggs as quickly
and lightly as possible.
It is best to tie a piece of buttered paper round the outside of the
mould, so that the soufflé does not run over. In any case room must
be given for it to rise.
If there is danger of the soufflé burning, cover it with a sheet of
greased paper.

Chocolate Soufflé
To the vanilla soufflé (see page 58) add 2 ozs. fine powdered
chocolate, stirring it into the mixture whilst boiling.

Coffee Soufflé
2 ozs. roasted whole coffee
1¹⁄₂ pints cream or milk
3 ozs. butter
3 ozs. fine flour
3 ozs. powdered sugar
1 tea-spoon vanilla
8 eggs
Throw the coffee into the boiling cream or milk. Cover closely and
set aside for an hour. Strain through fine muslin. Melt the butter in a
large enamel saucepan. Add the flour. Mix till perfectly smooth. Add
the cream and sugar. Stir together. Set aside to cool. Add the yolks
beaten till creamy, and the vanilla. Then whip in the whites, which
should be whisked to a firm froth. Bake in a buttered soufflé dish in a
moderate oven for three-quarters of an hour.

Maraschino Soufflé
3 yolks
4 whites
1 table-spoon maraschino
3 table-spoons powdered sugar
3 table-spoons flour
1 pint cream
Beat the yolks and sugar for ten minutes. Add the flour. Beat till
perfectly smooth. Add the maraschino and cream. Beat the whites to
a stiff froth. Beat them lightly in. Pour into a soufflé dish and bake.
Sprinkle with powdered sugar.

Omelette Soufflée
6 eggs
4 heaped table-spoons powdered sugar
1 tea-spoon vanilla
Beat the yolks and sugar together for fifteen minutes. Add the
flavouring. Beat the whites to a stiff froth. Pour the yolks on the
whites and whisk them lightly and quickly till mixed. Pour into a
buttered tin, sprinkle with powdered sugar, and put in a moderately
hot oven. It should take about ten to fifteen minutes to bake. Serve at
once.

Punch Soufflé
1 pint cream (or milk)
2 table-spoons China or green tea
 3 ozs. butter
3 ozs. flour
1 glass rum
1 lemon
8 yolks
Boil the cream. Add to it the tea. Set it back on the oven and let it
stand five minutes closely covered. Strain off the cream. Melt the
butter in a saucepan. Add the flour and stir till perfectly smooth. Add
the cream. Stir continually for four or five minutes. Pour into a basin.
Add the sugar, juice of the lemon, half of the grated rind and the rum.
Beat well together until cooler. Gradually add the well-beaten yolks,
beating vigorously while doing so. Bake for about three-quarters of
an hour.

Soufflé Royal

¹⁄₂ pint cream

2 table-spoons flour
2 table-spoons powdered sugar
2 table-spoons orange flower water
¹⁄₂ cup pounded almonds
6 eggs
Mix the well-beaten yolks of six eggs with the rest of the
ingredients, beating all together hard for ten minutes. Add the whites
beaten to a firm froth. Mix well and pour into a buttered soufflé dish.
Serve as soon as the soufflé has risen. Pounded macaroons may be
used instead of almonds.

Strawberry Soufflé
1 quart strawberries
8 table-spoons powdered sugar
8 whites of eggs
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon lemon juice
 Press the berries through a fine sieve into a basin. Add the sugar.
Beat until very frothy. Add the lemon juice and the whites whipped to
a firm froth. Bake in a slow oven for half an hour. Sprinkle with lemon
sugar (see p. 164).

Vanilla Soufflé
2 ozs. potato flour (or fine flour)
2 table-spoons powdered sugar
1 tea-cup milk or cream
4 eggs
1 tea-spoon vanilla
2 table-spoons butter
Mix the flour, sugar and milk to a perfectly smooth paste and stir
over the fire until the flour is cooked (the mixture should boil for at
least five minutes). Add the butter whilst boiling. Strain and set aside
to cool. Beat the yolks till creamy. Beat them together with the milk,
etc. Add the flavouring. Beat in the whites, whipped to a stiff froth,
very lightly. Bake in buttered soufflé dish in a moderate oven for
twenty-five minutes.
This soufflé may be flavoured with the syrup of preserved ginger,
one table-spoon of maraschino, the juice and grated rind of a lemon,
or with orange flower water.
 Soufflé Puddings
PAGE
Almond Soufflé 62
Chocolate Soufflé 62
” ” with Almonds 63
Cream Soufflé 64
Lemon Soufflé 64
 General Directions
Do not more than half fill the tin. Tie a piece of buttered paper right
round the outside of the tin, letting it project about two inches above
the tin. Set the soufflé dish in a vessel of simmering water, which
should reach half way up the soufflé tin and which should boil gently
and be replenished from time to time with boiling water. Cook either
in a very moderate oven, or on a very gentle fire. The water should
only simmer.
When cooked, turn the soufflés out carefully and serve with cream
or wine sauce.

Almond Soufflé
4 ozs. almonds
7 eggs
4 ozs. sugar
1 table-spoon lemon sugar
2¹⁄₂ ozs. flour
Blanch and pound the almonds with one whole egg. Add the
sugar, six yolks, lemon sugar (see p. 164). Beat for quarter of an
hour. Sift in the flour lightly, avoiding lumps, and add the whites
beaten to a stiff froth. Pour into a buttered mould and steam about
an hour.

Chocolate Soufflé
2 ozs. butter
2 ozs. fine flour
¹⁄₂ pint milk
1 oz. sugar
2 ozs. powdered chocolate
 4 eggs
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon vanilla
Melt the butter in a saucepan. Add the flour. Mix until quite
smooth. Add the boiling milk gradually and stir together into a
smooth paste. Strain through a sieve into a basin. Add the vanilla,
sugar and chocolate. Add the well-beaten yolks when the mixture is
nearly cold, and then the whites beaten to a stiff froth. Mix thoroughly
and pour into a buttered mould. Steam for about an hour and a half.

Chocolate Soufflé with Almonds

4 ozs. butter
4 ozs. sugar
4 ozs. chocolate
4 ozs. almonds
6 eggs
1 white
2 table-spoons finely chopped candied orange and citron
Blanch and pound the almonds in a mortar with the white of an
egg. Beat the butter to a cream. Beat the yolks thoroughly and add
them to the butter, beating till smooth and foamy. Add the sugar,
almonds and the melted chocolate. Beat all together ten minutes.
Add the chopped peel, and the whites beaten to a stiff froth. Pour
into a buttered mould and steam for one and a half hours.

Cream Soufflé
2 table-spoons fine flour
4 ozs. butter
¹⁄₂ pint cream
5 eggs
1¹⁄₂ ozs. sugar
1 tea-spoon vanilla or 1 table-spoon maraschino
 Stir the flour with 2 ozs. of butter over the fire till smooth. Add the
cream, and stir continually till it boils. Set aside to cool.
Beat the yolks till creamy. Beat the butter to a cream. Beat the
butter and yolks together with the sugar and vanilla. Mix with the
cream. Beat together and beat in three whites whipped to a stiff
froth. Pour into a buttered mould. Steam over the fire for three
quarters of an hour.

Lemon Soufflé
1 oz. butter
¹⁄₄ lb. powdered sugar
1 lemon
1¹⁄₂ ozs. flour
5 eggs
Beat the yolks till creamy. Mix them with the flour, sugar, warmed
butter and grated rind of one lemon, and beat well together. Stir over
the fire till the mixture thickens. Set aside in a basin till cool. Beat the
whites to a stiff froth. Whip them lightly in. Steam in a buttered mould
for half an hour.
 Hot Puddings
PAGE
Albemarle Pudding 66
Apple and Apricot Charlotte 66
Apple Custard 67
Bread and Rum Pudding 68
Cherry Pudding 68
Christmas Plum Pudding—I. 69
” ” II. 70
Dutch Apple Cake 70
Fig Pudding 71
Friar’s Omelet 71
Gooseberry Pudding 72
Ginger Pudding 72
Italian Mousse 73
Little Citron Puddings 73
Marmalade Pudding 74
Mousse à la Mangara 74
Palace Pudding 75
Pine Apple and Rice Mould 75
Plum Pudding 76
Strawberry Shortcake 77

Albemarle Pudding
 4 ozs. butter
4 ozs. powdered sugar
3 eggs
1 lemon
³⁄₄ lb. flour
Raisins
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar and rind of a lemon.
Beat well. Add the well-beaten yolks and flour alternately, beating
continually. When quite smooth, add the juice of the lemon, and the
whites beaten to a stiff froth. Butter a mould, and line the top of it
with raisins. Pour in the mixture, and steam an hour and a half.
Serve with a wine sauce.

*Apple and Apricot Charlotte

6 large apples
Butter, the size of a walnut
Sugar
The finely peeled rind of a lemon
¹⁄₂ lb. apricot jam
Peel and core the apples. Cut in quarters. Stew with the butter,
and sufficient sugar to sweeten, until tender, taking care not to let
them burn.
Warm the jam in a saucepan, and put through a sieve. Add to the
apples, and stir well together.
Line a buttered mould with strips of thin bread which have been
dipped in melted butter. Fill in with the apple and apricot mixture.
Cover with a round of bread also dipped in butter. Bake about twenty
minutes, or until the bread is well coloured.

Apple Custard