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This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S.

Fourth Edition

Modern
Compressible Flow
Wi t h H i s t o r i c a l Pe r s p e c t i ve

John D. Anderson
Modern Compressible Flow
With Historical Perspective
Modern Compressible Flow
With Historical Perspective

Fourth Edition

John D. Anderson, Jr.

Curator for Aerodynamics
National Air and Space Museum
Smithsonian Institution, and
Professor Emeritus of Aerospace Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park
MODERN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without
the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other
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Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 24 23 22 21 20 19
ISBN 978-1-260-57082-3
MHID 1-260-57082-7
Cover Image: © NASA

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education
does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

John D. Anderson, Jr., was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on October 1, 1937.

He attended the University of Florida, graduating in 1959 with High Honors and
a Bachelor of Aeronautical Engineering Degree. From 1959 to 1962, he was a
Lieutenant and Task Scientist at the Aerospace Research Laboratory at Wright-
Patterson Air Force Base. From 1962 to 1966, he attended The Ohio State Uni-
versity under National Science Foundation and NASA Fellowships, graduating
with a Ph.D. in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering. In 1966, he joined
the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory as Chief of the Hypersonic Group. In 1973,
he became Chairman of the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University
of Maryland, and since 1980 has been a professor of Aerospace Engineering at
Maryland. In 1982, he was designated a Distinguished Scholar/Teacher by the
University. During 1986–1987, while on sabbatical from the university, Dr. Ander-
son occupied the Charles Lindbergh chair at the National Air and Space Museum
of the Smithsonian Institution. He continued with the Air and Space Museum one
day each week as its Special Assistant for Aerodynamics, doing research and writ-
ing on the history of aerodynamics. In addition to his position as professor of
aerospace engineering, in 1993 he was made a full faculty member of the Com-
mittee for the History and Philosophy of Science and in 1996 an affiliate member
of the History Department at the University of Maryland. In 1996 he became the
Glenn L. Martin Distinguished Professor for Education in Aerospace Engineering.
In 1999 he retired from the University of Maryland and was appointed Professor
Emeritus. He is currently the Curator for Aerodynamics at the National Air and
Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, and Glenn L. Martin Institute Professor
of Engineering at the University of Maryland.
Dr. Anderson has published twelve books: Gasdynamic Lasers: An Introduc-
tion, Academic Press (1976), and under McGraw-Hill, Introduction to Flight
(1978, 1985, 1989, 2000, 2005, 2008, 2012, 2016), Modern Compressible Flow
(1982, 1990, 2003, 2021); Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (1984, 1991, 2001,
2007, 2011, 2017); Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics (1989); and
under the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (2006, 2019), Com-
putational Fluid Dynamics: The Basics with Applications (1995); A History of
Aerodynamics and Its Impact on Flying Machines, Cambridge University Press
(1997); Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-Hill (1999); The Airplane: A
History of Its Technology, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (2002);
Inventing Flight: The Wright Brothers and Their Predecessors, Johns Hopkins
University Press (2004); X-15: The World’s Fastest Rocket Plane and the Pilots
Who Ushered in the Space Age (with Richard Passman), Zenith Press (2014); and
The Grand Designers, Cambridge University Press (2018). He is the author of

v
vi About the Author

over 130 papers in radiative gasdynamics, re-entry aerothermodynamics, gasdy-

namic and chemical lasers, computational fluid dynamics, applied aerodynamics,
hypersonic flow, and the history of aeronautics. Dr. Anderson is in Who’s Who
in America. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, an Honor-
ary Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), and
a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society, London. He is also a Fellow of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, and a member of Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Tau, Phi
Kappa Phi, Phi Eta Sigma, the American Society for Engineering Education, the
History of Science Society, and the Society for the History of Technology. In 1988,
he was elected as Vice President of the AIAA for Education. In 1989, he was
awarded the John Leland Atwood Award jointly by the American Society for
Engineering Education and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
“for the lasting influence of his recent contributions to aerospace engineering edu-
cation.” In 1995, he was awarded the AIAA Pendray Aerospace Literature Award
“for writing undergraduate and graduate textbooks in aerospace engineering which
have received worldwide acclaim for their readability and clarity of presentation,
including historical content.” In 1996, he was elected Vice President of the AIAA
for Publications. More recently, he was honored by the AIAA with its 2000 von
Karman Lectureship in Astronautics and with its History Book Award for 2002
for A History of Aerodynamics. In 2002, he was awarded the position of Honorary
Fellow of the AIAA, the Institute’s highest award. In 2012, he received the inau-
gural Hypersonic Systems and Technology Award from the AIAA. In 2017, the
National Aeronautic Association awarded him the Frank G. Brewer Trophy,
awarded annually “to an individual, a group of individuals, or an organization for
significant contributions of enduring value to aerospace education in the United
States.” In 2018, he was awarded the Benjamin G. Lamme Meritorious Achieve-
ment Medal by the College of Engineering of The Ohio State University.
Dr. Anderson is active and known for his professional and educational activ-
ities both nationally and internationally. He has given more than 40 short courses
to the major aerospace companies, the Air Force Academy, the government, and
in Europe at Rolls-Royce in England and the von Karman Institute in Belgium.
This includes a pioneering hypersonic aerodynamic course jointly sponsored by the
AIAA and the University of Maryland and televised live nationally by satellite. In
terms of the publishing world, in 1987 McGraw-Hill chose Dr. Anderson to be the
senior consulting editor on the McGraw-Hill Series in Aeronautical and Astronau-
tical Engineering. Recently, McGraw-Hill officially named the Anderson Series,
with the statement: “John D. Anderson’s textbooks in aeronautical and aerospace
engineering have been a cornerstone of McGraw-Hill’s success for over two
decades. McGraw-Hill proudly celebrates the impact that the Anderson Series has
had on aerospace engineers and on students past and present.”
CONTENTS

Preface to the Fourth Edition   xiii Chapter 3

One-Dimensional Flow 65
Chapter 1 3.1 Introduction 67
Compressible Flow—Some History and 3.2 One-Dimensional Flow Equations 71
Introductory Thoughts 1
3.3 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 74
1.1 Historical High-Water Marks 9 3.4 Some Conveniently Defined Flow
1.2 Definition of Compressible Parameters 78
Flow 12 3.5 Alternative Forms of the Energy Equation 78
1.3 Flow Regimes 15 3.6 Normal Shock Relations 86
1.4 A Brief Review of Thermodynamics 19 3.7 Hugoniot Equation 98
1.5 Aerodynamic Forces on 3.8 One-Dimensional Flow with
a Body 33 Heat Addition 102
1.6 Modern Compressible Flow 36 3.9 One-Dimensional Flow with Friction 111
1.7 Summary 38 3.10 Historical Note: Sound Waves and
 Problems 38 Shock Waves 118
3.11 Summary 121
 Problems 124
Chapter 2
Integral Forms of the Chapter 4
Conservation Equations for Oblique Shock and Expansion
Inviscid Flows 41 Waves 127
2.1 Philosophy 43 4.1 Introduction 129
2.2 Approach 43 4.2 Source of Oblique Waves 131
2.3 Continuity Equation 45 4.3 Oblique Shock Relations 133
2.4 Momentum Equation 46 4.4 Supersonic Flow Over Wedges
2.5 A Comment 49 and Cones 144
2.6 Energy Equation 50 4.5 Shock Polar 149
2.7 Final Comment 53 4.6 Regular Reflection from a
2.8 An Application of the Momentum Equation: Solid Boundary 151
Jet Propulsion Engine Thrust 54 4.7 Comment on Flow Through Multiple
2.9 Summary 63 Shock Systems 157
 Problems 64 4.8 Pressure-Deflection Diagrams 158

vii
viii Contents

4.9 Intersection of Shocks of Opposite 6.3 The Substantial Derivative 244

Families 159 6.4 Differential Equations in
4.10 Intersection of Shocks of the Nonconservation Form 247
Same Family 161 6.5 The Entropy Equation 253
4.11 Mach Reflection 163 6.6 Crocco’s Theorem: A Relation Between
4.12 Detached Shock Wave in Front of the Thermodynamics and Fluid Kinematics
a Blunt Body 165 of a Compressible Flow 254
4.13 Three-Dimensional Shock Waves 166 6.7 Historical Note: Early Development of the
4.14 Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 167 Conservation Equations 256
4.15 Shock–Expansion Theory 174 6.8 Historical Note: Leonhard
4.16 Historical Note: Prandtl’s Early Research on Euler—The Man 258
Supersonic Flows and the Origin of the 6.9 Summary 260
Prandtl–Meyer Theory 183  Problems 261
4.17 Summary 186
 Problems 187 Chapter 7
Unsteady Wave Motion 263
Chapter 5 7.1 Introduction 265
Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow 191 7.2 Moving Normal Shock Waves 268
5.1 Introduction 195 7.3 Reflected Shock Wave 275
5.2 Governing Equations 196 7.4 Physical Picture of Wave Propagation 279
5.3 Area–Velocity Relation 199 7.5 Elements of Acoustic Theory 281
5.4 Nozzles 202 7.6 Finite (Nonlinear) Waves 287
5.5 Diffusers 218 7.7 Incident and Reflected
5.6 Wave Reflection from a Free Boundary 226 Expansion Waves 293
5.7 Summary 228 7.8 Shock Tube Relations 299
5.8 Historical Note: De Laval—A Biographical 7.9 Finite Compression Waves 300
Sketch 228 7.10 Summary 302
5.9 Historical Note: Stodola and the First Definitive  Problems 302
Supersonic Nozzle Experiments 230
5.10 Summary 232 Chapter 8
 Problems 234 General Conservation Equations Revisited:
Velocity Potential Equation 305
Chapter 6 8.1 Introduction 306
Differential Conservation Equations 8.2 Irrotational Flow 306
for Inviscid Flows 239 8.3 The Velocity Potential Equation 310
6.1 Introduction 241 8.4 Historical Note: Origin of the Concepts of
6.2 Differential Equations in Fluid Rotation and Velocity Potential 314
Conservation Form 242  Problems 316
 ix
Contents

Chapter 9 11.3 Determination of the Characteristic Lines:

Linearized Flow 317 Two-Dimensional Irrotational Flow 388
11.4 Determination of the Compatibility
9.1 Introduction 319
Equations 393
9.2 Linearized Velocity Potential Equation 320
11.5 Unit Processes 394
9.3 Linearized Pressure Coefficient 324
11.6 Regions of Influence and Domains
9.4 Linearized Subsonic Flow 326 of Dependence 398
9.5 Improved Compressibility Corrections 335 11.7 Supersonic Nozzle Design 399
9.6 Linearized Supersonic Flow 337 11.8 Method of Characteristics for Axisymmetric
9.7 Critical Mach Number 344 Irrotational Flow 405
9.8 Summary 350 11.9 Method of Characteristics for Rotational
9.9 Historical Note: The 1935 Volta Conference— (Nonisentropic and Nonadiabatic)
Threshold to Modern Compressible Flow with Flow 409
Associated Events Before and After 351 11.10 Three-Dimensional Method of
9.10 Historical Note: Prandtl—A Biographical Characteristics 411
Sketch 356 11.11 Introduction to Finite Differences 413
9.11 Historical Note: Glauert—A Biographical 11.12 Maccormack’s Technique 419
Sketch 359 11.13 Boundary Conditions 420
9.12 Summary 360 11.14 Stability Criterion: The CFL
 Problems 362 Criterion 422
11.15 Shock Capturing versus Shock Fitting;
Conservation versus Nonconservation Forms
Chapter 10 of the Equations 424
Conical Flow 365 11.16 Comparison of Characteristics and
10.1 Introduction 366 Finite-Difference Solutions with
Application to the Space Shuttle 425
10.2 Physical Aspects of Conical Flow 368
11.17 Historical Note: The First Practical
10.3 Quantitative Formulation (After Taylor
Application of the Method of Characteristics
and Maccoll) 368
to Supersonic Flow 428
10.4 Numerical Procedure 373
11.18 Summary 430
10.5 Physical Aspects of Supersonic Flow
 Problems 431
Over Cones 374
 Problems 378
Chapter 12
The Time-Marching Technique: With
Chapter 11 Application to Supersonic Blunt Bodies
Numerical Techniques for Steady and Nozzles 433
Supersonic Flow 379 12.1 Introduction to the Philosophy of Time-
11.1 An Introduction to Computational Marching Solutions for Steady Flows 436
Fluid Dynamics 382 12.2 Stability Criterion 442
11.2 Philosophy of the Method 12.3 The Blunt Body Problem—Qualitative
of Characteristics 385 Aspects and Limiting Characteristics 443
x Contents
12.4 Newtonian Theory 445
12.5 Time-Marching Solution of the Blunt
Body Problem 447
12.6 Results for the Blunt Body Flowfield 452
12.7 Time-Marching Solution of Two-
Dimensional Nozzle Flows 455
12.8 Other Aspects of the Time-Marching
Technique; Artificial Viscosity 457
12.9 Historical Note: Newton’s Sine‑Squared
Law—Some Further Comments 460
12.10 Summary 462
 Problems 463
Chapter 13
Three-Dimensional Flow 465
13.1 Introduction 466
13.2 Cones at Angle of Attack: Qualitative
Aspects 468
13.3 Cones at Angle of Attack: Quantitative
Aspects 476
13.4 Blunt-Nosed Bodies at Angle
of Attack 486
13.5 Stagnation and Maximum Entropy
Streamlines 496
13.6 Comments and Summary 497
 Problems 498
Chapter 14
Transonic Flow 501
14.1 Introduction 504
14.2 Some Physical Aspects of Transonic
Flows 505
14.3 Some Theoretical Aspects of Transonic
Flows; Transonic Similarity 509
14.4 Solutions of the Small-Perturbation Velocity
Potential Equation: The Murman and
Cole Method 514
14.5 Solutions of the Full Velocity Potential
Equation 520
14.6 Solutions of the Euler Equations 529
14.7 Historical Note: Transonic Flight—Its
Evolution, Challenges, Failures, and
Successes 536
14.8 Summary and Comments 548
 Problem 549
Chapter 15
Hypersonic Flow 551
15.1 Introduction 553
15.2 Hypersonic Flow—What Is It? 554
15.3 Hypersonic Shock Wave Relations 559
15.4 A Local Surface Inclination Method:
Newtonian Theory 563
15.5 Mach Number Independence 569
15.6 The Hypersonic Small-Disturbance
Equations 574
15.7 Hypersonic Similarity 578
15.8 Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied
to Hypersonic Flow: Some Comments 585
15.9 Hypersonic Vehicle Considerations 587
15.10 Historical Note 591
15.11 Summary and Final Comments 599
 Problems 599
Chapter 16
Properties of High-Temperature Gases 601
16.1 Introduction 603
16.2 Microscopic Description of Gases 606
16.3 Counting the Number of Microstates
for a Given Macrostate 614
16.4 The Most Probable Macrostate 616
16.5 The Limiting Case: Boltzmann
Distribution 618
16.6 Evaluation of Thermodynamic Properties in
Terms of the Partition Function 620
16.7 Evaluation of the Partition Function in Terms
of T and V 622
 xi
Contents

16.8 Practical Evaluation of Thermodynamic 17.10 Nonequilibrium Normal Shock Wave

Properties for a Single Species 626 Flows 690
16.9 The Equilibrium Constant 630 17.11 Nonequilibrium Quasi-One-Dimensional
16.10 Chemical Equilibrium—Qualitative Nozzle Flows 696
Discussion 634 17.12 Summary 705
16.11 Practical Calculation of the Equilibrium  Problems 705
Composition 635
16.12 Equilibrium Gas Mixture Thermodynamic
Properties 637 Appendix A
16.13 Introduction to Nonequilibrium Table A.1 Isentropic Flow Properties 707
Systems 644 Table A.2 Normal Shock Properties 712
16.14 Vibrational Rate Equation 645 Table A.3 One-Dimensional Flow with
16.15 Chemical Rate Equations 651 Heat Addition 716
16.16 Chemical Nonequilibrium in Table A.4 One-Dimensional Flow
High-Temperature Air 655 with Friction 721
16.17 Summary of Chemical Nonequilibrium 657 Table A.5 Prandtl–Meyer Function
and Mach Angle 726
16.18 Chapter Summary 657
 Problems 658
Appendix B
Chapter 17 An Illustration and Exercise of
High-Temperature Flows: Computational Fluid Dynamics 728
Basic Examples 661  he Equations 728
T
17.1 Introduction to Local Thermodynamic and Intermediate Numerical Results:
Chemical Equilibrium 663 The First Few Steps 741
17.2 Equilibrium Normal Shock Final Numerical Results:
Wave Flows 664 The Steady-State Solution 746
17.3 Equilibrium Quasi-One-Dimensional  ummary 757
S
Nozzle Flows 669 Isentropic Nozzle Flow—Subsonic∕Supersonic
17.4 Frozen and Equilibrium Flows: ­(Nonconservation Form) 757
Specific Heats 675
17.5 Equilibrium Speed of Sound 680
17.6 On the Use of γ = cp∕cv 684 Appendix C
17.7 Nonequilibrium Flows: Species Continuity Oblique Shock Properties: γ = 1.4 761
Equation 685
17.8 Rate Equation for Vibrationally References 763
Nonequilibrium Flow 688 Index 769
17.9 Summary of Governing Equations
for Nonequilibrium Flows 688
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

T
he purpose of this book is to provide an understandable and enjoyable teach-
ing instrument in the classroom or independently for the study of compress-
ible fluid flow. It is intentionally written in a rather informal style to talk
to the reader, to gain his or her interest, and to keep the reader absorbed from
cover to cover. It is aimed primarily at the senior undergraduate and first-year
graduate student in aerospace, mechanical, and chemical engineering. However, it
is also written for use by the practicing engineer and scientist who is striving to
obtain a cohesive picture of the subject of compressible flow from a modern per-
spective. This book is meant to be read, not just used as a handbook to search for
the equation that will solve a given problem. Compressible flow is a beautiful
intellectual technical subject, and I believe that, like a masterwork painting made
up of an inestimable number of brushstrokes, every word in this book is like a
brushstroke in the whole canvas of compressible flow. Every word should be read
and thought about in order for the reader to truly appreciate the “masterpiece”
intellectual nature of this subject.
The response to the first three editions of this book from students, faculty, and
practicing professionals has been overwhelmingly favorable. Therefore, the fourth
edition carries over much of the fundamental content of the previous edition, plus
adding the following important components:
1. End-of-chapter problems have been added to those few chapters that
originally had no problems listed. Those particular chapters are heavily
theoretically based, and the original purpose was to allow the reader to
concentrate on absorbing the theoretical concepts without the additional
activity of problem solving. In this new edition, however, problems have
been added to these particular chapters in order to obtain a type of “full
closure” on understanding the material.
2. At the end of every chapter, and just before the list of problems, a “Sugges-
tions” section has been added. The purpose of these suggestions is to help
the reader better understand each end-of-chapter problem and to get started
on a right path for the solution of each problem (please note that for many
of the problems, there may be several “right paths”). Moreover, each of the
suggestions for problem solving helps to more strongly connect the reader
with the particular relevant physical and theoretical content in the text reading
material.
3. Chapter 15 on Hypersonic Flow has been expanded to recognize the greatly
increased interest and current activity in the hypersonic flight regime.
Hypersonic flow has many important physical and theoretical features that
distinguish it from basic supersonic flow, and these differences are highlighted

xiii
xiv Preface to the Fourth Edition

in Chap. 15. The author feels that the current new activity and interest in
the hypersonic flight regime will be long lasting, and Chap. 15 has been
expanded with new content and figures with such matters in mind. This
expansion is solidly in keeping with the title of this text, namely the
“modern” aspects of Modern Compressible Flow.
4. Continuing with the theme of “modern” that has permeated the previous
editions, this new edition maintains the content devoted to computational
fluid dynamics and high-temperature gas dynamics, two fields of intellectual
endeavor that are intrinsically woven into most modern applications of
compressible flow.
Taken in total, the book provides the twenty-first-century student with a balanced
treatment of both the classical and modern aspects of compressible flow.
Special thanks are given to various people who have been responsible for the
materialization of this fourth edition:
1. My students, as well as students and readers from all over the world, who
have responded so enthusiastically to the first three editions, and who have
provided the ultimate joy to the author of being an engineering educator.
2. My family, who provide the other ultimate joy of being a husband, father,
and grandfather.
3. My colleagues at the University of Maryland and the National Air and
Space Museum, and at many other academic and research institutions, as
well as industry, around the world who have helped to expand my horizons.
4. My editors at McGraw-Hill who have looked after me in the most profes-
sional, knowledgeable, understanding, and gentle manner possible.
Finally, compressible flow is an exciting subject—exciting to learn, exciting
to use, exciting to teach, and exciting to write about. The purpose of this book is
to excite the reader and to make the study of compressible flow an enjoyable
experience. So this author says—read on and enjoy.
John D. Anderson, Jr.
 C H A P T E R 1
Compressible Flow—Some
History and Introductory
Thoughts

It required an unhesitating boldness to undertake a venture so few thought could

succeed, an almost exuberant enthusiasm to carry across the many obstacles and
unknowns, but most of all a completely unprejudiced imagination in departing
so drastically from the known way.
J. van Lonkhuyzen, 1951, in discussing the problems faced in designing
the Bell XS-1, the first supersonic airplane

1
2 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts
PREVIEW BOX
Modern life is fast paced. We put a premium on moving
fast from one place to another. For long-distance travel,
flying is by far the fastest way to go. We fly in airplanes,
which today are the result of an exponential growth in
technology over the last 100 years. In 1930, airline pas-
sengers were lumbering along in the likes of the Fokker
trimoter (Fig. 1.1), which cruised at about 100 mi/h. In
this airplane, it took a total elapsed time of 36 hours to
fly from New York to Los Angeles, including 11 stops
along the way. By 1936, the new, streamlined Douglas
DC-3 (Fig. 1.2) was flying passengers at 180 mi/h, tak-
ing 17 hours and 40 minutes from New York to Los
­Angeles, making three stops along the way. By 1955,
the Douglas DC-7, the most advanced of the generation
of reciprocating engine/propeller-driven transports
­(Fig. 1.3), made the same trip in 8 hours with no stops.
However, this generation of airplane was quickly sup-
planted by the jet transport in 1958. Today, the modern
Boeing 777 (Fig. 1.4) whisks us from New York to Los
Angeles nonstop in about 5 hours, cruising at 0.83 the
speed of sound. This airplane is powered by advanced,
third-generation turbofan engines, such as the Pratt and
Whitney 4000 turbofan shown in Fig. 1.5, each capable
of producing up to 84,000 pounds of thrust.
Modern high-speed airplanes and the jet engines
that power them are wonderful examples of the applica-
tion of a branch of fluid dynamics called compressible
flow. Indeed, look again at the Boeing 777 shown in
Fig. 1.4 and the turbofan engine shown in Fig. 1.5—they
are compressible flow personified. The principles of
compressible flow dictate the external aerodynamic
flow over the airplane. The internal flow through the
­turbofan—the inlet, compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine, nozzle, and the fan—is all compressible flow.
Indeed, jet engines are one of the best examples in mod-
ern technology of compressible flow machines.
Today we can transport ourselves at speeds faster
than sound—supersonic speeds. The Anglo-French
Concorde supersonic transport (Fig. 1.6) was such a ve-
hicle. (Several years ago I had the opportunity to cross
the A
­ tlantic Ocean in the Concorde, taking off from
New York’s Kennedy Airport and arriving at London’s
Heathrow Airport just 3 hours and 15 minutes later—
what a way to travel!) Supersonic flight is accompanied
by shock waves generated in the air around the vehicle.
Shock waves are an important aspect of compressible
flow—they occur in almost all practical situations where
supersonic flow exists. In this book, you will learn a lot
about shock waves. When the Concorde flew overhead
at supersonic speeds, a “sonic boom” was heard by those
of us on the earth’s surface. The sonic boom is a result
of the shock waves emanating from the supersonic ve-
hicle. The environmental impact of the sonic boom lim-
ited the Concorde to supersonic speeds only over water.
However, modern research is striving to find a way to
design a “quiet” supersonic airplane. Perhaps some of
the readers of this book will help to unlock such secrets
in the future—maybe even pioneering the advent of
practical hypersonic airplanes (more than five times the
speed of sound). In my opinion, the future applications
of compressible flow are boundless.
Compressible flow is the subject of this book.
Within these pages you will discover the intellectual
beauty and the powerful applications of compressible
flow. You will learn to appreciate why modern airplanes
are shaped the way they are, and to marvel at the won-
derfully complex and interesting flow processes through
a jet engine. You will learn about supersonic shock
waves, and why in most cases we would like to do with-
out them if we could. You will learn much more. You
will learn the fundamental physical and mathematical
aspects of compressible flow, which you can apply to
any flow situation where the flow speeds exceed that of
about 0.3 the speed of sound. In the modern world of
aerospace and mechanical engineering, an understand-
ing of the principles of compressible flow is essential.
The purpose of this book is to help you learn, under-
stand, and appreciate these fundamental principles,
while at the same time giving you some insight as to
how compressible flow is practiced in the modern engi-
neering world (hence the word “modern” in the title of
this book).
Compressible flow is a fun subject. This book is
designed to convey this feeling. The format of the book
and its conversational style are intended to provide a
smooth and intelligible learning process. To help this,
each chapter begins with a preview box and road map to
help you see the bigger picture, and to navigate around
 Preview Box 3

63′3″

49′2″

Figure 1.1 | Fokker Trimoter airliner, from the late 1920s.

(continued on next page)
4 CHAPTER 1 Compressible Flow—Some History and Introductory Thoughts

(continued from page 3) 26′8″

95′

18′6″

64′5 12″

Figure 1.2 | Douglas DC-3 Airliner, from the middle 1930s.

 Preview Box 5

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Figure 1.4 | Boeing 777 jet airliner, from the 1990s.

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 MEETING OF THE BIOLOGICAL CLUB.

A meeting of the Biological Club was held in Zoological Lecture-

room January 7, 1901. Professor Osborn presided; twenty-three
members present.
Mr. Griggs, secretary of the board of editors gave a financial
report and recommended that the name of the publication be
changed to The Ohio Naturalist. By the unanimous vote of the
members present, the recommendation was adopted.
Professor Hambleton read a paper on his Explorations in
southern Chile and Patagonia. He said:
The expedition was sent out by the Chilean government and had
for its object the exploration of the coast from about 40° south
latitude to 48° in search of a river that might come from beyond the
mountains. This was done and a river called by the party Baker River
was discovered emptying into Baker channel at about 47° 20′ south
latitude. This river was followed in its course to the water-shed and
was found to be the outlet of Lake Cochrane, though its principal
source was not discovered.
A study of the flora of the region traversed by the party brought
to light the following facts: That the Peninsula of Taitao marks the
division line between the rich and varied flora of the Llanquihue
region and the monotonous flora of the Magellan Strait region.
The difference between these two floras is really remarkable. In
the Llanquihue region no one species nor even genus can be said to
predominate. Character is given to the vegetation by the Chusquea
quila a sort of climbing bamboo. Fuchsia macrostemma and a large
variety of stately forest trees, all struggling together for the mastery
and making a forest as impenetrable as the Selvas of the Amazon.
 The Magellanic region is characterized by the predominance of
several species of Nothofagus. Immense forests may be found
composed exclusively of a single species, for example, the N. pumila,
and in all this region, extending from the Peninsula of Taitoa to Cape
Horn, a distance 10° of latitude, no other kind of tree acquires any
considerable size.
Professor Mills gave a report of the Baltimore meeting of
Anthropologists, and Professor Osborn gave a short account of a visit
with Dr. P. R. Uhler, and called attention to some of the Zoological
papers read before the meeting of the Society of Naturalists.
J. K. Knox, Miss Mary Dresbach, Miss Mary C. Crawford, E. D.
Coberly, C. C. Poindexter, A. F. Conradi and Miss Clara Tangeman
were elected to membership.
The Society then adjourned.

Jas. S. Hine, Secretary.

 Ohio State University
Six distinct and independent Colleges, each
with a Dean and Faculty of its own.
THIRTY SEVEN DEPARTMENTS.
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Agriculture, Arts, Law,

Engineering, Pharmacy,
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FINEST GYMNASIUM IN THE WEST.

For further information address the President,

Dr. W. O. Thompson, State University, Columbus.

Ohio Forest Trees Identified by Leaves and Fruit.

By W. A. Kellerman, Ph. D., Ohio State University.
A neat pamphlet for every one who wishes to learn our native
forest trees. Keys simple. Description plain. Can learn the names of
the trees easily.

Price reduced from 25 cents to 10 cents.

Also, The Fourth State Catalogue of Ohio

Plants.
 Bound copies at cost of binding, namely 20 cents.

Gives list of scientific and common names; distribution by counties.

Teachers and others will also be interested in Prof. Kellerman’s
Phyto-theca or Herbarium Portfolio, Practical Studies in Elementary
Botany, Elementary Botany with Spring Flora, all published by
Eldredge & Bro., Philadelphia, to whom apply.
For information or copies of Forest Trees and Catalogue or
names of plant specimens of your region address

W. A. Kellerman, Columbus, Ohio

American Entomological Co.

1040 DE KALB AVENUE, BROOKLYN, N. Y.

Lepidoptera Price List No. 2.—Price 5 cents Refunded to Buyers.

Issued November 15th 1900.

Dealers of all kinds of Entomological Supplies

Manufacturers of the Original and Celebrated SCHMITT INSECT

BOXES.

Builders of INSECT CABINETS, ETC.

The Twentieth Century Text Books of Biology.

 PLANT RELATIONS, 12mo, cloth $1.10
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ANALYTICAL KEY TO PLANTS, 12mo, flexible cloth .75

All by JOHN MERLE COULTER. A. M., Ph. D., Head of Dept. of

Botany, University of Chicago.

They are already the preferred texts, and the reasons will be
apparent on examination.

ANIMAL LIFE: A First Book of Zoology.

By DAVID S. JORDAN, M. S., M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., President of
the Leland Stanford Junior University, and VERNON L.
KELLOGG, M. S., Professor in Leland Stanford Junior
University. 12mo. Cloth, $1.20. Now ready.
Not a book for learning the classification, anatomy, and nomenclature of
animals, but to show how animals reached their present development, the effects
of environment, their place in Nature, their relations to one another and to the
human race. Designed for one-half year’s work in high schools. Send for sample
pages.

ANIMAL FORMS: A Second Book of Zoology.

By DAVID S. JORDAN, M. S., M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., and HAROLD
HEATH, Ph. D., Professor in Leland Stanford Junior University.
Ready in February, 1901.
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, Publishers, New York,
Chicago, London.

Recent Scientific Works

In Astronomy, Dr. Simon Newcomb’s new book, published
October, 1900; in Physics, the Johns Hopkins text of Professors
Rowland and Ames; also in Physics for second and third year high
school work, the text of Dr. Hoadley, of Swarthmore; in Physiology,
the text by Drs. Macy and Norris, based on the Nervous System; also
the High School Physiology indorsed by the W. C. T. U., written
by Dr. Hewes, of Harvard University; in Geology, the Revised
“Compend” of Dr. Le Conte, and the two standard works of Dana,—
The Manual for University Work, and the New Text Book,
revision and rewriting of Dr. Rice, for fourth year high school work;
in Chemistry, the approved Storer and Lindsay, recommended
for secondary schools by the leading colleges; in Zoology, the
Laboratory Manual of Dr. Needham, of Cornell; and the Series
“Scientific Memoirs” edited by Dr. Ames, of Johns Hopkins. Nine
volumes ready.
The publishers cordially invite correspondence.
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, Cincinnati
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and
variations in spelling.
2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings
as printed.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OHIO
NATURALIST, VOL. 1, NO. 5, MARCH, 1901 ***

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