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Fundamentals of General Chemistry

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Chemistry in Quantitative Language
CHEMISTRY IN QUANTITATIVE LANGUAGE
Fundamentals of General Chemistry Calculations

............................................................................

Christopher O. Oriakhi, CChem, FRSC

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Christopher O. Oriakhi 2021
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2009
Second Edition published in 2021
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021937954
ISBN 978–0–19–886778–4
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198867784.001.0001
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CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Preface

This is the second edition of Chemistry in Quantitative Language. I am pleased that the first
edition, published in 2009, was so well received by both instructors and students. However, as is
typical with most books in their first edition, the users graciously provided several constructive
suggestions to make the book more useful for the intended audience. In addition, on my part, a
decade later I find the need to add a few topics and concepts that were left out of the first edition, as
well as the need to reorganize the chapters and update the worked examples and end-of-chapter
problems to make the book more useful. All of these have armed me with the motivation and
insights necessary to prepare this second edition. Formulating and solving quantitative chemistry
problems remains a concern for many students. This edition shares the same objective of making
problem-solving in chemistry more pleasurable and exciting, so students can hopefully face their
examinations with ease and pass with flying colors.
This second edition has been revised extensively and incorporates many minor changes than
can be included here. The most significant changes include:

• The original first two chapters (Essential Mathematics and System of Measurement) have
been removed and made available in the Appendix.
• I have added principal new materials broken down into two new chapters (Chemical
Bonding 1: Basic Concepts, and Chemical Bonding 2: Modern Theories of Chemical
Bonding) as these are foundational college chemistry materials; the latter chapter deals
specifically with molecular shapes and structure.
• Throughout the book I have added new problems with varying degree of difficulties, while
others have been combined, revised, or replaced.

Throughout the book I have adhered to the philosophy behind the first edition, which was to
introduce the concepts of the underlying chemistry followed by a series of worked example to
show students how the calculations are done and to hopefully enable them to appreciate what
is involved. At the end of each chapter are a series of problems that range from very simple to
those requiring more time and energy. Each problem in the book has been solved and checked
independently by Ted LaPage. Answers for all the problems are in the Solutions to Problems
chapter at the end of the book.
If you have used this book and found any errors or have comments, suggestions, and
recommendations for future revisions and additions, please feel free to reach out to me by email
at oriakhi@gmail.com or by contacting Oxford University Press.

v
Acknowledgement

Preparation of the second edition of Chemistry in Quantitative Language benefited greatly from
the immense support and encouragement of my family and some amazing friends, colleagues,
and students.
I begin by expressing my sincere appreciation to Ted LaPage for his indispensable contribu-
tions to this edition. In addition to his great sense of humor, dedication, and friendship, Ted read
the entire manuscript, solved the problems, and suggested many improvements in both content
and style.
Suggestions and constructive feedback from students and faculty who have used the book are
particularly helpful and deeply appreciated. Many of your suggestions have been incorporated
into this revision.
I also thank the various persons at Oxford University Press especially Katherine Ward, Sonke
Adlung, and Harriet Konishi for their dedication and friendly support in getting this project to
the finish line in a record time.
Finally, this acknowledgement would be incomplete without saying how much I appreciate
the love, patience, support, and encouragement I received from my family and friends at all times.
In particular, I dedicate this edition to the memory of mother, Mrs Ikhiwi Oriakhi, who inspired
this work.

vii
Contents

1 Atomic Structure and Isotopes 1

1.1 Atomic Theory 1
1.2 The Structure of the Atom 2
1.3 Isotopes 4
1.4 Relative Atomic Mass 5
1.5 Problems 7
2 Formula and Molecular Mass 9
2.1 Formula Mass 9
2.2 Molecular Mass 9
2.3 Molar Mass 10
2.4 Problems 11
3 The Mole and Avogadro’s Number 13
3.1 The Mole and Avogadro’s Number (NA ) 13
3.2 The Mole and Molar Mass 13
3.3 Calculating the Number of Moles 13
3.4 Problems 18
4 Formulas of Compounds and Percent Composition 19
4.1 Percent Composition 19
4.2 Types of Chemical Formula 22
4.3 Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis 25
4.4 Molecular Formula 27
4.5 Problems 29
5 Chemical Formulas and Nomenclature 31
5.1 General Background 31
5.2 Chemical Formula 32
5.3 Oxidation Numbers 32
5.4 Writing the Formulas of Compounds 34
5.5 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 37
5.6 Problems 40

ix
x Contents

6 Chemical Equations 43
6.1 Writing Chemical Equations 43
6.2 Balancing Chemical Equations 43
6.3 Types of Chemical Reactions 46
6.4 Problems 48

7 Stoichiometry 50
7.1 Reaction Stoichiometry 50
7.2 Information From a Balanced Equation 50
7.3 Types of Stoichiometric Problem 50
7.4 Limiting Reagents 57
7.5 Reaction Yields: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yields 59
7.6 Problems 60

8 Structure of the Atom 64

8.1 Electronic Structure of the Atom 64
8.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 64
8.3 The Nature of Matter and Quantum Theory 66
8.4 The Hydrogen Atom 67
8.5 The Quantum-Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom 70
8.6 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals 71
8.7 Electronic Configuration of Multielectron Atoms 75
8.8 Problems 78

9 Chemical Bonding 1: Basic Concepts 81

9.1 Introduction: Types of Chemical Bonds 81
9.2 Lewis Dot Symbols 81
9.3 Ionic Bonding: Formation of Ionic Compounds 83
9.4 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures for Molecules 86
9.5 Covalent Bonding: Writing Lewis Structures 86
9.6 Resonance and Formal Charge 88
9.7 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 91
9.8 Polar Covalent Bonds: Bond Polarity and Electronegativity 93
9.9 Problems 98

10 Chemical Bonding 2: Modern Theories of Chemical Bonding 102

10.1 VSPER Theory: Molecular Geometry and the Shapes of Molecules 102
10.2 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Electron Group Geometry and Molecular Shape
with the VSEPR Model 103
10.3 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Shape and Polarity 107
10.4 Valence Bond Theory 110
10.5 Valence Bond Theory: Types of Overlap 111
10.6 Hybridization 112
 Contents xi

10.7 Limitations of Valence Bond Theory 119

10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory 120
10.9 Problems 125

11 Gas Laws 129

11.1 Standard Temperature and Pressure 129
11.2 Boyle’s Law: Volume vs Pressure 129
11.3 Charles’s Law: Volume vs Temperature 130
11.4 The Combined Gas Law 132
11.5 Gay-Lussac’s Law and Reactions Involving Gases 134
11.6 Avogadro’s Law 136
11.7 The Ideal Gas Law 137
11.8 Density and Molecular Mass of a Gas 139
11.9 Molar Volume of an Ideal Gas 140
11.10 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure 142
11.11 Partial Pressure and Mole Fraction 143
11.12 Real Gases and Deviation from the Gas Laws 144
11.13 Graham’s Law of Diffusion 146
11.14 Problems 148

12 Liquids and Solids 152

12.1 The Liquid State 152
12.2 Vapor Pressure and the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 152
12.3 The Solid State 155
12.4 The Crystal System 156
12.5 Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions 159
12.6 Ionic Crystal Structure 165
12.7 The Radius Ratio Rule for Ionic Compounds 167
12.8 Determination of Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction 171
12.9 Problems 174

13 Solution Chemistry 177

13.1 Solution and Solubility 177
13.2 Concentration of Solutions 178
13.3 Solving Solubility Problems 188
13.4 Effect of Temperature on Solubility 191
13.5 Solubility Curves 191
13.6 Effect of Pressure on Solubility 193
13.7 Problems 194

14 Volumetric Analysis 199

14.1 Introduction 199
14.2 Applications of Titration 199
xii Contents

14.3 Calculations Involving Acid-Base Titration 200

14.4 Back Titrations 206
14.5 Kjeldahl Nitrogen Determination 210
14.6 Problems 212

15 Ideal Solutions and Colligative Properties 214

15.1 Colligative Properties 214
15.2 Vapor Pressure and Raoult’s Law 214
15.3 Elevation of Boiling Point 217
15.4 Depression of Freezing Point 220
15.5 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 222
15.6 Problems 225

16 Chemical Kinetics 228

16.1 Rates of Reaction 228
16.2 Measurement of Reaction Rates 228
16.3 Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 233
16.4 Collision Theory of Reaction Rates 234
16.5 Rate Laws and the Order of Reactions 235
16.6 Experimental Determination of Rate Law Using Initial Rates 236
16.7 The Integrated Rate Equation 240
16.8 Half-Life of a Reaction 246
16.9 Reaction Rates and Temperature: The Arrhenius Equation 248
16.10 Problems 250

17 Chemical Equilibrium 255

17.1 Reversible and Irreversible Reactions 255
17.2 The Equilibrium Constant 255
17.3 The Reaction Quotient 259
17.4 Predicting the Direction of Reaction 259
17.5 Position of Equilibrium 260
17.6 Homogeneous vs Heterogeneous Equilibria 261
17.7 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 262
17.8 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations from K 263
17.9 Qualitative Treatment of Equilibrium: Le Chatelier’s Principle 268
17.10 Problems 273

18 Ionic Equilibria and pH 276

18.1 The Ionization of Water 276
18.2 Definition of Acidity and Basicity 276
18.3 The pH of a Solution 277
18.4 The pOH of a Solution 278
18.5 The Acid Ionization Constant, Ka 280
 Contents xiii

18.6 Calculating pH and Equilibrium Concentrations in Solutions of Weak Acids 280

18.7 Percent Dissociation of Weak Acids 283
18.8 The Base Dissociation Constant, Kb 285
18.9 Relationship Between Ka and Kb 286
18.10 Salt Hydrolysis: Acid–Basis Properties of Salts 288
18.11 The Common Ion Effect 292
18.12 Buffers and pH of Buffer Solutions 293
18.13 Polyprotic Acids and Bases 298
18.14 More Acid–Base Titration 301
18.15 pH Titration Curves 303
18.16 Problems 308

19 Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria 313

19.1 Solubility Equilibria 313
19.2 The Solubility Product Principle 313
19.3 Determining Ksp from Molar Solubility 314
19.4 Calculating Molar Solubility from Ksp 316
19.5 Ksp and Precipitation 318
19.6 Complex-Ion Equilibria 320
19.7 Problems 323

20 Thermochemistry 325
20.1 Introduction 325
20.2 Calorimetry and Heat Capacity 325
20.3 Enthalpy 327
20.4 Hess’s Law of Heat Summation 331
20.5 Lattice Energy and the Born–Haber Cycle 333
20.6 Bond Energies and Enthalpy 335
20.7 Problems 338

21 Chemical Thermodynamics 344

21.1 Definition of Terms 344
21.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 344
21.3 Expansion Work 345
21.4 Entropy 348
21.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 348
21.6 Calculation of Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions 348
21.7 Free Energy 352
21.8 The Standard Free Energy Change 352
21.9 Enthalpy and Entropy Changes during a Phase Change 355
21.10 Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant 356
21.11 Variation of G0 and Equilibrium Constant with Temperature 358
21.12 Problems 361
xiv Contents

22 Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 365

22.1 Introduction 365
22.2 Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Electron Transfer 365
22.3 Oxidation Numbers (ON) 366
22.4 Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Oxidation Number 368
22.5 Disproportionation Reactions 369
22.6 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 369
22.7 Half-Cell Reactions 371
22.8 Balancing Redox Equations 372
22.9 Oxidation-Reduction Titration 381
22.10 Problems 385

23 Fundamentals of Electrochemistry 389

23.1 Galvanic Cells 389
23.2 The Cell Potential 389
23.3 Standard Electrode Potential 390
23.4 The Electrochemical Series (ECS) 391
23.5 Applications of Electrode Potential 391
23.6 Cell Diagrams 393
0 from Electrode Potential
23.7 Calculating Ecell 394
23.8 Relationship of the Standard Electrode Potential, the Gibbs Free Energy,
and the Equilibrium Constant 396
23.9 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration (the Nernst Equation) 399
23.10 Electrolysis 402
23.11 Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis 402
23.12 Problems 408

24 Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions 412

24.1 Definitions 412
24.2 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Equations 412
24.3 Nuclear Transmutations 415
24.4 Rates of Radioactive Decay and Half-Life 416
24.5 Energy of Nuclear Reactions 419
24.6 Problems 423

Appendix A 427
A.1 Essential mathematics 427
A.2 Significant figures and mathematical operations 428
A.3 Scientific notation and exponents 429
A.4 Logarithms 432
A.5 Algebraic equations 434
 Contents xv

Appendix B 445
B.1 Systems of measurement 445
B.2 Measurement of mass, length, and time 446
B.3 Temperature 447
B.4 Derived units 448
B.5 Density and specific gravity 449
B.6 Dimensional analysis and conversion factors 451

Solutions 457
Index 495
1

Atomic Structure and Isotopes

............................................................................

1.1 Atomic Theory

In 1808, based on experimental data and chemical laws known in his day, Dalton proposed his
theory of the atom. The theory states that:

1. All chemical elements are made up of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed. Chemical reactions only rearrange the way that the
atoms are combined.
3. Atoms of the same element are identical in all respects and have the same masses and
physical and chemical properties. Atoms of different elements have different masses as
well as different physical and chemical properties.
4. A combination of elements to form a compound occurs between small, whole-number
ratios of atoms.

Dalton’s theory resulted in the formulation of the law of conservation of mass and the law
of multiple proportions. Along with the law of definite proportion and the law of reciprocal
proportion, these form the basis of reaction stoichiometry (see Chapter 7).

1.1.1 The law of conservation of mass

In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed. The total mass of reactants is equal
to the total mass of the products. This law was first stated by Lavoisier, based on his findings
from combustion experiments.

1.1.2 The law of definite proportion

The law of definite proportions (also known as Proust’s law or the law of constant composition)
states that a given chemical compound is always composed of the same elements in the same
proportions by mass. When elements combine to form a particular compound, they do so in
fixed and constant proportions by mass, regardless of the source of the compound. For example,
a sample of pure water, regardless of its source, always contains 11.1% hydrogen and 88.9%
oxygen.

Chemistry in Quantitative Language: Fundamentals of General Chemistry Calculations. Second Edition.

Christopher O. Oriakhi, Oxford University Press. © Christopher O. Oriakhi 2021.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198867784.003.0001
2 Chemistry in Quantitative Language

1.1.3 The law of multiple proportions

If two elements can form more than one compound between them, the masses of one element,
which combine with a fixed mass of the second element, are in a ratio of whole numbers. For
example, nitrogen and oxygen combine to form compounds such as NO, NO2 , and N2 O, in which
the ratio of nitrogen atoms per oxygen atom is respectively 1, ½, and 2. This is one of the basic
laws of stoichiometry, as we discuss in Chapter 7.

1.1.4 The law of reciprocal proportions

According to the Law of Reciprocal Proportions (also known as the law of equivalent proportions
or the law of permanent ratios), if two different elements, A and B, chemically combine
separately with a fixed mass of a third element, D, the ratio of the masses in which they do
so are either the same as or a simple multiple (or simple fraction) of the ratio of the masses in
which A and B combine with each other. For example, carbon reacts with sulfur to form carbon
disulfide (CS2 ) and with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2 ). Sulfur and oxygen, meanwhile,
combine to form sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), in which the ratio of sulfur to oxygen is 1:2, which is ½
the 1:1 ratio of sulfur to oxygen in the carbon compounds.

1.2 The Structure of the Atom

An atom consists of a central nucleus, which contains roughly 99.9% of the total mass of the
atom, and a surrounding cloud of electrons. The nucleus is composed of two kinds of particles,
protons and neutrons, which are collectively known as nucleons. The proton is positively charged,
while the neutron is electrically neutral. The electrons have a negative charge and surround the
nucleus in “shells” of definite energy levels. (Note: energy level is discussed in Chapter 8.) In
a neutral (unreacted) atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons, so the atom
has a charge of zero. It must be mentioned that the chemistry of a given atom comes from its
electrons; all chemical changes take place entirely with regard to the electrons—the nucleus
is never affected by chemical reactions. The properties of the three sub-atomic particles are
summarized in Table 1.1.

1.2.1 Atomic number (Z)

The atomic number of an element is defined as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
of the element. It is also equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom. Atomic number is a
characteristic of a given element and determines its chemical properties.

Table 1.1 Properties of subatomic particles

Fundamental particle Symbol Location Mass (g) Mass (amu) Charge
Electron e Outside the nucleus 9.110 × 10−28 0.00549 −1
Proton p Inside the nucleus 1.673 × 10−24 1.0073 1
Neutron n Inside the nucleus 1.675 × 10−24 1.0087 0
 Atomic Structure and Isotopes 3

1.2.2 Mass number (A)

The mass number of an element is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

Mass number (A) = No. of protons (Z) + No. of neutrons (N)

A = Z+N
The general symbol for an element, showing its mass number and atomic number, is:
A
ZE
A = mass number in atomic mass units (amu)
Z = atomic number
E = symbol of the element as shown on the periodic table

For example, the symbols for C and Mg, showing their mass and atomic numbers, are:
12 24
6C and 12 Mg

1.2.3 Ions
An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost electron(s). A positively charged
ion results when an atom loses one or more electrons. Conversely, a negatively charged ion is
formed when an atom gains one or more electrons. For example, a sodium atom, Na, loses one
electron to form a sodium ion, Na+ ; a nitrogen atom, N, gains three electrons to form a nitrogen
(or nitride) ion, N3− .
Let us try to determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in the Ca2+ ion. A
neutral Ca atom has twenty electrons and twenty protons (atomic number = 20). A Ca2+ ion
however, has twenty protons and eighteen electrons (for a net charge of +2). The mass number,
which is the sum of protons and neutrons, is forty; since the ion has twenty protons, it must have
40 – 20 = 20 neutrons.

Example 1.1

Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in

(a) 23
11 Na (b) 168 O2− (c) 56
26 Fe
3+ (d) 63
29 Cu

Solution
The solutions are summarized in the following table.

Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons

(a) 23 Na 11 12 11
11
(b) 16 O2− 8 8 10
8
(c) 56 Fe3+ 26 30 23
26
(d) 63 Cu 29 34 29
29
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yolk of an egg and the beaten white. Form into small balls. Drop into
boiling water. Boil two or three minutes.

Quenelles of Chicken, Game, Hare or Rabbit

4 ozs. meat
2 ozs. bread-crumbs
2 ozs. butter
1 whole egg and 1 extra yolk
Chop and pound the meat. Soak the bread-crumbs in a little milk
or broth. Mix all thoroughly together. Season. Pass through a sieve.
Form into balls. Drop into boiling water or broth and simmer for three
minutes.
The best meat should always be reserved for making quenelles.

Quenelles of Marrow
4 ozs. marrow
4 ozs. fine bread-crumbs
1 egg
¹⁄₂ tea-spoonful finely-chopped parsley
Mix all the ingredients thoroughly. Season. Roll in the hand in
small balls. Boil in a little broth for fifteen minutes.

Rice
1 cup of Carolina rice
2 quarts boiling water
1 table-spoon salt
Wash a cup of rice thoroughly. Drain it. Throw it into a large sauce-
pan of salted boiling water and let it boil as fast as possible for
twenty minutes. Do not stir. Drain. Put into cold water for ten
minutes. Drain again. When required warm it by steaming, or set it in
the oven, leaving the door open.

Savoury Rice
(To serve with Clear Soup)
Prepare the rice as above. Add to it one cup of rich stock which
has been highly seasoned. Steam to warm. Add a table-spoon of
butter just before serving.
Or,
Add a table-spoon of chopped onion which has been fried a rich
yellow in a table-spoon of butter, to the cooked rice. Moisten with a
cup of stock and steam for ten minutes.

Rice Balls
(For Cream of Rice or Clear Soups)
¹⁄₄ lb. Carolina rice
1 oz. butter
1 oz. grated Parmesan
2 yolks of eggs
1 whole egg
Boil the rice until quite soft. Drain it. Put it in a sauce-pan with the
butter, cheese and yolks. Stir continually for five minutes. Season.
Take off the fire. Turn out of the sauce-pan to cool. When cold, make
into small balls. Beat the whole egg. Roll the balls first in a little flour,
then in the egg. Fry in very hot lard till a rich yellow.
 Sauces
There is, of course, no end to sauces, and in a book of this size it
is impossible to do justice to their variety. Enough are, however, I
hope, given in the pages that follow for ordinary needs.
It is of the highest importance in making sauces that the materials
used should be of the best. Fresh butter and the finest olive oil
should be used.
When adding the yolks of eggs to sauces it is best to do so in a
bain marie (i.e. to stand the sauce-pan in which the sauce is being
made, inside a larger one full of boiling water), as they must never
be allowed to boil, and a quick fire easily burns them.
For thickening sauces, etc., see remarks on soup on p. 12.
 Hot Sauces for Fish
PAGE
Black Butter 112
Dutch Sauce 112
Genoese Sauce 113
Italian Sauce 113
Maître d’Hotel Sauce 114
Melted Butter 114
Anchovy Sauce 114
Cucumber Sauce 114
Egg Sauce 114
Shrimp Sauce 114
Oyster Sauce 115
Sauce Hollandaise 115

Black Butter
(For Skate, grilled Mackerel)
1 gill vinegar
4 ozs. butter
Several small parsley leaves
Small piece of bay leaf
Boil the vinegar with the bay leaf until it is considerably reduced.
Heat the butter in a pan until it becomes brown. Add the parsley
leaves. Let them fry for a moment. Skim the butter.
 Remove the bay leaf from the vinegar. Add a little salt and pepper.
Pour the butter and parsley leaves into it. Mix and serve.

Dutch Sauce
Butter, size of an egg
1 tea-spoon flour
¹⁄₂ pint milk or cream
Juice of half a lemon
2 yolks of eggs
Melt the butter in a sauce-pan. Stir in the flour and mix till perfectly
smooth. Add the milk or cream. Boil for two or three minutes. Add
lemon juice, and just before serving, stir in the two yolks. After which
do not allow the sauce to boil.

Genoese Sauce
(For Fillet of Sole)
1 oz. butter
2 table-spoons olive oil
2 yolks of eggs
1 table-spoon vinegar
Put the oil and butter into a sauce-pan on the fire and stir till the
butter is melted. Beat the yolks slightly. Add the vinegar to them.
Season. Directly the butter is melted add the yolks and vinegar,
stirring continually over a bain marie until the sauce thickens. Half a
tea-spoonful of mustard may be added.

Italian Sauce
(For Mackerel, etc.)
2 table-spoons olive oil
1 oz. butter
 6 chopped mushrooms
1 shallot, finely chopped
1 tea-spoon chopped parsley
1 clove
1 wine-glass white wine
10 drops Liebig’s extract of meat
Put the butter and oil into a sauce-pan. Add the mushrooms,
shallot, parsley and the clove. Cook for a few minutes. Add the wine
and Liebig. Simmer gently for forty minutes. Season. Pass through a
sieve.

Maître d’Hotel
4 ozs. butter
¹⁄₂ pint milk
1 tea-spoon flour
1 dessert-spoon finely chopped parsley
Juice of a lemon
Mix the flour and butter together till smooth. Melt in a sauce-pan.
Add the boiling milk. Let all boil for three or four minutes, stirring
constantly. Add the parsley and lemon juice.

Melted Butter
1 tea-spoon flour
4 ozs. butter
1 gill boiling milk or water
Mix the flour and butter thoroughly in a basin. When perfectly
smooth put in a sauce-pan. Add to it the boiling milk or water. Let it
boil for two or three minutes. Stir continually from left to right.
Season.
To this sauce the raw yolk of an egg or a finely chopped hard
boiled egg, shrimps, a little essence of anchovy, or a table spoon of
grated cucumber may be added; when it becomes egg, shrimp,
anchovy or cucumber sauce. To the cucumber sauce add a tea-
spoonful of lemon juice.

Oyster Sauce
2 doz. oysters
3 ozs. butter
1 tea-spoon flour
¹⁄₂ pint cream
1 coffee-spoon lemon juice
Prepare the oysters and stew them in their own juice and the
butter until plump and tender. Mix the flour with the cream, until
perfectly smooth. Bring to the boil and let it boil two or three minutes.
Add it to the oysters, etc. Stir quickly together. Season with salt, a
little cayenne and the lemon juice.

Sauce Hollandaise
4 table-spoons vinegar
1 blade mace
1 tea-spoon flour
Yolks of 4 eggs
3 ozs. butter
Season the vinegar, add to it the flour and mix perfectly smooth.
Add the mace. Bring to the boil and boil for two or three minutes.
Take off the fire, and take out the mace. Add the butter cut in small
pieces, and the well-beaten yolks. Stir continually, in one direction,
over a bain marie. Serve directly the butter is melted.
 Hot Sauces for Roasts, Steaks,
Cutlets, etc.
PAGE
Brown Sauce 118
Cucumber Sauce 118
Dutch Horse-radish Sauce 119
Maître d’Hotel I. 120
” ” II. 120
Mushroom Sauce 121
Onion ” 121
Sauce Béarnaise 122
Sauce for Chops and Steaks 122
Sauce Piquante au Citron 123
Sauce Robert 123
Sauce Vinaigrette 124
Tomato Sauce 124

Brown Sauce or Cullis

3 lbs. lean veal
1 lb. raw lean ham
1 oz. butter
6 mushrooms chopped
1 carrot chopped
1 onion chopped
Rind of a lemon
 Small bouquet of herbs
1 tea-spoon allspice
1 quart brown stock
¹⁄₄ lb. brown roux
Slice the veal and ham. Add the vegetables, spice, lemon rind and
herbs, and brown slightly in a sauce-pan with the butter. Add the
stock and brown roux (see p. 13). Boil ten minutes. Stir continually.
Put through a tammy.

Cucumber Sauce
1 cucumber
2 table-spoons brown stock
1 oz. butter
1 table-spoon chopped parsley
Juice of half a lemon
¹⁄₂ pint brown sauce
Peel and split the cucumber lengthwise in four pieces. Take out
the seeds. Cut in small pieces. Put into salted water and boil gently
for seven minutes. Take off and drain. Melt the butter and add to it
the stock, cucumber and parsley. Cook gently for half-an-hour. Add
the brown sauce and lemon juice.

Dutch Horse-radish Sauce

(For Roast Beef or Steak)
1 tea-cup horse-radish
¹⁄₂ pint water
3 ozs. butter
3 table-spoons flour
1 gill cream
4 yolks of eggs
3 table-spoons elder vinegar
 Scrape the horse-radish very finely, and boil it for ten minutes in
water. Drain off the water. Cook the horse-radish with the butter and
flour for four minutes. Add the water in which the horse-radish was
boiled, stirring continually. Heat. Take off the fire. Add the hot cream
and then the beaten yolks. Beat well together. Add pepper, salt and
the vinegar.

Maître d’Hotel—I
2 ozs. butter
1 table-spoon chopped parsley
Juice of half a lemon
Melt the butter. Skim it. Add the parsley (and, if liked, a little finely
chopped shallot), salt, pepper and lemon juice.

Maître d’Hotel—II
4 shallots
1 tea-spoon chopped parsley
1 tea-spoon chopped fennel
1 dozen mushrooms
2 ozs. butter
¹⁄₂ pint brown sauce or béchamel
Chop the shallots. Put them with the parsley, fennel and
mushrooms in a sauce-pan in which the butter has been melted.
Cook gently for five minutes. Add the brown sauce or béchamel (see
pp. 118 and 126). Boil ten minutes. Season and add a squeeze of
lemon juice.

Mushroom Sauce
2 dozen small mushrooms
1 oz. butter
1 table-spoon flour
 1 pint good gravy
¹⁄₂ a lemon
Cook the mushrooms in the butter until brown and tender. Add the
flour. Stir well in and brown. Pour the gravy over the mushrooms.
Boil three minutes. Season and add a little lemon juice.

Onion Sauce
(For Roast Mutton)
4 onions
¹⁄₂ pint melted butter (see p. 114)
Slice and chop the onions finely. Boil until tender. Drain and add to
the hot melted butter. Season. If preferred, the onion can be first
passed through a fine sieve and then added to the melted butter.

Sauce Béarnaise
5 yolks of eggs
2 ozs. butter
1 table-spoon chopped tarragon
1 dessert-spoon vinegar
Put the yolks in a sauce-pan, in a bain marie, and stir into them
one ounce of butter. As soon as the eggs begin to thicken, take off
the fire. Add another ounce of butter, the tarragon and vinegar. This
sauce should be of the consistency of a mayonnaise. Serve with
roast meats.

Sauce for Chops or Steak

2 table-spoons red wine
2 table-spoons ketchup
1 tea-spoon butter
1 tea-spoon vinegar
 Stir altogether in a sauce-pan. Season and serve very hot.

Sauce Piquante au Citron

(For Calf’s Head)
2 table-spoons chopped onions
1 oz. butter
1 table-spoon flour
1 gill white stock
1 gill white wine
1 lemon
Fry the onion in the butter, with the flour, until a rich yellow. Add to
it the stock, which should be boiling, and the wine. Stir together. Add
the juice of the lemon and a little of the grated rind. Simmer for
quarter of an hour. Strain through a fine sieve.

Sauce Robert
(For Pork)
3 onions
1 gill rich brown gravy
1 tea-spoon made mustard
1 tea-spoon vinegar
2 ozs. butter
1 table-spoon flour
Chop the onions. Fry them in the butter. Add the flour. Mix quite
smooth. Add the gravy, salt and pepper. Simmer for half-an-hour.
Skim. Add the mustard and vinegar. Serve with pork.

Sauce Vinaigrette
4 table-spoons vinegar
1 bay leaf
1 table-spoon brown sauce
 1 table-spoon chopped shallots
2 table-spoons chopped gherkins
1 table-spoon capers
1 table-spoon chopped parsley
1 oz. butter
Boil the vinegar for quarter of an hour with the bay leaf. Add the
sauce (see p. 118). Simmer five minutes. Remove the bay leaf. Add
the shallots (which should have been previously cooked in the butter
and allowed to drain upon a sieve), capers, gherkins and parsley.

Tomato Sauce
6 tomatoes
¹⁄₂ an onion chopped
1 clove
1 slice of ham
1 gill rich brown gravy
1 table-spoon brown roux
Remove the seeds from the tomatoes. Stew them with the onion,
ham and clove in an enamel sauce-pan until well cooked. Rub
through a tammy. Return to the sauce-pan. Add the gravy and brown
roux (see p. 12). Simmer for quarter of an hour.
Hot Sauces for Fowls, Ducks, Rabbits,
etc.
PAGE
Apple Sauce 126
Béchamel Sauce 126
Bread Sauce 127
Celery Sauce 127
Gooseberry Sauce 128
Lemon Sauce 128
Parsley Sauce 129
Sauce à la Reine 129
White Sauce 130

Apple Sauce
Set the required quantity of sour apples, pared, cored and sliced,
in a small pan inside a large sauce-pan containing boiling water. Let
the water boil quickly until the apples are done. Mash them and add
sugar to taste.
Or,
Pare, quarter and remove the core of several sour apples. Put
them a sauce-pan with a little water. Boil up quickly. Do not stir until
cooked. Then add sugar and mash.

Béchamel
 1 lb. veal
2 slices ham
2 pints water
¹⁄₄ lb. mushrooms
1 onion
Bouquet of herbs
5 table-spoons white roux
1 pint of cream
Slice the veal, ham, mushrooms and onion and stew them gently
for an hour and a half in the water. Thicken with the roux (see p. 12).
Add the cream. Boil for two or three minutes, stirring continually.
Strain.

Bread Sauce

¹⁄₂ pint milk

1 tea-cup bread-crumbs
1 onion
2 pepper-corns
1 tea-spoon butter
Slice the onion and boil it in the milk with the pepper-corns until
very tender. Strain off the milk and add it to the bread-crumbs which
should be made from stale bread and be very finely grated. Allow the
sauce to stand covered for a few minutes. Add the butter. Stir in
thoroughly. Season and serve very hot.

Celery Sauce
1 large head of celery
¹⁄₂ pint milk or cream
1 table-spoon white roux
Use the best of the celery only. Cut it in small pieces. Cook it in
water until very tender. Put through a sieve. Add it to the cream or
milk. Thicken with a small table-spoon white roux (see p. 12).
Season.

Gooseberry Sauce
(For Duckling or Goose)
1 gill spinach juice
¹⁄₂ pint stock
¹⁄₂ pint gooseberries
1 table-spoon sugar
1 tea-spoon butter
Cook the gooseberries till tender. Rub them through a sieve. Put
them in a sauce-pan on the fire. Add the sugar (more if preferred)
and butter. When thoroughly mixed, add the stock with which the
spinach juice (see p. 104) has been mixed. Make very hot.

Lemon Sauce
(For Rabbit or Fowl)
1 lemon
1 liver of fowl or rabbit
¹⁄₂ pint melted butter
1 table-spoon chopped parsley
Cook the liver, pound it and put it through a sieve. Peel the lemon,
cut the inside, from which the pips must be removed, into very small
dice-shaped pieces. Add the lemon and liver to the melted butter.
Heat gently, but do not boil. Add the parsley.

Parsley Sauce
Small bunch of parsley
¹⁄₂ pint melted butter
 Boil the parsley for five minutes. Drain. Chop finely. Add to the
melted butter.
Or,
To one gill of water in which a fowl has been boiled, add one gill of
cream, one dessert-spoon white roux (see p. 12), seasoning and the
boiled and chopped parsley.

Sauce à la Reine

¹⁄₂ pint veal stock

¹⁄₄ lb. mushrooms
Small bouquet of herbs
¹⁄₂ an onion
¹⁄₂ pint cream
Breast of a fowl
Juice of half a lemon
1 tea-spoon flour
Let the veal stock simmer for half-an-hour with the mushrooms,
onion, and herbs. Then strain. Thicken with the flour. Boil two or
three minutes. Add the boiling cream. Set back on the fire and add
the finely pounded breast, lemon juice and seasoning. Do not allow
the sauce to boil after the chicken has been added.

White Sauce
1 gill veal or chicken stock
1 gill cream
Juice of half a lemon
Juice of half a Seville orange
Mix all together. Heat gently, stirring continually. Season.
 Hot Sauces for Game, etc.
PAGE
Cream Sauce 132
Game Sauce 132
German Sauce 133
Madeira Sauce 133
Orange Sauce 134
Sauce Poivrade 134
Sour Cream Sauce 135

Cream Sauce
The gravy from two roasted birds
1 gill cream
Stir the cream into gravy of the birds with which it is to be served.
Season. Add a few drops of lemon.

Game Sauce
2 onions
A bouquet of thyme, bay leaf and parsley
Several pieces of game
1 slice of ham
1 oz. of butter
4 table-spoons of Madeira
¹⁄₂ pint brown sauce (see p. 118)
 Cut the onions, ham and game into small pieces. Add to them the
bouquet. Fry them gently in the butter. Add the Madeira. Simmer
twenty minutes. Add the sauce and simmer ten minutes. Pass
through a sieve.

German Sauce

¹⁄₂ pint rich brown stock

1 tea-spoon glaze
Pheasant bones
12 mushrooms
1 glass white wine
Break the pheasant bones. Add them to the stock. Simmer half-
an-hour. Add the mushrooms. Simmer till tender. Put through a
sieve. Add glaze, seasoning and glass of wine.

Madeira Sauce

¹⁄₂ onion
¹⁄₂ carrot
1 bay leaf
2 cloves
1 slice ham
1 gill brown stock or gravy
¹⁄₂ pint brown sauce (see p. 118)
1 glass Madeira
Cayenne
Juice of half a lemon
Slice the onion and carrot. Put them, with the bay leaf, clove and
the ham, cut in small pieces, in a sauce-pan. Cover with the brown
stock. Boil up quickly. Simmer half-an-hour. Season. Add Madeira,
brown sauce and lemon juice. Rub through a fine sieve. Colour with
caramel colouring (see p. 13) if not dark enough, and stir in the
butter.
 Orange Sauce
2 Seville oranges
¹⁄₂ lemon
1 glass red wine
1 gill brown gravy
1 lump of sugar
Grate the yellow part of the skin of one orange very finely. Add it to
the brown gravy. Simmer a few minutes. Add the wine, the juice of
two oranges and half a lemon, a little cayenne and the sugar. Serve
with game or wild duck.

Sauce Poivrade
1 oz. butter
2 onions
1 carrot
2 cloves
1 bay leaf
1 tea-spoon flour
1 glass red wine
1 glass water
1 table-spoon vinegar
Melt the butter, add the onions and carrot sliced, the cloves, bay-
leaf and flour. Cook until a good brown, then add the wine, water and
vinegar. Boil half-an-hour. Strain. Season with salt and whole pepper.
Serve with game.

Sour Cream Sauce

2 ozs. butter
2 yolks of eggs
1 table-spoon flour
1 gill sour cream