430.213A Introduction to Circuit Theory and Lab.

, Spring 2024, Seoul National University

Lecture 10.
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

Wooyeol Choi, PhD

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea

Copyright Statement: The materials provided by the instructor in this course are for the use of the students enrolled in the
course. Copyrighted course materials may not be further disseminated.
 Outline
▪ Reading – Textbook Chapter 10

▪ Goals
• Learn how we can apply circuits analysis techniques for periodic signals

▪ Contents
• Periodic sinusoidal source
• Sinusoidal signal representation in vector (complex number, phasor)
• Impedance (=complex v to i ratio)

• Circuit theorems for complex elements

• Op amp with complex elements

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 2

 Sinusoidal Source (Signal)
Amplitude (Angular) frequency
𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑇)

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡) [V] 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑇)

(total) phase 𝜔𝑇 = 2𝜋

2𝜋 rad
𝜔= ; 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑇 s
Number of radian in 1 second
2𝜋
𝑇= ; 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 [s]
𝜔
1
= 𝑓 ; 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 [s−1 = Hz]
𝑇
Number of full sines in 1 second
▪ Voltage or current (hence the power)
can exhibit sinusoidal (sine or cosine) function Radian vs. degree
2𝜋 radian = 360°
▪ (a kind of) alternating current (AC)
𝜋 = 180°
▪ Periodic 𝜋
= 90°
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑁𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑁 2
𝜋
4
= 45°
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 3
 Time Shift

𝐴 sin(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝑡0 ) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑡0 )

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜔𝑡0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡0 ; 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 [rad or degree]

𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
= 𝐴 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐵1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡

Positive 𝑡0 means
Advanced in time, shift to the left
”leading” in phase (or time)

Negative 𝑡0 means
Delayed in time, shift to the right
“lagging” in phase (or time)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 4

 Why Do We Care?
Power Signals

▪ Sinusoidal AC is used for the most ▪ Any periodic signals can be

of power systems worldwide represented as weighted sum of
• Why? sinusoids (Fourier series, transform)
(since Westinghouse-Tesla won!) 𝑁
• Most of generators (=motor) 𝑠 𝑥 =෍ 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑥
−𝑁
generate AC power
(except for some renewables)
• AC voltage up/down-conversion
can be done using only passive
transformers

▪ Using superposition, we can analyze

system behavior for any signal by
knowing that for sinusoid!

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 5

 Sinusoid and Linear Circuits (Systems)
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴0 sin(𝜔𝑡) → 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑎𝐴0 sin(𝜔𝑡)

Passive circuit elements do one of three (two) things

Resistors do
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑖 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡) → 𝑣 = 𝑅𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡)

Capacitors do
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝐴0
𝑣 = 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡) → 𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 90°)
(Current leads voltage, voltage lags current)

Inductors do
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡) → 𝑣 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔𝐿𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 90°)
(Voltage leads current, current lags voltage)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 6

 Phasor Representation
▪ In linear systems 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 𝐴∠𝜃
(static or dynamic),
steady state (forced) response 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝐕(𝜔) = 𝑉0 ∠𝜃
will always have the same frequency 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝐈(𝜔) = 𝐼0 ∠𝜃

▪ If we are not interested in the natural This does not mean they are same!
or transient response,
This looks like a vector in the complex plane
why do we keep writing sin 𝜔𝑡?
Frequency domain (vs. time domain)
→ Phasor representation

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 7

 Phasor Representation

𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐴 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑡 Exponential form

𝐴∠𝜃 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 + 𝑗𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜃

𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = ℜ 𝐴𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡+𝜃
= ℜ 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜃

𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝑒 𝑗𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑗 sin 𝑥
𝑗𝑥
𝑒 𝑗𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 𝑏 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
cos 𝑥 = ℜ 𝑒 𝑂𝑅
2
𝑗𝑥
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑥
𝑗𝑥
sin 𝑥 = ℑ 𝑒 𝑂𝑅
2
𝑎 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 8
 Recall: Basic Complex Math
Rectangular form vs Polar form
𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 𝐴∠𝜃 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜃
𝑎 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 , 𝑏 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝑏
tan−1 , 𝑎>0
𝑎
𝐴= 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝜃 = 𝑏
180° − tan , 𝑎<0
−𝑎

𝐕1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝐸∠𝜃 = 𝐸𝑒 𝑗𝜃 , 𝐕2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝐹∠𝜙 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑗𝜙 1 = 1∠0° = 1∠0 = 1𝑒 𝑗0

𝜋 𝜋
𝑗2
𝑗 = 1∠90° = 1∠ = 1𝑒
Addition and subtraction 2
𝐕1 ± 𝐕2 = 𝑎 ± 𝑐 + 𝑗 𝑏 ± 𝑑 −1 = 1∠180° = 1𝑒 𝑗𝜋
𝜋
−𝑗 2
−𝑗 = 1∠ −90° = 1𝑒
Multiplication and division
𝐕1 𝐕2±1 = 𝐸𝐹 ±1 ∠ 𝜃 ± 𝜙 = 𝐸𝐹 ±1 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃±𝜙)

Complex conjugate
𝐕1∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏 = 𝐸∠ −𝜃 = 𝐸𝑒 −𝑗𝜃

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 9

 Kirchhoff's Laws and Phasor
𝐕 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 → 𝑣 = 𝑉0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = ℜ 𝐕𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = ℜ 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

𝐾𝐶𝐿: ෍ 𝑖𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠

𝑛=1
𝑁

𝐾𝑉𝐿: ෍ 𝑣𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠

𝑛=1

𝑁 𝑁
e𝑗𝜔𝑡 =1
෍ ℜ 𝐕𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 0 ෍ ℜ 𝐕𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
e𝑗𝜔𝑡 =−𝑗
෍ ℜ 𝐕𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 0 ෍ ℜ −𝑗𝐕𝑛 = ෍ ℑ 𝐕 = 0
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑁

෍ 𝐕𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 10

 Example 10.3 - 4
▪ Using KVL
−𝑣𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑅 𝑡 + 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 0

▪ Converting to phasors
𝐕𝑆 = 25𝑒 𝑗15°
𝐕𝐶 = 20𝑒 𝑗 −22°

▪ KVL for phasor

𝑣𝑆 𝑡 = 25 cos(100𝑡 + 15°) V
𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 20 cos 100𝑡 − 22° V
𝑣𝑅 𝑡 =?
𝐕𝑅 = 𝐕𝑆 − 𝐕𝐶
= 25 cos 15° + 𝑗25 sin 15°
− 20 cos −22° − 𝑗20 sin −22°
≈ 5.60 + 𝑗13.96 = 15𝑒 𝑗68.1°
▪ Converging back to the real signal
𝑣𝑅 = ℜ 𝐕𝑅 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
= 15 cos(100𝑡 + 68.1°) V

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 11

 Impedance (Elements in Phasor)
Resistors do
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑖 = 𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) → 𝑣 = 𝑅𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝐈 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 → 𝐕 = 𝑅𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑅𝐈
𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈
Capacitors do 𝐙𝑅 = 𝑅
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑉0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) → 𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 𝜔 −sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑉0 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 90°)
𝐕 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 → 𝐈 = 𝐶𝑉0 𝜔𝑒 𝑗(𝜃+90°) = 𝜔𝐶𝑒 𝑗90° 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐕 1
𝐕= 𝐈
𝑗𝜔𝐶
1 1
Inductors do 𝐙𝐶 = =𝑗 −
𝑑𝑖 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) → 𝑣 = 𝐿𝐼0 𝜔 − sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐿𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 90°)
𝐈 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 → 𝐕 = 𝐿𝐼0 𝜔𝑒 𝑗(𝜃+90°) = 𝜔𝐿𝑒 𝑗90° 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈
𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈
𝐙𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 12

 Admittance

1
𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈 𝐈= 𝐕
𝑅
𝐙𝑅 = 𝑅 1
𝐘𝑅 =
𝑅

1
𝐕= 𝐈 1
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝐘= 𝐈 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝐕
1 𝐙 𝐘𝐶 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝐙𝐶 =
𝑗𝜔𝐶

1
𝐈= 𝐕
𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝐙𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 1
𝐘𝐿 =
𝑗𝜔𝐿

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 13

 Series and Parallel Combinations

𝐕 = 𝐕1 + ⋯ + 𝐕𝑁 = 𝐈𝐙1 + ⋯ 𝐈𝐙𝑁 𝐈 = 𝐈1 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝑁 = 𝐕𝐙1−1 + ⋯ + 𝐕𝐙𝑁−1

= Σ𝑛𝑁 𝐙𝑛 𝐈 = 𝐕 Σ𝑛𝑁 𝐙𝑛−1

𝒁𝒆𝒒 = Σ𝑛𝑁 𝐙𝑛 𝐙𝑒𝑞 = Σ𝑛𝑁 𝐙𝑛−1 −1 → 𝐘𝑒𝑞 = Σ𝑛𝑁 𝐘𝑛
𝐙𝑛 𝐙𝑛−1 𝐘𝑛
𝐕𝑛 = 𝐕 𝐈𝑛 = 𝐈 −1 = 𝐈
𝐙𝑒𝑞 𝐙𝑒𝑞 𝐘𝑒𝑞

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 14

 Example

1
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 = 𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝐶 + 𝑍𝐿 𝑌𝑒𝑞 =
1 𝑍𝑒𝑞
=𝑅+ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 1 𝑅 𝑋
𝑗𝜔𝐶 = = 2 + 𝑗 −
1 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 𝑅 + 𝑋 2 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2
=𝑅+𝑗 − + 𝜔𝐿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
𝜔𝐶

Resistance Reactance

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐴𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑌 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥

ℜ 𝑍 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℜ 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
ℑ 𝑍 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℑ 𝑌 = 𝑆𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 15
 Node-Voltage Method

20𝑒 𝑗0 − 𝐕𝑎 𝐕𝑎 𝑗45°
4𝐕𝑎 − 𝐕𝑎
− + 1.2𝑒 + =0
8 + 𝑗(250)(36𝑚) 1 𝑗(250) 80𝑚
𝑗(250) 0.25𝑚
20
8 + 9𝑗 + 0.85 + 0.85𝑗
𝐕𝑎 = ≈ 1.9 − 12.28𝑗 ≈ 12.43∠ − 81.2°
1 3
8 + 9𝑗 + 0.0625𝑗 − 20𝑗

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 16

 Mesh-Current Method

1
−45𝑒 𝑗0 + 200 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 + 𝐼 − 𝐼2 = 0
𝑗 500 25𝜇 1
100 + 𝑗 500 80𝑚 𝐼3 + 𝑗 500 50𝑚 𝐼3 − 𝐼2 + 200 𝐼3 − 𝐼1 = 0
1 1
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 + 𝑗 500 50𝑚 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 + 𝐼 =0
𝑗 500 25𝜇 𝑗(500)(12.5𝜇) 2

200 − 80𝑗 80𝑗 −200 𝐼1 45

80𝑗 −215𝑗 −𝑗25 𝐼2 = 0
−200 −𝑗25 300 + 65𝑗 𝐼3 0

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 17

 Op Amp Circuits
▪ Noninverting amplifier
𝑍𝑓
𝐕𝑜 = 𝐕+ 1 +
𝑍10𝑘
1
𝑍𝑓 = 10𝑘||25𝑛𝐹 =
1
+ 𝑗𝜔 25𝑛
10𝑘
10𝑘
=
1 + 1.25𝑗
▪ Voltage divider at the input
𝑍300
𝐕+ = 𝐕𝑆
𝑍80𝑚𝐻 + 𝑍300
𝑣𝑆 𝑡 = 125 cos(5000𝑡 + 15°) V
→ 𝐕𝑆 = 125𝑒 𝑗15°
300 10𝑘 1
𝐕𝑜 = 𝐕𝑆 1+
300 + 𝑗 5000 80𝑚 1 + 1.25𝑗 10𝑘
= 125∠15° 0.6∠ − 53° 1.47∠ − 19° = 110∠ − 57°

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 18

 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents

𝐕𝑆 = 36𝑒 𝑗0 , 𝜔 = 160
𝑍𝐿
𝐕𝑂𝐶 = 𝐕𝑆
𝑍𝑅 + 𝑍𝐿
𝑗(160)(2.25)
= 36 = 31.47𝑒 𝑗29.10°
200 + 𝑗(160)(2.25)
𝐕𝑆 𝑌𝐶
𝐈𝑆𝐶 =
𝑍𝑅 𝑌𝑅 + 𝑌𝐿 + 𝑌𝐶
𝑗(160)(50𝜇)
= 0.18 = 0.2𝑒 𝑗43.80°
1 1
200 𝑗 160 2.25 + 𝑗(160)(50𝜇)
+
𝐕𝑂𝐶
𝑍𝑡 = = 152.8 − 40.10𝑗
𝐈𝑆𝐶

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 19

 Source Transformation

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 20

 Superposition
▪ When there are two or more sources (even with different frequencies!)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 21

 20 − 𝑉𝑂1 𝑉𝑂1 𝑉𝑂1 −𝑉𝑂2 −𝑉𝑂2 20 − 𝑉𝑂2
− − =0 + + =0
−10𝑗 8 7.5𝑗 −50𝑗 8 1.5𝑗
𝑉𝑂1 = 15.46𝑒 𝑗104° 𝑉𝑂2 = 20.24𝑒 −𝑗11°
𝑣𝑜1 = 15.46 cos( 50𝑡 + 104°) 𝑣𝑜2 = 20.24 cos(10𝑡 − 11°)

𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜1 + 𝑣𝑜2 = 15.46 cos 50𝑡 + 104° + 20.24 cos(10𝑡 − 11°)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 22

 Phasor Diagram
▪ Graphical representation of phasors on complex plane
Useful for obtaining vector sum (trends)

Easily estimate how the end results would change when component value changes.

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 23

 Op Amp in AC Circuits

▪ Inverting amplifier ▪ Noninverting amplifier

𝑍2 𝑍2
𝐕𝑜 = − 𝐕 𝐕𝑜 = 1 + 𝐕
𝑍1 𝑆 𝑍1 𝑆

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 24

 Op Amp in AC Circuits
𝑍2
𝐕𝑂 = − 𝐕
𝑍1 𝑆
1 𝑅1
𝑍1 = =
1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶1
1 𝑅2
𝑍2 = =
1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅2 𝐶2
+ 𝑗𝜔𝐶 2
𝑅2
𝑅2
𝐕𝑂 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅1 𝐶1
=− =−
𝐕𝑆 𝑅1 𝑅1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅2 𝐶2
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝐶 𝜔 = 0
𝑅2 1
− 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶1 = 0 and 𝜔 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜔 → ∞ 𝑅2 1 𝑅2 1 − 𝑗 𝑅2 1
𝐶1 − =− =− ∠ − 45°
− 𝑅1 1 + 𝑗 𝑅1 2 𝑅1 2
𝐶2

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 25

 The Complete Response
𝑍𝐶
𝐕𝐶 = 𝐕𝑆 𝑍
𝑅 +𝑍𝐶
𝑡<0
1
𝑗 5 50𝑚
𝐕𝐶 = 12𝑒 𝑗0 1 = 8.49∠ −45°
4+𝑗 5 50𝑚

𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑓 𝑣𝐶− = 8.49 cos(5𝑡 − 45°)

Homogeneous equation solution 𝑡>0
1
→ Natural response 𝐕𝐶 = 12𝑒 𝑗0
𝑗 5 50𝑚
= 10.7∠ −26.6°
1
Steady state respoences 2+𝑗 5 50𝑚
→ Using phasor 𝑣𝐶+ = 10.7 cos(5𝑡 − 26.6°)
𝑡
−(2)(50𝑚)
𝑣𝑛 = 𝐴𝑒
𝑡
−0.1
𝑣 = 𝐴𝑒 + 10.7 cos(5𝑡 − 26.6°)

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑣𝐶− 0 = 6 = 𝑣𝐶+ 0 = 𝐴 + 9.57
𝐴 = −3.57
𝑡
−0.1
𝑣 = −3.57𝑒 + 10.7 cos(5𝑡 − 26.6°)
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 26
 Summary
▪ Sinusoidal sources – essential for both power and signal applications

▪ Phasor representaiton can be used for AC steady-state circuits since the

output frequency is always same as the input one (for linear systems)

▪ L and C can be modeled as imaginary resistance (impedance)

▪ Kirchoff’s laws are valid for phasor and (complex) impedances

→ so are all theorems for circuits analysis (since they all are from KCL/KVL!)

▪ *Phasor + Impedance = frequency domain representation of circuits!

We can understand the behavior of circuits vs. frequency
(More on this in Chapter 13)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 10 - sine 27