430.213A Introduction to Circuit Theory and Lab.

, Spring 2024, Seoul National University

Lecture 9.
The Complete Response of Circuits
with Two Energy Storage Elements
Wooyeol Choi, PhD
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea

Copyright Statement: The materials provided by the instructor in this course are for the use of the students enrolled in the
course. Copyrighted course materials may not be further disseminated.
 Outline
§ Reading – Textbook Chapter 9

§ Goals
• Learn how to solve circuits with two energy storage elements

§ Contents
• Equation for circuits with two energy storage elements
• Natural response
• Damping
• Forced response
• Complete response
• State variable
• Roots in complex plane

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 2

 Second-Order System

General 2nd order differential equation

𝑑! 𝑑 !
𝑥 𝑡 + 2𝛼 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝜔" 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 ! 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 : 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 : 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

using differential operator

𝑠 ! 𝑥 + 2𝛼𝑠𝑥 + 𝜔"! 𝑥 = 𝑓

§ Assumptions:
§ (like the first-order case,) there are natural response and forced response
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥! 𝑡 + 𝑥" (𝑡)
§ There is general solution form and the coefficients can be found by
applying boundary conditions (initial voltage and current)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 3

 K dt
gy storage element, and these could be
Step 4 Substitute the equation of step 3 into the equation of step
consider the description of circuits with
Second-Order Circuits
nd-order differential equation. Later, we
elements that are described by a third-
equation in terms of x2.

le to indicate that all parallel or series

ments have been v L C
capacitors have i + –
i v
is R L C vs +
R
he second-order –

Then, in the next

equations. Ground
FIGURE 9.2-2 A series RLC circuit. FIGUR
ch consists of a FIGURE 9.2-1 A parallel RLC circuit. inducto
Writing the nodal 0−𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑖
𝑖# + −𝑖−𝐶 =0 −𝑣$ + 𝐿 + 𝑣 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0 dx2
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Recall v ¼ x2 and obtain an equation in terms of . Be
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑣 dt
𝑣 = 𝐿 ð9:2-1Þ 𝑖=𝐶 dv
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 C ¼i
!
𝑑 𝑖 𝐿 𝑑𝑖 𝑑! 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 dt
𝐿𝐶 ! + + 𝑖 = 𝑖$ 𝐿𝐶 ! + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣 = 𝑣$
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 or
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 C
dx2
¼ x1
𝑑! 𝑖 1 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑖$ 𝑑! 𝑣 𝑅 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑣$ dt
+ +
ð9:2-2Þ 𝑖 = substitute𝑑𝑡 ! +
Eq. 9.2-6 into+Eq. 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 ! 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶9.2-5 to𝐿𝐶obtain the desired s
d2 v v RC dv
C 2þ þ
dt L L dt
§ Two irreducibleð9:2-3Þ energy storage elements in the circuits
Equation 9.2-8 may be rewritten as
§ KCL or KVL + v-i relationship
his equation for i(t). If v(t) is required,
of L or C
d2 v R dv 1
results in 2nd-order differential equation à direct method þ þ
dt 2 L dt LC
v¼
ation may be called the direct method
Another method of obtaining the second-order differ
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and the
Lab.,operator method. First, we obtain differential equations
Lect 9 - RLC 4
any example, x1 and x2 will be specific
f step 2, thus obtaining a second-order differential

Operator Method
L1

𝐿% 𝑠 + 𝑅 −𝑅 𝑖% 𝑣
vs +
i1 R i2 L2 = $
–
−𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐿! 𝑠 𝑖! 0
𝑖% 1 𝑅 + 𝐿! 𝑠 𝑅 𝑣$
GURE 9.2-3 Circuit with two =
𝑖! 𝐿% 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐿! 𝑠 + 𝑅 − 𝑅 ! 𝑅 𝐿% 𝑠 + 𝑅 0
uctors. 𝑑𝑖%
−𝑣# + 𝐿% +𝑅 𝑖% − 𝑖! = 0 𝑅 + 𝐿! 𝑠 𝑣#
𝑑𝑡 𝑖% =
Because 𝑑𝑖! 𝐿% 𝐿! 𝑠 ! + 𝐿! 𝑅 + 𝐿% 𝑅 𝑠
𝑅 𝑖! − 𝑖% + 𝐿! =0 𝐿% 𝐿! 𝑠 ! 𝑖% + 𝐿! 𝑅 + 𝐿% 𝑅 𝑠𝑖% = 𝑅𝑣# + 𝐿! 𝑠𝑣$
𝑑𝑡
i 𝐿% 𝑠𝑖% + 𝑅 𝑖% − 𝑖! = 𝑣# ð9:2-6Þ 𝑑! 𝑖% 1 1 𝑑𝑖% 𝑅 1 𝑑𝑣#
+ 𝑅 + − 𝑣 − =0
𝑅 𝑖! − 𝑖% + 𝐿! 𝑠𝑖! = 0 𝑑𝑡 ! 𝐿% 𝐿! 𝑑𝑡 𝐿% 𝐿! # 𝐿% 𝑑𝑡
x1 ð9:2-7Þ
ed second-order differential equation:
dv §vsHaving two inductors results in 2nd order equation
¼ ð9:2-8Þ
dt §L Some circuits could be a little less straightforward
§ Use differential operator and take advantage of their linearity!
vs
v¼ ð9:2-9Þ
C LC
fferential equation describing a circuit is called
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 5
ions describing node voltages or mesh currents
 equation of step 2, thus obtaining a second-order differential

L1 § Of course we can use an

intermediate variable
vs +
– i1 R i2 L2 § But generalization is powerful

FIGURE 9.2-3 Circuit with two

inductors.
𝑣 1
s of
dx2
. Because 𝑖% − + 9 0 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 0
dt 𝑅 𝐿!
dv 𝑑𝑖% 1 𝑑𝑣 1
C ¼i −
ð9:2-6Þ − 𝑣=0
dt 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿!
dx2
𝑑𝑖%
C ¼ x1 𝑣#
ð9:2-7Þ− 𝑣 = 𝐿%
dt 𝑑𝑡
!
𝑑𝑖equation:
he desired second-order differential % 1 𝑑𝑣# 𝐿% 𝑑 𝑖% 1 𝐿% 𝑑𝑖%
− + ! − 𝑣$ + =0
v RC dv vs 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 ! 𝐿 ! 𝑑𝑡
!
L
þ
L dt
¼
L 𝑑 𝑖% 1 1 𝑑𝑖%
ð9:2-8Þ 𝑅 1 𝑑𝑣$
+𝑅 + − 𝑣 − =0
𝑑𝑡 ! 𝐿% 𝐿! 𝑑𝑡 𝐿% 𝐿! $ 𝐿% 𝑑𝑡
dv 1 vs
þ v¼ ð9:2-9Þ
dt LC LC
-orderSpring
differential
2024 equation describing a circuit isCirc.
Intro. called
Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 6
 The operator method for obtaining the second-order differential equation is summarized in
Table 9.2-2.
Operator Method
Table 9.2-2 Operator Method for Obtaining the Second-Order Differential Equation
of a Circuit

Step 1 Identify the variable x1 for which the solution is desired.

Step 2 Write one differential equation in terms of the desired variable x1 and a second variable, x2.
Step 3 Obtain an additional equation in terms of the second variable and the first variable.
R
Step 4 Use the operator s ¼ d=dt and 1=s ¼ dt to obtain two algebraic equations in terms of s and the two
variables x1 and x2.
Step 5 Using Cramer’s rule, solve for the desired variable so that x1 ¼ f (s, sources) ¼ P(s)=Q(s), where P(s)
and Q(s) are polynomials in s.
Step 6 Rearrange the equation of step 5 so that Q(s)x1 ¼ P(s).
Step 7 Convert the operators back to derivatives for the equation of step 6 to obtain the second-order differential
equation.

• Cramer’s rule – formulation of inverse matrix method

• Note that the denominator is the determinant of the matrix
𝑐% 𝑏% 𝑎% 𝑐%
𝑎% 𝑏% 𝑥 𝑐% 𝑐 𝑏! 𝑐% 𝑏! − 𝑏% 𝑐! 𝑎! 𝑐! 𝑎% 𝑐! − 𝑐% 𝑎!
= →𝑥= ! = ,𝑦 = =
𝑎! 𝑏! 𝑦 𝑐! 𝑎% 𝑏% 𝑎% 𝑏! − 𝑏% 𝑎! 𝑎% 𝑏% 𝑎% 𝑏! − 𝑏% 𝑎!
𝑎! 𝑏! 𝑎! 𝑏!

REF: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cramer%27s_rule
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 7
 xn ¼ Aest ð9:3-3Þ
where A and s are to be determined. The exponential is the only function that is proportional to all of its

Natural Response
derivatives and integrals and, therefore, is the natural choice for the solution of a differential equation
with constant coefficients. Substituting Eq. 9.3-3 in Eq. 9.3-2 and differentiating where required, we
have
a2 As2 est þ a1 Asest þ a0 Aest ¼ 0 ð9:3-4Þ
Because xn ¼ Ae , we may rewrite!Eq. 9.3-4 as
𝑑 𝑑
st

𝑎! !
a𝑥 s x 𝑡þ a+
2
2
sx 𝑎
nþa x ¼𝑥
%" 0 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡
1
" n 0 n

or
𝑑𝑡 a s þ a s þ a x𝑑𝑡
!
2
2
¼0 1 0 n

Because we do not accept the trivial solution, xn ¼ 0, it is required that

! 2
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥' 𝑡
"
a2 s þ a1 s þ a0 ¼ 0& ð9:3-5Þ
This equation, in terms of s, is called a characteristic equation. It is readily obtained by replacing the
derivative by s and the second derivative by s2. Clearly, we have returned to the familiar operator
𝑑! d 𝑑 n
𝑎! ! 𝑥& 𝑡s ¼+dt 𝑎% 𝑥& 𝑡 + 𝑎" 𝑥& 𝑡 = 0
n
n
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The characteristic equation is derived from the governing differential equation for a circuit
Suppose 𝑥& 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒
by setting all independent sources to zero value and assuming an exponential #(solution.

Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925), shown in Figure 9.3-1, advanced the theory of operators for
! equations.
𝑎 𝑠 𝐴𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝐴𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝐴𝑥 𝑡 = 0
the solution of differential
! & % & " &
The solution of the quadratic equation (9.3-5) has two roots, s1 and s2, where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
! %a1 þ a21 % 4a2 a0
𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑎 = 0 ß Characteristic Equation
! % 1
s ¼
" 2a2
ð9:3-6Þ

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
a21 % 4a2 a0
and same as the one
s ¼obtained using differentialð9:3-7Þ
2 operator!
%a1 %
2a2
# Photograph courtesy of
the Institution of Electrical
O. Heaviside
Engineers
When there are two distinct roots, the natural response is of the form
FIGURE 9.3-1 Oliver Solution?
x ¼ A e Quadratic
þA en formula
1
s1 t
2
s2 t
ð9:3-8Þ
Heaviside (1850–1925). where A1 and A2 are unknown constants that will be evaluated later. We will delay
considering the special case when s1 ¼ s2.

The roots of the characteristic equation contain all the information necessary for determining
the character of the natural response.
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 8
 Characteristic Equation Solution
−𝑎% + 𝑎%! − 4𝑎" 𝑎! 𝑎% 𝑎% ! 𝑎"
𝑠% = =− + −
2𝑎! 2𝑎! 2𝑎! 𝑎!

−𝑎% − 𝑎%! − 4𝑎" 𝑎! 𝑎% 𝑎% ! 𝑎"

𝑠! = =− − −
2𝑎! 2𝑎! 2𝑎! 𝑎!
𝑥& 𝑡 = 𝐴% 𝑒 #!( + 𝐴! 𝑒 #"(
𝑎% ! 𝑎"
> → 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
2𝑎! 𝑎!
𝑎% ! 𝑎"
= → 𝑠% = 𝑠!
2𝑎! 𝑎!
𝑎% ! 𝑎"
> → 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
2𝑎! 𝑎!

§ S1 and S2 are often called natural frequencies

(reciprocal of time constants) Quadratic formula
§ A1 and A2 can be determined by using the boundary 𝑎𝑥 ! + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
conditions −𝑏 ± 𝑏 ! − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 9
als of the magnitude of the real characteristic roots are the time constants. The time constants of this circuit
s and 1=8 s.

Example
SE 9.3-1 Find the characteristic equation and the natural frequencies for the circuit
Figure E 9.3-1. § Obtain natural frequencies
v

§ KCL
6Ω
𝑣 1
+ 𝑖# + 𝑠𝑣 = 𝑖$ = 0
is 4Ω 1 4 F 4 4
1H 𝑣 − 6𝑖# = (1)𝑠𝑖#
𝑣
𝑖# =
Ground FIGURE E 9.3-1
𝑠+6
𝑠+1 𝑠+6 +4=0
2
þ 7s þ 10 ¼ 0 𝑠 % + 7𝑠 + 10 = 0
1 ¼ #2 𝑠& = −2
2 ¼ #5
𝑠% = −7

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 10

 RLC Circuit (Resonator)

𝑑! 𝑑 !
𝛼: Damping coefficient
𝑥& 𝑡 + 2𝛼 𝑥& 𝑡 + 𝜔" 𝑥& 𝑡 = 0 𝜔" : Resonant frequency
𝑑𝑡 ! 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 ! + 2𝛼𝑠 + 𝜔"! = 0
*In some textbook
−2𝛼 + 2𝛼 ! − 4𝜔"! 𝛼 = 𝜁𝜔"
𝑠% = = −𝛼 + 𝛼 ! − 𝜔"! Where 𝜁 is dampling factor
2
𝑠 = 𝜔" −𝜁 ± 𝜁 ! − 1
−2𝛼 − 2𝛼 ! − 4𝜔"!
𝑠! = = −𝛼 − 𝛼 ! − 𝜔"!
2

* ")+#" ( ) * ")+#" (
𝑥& 𝑡 = 𝐴% 𝑒 #!( + 𝐴! 𝑒 #"( = 𝑒 )*( 𝐴% 𝑒 + 𝐴! 𝑒

𝛼 > 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 ! = 𝜔"! → 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 (𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑)

𝛼 > 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 ! > 𝜔"! → 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 (𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑)
𝛼 > 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 ! < 𝜔"! → 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝛼 = 0 → 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑 (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 11

Table 9.10-1 The Natural Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit!

TYPE OF RESPONSE ROOT LOCATION FORM OF RESPONSE

jω i(t), A
1

Overdamped σ
× ×

t, s

jω i(t), A
1

Critically damped σ
××

t, s

jω i(t), A
×
1

Underdamped σ

t, s
×

jω i(t), A
× 1

Undamped σ

t, s

×
______________________________________________________________________________
!
Spring
The iðtÞ 2024
is the inductor current in the circuit shown in FigureIntro. Circ.
9.4-1 for Theory
the initial and Lab.,
conditions ið0Þ ¼ Lect
1 and v9
ð0Þ- ¼
RLC
0. 12
 9.4 Natural Response of the Unforced
Parallel and Series RLC
3-1 Natural Frequencies of Parallel RLC and Series RLC Circuits
Parallel RLC Circuit
PARALLEL RLC SERIES RLC

v
In this section, we consider the (unforced) natural response of the parallel R
in Figure 9.4-1. i(t) We choose to examine the L parallel RLC+
circuit to illustrate
R C
the natural response. An analogous discussion of the series RLC circuit c
L R C L R C v(t)
but it is omitted because the purpose is not to obtain the solution to specific
–
i to illustrate the general method.
equation d2 1 d A1circuit that contains one
d2 capacitorR d and one 1 inductor is represented
ið t Þ þ iðt Þ þ iðt Þ ¼ 0 vðt Þ þ vðt Þ þ vðtÞ ¼ 0
dt2
FIGURE 9.4-1 Parallel differential
RC dt LC equation, dt 2 L dt LC
tic equation 1 𝑣
RLC circuit. 𝑑𝑣 s2 þ
1
sþ
1
¼0 2 𝑑𝑖
2
d 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 d +L s þ9𝑖
s þ
R1 1
¼0
9𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + + 𝐶 = 0 RC LC LC 2𝑑𝑡 = 0
xðt Þ þ 2a𝑑𝑡 xðt𝐶 Þ þ o 0 xð t Þ ¼ f ð t Þ
oefficient, rad/s 𝐿 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 1 dt 2 dt R
a¼ a¼
! 𝑖 2L1
1 1 𝑑𝑣 𝑑! 𝑣 where x(t) is 2RC the output of the circuit and 𝑑𝑖 f ðtÞ is𝑑the input to the circuit. The output
equency, rad/s 𝑣+ + 𝐶 ! called = 0 theo0response 1 𝑅
¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi of the circuit, can be the current + 𝐿 ¼+
o0!or
1 𝑖 = 0
voltage
𝐿 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 LC 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 p
𝐶 of any device in the cir
ffiffiffiffiffiffi
LC
sonant frequency, rad/s
!
1 1 frequentlys" chosen #2 to be the current !of an
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 𝑅 inductor
s1 or#2 the voltage of a capacitor
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
"
𝑠 + 𝑠+ 𝑠 =independent
0 od ¼ % sources and/or𝑠currents + o𝑠dof¼+independent𝑠 =% 01 current sources provid
1
voltage 1 R
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 2RC
circuit. The coefficients 𝐿
LC of this differential equation 𝐿𝐶
have2L names: LC a is called the dampi
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi " #2! sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
quencies: overdamped case
1 1o0 is! called
1 1 the resonant
"
1 2
#
1frequency. 𝑅 R 𝑅
R 1 1
𝑠% = − + −
s1 ; s2 ¼ %The circuit
2RC
& %
shown in
2RC 𝑠% =does
LCFigure 9.4-1
s1 ; − not2L+
s2 ¼ % & % −
contain2Lany independent
LC sources,
2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
zero. The differential 2𝐿 2𝐿
rffiffiffiffi equation with f ðtÞ ¼ 0 is called a homogeneous
rffiffiffiffi 𝐿𝐶differential equ
1 L L
the output
whento
R<be2theCvoltage v(t) at the top node of theRcircuit.
when >2
C !
Consequently, we will re
!
1 1in Figure 9.4-1
1 by a homogeneous
rffiffiffiffi 𝑅 𝑅
differential equation of therform ffiffiffiffi 1
quencies: critically𝑠damped
! = −case − s1 ¼ s2 ¼−
1 1 L 𝑠! = − ¼ %−R when R ¼ 2 −L
s1 ¼ s22𝐿
2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 %
𝐿𝐶
2RC
when R ¼
2 C d2
2𝐿 C𝐿𝐶
d 2L sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi 2
quencies: underdamped case1 1 " # vð t Þ þ𝑅2a dtRvðtÞ þ11o0 v"ðtRÞ #¼2 0
1 1 1 2 dt 2
𝛼= , 𝜔" = s1 ; s2 ¼ %
2RC
&j %
2RC 𝛼 =s1 ; s2 ¼, %𝜔2L
"& =j LC % 2L
2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 Write the KCL at LC
rffiffiffithe
ffi top node to obtain
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶rffiffiffiffi
1 L L
when R > Z t
when R < 2
Spring 2024 2 C and Lab., Lect 9v- RLC1
Intro. Circ. Theory C dv 13
þ v dt þ ið0Þ þ C ¼0
 9.4 Natural Response of the Unforced
How to Obtain A1 and A2?
Parallel RLC Circuit

v
In this section, we consider the (unforced) natural response of the parallel R
in Figure 9.4-1. We choose to examine the parallel RLC circuit to illustrate
the natural response. An analogous discussion of the series RLC circuit c
L R C but it is omitted because the purpose is not to obtain the solution to specific
i
𝑣& 𝑡 = 𝐴% 𝑒 #!( + 𝐴! 𝑒 #"(
to illustrate the general method.
A circuit that contains one capacitor and one inductor is represented
FIGURE 9.4-1 Parallel differential equation,
1 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 Initial condition(s)
RLC circuit. 2
d 𝑣 0 =d 𝐴 + 𝐴2
9𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + + 𝐶 =0 xðt&Þ þ 2a xð%t Þ þ o0! xðt Þ ¼ f ðt Þ
𝐿 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 dt 2 𝑑𝑣 dt
! &
1 1 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑣 where x(t) is the output of the circuit and fYðtÞ is = the𝐴input
% 𝑠% + 𝐴! 𝑠circuit.
to the ! The output
𝑣+ = 0 the response of the circuit, can be𝑑𝑡the (,"
+ 𝐶 ! called current or voltage of any device in the cir
𝐿 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
!
1 1 frequently chosen to be the current of an inductor or the voltage of a capacitor
𝑠 + 𝑠+ 𝑠 =independent
0 voltage sources and/or currents
𝑖 0 of𝑣(0) independent𝑑𝑣 current
0 sources provid
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
+ have
circuit. The coefficients of this differential equation +names: a is =called
0 the dampi
1 1o0 is!called1 the resonant frequency. 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑠% = − + − circuit shown in Figure 9.4-1 does not contain any independent sources,
The
2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
zero. The differential equation with f ðtÞ ¼ 0 is called a homogeneous 𝑣 0 differential
𝑖 0 equ
𝐴
the output to be the voltage v(t) at the top%node 𝑠 + 𝐴
% of the 𝑠 =
! circuit.
! − −
Consequently, we will re
1 !
1in Figure 9.4-1
1 by a homogeneous differential equation of the form 𝑅𝐶 𝐶
𝑠! = − − −
2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 d2 d
1 1 2
v ð t Þ þ 2a vðt Þ þ o20 vðt Þ ¼ 0
dt dt
𝛼= , 𝜔" =
2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶 Write the KCL at the top node to obtain
Z t
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9v- RLC1 dv 14
þ v dt þ ið0Þ þ C ¼0
 Critically Damped RLC

Critically damped, 𝛼 ! = 𝜔"!

How to obtain the general form?
𝑠% = 𝑠! = −𝛼
𝑣& = 𝐴% 𝑒 )*( + 𝐴! 𝑒 )*( = 𝐴% + 𝐴! 𝑒 )*(
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜖 = 𝜔"! − 𝛼 !
𝑣& 0 = 𝐴% + 𝐴!
𝑑𝑣& 0
= −𝛼(𝐴% + 𝐴! ) Rewrite the solution for
𝑑𝑡

We won’t be able to identify A1 and A2 𝑎 = 𝐴% + 𝐴!

independently… 𝑏 = −𝑖𝜖(𝐴% − 𝐴! )

Let’s assume, 𝑣& = 𝑒 )*( 𝐴% 𝑡 + 𝐴! Limit 𝜖 → 0

𝑣& 0 = 𝐴!
𝑑𝑣&
= −𝐴% 𝛼𝑒 )*( 𝑡 + 𝐴% 𝑒 )*( − 𝐴! 𝛼𝑒 )*(
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣& 0
= 𝐴% − 𝐴! 𝛼
𝑑𝑡

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 15

 Under-damped RLC Case
Under-damped, 𝛼 ! < 𝜔"! B1 and B2 from initial values
𝑣& 0 = 𝐵%
𝑠 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 ! − 𝜔"! = −𝛼 ∓ 𝑗 𝜔"! − 𝛼 !
𝑑𝑣& (0)
Let’s define damped resonant frequency, = 𝜔- 𝐵! − 𝛼𝐵%
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 0 𝑖 0
𝜔- = 𝜔"! − 𝛼 ! =− −
𝑅𝐶 𝐶
𝑠 = −𝛼 ∓ 𝑗𝜔-
𝑣& = 𝐴% 𝑒 )*( 𝑒 .+$( + 𝐴! 𝑒 )*( 𝑒 ).+$(

Using Euler’s formula

𝑒 ./ = cos 𝑥 + 𝑗 sin 𝑥

𝑣& = 𝐴% 𝑒 )*( cos 𝜔- 𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔- 𝑡 + 𝐴! 𝑒 )*( cos 𝜔- 𝑡 − 𝑗 sin 𝜔- 𝑡

𝑣& = 𝑒 )*( (𝐵% cos 𝜔- 𝑡 + 𝐵! sin 𝜔- 𝑡)

à Sinusoid with an exponential decaying amplitude

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 16

 Example
§ Parallel RLC with R=25/3 Ohm, L=0.1 H, C=1
mF, v(0)=10 V, i(0)=-0.6 A

§ Solution looks like

𝑣& = 𝑒 )*( 𝐵% cos 𝜔- 𝑡 + 𝐵! sin 𝜔- 𝑡

Coefficients can be obtained

1 )% !
1
𝛼= = 60 𝑠 , 𝜔" = = 100 [𝑠 )! ]
2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔- = 𝜔"! − 𝛼 ! = 80
𝑠
𝛼 𝑣 0 𝑖 0
𝐵% = 𝑣 0 = 10, 𝐵! = 𝐵% − − =0
𝜔- 𝜔- 𝑅𝐶 𝜔- 𝐶
𝑣& = 10𝑒 )1"( cos 80𝑡

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 17

 Forced Response
§ Forced response follows the forcing
function
§ Example 9.7-1. Parallel RLC with
exponential Input
• KCL
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖+ +𝐶 = 𝑖!
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝑑𝑖 𝑑"𝑖
𝑖+ + 𝐶𝐿 " = 𝑖!
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖! = 8𝑒 #"$ → 𝑖% = 𝐴𝑒 #"$
𝐿
𝐴 + −2 𝐴 + 𝐶𝐿 4 𝐴 = 8
𝑅
§ Example 9.7-2. constant input case
• At steady-state, L=short and C=open
𝑖% = 𝐴
𝐴 = 𝐼&

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 18

 Forced Response – Special Case
§ If the forcing function is an exponential function with the same time
constant as that of the natural response…
𝐿 𝑑𝑖 𝑑!𝑖
𝑖+ + 𝐶𝐿 ! = 𝑖"
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
$
𝑖" = 𝐾𝑒 #%
Natural response already make the left term zero
$
#%
0= 𝐾𝑒 → 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒!

Assume
𝑥& = 𝑡 ' 𝑥()

p is the smallest integer that does not duplicate xn1

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 19

 %2A1 % 3A2 % 2 ¼ %2 ð9:8-4Þ
Solving Eqs. 9.8-3 and 9.8-4, we have A1 ¼ 24 and A2 ¼ %16. Therefore,

Complete Response
v ¼ 24 e%2t % 16 e%3t þ 2 e%t V

E X A M P L𝑥E =
9 .𝑥8&- +
1 𝑥'Complete Response of a Second-Order Circuit
§ Example 9.8-1
§ Initial values t=0 4Ω a
Find the complete response
1 v(t) for t > 0 for%"the circuit of
§ 𝑣 9.8-1.
Figure 0 =Assume
10 the =circuit
6 V is, 𝑖at 0steady
= state =
at t1¼[A]
0%. i
021 021
§ KCL at node a 1H
+
Solution
3% )3 % vs = 6 e–3tu(t) V
+ v 14 F
§ − 𝑖 − 𝑠𝑣 = 0
First, we determine the initial conditions of the circuit. At
– +
10 V – –
(0) 0 6Ω
%
t ¼ 0𝑣 ,=we 1
have 3
𝑠𝑖 the circuit
+ 6𝑖 → 𝑖model
= shown in Figure 9.8-2,
#21
where we replace the capacitor with an open circuit and the
0
𝑣# −with
inductor 𝑣− a short𝑣circuit.
− 𝑠𝑣Then= 0the voltage is FIGURE 9.8-1 Circuit of Example 9.8-1.
#21
𝑠 ! + 7𝑠 + 10vð𝑣0 =
%
Þ ¼𝑠6 +
V6 𝑣 Find out coefficients 4 Ω using initial values
$
§ Assume
and vscurrent
the inductor =0 for isnatural response 𝑣 0 = 𝐴% + 𝐴! − 9 = 6
+
𝑠% = −2 𝑜𝑟 −ið50 Þ ¼ 1 A
%
1 +
v1
10 V – 6Ω
After𝑣the
& =
)!(
𝐴% 𝑒 is thrown,
switch
)6(
+ 𝐴! 𝑒we can write the KVL for the 𝑖 0 = 𝑣# 0 − 𝑣 0 −– 𝑠𝑣 0
)7( for forced responace 4 i 4
§ Assume,𝑣 = 𝐵𝑒
right-hand mesh' of Figure 9.8-1 to obtain 4 = −27 + 2𝐴% + 5𝐴!
9𝑣' − 21𝑣' + 10𝑣 )7( )7( FIGURE 9.8-2 Circuit of Example 9.8-1 at t ¼ 0%.
di ' = −3 6𝑒 + 6 6𝑒 44 1
%v þ þ 6i ¼ 0 ð9:8-5Þ 𝐴 = , 𝐴 =
𝐵 = −9 dt %
3 ! 3
§ Complete
The KCL equation response
at node a will provide a second equation in terms of v and i as
𝑣 = 𝑣& + 𝑣' = 𝐴% 𝑒 )!( + 𝐴! 𝑒 )6(v %−v9𝑒 s
)7(
1 dv
þiþ ¼0 ð9:8-6Þ
4 4 dt
Equations 9.8-5 and 9.8-6 may be rearranged as
Spring 2024 ! Theory and
Intro. Circ. " Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 20
di
or current as the unknowns. This is very
ons of these variables. These variables, vc
State Variable Approach
s approach more fully in the next section.

cuit
§ State variable – variable that represents the state (or condition) of dynamic
(or time-varying) system
ed with the energy of the energy storage
§ e.g) independent capacitor voltage, independent inductor current
onse of a circuit to a forcing function and
§ Nth
ndition,” as in order differential
state of the equation can be partitioned into N 1st order equations
union. We will
Example
nergy§storage of the circuit. Thus, we will
inductor currents.
two
tors R1
1
R2
2
R3
bed 𝑣8 − 𝑣% 𝑣! − 𝑣%
first + + + = 𝐶% 𝑠𝑣%
ribe
+
vau(t) – C1
–
v1 C2
–
v2 +
– vbu(t) 𝑅% 𝑅!
bles
𝑣% − 𝑣! 𝑣9 − 𝑣!
+ = 𝐶! 𝑠𝑣!
one Ground 𝑅! 𝑅7
find FIGURE 9.9-1 Circuit with two energy storage
elements. 1 1 1 𝑣8
− − − 𝐶% 𝑠
𝑅% 𝑅! 𝑅! 𝑣% 𝑅%
v2 " v1 =
þ 1
ð9:9-1Þ 1 1 𝑣! 𝑣9
R2 − − − 𝐶! 𝑠
𝑅! 𝑅! 𝑅7 𝑅7
v1 " v2
þ ð9:9-2Þ
R2

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 21

va
 Example
§ In the textbook example where
𝐶% 𝑅% = 1, 𝐶% 𝑅! = 1, 𝐶! 𝑅7 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶! 𝑅! = 0.5

𝑠 + 3 𝑣8 + 𝑣9
𝑣% =
𝑠+2 𝑠+3 −2

For natural response, denominator=det[A]=0,

𝑠 ! + 5𝑠 + 4 = 0
𝑠 = −4 𝑜𝑟 − 1
𝑣%& = 𝐴% 𝑒 )( + 𝐴! 𝑒 )0(
Forced response
4𝑣%' = 3𝑣8 + 𝑣9 = 36 → 𝑣%' = 9
complete response
𝑣% = 𝑣%& + 𝑣%' = 𝐴% 𝑒 )( + 𝐴! 𝑒 )0( + 9

A1 and A2 can be obtained using the initial values

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 22

 State Variable Approach to Circuit Analysis 4

Table 9.9-1 State Variable Method of Circuit Analysis

1. Identify the state variables as the independent capacitor voltages and inductor currents.
2. Determine the initial conditions at t ¼ 0 for the capacitor voltages and the inductor currents.
3. Obtain a first-order differential equation for each state variable, using KCL or KVL.
4. Use the operator s to substitute for d=dt.
5. Obtain the characteristic equation of the circuit by noting that it can be obtained by setting the determinant of Cramer’s
rule equal to zero.
6. Determine the roots of the characteristic equation, which then determine the form of the natural response.
7. Obtain the second-order (or higher-order) differential equation for the selected variable x by Cramer’s rule.
8. Determine the forced response xf by assuming an appropriate form of xf and determining the constant by substituting
the assumed solution in the second-order differential equation.
9. Obtain the complete solution x ¼ xn þ xf.
10. Use the initial conditions on the state variables along with the set of first-order differential equations (step 3) to obtain
dx(0)=dt.
11. Using x(0) and dx(0)=dt for each state variable, find the arbitrary constants A1, A2, . . . An to obtain the complete
solution x(t).

Spring 2024 E X A M P L E 9 . 9Intro.

- 1 Circ.
Complete Response
Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLCof a Second-Order Circuit 23
 ponse of a Second-Order Circuit Example 9.9-1
when t=0 i L Natural response
teady t=0 𝑠 = −2 𝑜𝑟 − 1
+
is C v R +
– 10 V 𝑖& = 𝐴% 𝑒 )( + 𝐴! 𝑒 )!(
–
Forced response
nitial FIGURE 9.9-2 Circuit of Example 9.9-1. 𝑖' = 𝐾𝑒 )7(
with 1 9𝐾 − 9𝐾 + 2𝐾 𝑒 )7( = 4𝑒 )7(
¼ 0, 𝑅 = 3 𝛺, 𝐿 = 1 𝐻, 𝐶 = 𝐹, 𝑖$ = 2𝑒 )7( →𝐾=2
ce is 2
Initial value Complete response
𝑣 0 =by10,
ential equation is obtained 𝑖 KVL
using 0 =around
0 the RLC 𝑖 = 𝑖& + 𝑖' = 𝐴% 𝑒 )( + 𝐴! 𝑒 )!( + 2𝑒 )7(
KCL 𝑖 0 = 𝐴% + 𝐴! + 2 = 0
𝑑𝑖 0
Ri ¼ v 𝑖$ − 𝑖 − 𝐶𝑠𝑣 = 0 → 0.5𝑠𝑣 + 𝑖 = 𝑖$ = 𝑣 0 − 3𝑖 0 = −𝐴% − 2𝐴! − 6
KVL 𝑑𝑡
KCL at the node at the top of the capacitor to get
−𝑣 + 𝐿𝑠𝑖 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0 → 𝑣 − 3 + 𝑠 𝑖 = 0 𝐴% + 𝐴! = −2
i ¼ is 0.5𝑠 3 + 𝑠 𝑖 + 𝑖 = 𝑖$ 𝐴% + 2𝐴! = −16
→ 𝑠 ! + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑖 = 2𝑖$ 𝐴% = 12
ons as 𝐴! = −14
v Final solution
# ¼0
L
𝑖 = 12𝑒 )( − 14𝑒 )!( + 2𝑒 )7( [𝐴]
is
¼
C C
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 24
 Roots in Complex Plane
404 9. The Complete Response of Circuits with Two Energy Storage Elements

jω
§ 𝑠) = −𝛼 ± 𝑗 2 𝜔*! − 𝛼 !
Undamped
where a ¼ 1=ð2 RC Þ and o0 ¼ 1=ðLCÞ. When o0 > a, the ro
Underdamped α =0 complex and
× jω 0
α <ω0 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
§ By checking the position (locus) of ð9
s ¼ $a % j o20 $ a2 ¼ $a % jod
jωd
×
the roots of system characteristic
Overdamped
α > ω0
equation,
In general, roots are located in the complex plane, the location
defined by coordinates measured along the real or !-axis and the
nary or jo-axis. This is referred to as the s-plane or, because s has th
× ×× × σ § Weascan
of frequency, find out
the complex if theplane.
frequency system When isthe roots ar
Critically negative, andproperly
distinct, damped
the response is the sum of two decaying
damped nentials and is said to be overdamped. When the roots are co
α = ω0 • Overdamped – slow response
conjugates, the natural response is an exponentially decaying si
and is said to• beCritically dampled
(two identical
× –jωd underdamped or oscillatory.
roots)
Now, let• usUnderdamped
show the location of–the
fast response
roots of the characteristic eq
× –jω 0 with overshoot
for the four conditions: (a) undamped,anda ¼ringing
0; (b) underdamped, a
(c) critically damped, a ¼ o0; and
• Undampled (d) overdamped,
– system never a > o0. The
FIGURE 9.10-1 The complete s-plane showing conditions lead to root locations on the s-plane as shown in Figure
settles to one steady state!
the location of the two roots s1 and s2 of the When a ¼ 0, the two complex roots are %jo0. When a <o0, the ro
characteristic equation in the left-hand portion of s ¼ $a % jod. When a ¼ o0, there are two p roots at s ¼ $a. Finally
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the s-plane. The roots are designated by the & a > o0, there are two real roots, s ¼ $a % a $ o20 . 2
symbol. A summary of the root locations, the type of response, and th
of the response is presented in Table 9.10-1.
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 25
Table 9.10-1 The Natural Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit!

TYPE OF RESPONSE ROOT LOCATION FORM OF RESPONSE

jω i(t), A
1

Overdamped σ
× ×

t, s

jω i(t), A
1

Critically damped σ
××

t, s

jω i(t), A
×
1

Underdamped σ

t, s
×

jω i(t), A
× 1

Undamped σ

t, s

×
______________________________________________________________________________
!
Spring
The iðtÞ 2024
is the inductor current in the circuit shown in FigureIntro. Circ.
9.4-1 for Theory
the initial and Lab.,
conditions ið0Þ ¼ Lect
1 and v9
ð0Þ- ¼
RLC
0. 26
 410
Summary
9. The Complete Response of Circuits with Two Energy Storage Elements

Table 9.13-1 Natural Frequencies of Parallel RLC and Series RLC Circuits

PARALLEL RLC SERIES RLC

Circuit
i(t) L +
R C L R C v(t)
–

Differential equation d2 1 d 1 d2 Rd 1
iðtÞ þ iðtÞ þ iðtÞ ¼ 0 vðt Þ þ vðtÞ þ vðtÞ ¼ 0
dt2 RC dt LC dt 2 L dt LC
Characteristic equation 1 1 R 1
s2 þ sþ ¼0 s2 þ s þ ¼0
RC LC L LC
Damping coefficient, rad/s 1 R
a¼ a¼
2RC 2L
Resonant frequency, rad/s 1 1
o0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi o0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi
LC LC
s" ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
# ffi s" ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
#2
Damped resonant frequency, rad/s 1 2 1 R 1
od ¼ % od ¼ %
2RC LC 2L LC
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" # ffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" #2
Natural frequencies: overdamped case
1 1 2 1 R R 1
s1 ; s2 ¼ % & % s1 ; s2 ¼ % & %
2RC 2RC LC 2L 2L LC
rffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffi
1 L L
when R < when R > 2
2 C C
rffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffi
Natural frequencies: critically damped case 1 1 L R L
s1 ¼ s2 ¼ % when R ¼ s1 ¼ s2 ¼ % when R ¼ 2
2RC 2 C 2L C
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" #ffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" #2
Natural frequencies: underdamped case
1 1 1 2 R 1 R
s1 ; s2 ¼ % &j % s1 ; s2 ¼ % & j %
2RC LC 2RC 2L LC 2L
rffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffi
1 L L
when R > when R < 2
2 C C

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 27

 1 1 1 R 1 R
s1 ; s2 ¼ % &j 1 L % s1 ; s2 ¼ %
when &
R j< 2 L%
when
2RC R > LC 2RC 2L LC C 2L
2 C
rffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffi

Summary when R >

1 L
2 C
when R < 2
L
C

Table 9.13-2 Natural Response of Second-Order Circuits

CASE NATURAL FREQUENCIES NATURAL RESPONSE, xn

Table 9.13-2 Natural Response of Second-Order Circuits
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Overdamped sNATURAL
1 ; s2 ¼ %a & a2 % o20 A1 es1 t þ A2 es2 t
CASE FREQUENCIES NATURAL RESPONSE, xn
Critically damped s1 ; s2 ¼ %a (A1þA2t)e%at
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Overdamped
Underdamped ss 1;; ss2 ¼
¼ %a & jpaffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
%a & 2 2
o20%%oa02 ¼ %a & jod
A1 escos
(A1
1t
d
es2 t sin o t)e%at
þoA2tþA
2 d
1 2
Critically damped s1 ; s2 ¼ %a (A1þA2t)e%at
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Underdamped s1 ; s2 ¼ %a & j o20 % a2 ¼ %a & jod (A1 cos odtþA2 sin odt)e%at

Table 9.13-3 Forced Response of Second-Order Circuits

INPUT, f(t) FORCED RESPONSE, xf

Table 9.13-3 Forced Response of Second-Order Circuits
Constant K A
INPUT, f(t) FORCED RESPONSE, xf
Ramp Kt AþBt
Constant
Sinusoid K cos ot, K sin ot, or K cos (otþy)
K A cos ot þ B sin ot
A
Ramp
Exponential K t%bt
Ke AþBt
Ae%bt

Sinusoid K cos ot, K sin ot, or K cos (otþy) A cos ot þ B sin ot

Exponential Ke%bt Ae%bt

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 9 - RLC 28