lect7LC

430.213A Introduction to Circuit Theory and Lab.
, Spring 2024, Seoul National University
Lecture 7.
Energy Storage Elements
Wooyeol Choi, PhD

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
Copyright Statement: The materials provided by the instructor in this course are for the use of the students enrolled in the
course. Copyrighted course materials may not be further disseminated.
Outline
§ Reading – Textbook Chapter 7
§ Goals
• Learn capacitor and inductor basics
and investigate circuits using them
§ Contents
• Capacitors
• Operation
• Energy
• Combinations
• Inductors
• Operation
• Energy
• Combinations
• Switched circuits
• Integrator (op amp + capacitor)
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 2

Capacitor and Inductor
§ Energy storage devices

• Capacitors store energy as electric field à Charge (or voltage)
• Inductors store energy as magnetic field à Current
§ Dynamic (time-varying) devices (as opposed to static devices. E.g. resistor)
§ Memory device
• The response is dependent on the previous value as well
Capacitor
§ Recall: Energy=Charge X Voltage
• But positive charges flow from
high voltage to low voltage
§ If we can only block current even

with voltages applied…
à Open path!
§ Positive charges still attracted to
the negative
§ Negative charges still attracted to
the positive
à Charges accumulated around
𝑄 𝐶 the open
𝐶[𝐹] =
𝑉 𝑉
𝑞(𝑡) § Capacitance [Farad] = stored
𝐶=
𝑣(𝑡) charge [Coulomb] per unit voltage
[Volt]
Capacitance
§ Amount of charge is proportional
to
𝑄 𝑄 • Area (A)
• 1/distance (1/d)
• Permittivity (𝜖)
𝑄 𝑄
𝑑
0.5𝑑
𝑄 𝜀𝐴
𝐶= =
𝑄 2𝑄 𝑉 𝑑
𝜖 2𝜖
𝑄 2𝑄

Capacitor Current and Voltage
𝑞(𝑡)
𝐶=
𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑞 𝑡 Looks like conductance!
𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 Initial voltage
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
1 # 1 # 1 #! 1 #
𝑣 𝑡 = 7 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 7 𝑖(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 + 7 𝑖(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 7 𝑖(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡$ )
𝐶 !" 𝐶 #! 𝐶 !" 𝐶 #!
§ Capacitance current is proportional to the voltage “change”

• Looks like conductance as differentiation is a linear operator
§ Capacitance voltage is proportional to the charge
§ Capacitance charge is the integration of current
§ Initial voltage = voltage across capacitor at t0
§ Capacitance voltage should be continuous over time (Why?)

Time-Varying Current to Capacitor
𝑖!" 𝑡 1 #
𝑖!" 𝑡 𝑣%&# 𝑡 = 7 𝑖'( 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐶 !"
+
𝑖!" 𝑡 1F 𝑣#$% 𝑡
− total area under
𝑖'( 𝑡 curve up
to time 𝑡
𝑖'( 𝑡 𝑣%&# 𝑡
3A 3V
0.5 1.5 𝑡 0.5 1.5 𝑡
The voltage increases linearly as charge is flowing into the capacitor due to the constant current
Time-Varying Voltage to Capacitor
𝑑𝑣'( 𝑡
𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡
+
𝑣!" 𝑡 + 𝟑𝐅 𝑣#$% 𝑡
−
− slope of 𝑣'( 𝑡
at time 𝑡
𝑣'( 𝑡 𝑖𝑡
𝟏𝟐 𝐕 𝟑𝟔 𝐀
1s 𝑡 1s 𝑡
The linearly varying voltage source has a constant derivative – thus the current into the capacitor is a constant
Examples – Time-Varying Source
𝐶 = 1𝑚𝐹 𝐶 = 0.5𝐹, 𝑣 0 = 0

DC Sources and Capacitor
𝐼 𝐼) 𝐼 𝐼)
+ + +
𝑉 − 𝐶 𝑉) 𝐼 𝐶 𝑉)
− −
§ VC will become V (instantaneously) § VC will increase indefinitely

§ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 % %
§ 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝑡
"# ! !
§ 𝐼! = 𝐶 = 0 § 𝐼! = 𝐼
"$
§ No DC current § Do we still have current?
à ‘open’ for DC (displacement current)

Example – R and C
§ KCL should be still valid!

"#& $ #' $
§ 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖! 𝑡 + 𝑖& 𝑡 = 𝐶 +
"$ &
§ More on this in lecture 8

Stored Energy in Capacitor
𝑤+ = 7 𝑣(𝜏)𝑖(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
!"
𝑑𝑣 Wait a second.
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡 Isn’t this right for DC?
# ,(#)
𝑑𝑣 1 * ,(#)
𝑤+ = 7 𝑣𝐶 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 7 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 J 𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉
𝑑𝜏 2 ,(!")
!" ,(!") 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣 −∞ = 0 𝑊 = 𝐶𝑉 *
1 11 *
𝑤+ = 𝐶𝑣 * = 𝑞
2 2𝐶
Always positive
Hence passive

dv
i¼C
dt
we have Capacitor
Z
Voltage
Z !
t
dv vðt Þ
1 2 !!vðtÞ
wc ¼ vC dt ¼ C v dv ¼ Cv !
$1 dt vð$1Þ 2 vð$1Þ
Switch t=0
closed R R
FIGURE 7.3-1 A circuit
+ + (a) where the capacitor is cha
+ vc + vc
10 V C 10 V C
–
– –
– and vc ¼ 10 V and (b) the sw
is opened at t ¼ 0.
𝑖=0 𝑣/ = 10
𝑣/ = 10 − 𝑖𝑅 = 10
𝑄/ = 10𝐶
§ Capacitance voltage should be continuous over time

§ Vc stays at 10 V right before and after t=0

capacitors. –
Series and Parallel Capacitor FIGURE 7.4-2 Equivalent circuit for N parallel
7.4 S e r i e s a n d P a r a l l e l C a p a c i t o r s
capacitors.
i
+
v1 v2
– +
v3
– + –
For the e
7.4 S e r i e s a n d P a rFirst,
a l l let
e l usCconsider
a p a cCthe
i1t oparallel
r2s Cconnection
C 3 of N capacitors
+ as sho
v + CN vN
i1 i2 iN
Figure 7.4-1. –Wei wish v1 to vdetermine
2 v3 the equivalent–
For for
circuit the
+ First, let us consider the
+ parallel
– + – connection
+ – of N capacitors Compari
as show
i C1
i1
C2
i2
CN
iN
v parallel capacitors as shown in Figure 7.4-2.
– Figure Using
7.4-1. KCL,
We wishwe to determine the equivalent circuit for t
have
+ FIGURE C
7.4-31 Series C3
C2 connection of +
i C1 C2 CN v parallel capacitors
v –+ as shown in Figure 7.4-2. CN v
– N capacitors. i ¼ i1 þ i2 þ i3 þ & & & þ iN – N
FIGURE 7.4-1 Parallel connection of Using KCL, we have Compa
N capacitors.
Because i ¼ i1 þ iin2 ¼ þC i3 nþdv& & & þ iN Thus, th
FIGURE 7.4-1 Parallel connection of FIGURE 7.4-3 Series connection of
dt simply th
N capacitors. N capacitors. i
dv
Because in ¼ C n the paral
and v appears across each capacitor, dt we obtain
+ + Thus,Not
and v appears across eachdv dv
v – capacitor,
+ dv
weCobtain dv series-co
i Cp
–
v i ¼ C1 þ C 2 þ Cv3– þ s&&& þ C
N simply
+ dt dt i dt dt circuit
the parafo
i Cp v
dv dv dv dv dv
–
i ¼¼ CðC 1 1 þþCC þ C & þþC& N& &Þ þ CN
2 2þdtC 3 þ 3& &dt
UsN
FIGURE 7.4-2 Equivalent circuit for N parallel dt
FIGURE 7.4-4 ! Equivalent circuit
+ for N dt dt ð
v – + dv series-c
C 3 þ & & v& –þ CCNsÞ
N
capacitors. series CX
¼ ðcapacitors.
1 þ C2 þ dv
§ 𝑖 FIGURE
= 𝑖! + ⋯7.4-2+ 𝑖" , Equivalent
𝑣 = 𝑣! = ⋯ circuit
= 𝑣"for N parallel § 𝑣 =¼𝑣! +N⋯ + Cn!𝑣" ,dt 𝑖 = 𝑖! = ⋯ = 𝑖" dt circuitð7
X U
1dv
capacitors. n¼1
𝑑𝑣#
𝑖# = 𝐶# ¼
FIGURE𝑣#7.4-4C = Equivalent
n . 𝑖# 𝑑𝑡 circuit for N
v v 𝑑𝑡 v For the equivalentn¼1circuit 𝐶 dt shown
series capacitors.#
in Figure 7.4-2,
i 1 2
𝑑𝑣 3
+ – + – + –
𝑖 = (𝐶! + ⋯ + 𝐶" ) 1
For the equivalent 𝑣circuit 1 dv 7.4-2,
i v1 v2 v3 𝑑𝑡 = shown ¼inCFigure
+ ⋯i + p . 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 ð
+ C1– + C2– "+ C3– + 𝐶! 𝐶" dt !
v +– 𝐶$ = , 𝐶# CN vN dv
#%! – i ¼ C p'! ð7
C1 C2 C 3 + Comparing Eqs. 7.4-1 and 7.4-2,
" it is clear that
'! dt
v +– CN vN 𝐶& = , 𝐶#
– N
FIGURE 7.4-3 Series connection of Comparing Eqs. 7.4-1 and 7.4-2, it is clear that X
#%!
Cp ¼ C1 þ C2 þ C3 þ & & & þ CN ¼ Cn
N capacitors. XN
Spring 2024 7.4-3 Series connection of
FIGURE Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 n¼1 14
Cp ¼ C1 þ C2 þ C3 þ & & & þ CN ¼ Cn
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
01
Parallel plate example - 𝐶 = 2
Series combination
A
Parallel combination
d
A
A A A d
d
A
d
Total area becomes 3A Total height becomes 3d

while d remains the same while A remains the same
𝜖3𝐴 𝜖𝐴 1
𝐶#%#34 = = 3𝐶 𝐶#%#34 = = 𝐶
𝑑 3𝑑 3

Types of Capacitors
§ The most common types of capacitors are Polyester or
film capacitors with polyester, polystyrene, polystyrene
ceramic, or mica dielectric.

Electrolytic
§ To save space, these plates are often rolled

up before being housed in metal or plastic Ceramic disc
films
• Imagine a flat sheet of insulating film with a
conductor deposited on each side, rolled up
into a tight tube

Types of Capacitors
§ Most capacitors are non-polarized (no polarity),
although electrolytic capacitors are polarized (one
terminal is + and the other terminal is -)
§ Electrolytic caps produce a very high capacitance,

as can newer “super-caps” or “ultra-caps”
§ Variable caps are often called ‘varactors’
§ Trimmer caps are adjustable/variable and have a

range of values that they can be set to
§ Variable air caps can be adjusted by turning a shaft

attached to a set of moveable plates (e.g., the
tuning knob on an old radio is attached to a variable
air capacitor)

Types of Capacitors
Big capacitors
Tiny capacitors
MLCC [passive-component.eu]

Applications for Capacitors
§ Capacitors have a wide range of applications, some of which are:
• Blocking DC
• Passing AC
• Shift phase
• Store energy
• Suppress noise
• Start motors

Inductor
§ Ampere’s circuital law relates
current flow and magnetic flux [Wb,
Weber]
Φ = 𝐿𝑖
§ Faraday’s induction law relates
magnetic flux and electromotive force
(emf) [V]
𝑑Φ
𝜀=−
𝑑𝑡
Negative sign indicates the direction
for generated emf
§ Combining them
𝑑Φ 𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
§ Integration form
1 #
𝑖 𝑡 = 7 𝑣(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
𝐿 !"

current i(t). We find that the voltage v(t) across the coil is
proportional to the rate of change of the coil current. That is, + v(t) –
vð t Þ ¼ L
d
i ðt Þ
Inductors
ð7:5-1Þ
dt i(t)
FIGURE 7.5-1 An inductor connected to a current
where the constant of proportionality is L, the inductance ofSymbol
the for inductor: L
source.
inductor.
Integrating both sides of Eq. 7.5-1, we obtain
iL Z t Unit of inductance: Henry (H)
1
iðt Þ ¼ vðtÞdt ð7:5-2Þ
L $1 1 H = 1 Wb/A = 1 W⋅s
This equation says that the inductor current i(t) can be found by
integrating the inductor voltage from time $1 until time t. To do
Opposes a change in current
so requires that we know the value of the inductor voltage from
via the establishment and
time t ¼ $1 until time t ¼ t. Often, we don’t know the value of
the voltage all the way back to t ¼ $1. Instead, we break collapse
the of the magnetic field
integral up into two parts:
Z Z Z L/R units =Courtesy
(W⋅s)/(W)
of Vishay TIME
àIntertechnology, Inc.
1 t0 1 t 1 t
iðt Þ ¼ vðtÞdt þ vðtÞdt ¼ iðt 0 Þ þ vðtÞdt FIGURE 7.5-2 Elements with inductances arranged
L $1 L t0 L t0
various forms of coils.
§ Any structures that can flow current have inductance
ð7:5-3Þ
Inductance
§This equation says is
thatdependent on the
the inductor current geometry
i(t) can be found by i
integrating the inductor voltage from some convenient time t ¼ t 0
+
until time t ¼ t, provided that we also know the inductor current at
time t0. Now we are required to know only the inductor voltage from v L
time t ¼ t 0 until time t ¼ t. The time t0 is called the initial time, and –
the inductor current i(t0) is called the initial condition. Frequently,
it is convenient to select t 0 ¼ 0 as the initial time. FIGURE 7.5-3 Circuit symbol for an inductor.
Equations 7.5-1 and 7.5-3 describe
Spring 2024 the current–voltage
Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 21
Inductance of a Solenoid
𝜇𝑁 * 𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙
𝜇: permeability [H/m]
Material dependent coefficient
(e.g. in vacuum, 𝜇$ = 4𝜋×10!5 )
𝑁: number of turns [ ]
𝐴: area [m2]
𝑙: length [m]
Exact derivation is out of the scope of the course
To the first order, it is proportional to the total wire

length (squared) per unit dimention
Why squared? Due to shared magnetic flux

Time-Varying Current to Inductor
𝑑𝑖'( 𝑡
𝑖'( 𝑡 𝑖'( 𝑡 𝑣%&# 𝑡 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡
+
𝑖'( 𝑡 2H 𝑣%&# 𝑡
− slope of 𝑖'( 𝑡
at time 𝑡
The linear negative slope of

𝑖'( 𝑡 𝑣%&# 𝑡 the applied current
produces a constant
3A negative voltage across the
12 V inductor
0.5 1 1.5 𝑡 0.5 1 1.5 𝑡
−12 V
Negative voltage is possible!
Abrupt current change would create infinite voltage!
Time-Varying Voltage to Inductor
1 #
𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = 7 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐿 !"
+ 1 #
𝑣'( 𝑡 + 2H 𝑣%&# 𝑡 = 7 𝑣(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖 𝑡$
− 𝐿 #!
−
! 6 #
𝑖 𝑡$ = ∫!" 𝑣(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 : initial current
7
𝑣'( 𝑡 𝑖𝑡
6V 9A
6A
3A
0 1 2 3 𝑡 0 1 2 3 𝑡
Inductor current is dependent on current of present and past! à Memory!

Instant current change would require abrupt voltage change within 0s time span!
à current should be continuous

DC Sources and Inductor
𝐼 𝐼7 𝐼 𝐼7
+ +
𝑉 +
𝐿 𝑉7 𝐼 𝐿 𝑉7
−
− −
§ 𝐼𝐿 will increase indefinitely! § I, becomes I (instantly)

% % "- $
§ 𝐼+ = ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑉𝑡 § 𝑉+ = 𝐿 =0
+ + "(
§ 𝑉+ = 𝑉 § Looks like short for DC
§ Do we still have voltage?

284 7. Energy Storage Elements
EXERCISE
Try7.5-1 Determine the voltage v(t) for t > 0 for the circuit of Figure E 7.5-1b when is(t)
it
is the currentyourself Example – R and
EXAMPLE 7.5-3
shown in Figure E 7.5-1a.
in WileyPLUS
L Current and Voltage
Inductor
is(t)(V)
5 The input to the circuit shown in Figure
1H 7.5-81 is
Ω the voltage
L
4 iL(t) $20t
vðt Þ +¼ v4e
L(t) –
V + for
vR(t)t >
– 0
3
The output is the current
R2 + v(t) –
i(t) iðt Þ ¼ $1:2e$20t $ 1:5 A for t > 0
1
– The initial inductor current is iL ð0Þ ¼ $3:5
is(t)
A. Determine the values of
+
v(t) L and resistance R.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t (s)
FIGURE 7.5-8 The (a) (b)
Solution
FIGURE E 7.5-1 (a) The currentKCL
sourceand KVL should be valid
circuit considered in
current.
Apply (b) The
KCL at circuit.
either node to get
Example 7.5-3. ! Z t "
Hint: Determine vL(t) and vR(t) separately,iðthen v ð t Þ v ð t Þ 1
t Þ ¼ use KVL. þ iL ðt Þ ¼ þ vðtÞdt þ ið0Þ
R R L 0
𝑖 𝑡 + −𝑖9 𝑡 8 + −𝑖 𝑡 = 0 −𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑣7 𝑡 + 𝑣9 𝑡 = 0
That is< 2t $ 2 72 < t < 4
Answer:𝑣vðt𝑡Þ ¼ 7 $ t 4 < t < 8 $20t Z t 𝑑𝑖: 𝑡 $20t
4e 1 𝑣$20t 4e 4
𝑖9 𝑡 = : $1:2e $20t
$ 1:5 ¼ þ 4e 7 𝑡dt= $ 𝐿
3:5 ¼ þ ðe$20t $1Þ $ 3
𝑅 0 otherwise R L 0 𝑑𝑡 R Lð$20Þ
1 𝑣 9 𝑡 = 𝑖 : 𝑡 𝑅 #
4
$
1 $20t 1
𝑖7 𝑡 = 7 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 ¼ $ e þ $ 3:5
𝐿 R 5L 5L
Equating coefficients gives
1
$ 3:5 ) L ¼ 0:1 H
$1:5 ¼
More on this in chapter
5L 8
4 1 4 1 4
and $ 1:2 ¼ $ ¼ $ ¼ $2 ) R ¼ 5V
R 5L R 5ð0:1Þ R
Stored Energy in Capacitor
𝑤; = 7 𝑣(𝜏)𝑖(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
!"
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
# '(#)
𝑑𝑖 1 * '(#)
𝑤; = 7 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐿 7 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 J
𝑑𝜏 2 '(!")
!" '(!")
𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖 −∞ = 0
1
𝑤; = 𝐿𝑖 *
2
Always positive
Hence passive

Series
+ and Parallel Inductors 287
v ¼ Ls –
XN dt vb Ls
quire 7.7
that Ls d¼ P a L
Series an
Series and Parallel Inductor
r na l l e l I n d u c t o r sð7:7-1Þ
X
n¼1
N
FIGURE 7.7-2– Equivalent inductor Ls
for N series inductors.
b
URE 7.7-1 Seriesand
A series of Nparallel
inductors.
connection of inductors
, an equivalent inductor forLs a¼seriesLnof inductors can be sum
is the reduced to an
ofð7:7-1Þ
the N equivalent simple inductor. Consider
FIGURE
iacross7.7-2
theEquivalent inductor Lis
ctors. a series connection of N inductors as shown in Figure 7.7-1. The voltage series connection
n¼1 s
+ N series inductors.
for
Now, considerinductor
the set of i i i
an equivalenti L forNainductors
Lseries of in parallel,isasthe
inductors L
shown
sum in of Figure
the N 1 2 N
tors.di current
. The +
a i is equal
1
to the sum 2
of the currents inN the N inductors: v i L1 L2 LN
LN + v – + v – + v – +
Now,dt consider the1set of N inductors 2X N in parallel, asN shown in Figure i1 i2 iN
–
v
The current i is equal to the i ¼sum of in the currents in the N inductors: v L1 L2 LN
n¼1 FIGURE 7.7-3 Connection of N parallel
X N
–
ever, because –inductors.
b
i¼ in FIGURE 7.7-1 Series of N inductors.
e 7.7-2, is represented by1 Z atn¼1i FIGURE 7.7-3 Connection i of N parallel
ver, because in ¼ v dt þ in ðt 0 Þ inductors. +
Ln t+0 v ¼ v 1 þ v 2 þ # # # þ v N
Z t i
may obtain the expression 1 v v
in ¼ ! v dt þ in ðLts0¼ Þ L di þ L di þ # # # þ L di +
Lp
N Ln t 0Z
1 2 N
X 1 – t XN dt dt dt
! –
i¼
ay obtain the expression b v dt þ i n ðt X0 ÞN ð7:7-2Þ v Lp
L n! di FIGURE 7.7-4 Equivalent inductor Lp
ð7:7-1Þ
X
n¼1
N Z t0t X
n¼1
N ¼ L N
FIGURE 17.7-2 Equivalent inductor Ls dt for the connection
– of N parallel inductors.
equivalent inductor i ¼for L , as shown
N series inductors.
p in
v dtFigure
þ 7.7-4,
i n ð t 0
n¼1
Þ is represented by the
ð7:7-2Þ
ion
sum of § 𝑣
Because =
the N the 𝑣 + ⋯L+
% equivalent
n¼1 n 𝑣 t 0 , 𝑖 = 𝑖 n¼1= ⋯ = 𝑖
.
series % Ls, as shown
inductor . in Figure § 𝑣= 𝑣FIGURE
7.7-2, % is=represented
⋯7.7-4
= Equivalent
𝑣.by , 𝑖 =inductor
a
𝑖% i+ L⋯ p + 𝑖
.
for the connection of N parallel inductors.
quivalent inductor
i
+ Lp, as shown 𝑑𝑖/ in Figure Z
1 7.7-4,t
di is represented by the 1 +
wn in Figure /
ion 𝑣 = 𝐿i/
1 i2 i ¼ v ¼ L s v dti N þ ið t 0 Þ 𝑖 / = ∫ 𝑣 / 𝑑𝑡ð7:7-3Þ
N inductors: v
𝑑𝑡L1
LpZ t0 dt
L t LN
𝐿 / v Ls
n Eqs.we require
7.7-2 and that
7.7-3 are set equal 1
i ¼to each
2
𝑑𝑖vother,
dt þ we iðt 0 Þhave 1 1 –
ð7:7-3Þ
𝑣– = 𝐿% + ⋯ + 𝐿L.p tX 𝑖= + ⋯+ ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
0N
X
1 ofother,
Ls each
N
1 we have
LNn parallel 𝐿
ð7:7-1Þ% 𝐿.
b
Eqs. 7.7-2 and𝐿FIGURE7.7-3 .7.7-3
are set𝐿equal to ¼
0 = Σ /
Connection
¼ 𝐿2 = Σ/1% . 3% 3%
𝐿/ 7.7-2 Equivalent inductor Ls
FIGURE ð7:7-4Þ
inductors./1% Lp n¼1n¼1 Ln
N for N series inductors.
1 X 1
Thus, an equivalent inductori for a series ¼ Intro. of inductors is the sum of the N
Spring 2024 Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 i ð7:7-4Þ 28
inductors. + L p n¼1
L n +
current is proportional to the derivative of the capacitor voltage i ¼ C (dv=dt), so the capacitor current is
zero. Consequently, the capacitor acts like a open circuit.
Inductor vs. Capacitor
Table 7.8-1 Characteristics of Energy Storage Elements
VARIABLE INDUCTORS CAPACITORS
Passive sign convention

i L i C
+ v – + v –
Z t
Voltage di 1
v¼L v¼ idt þ vð0Þ
dt C 0
Z t
Current 1 dv
i¼ vdt þ ið0Þ i¼C
L 0 dt
Power di dv
i ¼ Li p ¼ Cv
dt dt
Energy 1 1
w ¼ Li2 w ¼ Cv2
2 2
An instantaneous change is not permitted for the Current Voltage
element’s
Will permit an instantaneous change in the Voltage Current
element’s
This element acts as a (see note below) Short circuit to a constant current into its Open circuit to a constant voltage across its
terminals terminals
______________________________________________________________________________
Note: Assumes that the element is in a circuit with steady-state condition.

Switched Circuits
§ Switching action assumed to be instant
àbehavior before time of switching and after that can be different!
𝑡4 : time of switching
𝑡43 : before time of switching
𝑡45 : after time of switching
𝑡=0 𝑖𝑡 𝑣%&# 0! = 0
𝑖𝑡 𝑣%&# 0< = 6
𝑖 0! = 0
+
6V +
6
− 2Ω 𝑣!"# 𝑡 𝑖 0< = = 3
2
−

t before
2. the
Theswitch opens,
capacitor that isand
voltage for inductor
t < 0. The circuitcannot
current input, change instantaneously, so
re the switch opens, the circuit is at steady state. Because the
Switched LC Circuits
vc ð0þ ÞIn
open circuit, and the inductor will act like a short circuit.
having voltage vc ð0" Þ and the inductor byiL að0short
n circuitand þ
¼ v c ð 0" Þ ¼ 6 V
Þ ¼ i L ð 0" Þ ¼ 2 A
at
"
Þ¼
10
¼ 2A § Switch opens at t=0
5 § Before switching
2Ω 3Ω 2Ω 3Ω
e that
! " t=0 L is short for DC +
3 +
¼ 10 V
10
+
¼ 6– V vc
–
1/
2 F iL
1H C is open
10 V –for DC vc
+ iL
5 –
§ Voltages and currents are
ot change instantaneously, so
FIGURE 7.8-1 Circuit with an inductor and a capacitor. The FIGURE 7.8-2 3 10 7.8-1 for t < 0.
Circuit of Figure
ð 0" Þ ¼
¼ vcswitch is closed
6 V for a long time prior to opening at t ¼ 0. 𝑖+ 0 = =2A
2+3
¼ i L ð 0" Þ ¼ 2 A 3
3
𝑣! 0 = 10 = 6 V
Before Switching 2+3
§ Right after the switching?
2Ω 3Ω 𝑣! and 𝑖+ should be continuous
+ 𝑖+ 05 = 𝑖+ 03
𝑣! 05 = 𝑣! 03
+ vc iL
10 V –
–
§ After that?
FIGURE 7.8-2 Circuit of Figure 7.8-1 for t < 0. Will be convered in lecture 8

Op Amp with Capacitor
rgy Storage Elements
+ vR(t) – C iC(t)
x(t)
1 2 3
y(t)
𝑖 < = 0, 𝑖 ! = 0
R iR(t) + vC(t) – 𝑣! = 𝑣< = 0
– 𝑥 𝑡 −0 𝑑𝑣) 𝑑 −𝑦 𝑡
= 𝑖) 𝑡 = 𝐶 =𝐶
+ 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
FIGURE 7.9-6 The integrator. #
1
𝑦 𝑡 =− 7 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑅𝐶 !"
The input to the integrator is x(t), the node voltage at node 1. Thus, v1 ¼ xðt Þ. The output of the
ntegrator is y(t), the node voltage at node 3. Thus, v3 ¼ yðt Þ. The noninverting input of the ideal
perational amplifier is attached to the reference node, and the inverting input is connected to node 2.
he node voltages at these two nodes must be equal, so v2 ¼ 0.
The voltage across the resistor is related to the node voltages at the resistor nodes by
§ (Inverting) integrator
vR ð t Þ ¼ v 1 ð t Þ $ v2 ð t Þ ¼ xð t Þ $ 0 ¼ xð t Þ
§ Can we make differentiator? Why not!
he resistor current is calculated, using Ohm’s law, to be
• Use inductor instead of capacitor à Inductors are typically bigger in size
• Swap the capacitor and resistor
vR ð t Þ xð t Þ
i R ðt Þ ¼ ¼
• But… differentiation will createR abrupt
R change in the output à not practical
he value of the current flowing into an input of an ideal operational amplifier is zero, so applying KCL
node 2 gives
Multi-Input Integrator
Operational Amplifier Circuits and Linear Differential Equations 295
+ v1(t) – iC(t)
Superposition
1 3 C 4
x1(t) y(t) 1
R1 + vC(t) – 𝑦6 = − 7 𝑥6 𝑑𝑡
i1 (t) 𝑅6 𝐶
2 + v2(t) –
x2(t) 1
𝑦* = − 7 𝑥* 𝑑𝑡
–
i2(t) R2 + 𝑅* 𝐶
FIGURE 7.9-7 The summing integrator.
𝑦 = 𝑦6 + 𝑦*
age at node 2. The output of the integrator is y(t), the node voltage at node 4. The ideal operational
lifier causes the voltage at node 3 to be zero. Hence,
v1 ðt Þ ¼ x1 ðt Þ; v2 ðt Þ ¼ x2 ðt Þ; v3 ðt Þ ¼ 0; and v 4 ð t Þ ¼ yð t Þ
§ Use
ng Ohm’s law superposition
shows the currents in the resistors to be
§ Weighted sum vof twox1integrals
1 ðt Þ ðt Þ v2 ð t Þ x2 ð t Þ
i1 ðt Þ ¼ ¼ and i2 ðt Þ ¼ ¼
R1 R1 R2 R2
value of the current flowing into an input of an ideal operational amplifier is zero, so applying KCL
ode 3 gives
x1 ð t Þ x2 ð t Þ
iC ðt Þ ¼ i1 ðt Þ þ i2 ðt Þ ¼ þ
Spring 2024
R 1 R2 Lab., Lect 7
Intro. Circ. Theory and 33
d3
Now we must obtain 3 yðt Þ. To do so, solve Eq. 7.9-1
Solving Differential Equation d3
dt
!
d2 d
y ð t Þ ¼ 3x ð t Þ $ 2:5 y ð t Þ þ 2 yð
dt 3 dt 2 dt
𝑑= 𝑑* 𝑑 Next, represent Eq. 7.9-3 by a block diagram such as the diagra
2 = 𝑦 + 5 * 𝑦 + 4 𝑦 + 3𝑦 = 6𝑥 block diagrams in Figures 7.9-2 and 7.9-3 can be combined as sho
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2" diagram of Eq. 7.9-1.
Writing for " 𝑦 Our next task is to implement the block diagram as an ope
2#
𝑑= 𝑑* 𝑑 provides operational amplifier circuits to implement both differen
=
𝑦 = −2.5 * 𝑦 − 2 𝑦 − 1.5𝑦 + 3𝑥integrator works, consider Figure 7.9-6. The nodes of the integrat
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 anticipation of writing node equations. Let v1, v2, and v3 denote t
ifierAssume all initial conditions
Circuits and Linear Differential are 0
Equations 293
respectively.
–1.5 y(t)
d y(t)
d3 y(t) –2
+ dt d y(t)
dt3 d2 y(t) dt
–2.5 3
d y(t)
dt2 ∫ ∫ ∫ y(t)
3 x(t) dt3
d2 y(t)
Operational Amplifier Circuits and Linear
dt2 Differential Equations 293
FIGURE 7.9-3 A block diagram that represents Eq. 7.9-3.
–1.5 y(t)
2"
We can
d3 generate other terms from 𝑦 𝑡 –2
d y(t) –1.5 y(t)
2# " d3 y(t) dt
7.9-1 for yðt Þ to get +
–2
d y(t)
dt 3 2
d y(t) d y(t) dtd33
y(t) + dt –2.5
" dt2 dt dt3 d2 y(t)
d2 y(t)
3 3 –2.5
d d y(t) x(t) 2
yð3t Þ þ 1:5yðt Þ∫ ∫ ∫ y(t)
2 dt ð7:9-3Þ dt2 dt
3 x(t)
dt
FIGURE 7.9-2 The first partial block diagram. FIGURE 7.9-3 A block diagram that represents Eq. 7.9-3.
1 µF
diagram shown in Figure 7.9-3. Finally, the
d as shown in Figure 7.9-4 to obtain the block x(t)
d3 d
x(t)
d d x(t)
3 –2 – d y(t) diagram from Figure 7.9-3,
– d y(t) + dt 2
d y(t) adjusted to accommodate
Optimizing Equation Solver
dt3 –2.5 –1
dt2 the consequences of using
3 –1 x(t) inverting integrators.
296 7. Energy Storage Elements
Inverting
§modified integrator
versions are
of the block morefrom
diagrams practical
Figures 7.9-2 and 7.9-3. Replace all the integrators in
Figure 7.9-2 by inverting integrators to get Figure d2 y(t)7.9-8. It’s necessary to set the input equal to
d y(t)
3 3 – FIGURE 7.9-8 The block diagram
d d 3 dt 2
dt
from Figure 7.9-2, adjusted to
! 3 yðt Þ instead of 3 yðt Þ to– dcause y(t) the output
–∫ to be equal
–∫ to y(t)–∫instead y(t)
of !y(t).
dt dt dt3 d3 d2 d accommodate inverting integrators.
The block diagram in Figure 7.9-9 produces ! 3 yðt Þ from 2 yðt Þ, ! yðt Þ, and y(t). The block
dt dt dt
= *
𝑑 and 7.9-9 can𝑑 be combined 𝑑 as shown in Figure 7.9-10 to obtain the block
diagrams in Figures 7.9-8
diagram of Eq. 7.9-1. = 𝑦 = −2.5 * 𝑦 − 2 𝑦 − 1.5𝑦 + 3𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 –1.5 –1 y(t) FIGURE 7.9-9 The blo
A summing integrator can multiply each of its inputs by a separate constant, add the products, and
𝑑 = d3 𝑑* –2
d
– y(t)𝑑 diagram from Figure 7.9
− block
integrate the sum. The – 𝑦y(t)
=
= 2.5
diagram + 𝑦 +in2Figure
shown
*
−1 −
7.9-11
dt 𝑦 + 1.5𝑦
emphasizes +
the 3(−1)𝑥
blocks
d 2
that adjusted
can be to accommodat
implemented by a single 𝑑𝑡four-input
dt 3
𝑑𝑡
summing integrator. 𝑑𝑡 –2.5 –1
2
y(t)
the consequences of usin
dt
3 –1 x(t) inverting integrators.
d2 y(t)
modified dt2 of
versions
the block diagrams
d from Figures 7.9-2 and 7.9-3. Replace all the integr
– y(t)
Figure3 7.9-2 by inverting integrators dt to get Figure 7.9-8. It’s necessary to set the input e
– d3 y(t) –∫ –∫ –∫ y(t)
ddt3 d3
! 3 yðt Þ instead of 3 yðt Þ to cause the output to be equal to y(t) instead of !y(t).
dt dt d3 d2 d
The block diagram in Figure 7.9-9 produces 1.5 ! 3 yðt Þ from 2 yðt Þ, ! yðt Þ, and y(t). Th
dt dt dt
2 –1
diagrams in Figures+ 7.9-8 and 7.9-9 can be combined as shown in Figure 7.9-10 to obtain th
diagram of Eq. 7.9-1. 2.5
A summing integrator 3 can multiply

–1 each
x(t) of its inputs by a separate constant, add the produ
integrate the sum. The block diagram shown in Figure 7.9-11 emphasizes the blocks that
FIGURE 7.9-10 The block diagram representing Eq. 7.9-1, adjusted to accommodate inverting integrators.
Spring 2024 implemented by a Intro.
single four-input
Circ. Theory andsumming
Lab., Lect integrator.
7 35
d2 y(t)
dt2 d y(t)
–
3 dt
– d y(t) –∫ –∫ –∫ y(t)
dt3
§ We can do weighted summing inverting integrator using one op amp
1.5
𝑑= 𝑑* 𝑑 2 –1
− =
𝑦 = 2.5 *
𝑦 + 2 −1 −+ 𝑦 + 1.5𝑦 + 3 −1 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2.5
* = *
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 3 –1 x(t) 𝑑
* 𝑦= 7 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 = −2.5 7 * 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 − 2 −1 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 − 1.5 7 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 − 3 7 −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑡
7
𝑑𝑡FIGURE 7.9-10
𝑑𝑡 The block diagram representing
𝑑𝑡 Eq. 7.9-1, adjusted to accommodate
𝑑𝑡 inverting integrators.
d2 y(t)
dt2 d y(t)
–
3 dt
– d y(t) –∫ –∫ –∫ y(t)
dt3
1.5
2 –1
+
2.5
3 –1 x(t)
FIGURE 7.9-11 The block diagram representing Eq. 7.9-1, emphasizing the part implemented by the summing
integrator.

𝑑* 𝑑* 𝑑
𝑦 = −2.5 7 * 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 − 2 7 −1 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 − 1.5 7 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 − 3 7 −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 * 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Operational Amplifie
R4 R2
y(t)
R1 C
d2 y(t)
–x(t)
dt2
R3
d y(t) –
dt
+
FIGUR
Figure 7.9-12 shows the four-input summing integrator

1 1 1 1
= 2.5, = 2, circuit=and1.5,
is also one=of3the inputs to the circuit. The resistor
𝑅* 𝐶 𝑅= 𝐶 𝑅 𝐶
> connected
node
𝑅6 𝐶to the inverting input of the operationa
represented by the equation
Z t#
d2 1 1 d2 1
yð t Þ ¼ ! ½!xðt Þ& þ y ð t Þ þ
dt 2 0 R1 C R2 C dt 2 R3 C
be implemented. Those four blocks are implemented using two inverting integrators and two inverting
amplifiers. The finished circuit is shown in Figure 7.9-13.
400 kΩ
667 kΩ 1 µF 1 MΩ 1 µF 1 MΩ 1 µF
y(t)
20 kΩ 20 kΩ 333 kΩ – –
x(t)
+ +
– 500 kΩ
–
+
+
20 kΩ 20 kΩ
§ Inverting amplifiers to invert sign

§ How to determine
FIGURE theamplifier
7.9-13 An operational capacitance value?Eq. 7.9-1.
circuit that implements
• We have to consider the charging time

(more on this in lect 8)

7.13 SUMMARY
Table 7.13-1 summarizes the element equations for capaci- Summary
Circuits that contain capacitors and/or inductors have mem-
tors and inductors. (Notice that the voltage and current ory. The voltages and currents in that circuit at a particular
referred to in these equations adhere to the passive conven- time depend not only on other voltages and currents at that
Capacitors
tion.) Unlike the circuit elements we encountered in previous Inductors
same instant of time but also on previous values of
chapters, the element equations for capacitors and inductors those currents and voltages. For example, the voltage across
§ Store
involve energy
derivatives as electric field
and integrals. §a Store
capacitorenergy
at time t1 as magnetic
depends fieldacross that
on the voltage
(voltage)
Circuits that contain capacitors and/or inductors are able to (current)
capacitor at an earlier time t0 and on the value of the capacitor
store energy. The energy stored in the electric field of a current between t0 and t1.
§ Current
capacitor is equal is
to 12proportional
Cv2 ðtÞ, where v(t) is to
the the
voltage across §AVoltage
set of seriesisorproportional to be
parallel capacitors can the reduced to an
voltageThechange
the capacitor. (conductor)
energy stored
1 2
in the magnetic field of a current
equivalent change
capacitor. A set (resistor)
of series or parallel inductors can
inductor is equal to 2 Li ðt Þ, where i(t) is the current in the readily be reduced to an equivalent inductor. Table 7.13-2
§ Voltage is continuous vs time
inductor. Currenttheisequations
§summarizes continuousrequired tovsdo time
so.
Table 7.13-1 Element Equations for Capacitors and Inductors
CAPACITOR INDUCTOR
+ v(t) – + v(t) –
L
i(t) C i(t)
Z t
d 1
iðt Þ ¼ C vðtÞ iðt Þ ¼ vðtÞdt þ iðt 0 Þ
dt L t0
Z
1 t d
vðtÞ ¼ iðtÞdt þ vðt0 Þ vðtÞ ¼ L iðt Þ
C t0 dt

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430.213A Introduction to Circuit Theory and Lab.

, Spring 2024, Seoul National University

Wooyeol Choi, PhD

§ Reading – Textbook Chapter 7

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 2

§ Energy storage devices

§ If we can only block current even

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 5

§ Capacitance current is proportional to the voltage “change”

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 6

0.5 1.5 𝑡 0.5 1.5 𝑡

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 9

§ VC will become V (instantaneously) § VC will increase indefinitely

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 10

§ KCL should be still valid!

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 11

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 12

§ Capacitance voltage should be continuous over time

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 13

Total area becomes 3A Total height becomes 3d

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 15

§ The most common types of capacitors are Polyester or

film capacitors with polyester, polystyrene, polystyrene

ceramic, or mica dielectric.

§ To save space, these plates are often rolled

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 16

§ Electrolytic caps produce a very high capacitance,

§ Trimmer caps are adjustable/variable and have a

§ Variable air caps can be adjusted by turning a shaft

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 17

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 18

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 19

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 20

Exact derivation is out of the scope of the course

To the first order, it is proportional to the total wire

Why squared? Due to shared magnetic flux

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 22

The linear negative slope of

0.5 1 1.5 𝑡 0.5 1 1.5 𝑡

Inductor current is dependent on current of present and past! à Memory!

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 24

§ 𝐼𝐿 will increase indefinitely! § I, becomes I (instantly)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 25

v(t) L and resistance R.

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 27

VARIABLE INDUCTORS CAPACITORS

Passive sign convention

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 29

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 30

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 31

A summing integrator 3 can multiply

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 36

Figure 7.9-12 shows the four-input summing integrator

§ Inverting amplifiers to invert sign

• We have to consider the charging time

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 38

Table 7.13-1 Element Equations for Capacitors and Inductors

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 7 39

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