Dis06U2Indus hygiene chemical haz

DIS06 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE & OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
UNIT – 2
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE: CHEMICAL HAZARDS
1. INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH HAZARDS AT WORKPLACE:
Chemical industry is the fastest growing industry in the world. Chemicals have
improved the quality of life. Over the past decade there has been a rapid increase in the use of
chemicals and this trend will continue as chemicals have a direct impact on the quality of life.
Rapid growth in the use of chemicals in the industry and trade has brought about a great concern
for people, both workers and the general public. Earlier little was known, and little was done
about the hazards associated with chemicals and chemical processes. Today, in virtually every
workplace, workers are exposed to chemicals. This has created 2 types of situations:
 industrial hygiene problems due to exposure to chemicals
 chemical safety due to industrial processes
In the work environment, workers are exposed to a variety of chemicals, which

may be in the form of solids, liquids, or aerosols, (dust, fumes, gases, vapours, mist, smoke).
These chemicals constitute a potential health hazard, depending on the degree of toxicity,
concentration in the work environment and the period of exposure to air-borne chemicals. The
basic mode of entry of these chemicals into our body could be inhalation, skin contact and
ingestion. The exposure to these chemicals may exert a harmful effect. The occupational
diseases are notified in the Factories (Amendment) Act, 1987. The concern for the worker alone
has been replaced by a concern for the family of the worker and the community.
The identification and assessment of the hygienic importance of the main
environmental agents, in terms of their associated health effects, expected frequency of
occurrence and degree of exposure, as well as the estimated number of potentially exposed
workers, have become essential to maintain a better work environment. Monitoring the
workers, and their environment is not only a necessity for epidemiological research, but it is
also of great importance so far as compensation for industrial accidents and/or injuries and
occupational diseases is concerned. It is generally accepted that the worker has a right to know
the potential hazards of his occupation. New or suspected occupational health problems are
regularly associated with new technology. The practice of occupational hygiene includes
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qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of environmental factors or stresses, which may pose
health hazards in the work environment. An industrial hygienist has a primary role of dealing
with the important aspects of recognition of health hazards associated with the
processes/operations in the work environment, as well control through the adequate preventive
measures for the protection of the health of the workers.
Biological monitoring should be developed in areas where a large number of workers
are potentially exposed to agents whose absorption can be evaluated through analysis of body
fluids. Once the hazards are identified and evaluated, control measures like substitution of
hazardous materials with less toxic materials, containment by modification of processes, and/or
enclosure, reduction of contaminants by engineering control system and ventilation. It may
even be a necessary to enforce a temporary solution, such as the introduction of PPE.
The Factories Act, 1987 has incorporated the permissible exposure levels for
about 120 chemicals. Moreover, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH), USA revises and publishes the threshold limit values (permissible
values) every year. This refers to airborne concentration of substances and represents
conditions under which it is believed that all workers may be repeatedly exposed to chemicals
in the work environment, without adverse effects.
The need for competent occupational hygienists is expanding rapidly. Though
academic programmes are being established to meet these growing needs, questions there are
arising over adequacy. Occupational hygienists will have a dynamic role to play in the decades
to come, in providing a safe working environment.
1.1. CHEMICAL SAFETY:
In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the number, variety and complexity of
chemicals being used in the industry and our daily life. Some chemicals are toxic, highly
reactive, and inflammable or have a combination of these characteristics. These classes of
chemicals are called “hazardous chemicals”. Hazardous chemicals have the potential to cause
toxic effects on human beings, flora and fauna, and all forms of property and environment, at
large. Chemical safety is essential in handling such chemicals, in any form and at all stages of
manufacturing, processing, storage, transportation, use, collection, packaging, distribution,
treatment, and disposal.
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Despite the precautionary measures adopted at all levels of operations or working with
chemicals, the possibility of accidents cannot be ruled out. Human errors and mechanical and
electrical, instrumental or system failures, have on occasions led to grave disasters. The two
striking landmarks in the history of chemical accidents, i.e. “Flex Borough” in 1974 and the
“Bhopal Gas Tragedy” in 1984, exposed the whole world to a series of catastrophic events
caused by hazardous chemicals. The catastrophes differ from episode to episode, in scenario,
as well as the intensity of impact on human life and/or damage to the environment. The accident
that took place in the Union Carbide Complex in Bhopal in December 1984 led to the death of
2000 people, and another 50,000 were reported injured. The human suffering from the accident
did not end with these figures, since relief and rehabilitation of victims and their kin is a long-
term process. It would appear, therefore that we have to exist with the unwelcome possibility
that disaster can occur, even in highly sophisticated plants, with a reputedly fool-proof system
for control of technical hazards. Considering rapid industrialization, along with the use of
hazardous chemicals in chemical industries, there is an urgent need today for instituting safety
measures to avert chemical accidents. Also, there is a need to institute systems to protect the
health of the public, living in the vicinity of industries, from both short term effects of a major
accident.
The design of plants and equipment has to be undertaken with due care. Experience reveals
that these have been subsequently modified, either for increasing the capacity or due to
maintenance or operational constraints. In such cases, the process of modification often
interferes with the in-built safety features and makes the plant hazardous. Another important
factor is the maintenance standard of the process plants.
The Government of India has taken the following steps, relevant to chemical safety:
 Enactment of factories (Amendment) act, 1987 and preparation of model rules;

enactment of environment (protection) act, 1986 and framing of manufacture, storage
and import of Hazardous chemicals Rules, 1989; notification of the “emergency
planning” preparedness and response for chemical accident rules, 1990 and
implementation of an industrial labour organization (ILO) project on establishment and
initial operation of a major accident hazard control system in India by DGFASLI.
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 Therefore, it is necessary that the employers should take adequate steps to provide
safety and hazard control systems in industries in compliance with the related acts, rules
and regulations. Chemical safety measures includes:
o Identification, evaluation and control of hazards
o Justification of technical and administrative measures to ensure standard /safe
operation of plants.
o Installation of adequate safety systems and equipment
o Establishment of effective maintenance procedures
o Strengthening of the knowledge of classification of hazardous chemicals,
HAZOP, risk assessment, safety, storage, and transportation, safety audit, etc.
o Periodic safety audits
o Preparation of safety reports
o Emergency planning-on-off site
o Training of technical staff on important subjects, such as HAZOP, safety audit,
risk assessment, etc. to enhance their competence to advise industries on the
prevention of major accidents.
The chemical industry is one of the oldest industries. However, the use of hazardous
chemicals in large quantities, with inadequate safety measures has resulted in a series of major
accidents. There is a need to review the traditional methods of industrial safety and give new
dimensions to the field of chemical safety. The Government of India has enacted various
statutes, which are the maximum requirements to prevent the recurrence of such incidents. An
assurance is equally important from the industries that they have correctly identified and
evaluated the hazards and taken adequate control measures to prevent accidents.
2. RECOGNITION OF HEALTH HAZARDS AT WORKPLACE:

The identification of environmental factors and stresses associated with work and work
operations, and understanding of their effects on man and his well-being in the workplace and
the community, is of prime importance.
Recognition, being the first step to be taken in the control of chemical hazards involves the
following:
 Knowledge of the process system
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 Entry of workers into confined spaces for certain operations, which are commonly
encountered in an industry, should be recognised as potential hazard operations.
 Understanding the health problems inherent in certain workplaces or equipment
designs.
 Knowledge of toxicity evaluation of all chemicals involved, including initial
intermediate and final products and waste.
 Knowledge of the number of persons liable to be exposed and locations of exposure.
 Questioning of operators and supervisors and examining the work flow sheets
 Spotting hazardous situations before workers are affected.
 Matching the symptoms of an ill worker with potential workplace hazards
 Examining compliance status of Factories Act, with respect to various occupational
hazards.
3. THE WALK-THROUGH INSPECTION/SURVEY:
The purpose of the initial survey, called the walk-through inspection, is to systematically
gather information to judge whether a potentially hazardous situation exists and whether
monitoring is indicated. An occupational hygienist begins the walk-through survey with an
opening meeting that can include representatives of management, employees, supervisors,
occupational health nurses and union representatives. The occupational hygienist can
powerfully impact the success of the survey and any subsequent monitoring initiatives by
creating a team of people who communicate openly and honestly with one another and
understand the goals and scope of the inspection. Workers must be involved and informed from
the beginning to ensure that cooperation, not fear, dominates the investigation.
During the meeting, requests are made for process flow diagrams, plant layout drawings,
past environmental inspection reports, production schedules, equipment maintenance
schedules, documentation of personal protection programmes, and statistics concerning the
number of employees, shifts and health complaints. All hazardous materials used and produced
by an operation are identified and quantified. A chemical inventory of products, by-products,
intermediates and impurities is assembled and all associated Material Safety Data Sheets are
obtained. Equipment maintenance schedules, age and condition are documented because the
use of older equipment may result in higher exposures due to the lack of controls.
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After the meeting, the occupational hygienist performs a visual walk-through survey of the
workplace, scrutinizing the operations and work practices, with the goal of identifying potential
occupational stresses, ranking the potential for exposure, identifying the route of exposure and
estimating the duration and frequency of exposure.
3.1. Observations and questions to ask on a walk-through survey:
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4. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (MSDS):

The interpretation of toxicological reports should be left to those who are trained and
experienced in such activities. Much of the work involved in assessing workplace hazards can
be carried out by accessing Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), sometimes also called Safety
Data Sheets (SDS). The MSDS is a standard way of communicating toxicology and other
relevant information about substances.
In many countries it is a legal requirement or common practice that a company supplies an
MSDS for each of the products that they sell. These can seem complicated and difficult to
understand, but they are a reliable source of the data you need to handle chemicals safely. They
typically provide data on the physical and chemical properties of the material concerned as
well as relevant toxicological information.
The content of the MSDS will vary depending upon local legislative requirements but it is
likely to contain the following information:
1. Composition/Data on components: This gives details of the different chemicals

contained within the material. It will often list the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
number for each chemical is contains. The CAS number is a unique number which is
assigned to most of the chemicals used in industry.
2. Identification of substance: This includes the trade name, as well as
manufacturer/supplier details. It may also give emergency information such as contact
names and telephone numbers.
3. Hazards identification: The material will be classified under a number of categories
and described with pictograms.
4. First aid measures: Advice about how to deal with workers who have been exposed
under different circumstances.
5. Fire-fighting measures: Do’s and don’ts of fire extinguishing e.g. what type of fire
extinguisher to use?
6. Accidental release measures: The procedures to be followed in case of accidental
release of the chemical, including methods to be used to clean up spills.
7. Handling and storage: Giving information on the precautions such as flammables
cabinets and temperature limitations.
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8. Exposure controls and personal protection: Outlines requirements such as Personal

Protective Equipment and ventilation.
9. Physical and chemical properties: e.g. the form (solid/liquid/gas), colour, odour,
melting and boiling points.
10. Stability and reactivity: Properties such as thermal decomposition and conditions to
be avoided.
11. Toxicological information: Details such as acute and chronic effects on man and
animals.
12. Ecological information: How the material might affect the environment if it is released
beyond the workplace.
13. Disposal considerations: Any special requirements associated with disposal of the
material.
14. Transport information: generally as a list of codes indicating the dangers associated
with the chemical.
15. Regulations: Relevant legislation for the country in which the material is used.
16. Other information: Any information which is relevant.
5. EVALUATION OF HEALTH HAZARDS AT WORKPLACE:

The evaluation phase determines the extent and degree of employee exposure to
toxicants in the work place. During the evaluation phase, the various types of existing control
measures and their effectiveness are also studied.
During the evaluation study, the likelihood of large and small leaks must be considered.
Sudden exposures to high concentrations, through large leaks, may lead to immediate acute
effects, such as unconsciousness, burning eyes, or fits of coughing. There is a rarely lasting
damage to individuals if they are removed promptly from the contaminated area. In this case
ready access to a clean environment is important.
Chronic effects, however, arise from repeated exposures to low concentrations, mostly
by small leaks or volatilization of solid or liquid chemicals. Many toxic chemical vapours are
colourless and odorless. Small leaks of these substances might not become obvious for months
or even years. There may be permanent and serious impairments from such exposures. Special
attention must be directed toward preventing and controlling low concentration of toxic gases.
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In these circumstances some provision for continuous evaluation is necessary; that is

continuous or frequent and periodic sampling and analysis is important.
Evaluation is achieved with the aid of quantitative measurement techniques, to measure
the magnitude in terms of occupational health hazard factors and stresses that impair human
health and well-being.
Evaluation usually requires some form of personal and/or static monitoring to provide
a good picture of the level of contamination during the normal work cycle of different workers.
There are a variety of monitoring methods that can be used by persons suitably trained and
qualified in industrial hygiene.
To establish the effectiveness of existing controls, samples are taken to determine the
worker’s exposure to conditions that may be harmful. If problems are evident, controls must
be implemented immediately; temporary controls such as PPE can be used. Long term and
permanent controls are subsequently developed.
After the exposure data are obtained, it is necessary to compare actual exposure levels to
acceptable occupational health standards, such as TLVs, PELs, or IDLH concentrations. These
standards together with the actual concentrations are used to identify the potential hazards
requiring better or more control measures.
6. CHEMICAL HAZARDS:
A chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazard caused by exposure to chemicals in the
workplace. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can cause acute or long-term detrimental
health effects.
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6.1. PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION OF AIRBORNE CONTAMINANTS:
The chemicals used or produced in an industrial operation generally disseminate into air, in the
form of dust, fumes, smoke, mist, vapours and gasses. Each term has a definite meaning and
describes a certain state of matter that can only be achieved by some physical changes in the
substances itself. The American National Standards Institute has defined these terms as
follows:
a. Gases:
Gases are substances that can be changed to liquid or solid state only by the combined effects
of increased pressure and decreased temperature. Handling gases always implies risk of
exposure unless they are processed in closed systems. Gases in containers or distribution pipes
might accidentally leak. In processes with high temperatures (e.g., welding operations and
exhaust from engines) gases will be formed.
b. Vapours:
Vapours are the gaseous form of substances that normally are in the liquid or solid state
at room temperature and normal pressure. When a liquid evaporates it changes to a gas and
mixes with the surrounding air. A vapour can be regarded as a gas, where the maximal
concentration of a vapour depends on the temperature and the saturation pressure of the
substance. Any process involving combustion will generate vapours or gases. Degreasing
operations might be performed by vapour phase degreasing or soak cleaning with solvents.
Work activities like charging and mixing liquids, painting, spraying, cleaning and dry cleaning
might generate harmful vapours.
c. Liquids:
Liquids may consist of a pure substance or a solution of two or more substances (e.g.,
solvents, acids, alkalis). A liquid stored in an open container will partially evaporate into the
gas phase. The concentration in the vapour phase at equilibrium depends on the vapour pressure
of the substance, its concentration in the liquid phase, and the temperature. Operations or
activities with liquids might give rise to splashes or other skin contact, besides harmful vapours.
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d. Dusts
Dusts consist of inorganic and organic particles, which can be classified as inhalable,
thoracic or Respirable, depending on particle size. Most organic dusts have a biological origin.
Inorganic dusts will be generated in mechanical processes like grinding, sawing, cutting,
crushing, screening or sieving. Dusts may be dispersed when dusty material is handled or
whirled up by air movements from traffic. Handling dry materials or powder by weighing,
filling, charging, transporting and packing will generate dust, as will activities like insulation
and cleaning work.
e. Fumes:
Fumes are solid particles vaporized at high temperature and condensed to small
particles. The vaporization is often accompanied by a chemical reaction such as oxidation. The
single particles that make up a fume are extremely fine, usually less than 0.1 µm, and often
aggregate in larger units. Examples are fumes from welding, plasma cutting and similar
operations.
f. Mists:
Mists are suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation from the gaseous state
to the liquid state or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state by splashing, foaming or
atomizing. Examples are oil mists from cutting and grinding operations, acid mists from
electroplating, acid or alkali mists from pickling operations or paint spray mists from spraying
operations.
6.2. MODES OF ENTRY:
Routes of entry to Human system:
 Inhalation
 Skin absorption
 Ingestion
 Injection
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Following are the 4 main routes of entry of toxic material into human body:
a. Absorption through skin (Dermal tract):
Skin absorption attains its greatest importance in connection with the organic solvents. The
significant quantities of these substances may enter the body through the skin either as a result
of direct accidental contamination or indirectly when the material has been spilled on the
clothing. Using industrial solvents for removing grease and dirt from the hands and arms is a
source of dermatitis. Some solvents penetrate the intact skin, get into the blood stream and
produce ill effects on the blood and throughout the body, ex. Nitrobenzene, aniline, phenol,
nicotine, etc.
While manufacturing, handling and spraying pesticides, liquid splashes may enter through
skin and cause toxic effects. Vapours of pesticides can enter through nose and solid or liquid
pesticide if taken through mouth it can pass through digestive route also.
Volatile materials like phenol, aniline, nitrobenzene, cresol, tetraethyl lead and many organo
phosphorous or organo-chlorine pesticides pose greater hazard through skin than through
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inhalation. Absorption through lessings of the pidemis is more rapid than through the intact
skin. Cut skin may absorb quickly. Therefore safety gloves, aprons, face shield, goggles and
overalls are always desirable.
b. Absorption through Gastrointestinal tract/Ingestion:
Use of contaminated and dirty vessels used for eating and drinking is the most common
route of ingestion. Accidental swallowing of chemicals is also possible. The detoxification
affects the livers exerts when the ingested quantity is small. However, massive dose can lead
to fatalities in absence of medical attention.
Contaminated food, drinks, beverages should not be eaten without washing hands and
mouth properly. Habit of washing hands and mouth before and after eating, is most desirable.
Where it is statutorily required, separate mess rooms are provided for this purpose only. Foods,
drinks, pan-supari, tobacco, lime etc. and smoking are prohibited in workroom.
c. Absorption through lungs (Inhalation or respiratory tract):
The inhalation of contaminated air is the most important means by which occupational
poisons enter into the body. Harmful substances may be suspended in the air in the form of
dust, fume, mist or vapour and may be mixed with the respired air in case of true gases. From
8 hour working in a day, man may breathe about 10 cubic meters of air. Any poisonous material
present in the respired air offers a serious threat.
Among those inhaled foreign matter, some particulate matter is trapped by the mucus which
lines the air passages and is subsequently brought out with nasal mucus or phlegm. Other
particulate matter are taken up by scavenger cells following which they may enter the blood
stream or be deposited in various tissues or organs. True gases will pass directly from lungs
into the blood.
Inhalation is an easy route of entry of the airborne contaminants. Respirable dusts, gas,
vapours, mist dissipated in the air enter the respiratory system through breathing and may reach
up to lungs and may transfer from lungs to some sensitive deeper sites also. Lungs damage
may cause diseases.
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Rate of breathing for an average man is as under:
Activity Air inhaled (l/min)

Resting in bed 6
Sitting 7
Standing 8
Walking (3 km/hr) 14
Walking (6 km/hr) 28
Slow run 43
Maximum exertion 65-100
Thus rate of breathing increases with exertion. Good housekeeping, ventilation and use of
appropriate respirators while handling toxic substances are primary need.
d. Injection (Swallowing):
This type of route of entry involves the direct injection of the material into the bloodstream
or the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen or the pleural cavity surrounding the lung. By a needle
it can be inserted into the skin, muscle or other part of the body. Mostly this route is used to
inject material into laboratory animals. The intravenous injection short circuits protective
mechanisms in the body, which resist the material from entering into blood.
Chemicals can be ingested if they are left on hands, clothing, or beard, or when they
accidentally contaminate food, drinks, or cigarettes. Metal dusts, such as lead or cadmium, are
often ingested this way. Also, particles trapped in nasal or lung mucus can be swallowed.
e. Skin Contact:
The skin is a protective barrier that helps keep foreign chemicals out of the body. However,
some chemicals can easily pass through the skin and enter the bloodstream. If the skin is cut or
cracked, chemicals can penetrate through the skin more easily. Also, corrosive substances, like
strong acids and alkalis, can chemically burn the skin. Others can irritate the skin. Many
chemicals, particularly organic solvents, dissolve the oils in the skin, leaving it dry, cracked,
and susceptible to infection and absorption of chemicals.
f. Eye Contact:
Some chemicals may burn or irritate the eye. The eyes are easily harmed by chemicals, so any
eye contact with chemicals (particularly liquids) should be taken as a serious incident.
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6.3. TOXICITY OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS IN THE WORKPLACE:

The toxicity or hazardous properties of a chemical refer to its capacity to affect or injure the
human body. The toxic effects of a chemical depend on the following:
 Nature of the chemical
 Type/form of chemical
 Concentration of the chemical
 Length of exposure
 Personal susceptibility
 Mode of entry
 Environment
 Nutritional status
 Diet
 Gender
 Age
 TLV
6.4. NOTIFIABLE DISEASES UNDER THE FACTORIES ACT, 1948:
Following 4 sections of the Factories Act are relevant:
Section Provision
89 Notice of certain diseases
90 Power to direct inquiry into cases of accident or
release
91 Power to take samples
91A Safety & Occupational health Surveys
• Under sections 89 & 90 above, the third schedule gives a list of notifiable (occupational)
diseases as under:
1. Lead poisoning including poisoning by any preparation or compound of lead or
their sequelae.
2. Lead tetra-ethyl poisoning
3. Phosphorous poisoning
4. Mercury poisoning
5. Manganese poisoning
6. Arsenic poisoning
7. Poisoning by nitrous fumes
8. Carbon disulphide poisoning
9. Benzene poisoning or by its nitro or amino derivatives.
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10. Chrome ulceration

11. Anthrax
12. Silicosis
13. Poisoning by halogens or halogen derivatives of the hydrocarbons.
14. Pathological manifestation due to:
15. Radium or other radioactive substances
16. X-rays
17. Primary epitheliomatus cancer of the skin
18. Toxic anemia
19. Toxic jaundice due to poisonous substances
20. Oil acne or dermatitis due to mineral oils and compounds containing mineral oil
base.
21. Byssionosis
22. Asbestosis
23. Occupational or contact dermatitis caused by direct contact with chemicals and
paints. These are of 2 types: primary irritants & allergic sensitizers.
24. beryllium poisoning
25. Carbon monoxide poisoning
26. Coal miners pneumoconiosis
27. Phosgene poisoning
28. Occupational cancer
29. Isocyanates poisoning
30. Toxic nephritis
Rule 104 of the GFR, Rule 116 of the MFR and rule 97 of the TNFR require that notice of
poisoning or disease should be sent fore worth to the chief inspector, certifying surgeon,
medical inspector of factories and administrative medical officer of ESIC. It should be in the
form No. 22 (GFR).
6.5. ILO LIST OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES:
ILO recommendation No. 194 of 2002 gives a list of occupational diseases as under:
1. Diseases caused by chemical agents or their toxic compounds:-beryllium, cadmium,
phosphorous, chromium, manganese, arsenic, mercury, lead, fluorine, carbon disulphide,
hydrogen derivatives of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, nitro and amino
derivatives of benzene, nitro-glycerine, alcohols, glycols or ketones, Asphyxiants,
acrylonitrile, oxides of nitrogen, vanadium, antimony, hexane, mineral acids,
pharmaceutical agents, thallium, osmium, selenium, copper, tin, zinc, ozone, phosgene,
irritants like benzoquinone.
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2. Diseases caused by physical agents: noise, vibration, compressed air, ionizing radiations,
heat radiations, UV radiations, extreme temperatures.
3. Diseases caused by biological agents:
4. Diseases caused by target organ systems: respiratory diseases, pneumoconiosis, Broncho
pulmonary diseases, occupational asthma, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, Siderosis, chronic
obstructive pulmonary diseases, lung diseases by aluminium, skin diseases, occupational
vitiligo, muscular-skeletal disorders.
5. Occupational cancer caused by: asbestos, benzidine and its salts, Bis-chromomethyl ether,
chromium and its compound, coal tars, beta-napthylamine, vinyl chloride, benzene or its
homologues and its nitro and amino derivatives, ionizing radiation, tar, pitch, bitumen,
mineral oil, anthracene, etc. coke oven emissions, nickel compounds, wood dust.
6. Miner’s nystagmus.
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6.6. OCCUAPTIONS INVOLVING RISK OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES:
Occupational diseases, symptoms

Sl No Disease caused Occupations involved Science and symptoms
by
Metals:
1 Lead Alloys, ammunition, lead Weakness, insomnia, motor
batteries, lead lining , rubber, weakness, muscle tenderness,
inks, lead burning, painting, impaired fertility, abdominal pain,
ceramics and insecticides lead line on gingival tissues
2 Phosphorous Insecticides, fireworks, match Irritation of the respiration tract,
works, explosives, detergents, tooth ache, swelling of jaw, facial
chemicals, disorder
3 Mercury Acetaldehyde, acetylene, Gingivitis bitter taste in mouth,
acetic acid, fluorine, bluish line on gums, gastritis,
thermometer, mercury vapor bronchitis, nervous system effect
tubes, lamps, x-ray tubes,
anti-fouling paints
4 Manganese Antiknock agent in petrol, Chill fever, headache, weakness,
ceramics, electrode coating, voice sinks, speech irregular,
glass, ink, mining, paints, inability to run, can’t walk
pesticides, steel, alloy, backwards
tanning of leather
6 Arsenic Insecticides, fungicides, glass, Conjunctivitis, visual and nasal
metallurgy, pigment, rodent disturbances, skin cancer, lungs,
poison larynx, gangrene of fingers
7 Chromium Cr cleaning salts, leather Ulcers of nasal, septum and fingers,
tanning, photochemical irritation and conjunction larynx,
processing headache, jaundice, impaired liver
function, lung cancer
7 Beryllium Alloys, nuclear reactors, Swollen, mucous membranes,
ceramic, fluorescence bleeding points, fissures and
powder, lamps and tubes ulcerations, weakness, weight loss,
joint pain, breath loss, skin injury
8 Cadmium Alloys, Cd-Ni batteries, Chest tightness, nose irritation
electroplating, embracing, cough difficulty in breathing
soldering, paints for glass, vomiting, dermatitis, anaemia,
ceramics, rubber, leather, yellow teeth, metal fume fever,
plastics, inks, enamel cancer and death
Dusts:
9 Silicosis Sand blasting, cutting of Dyspnoea on exertion, cough,
quartzite, agate, genies, wheezing, chest illness, pulmonary
granite and slate, manufacture TB or infection, respiratory
of glass, porcelain, mines, difficulty and death
quarries, foundry and
furnaces
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10 Asbestosis Asbestos mining and lining, Chest pain, breathlessness, pleurisy

insulation, safety garments, fever, leucocytosis, synopsis, finger
cement fire blankets
11 Bagassosis Plywood, cardboard, Breathing, cough, fever, chest pain,
pressboards, paper, poultry weakness, weight loss, sputum with
feed, fertilizer fuel, refractory cough or blood
bricks, moist bagasse in sugar
industry is not harmful, but
dry bagasse is harmful
12 Byssionosis Cotton ginning, pressing, Chest tightness, respiratory
blow room, carding, flakes, irritation, breath shortness, sever
and soft hem, linen. intolerance
13 Siderosis Caused by inhalation of iron Dyspnoea on exertion, cough,
dust. Electric arc welding, dry wheezing, chest illness, pulmonary
grinding of iron, buffing, TB or infection, respiratory
polishing, and shot blasting difficulty and death
produces iron dust.
14 Anthracosis Caused by inhalation of coal The first phase causes little
dust. Foundry workers, coal ventilatory impairment, but the
handlers, couple collie, second phase causes the
boilermen, furnace men, progressive massive fibrosis
graphite workers, etc. are resulting in severe respiratory
exposed to coal dust. disability and tending to death.
15 Extrinsic/allergic Organic dust in animal Dry cough, breathlessness, fever,
alveolitis vegetable matter processing muscular pain, sound in chest,
asthma
Gases, Vapours, fumes, etc.
16 Nitrous fumes Nitration, use of nitric acid, Lung irritation, pulmonary oedema,
neutralization and use of vomiting, drowsiness, dizziness
bleaching of rayon
17 Phosgene Dyestuff, coal tar, urea, Eye irritation, throat dryness, or
Isocyanates, acid, chlorides, burning, vomiting, chest pain,
metallurgical pharmaceuticals cyanosis, skin or eye burns by
splats
18 Carbon monoxide Mines, tunnel, boiler works, Headache, tachypnoea, nausea,
blast furnaces, garages, weakness, dizziness, synopsis,
industrial gases, organic syncope, hallucinations, mental
synthesis, metal damage, 50 ppm for 9min cause,
aggravation of angina pectoris
19 Iodine Photographic film, iodine Irritations to eye, nose, skin,
spray in salt, lacrimation, bleparitis, rhinitis,
stomatitis, chronic pharyngitis,
headache and chest tightness
20 Fluorine Electroplating, metal pickling, Laryngeal spasm, Broncho spasm,
itching of glassware, artificial pulmonary oedema, mild
rhyolite, insecticides, uranium dyspepsia, exposure to mice
showed liver and kidney damage
19
compounds, aircraft piston

engines, uses HF acid
21 Chlorine Chloroalkali plant use of Cl2 Irritation of eyes, nose, and skin
gas, chlorination, bleaching cough, sternal pain, nausea,
flux, metal fluxing, water vomiting with blood, headache,
cleansing, synthesis, cellular damage, fall of BP, cardiac
arrest
22 Bromine Manufacture use of Br Irritation of eyes, nose, lungs and
antiknock compound for skin, impanation of eye lids, cough,
gasoline, bleaching agent, vertigo headache, nausea,
dyestuff, gold extraction, fuel diarrhoea, stomach pain, tongue
additives, military gas and palate inflamed chemical burns
of lungs
23 Benzene Chemical synthesis, use as Narcotic action, CNC depression,
solvent, reagent, fuel, irritation to skin & nose, euphoria,
detergents, pesticides, paint nausea, vertigo, damage to bone
remover, shoe- making, marrow, blood-forming tissues,
producing other organic leukaemia.
chemicals
24 Hydrogen Disinfectant, thiophene, Exposure of 500 ppm causes
Sulphide inorganic sulphides, sulphuric inflammation of nose, pharynx,
acid present in sewers, oil bronchi, lungs and eye injury.
wells & petroleum products, 10 ppm for many days cause
natural decay of organic headache, weight loss, CNs
matter disorders
25 Acrylonitrile Acrylic fibres, pesticide Eye irritation, sneezing, headache,
fumigant, organic synthesis. vomiting, weakness, skin contact
can cause blister and dermatitis,
inhalation may cause death
Chemical Compounds:
26 Organo - Pesticides- Parathion & Fast absorption through inhalation,
Phosphorous Malathion, etc. ingestion, and skin contact and
Compounds convulsions, vomiting, blurred
vision, coma, BP increases and
drops before death, oedema of
lungs, loss of appetite, cyclical
movement of eye-ball
27 Carbon disulphide Solvent used for alkalis, Neurotoxic poison, nausea,
cellulose, oils, fats, resins & vomiting, headache, excitation of
waxes. Viscose rayon, nervous system, vision & sensory
pesticides, oil extraction. changes, chronic fatigue. Sexual,
menstrual disorder & abortions in
women
28 Halogen Solves, refrigerants, Lung irritants, eye and skin injury,
derivatives of anaesthetics, fumigants, vinyl chloride is a carcinogen,
aliphatic plastic intermediates, gauge effects on nervous system,
hydrocarbons viz. fluids. Headache, nausea, convulsions,
20
chloroform, paralysis, affected speech, effect on

chloromethane, kidneys and liver
vinyl chloride,
CCl4, etc..
29 Isocyanates Polyurethane, PUF, paints, Irritation of skin, eyes, and mucous
pesticides, varnishes membranes, respiratory system,
asthmatic effect, rhinitis.
30 Nitro-amido toxic Antioxidants, dyes, Cyanosis, anaemia, fatigue, nausea,
derivatives of explosives, insecticides, chest pain, numbness, difficulty in
benzene or its pigments, plastics, resins, breathing. Dermatitis due to
homologues rubber, solvents, textiles, DNCB. Liver damage due to 2-4
pharmaceuticals, elastomers. dinitro toluene. Some are
carcinogens
31 Dinitro phenol, its Dyes, explosives, wood Dermatitis, if injected results in
homologue or preservatives, and chemical cataracts, inhalation may damage
salts production liver, kidneys and induce fever.
Skin contact makes the skin
yellowish.
32 Hydrofluoric acid Fluorides, fluorocarbons, Irritation of eye, throat, and nose.
metal refining, pottery, Skin burns, oedema of lungs after
etching glass 12 to 24 months
33 Fluoro-acetic Chemical weapons, Nausea, vomiting, stomach pain,
acid, sodium insecticides, pesticides, rat low BP, convulsions after 6 hours,
fluoroacetate & poison. effect on CNS & CVS
compounds
34 Methanol Antifreeze mixtures, de- Enter through skin, nose & mouth.
waxing preparations, dyes, If swallowed can cause blindness,
formaldehyde, inks, paints, headache, vomiting, diled pupils,
plastics, textile soaps, constant movement of eye balls,
unshutterable glass, water skin injury.
proofing, as solvent
35 Acetone Use as solvent. Production of Irritation to skin, and mucous
acetic anhydride, chloroform, membrane. Difficulty in breathing,
iodoform, Vitamin C. used in damage to kidney and liver.
celluloid, dying, explosives, Headache, blood changes, skin
leather, lubrication, rubber, dryness & redness.
silk and varnish
36 Ketones Use as solvent. Production of Narcotic if inhaled. Irritation to
artificial silk, cosmetics, eyes, skin and respiratory system,
perfumes, plastics, explosives, CNS affected.
and pharmaceuticals.
Radiations:
37 Radioactive Radiography, gas Exposure above 1 Gray results in
substances & chromatography, nuclear nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea,
ionising reactors, uranium mining, intestinal symptoms, ulceration in
radiations aerosol fire detectors, mouth & throat, hair loss. Late
effects leukaemia, and cancer
21
radioactive tracers, radium

dial painting, X-ray clinics.
38 Cataract by IR Arc processes, hot furnaces, Eye lens or capsule become opaque
radiations lasers, molten glass, molten
metal
7. DUSTS:
 These are airborne solid particles that range in size from 0.1 to 25 µm. Dust above 25 µm
in size, does not usually remain airborne long enough to pose an inhalation problem to
exposed workers. Ex: metals, silica and asbestos, etc.
 Dusts are fine particulates of varying size and also possessing specific size distribution.
Size, density, shape, resilience and moisture content are some characteristics which control
their flow and possessing properties.
 Dusts may be emitted from process units like grinding mills, dryers, centrifuges, mixers,
Grinders, Conveyors, and silos due to handling or leakages.
 Finished solid products such as inorganic or organic compounds release considerable
amount of dust in bag filling units located near ware houses.
 Mining, metal processing, pharmaceutical, fertilizers, petrochemical, cement, silica,
asbestos, starch, dyes, and intermediates are some industries where significant amount of
materials are handled in particulate form.
 Small sector units of silica, asbestos, and dyes from a major area of concern needing
attention in terms of occupational health.
 Small particles of 0.1 to 5 µm size (Respirable dust) can remain in the alveolar passages of
which smaller particles (< 0.1 µm) behave as colloids or smoke, deposit in the lungs or
other part and health effect. Particles of larger size 5 µm are driven back by the clearance
mechanism. Asbestos fibres of 3 µm or less in diameter and up to 100 µm length can reach
the alveoli, while the smallest fibres can reach up to pleura and pleural space.
22
 2nd schedule of Factories Act prescribes TLV of cotton, asbestos, coal, cement, and silica
dusts.
7. 1. TYPES OF DUST:
1. Quartz and mixtures containing quarts: coal dust, mineral ores, sand, rock, fluorspar,
quartzite, etc. they are found in mining, ceramic industries, pestering, mixing and insulating
materials. They cause nodular fibrosis and silicosis.
2. Asbestos and mixtures containing asbestos: raw asbestos, chrysolite, amphibole,
asbestos cement talk, etc. it is used in some 3000 products of textile, insulation, packing,
jointing, building material. It can cause diffuse fibrosis, carcinoma, asbestosis, and telcosis.
3. Metals & Metal Compounds: metals like iron, nickel, lead, manganese, aluminium,
beryllium, chromium, cadmium, vanadium, and their oxides are extensively used in
metallurgy, metal working, welding, electroplating, furnaces, sintering, etc. they can cause
irritation, diffuse fibrosis, and different types of lung diseases known as Siderosis,
bronchial carcinoma, or asthma, tracheobronchitis, aluminium lung etc.
4. Plant and animal dust: wood, animal hides, skins, hairs, feathers, scales, cotton flax,
hemp, sisal, jute, mouldy hay, straw, cereals, bagasse, crushed grain and bran, enzymes,
etc. they are found at wood working, agriculture, poultry, textile, grain or sugar mill, etc.
and cause irritation, immune reaction, carcinoma, allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma,
farmer’s lung, bagassosis, Byssionosis etc.
23
5. Other dusts: these are chemical dust like carbon dust, soot, graphite, phthalic and maleic
anhydride and arsenic dust etc. and found in mining, metallurgy, rubber, plastic, and
chemical industry. They can cause irritation, carcinoma, systemic effect, ulceration,
conjunctivitis, graphite pneumoconiosis etc. inert dusts are also hazardous.
7.2. OCCUPATIONAL DUST HAZARDS:

7.2.1. PNEUMOCONIOSIS:
Dusts of different clerogenic minerals are harmful and their effects vary, depending
upon the period of exposure. Pneumoconiosis is caused by slerogenous mineral dusts. The term
pneumoconiosis is defined by Parks as “presence of inhaled dust in the lungs and their non-
neoplastic tissue reaction to it…” the dust particles of 5 to 15 µm diameter, deposited in the
airways are cleared by mucociliary movement, but particles of size 0.5 to 5 µm, landing in
terminal airways or beyond may be retained. Dust particles below 0.5 µm diameter remain
suspended in the air and are breathed out. The dust particles retained in the lungs are taken up
by macro phases and transported either to the airways or cleared to the lung parenchyma. When
the dust containing cells die, other cells take up the released particles. But these too are killed,
creating a continuous low grade reaction leading to the formation of localised stars (nodules),
which mostly occur around the terminal airways.
In coal workers, pneumoconiosis results from prolonged inhalation of coal dust. Lung
disease, pneumoconiosis is still the most common incapacitating occupational disease.
Prolonged exposure to higher concentrations of the dust, increases the affected area of the lung
thus damages its breathing capacity. The air sac structure of these areas may deteriorate into
“fibrous” form and remain there as a permanent scar in the lungs. Breathlessness and inability
to work may result after many years of exposure to different dusts. Once fibrous changes
develop in the lungs, the air space is permanently destroyed. These changes are incurable. The
term pneumoconiosis actually covers a large group of diseases caused by different dusts.
The types of Pneumoconiosis are:
 SILICOSIS
 ASBESTOSIS
 BAGASSOSIS
 BYSSINOSIS
24
7.2.1.1. SILICOSIS:
 Silicosis (previously miner's phthisis, grinder's asthma, potter's rot and other
occupation-related names) is a form of occupational lung disease caused by inhalation
of fine free crystalline silica (silicon dioxide) dust or quartz particles, and is marked
by inflammation and scarring in the form of nodular lesions in the upper lobes of the lungs.
It is a type of pneumoconiosis.
 Silicosis may result due to occupations like mining of coal, tin, gold and other minerals,
quarrying, mining and dressing of sand stone and granite, pottery, and ceramic industries,
the manufacture of silica bricks, and abrasive soaps, iron and steel industries, sand blasting,
metal grinding, boiler scaling and coal handling operations.
 Acute silicosis is a rapidly progressive disease. In extreme conditions, breathlessness and

dry cough may develop within a few weeks of exposure.
 Silica is a fibro genic dust, causing the development of hard nodules, which coalesce as the
disease progresses. Chest tightness and incapacity to work develop within months and death
may occur in 1-3 years due to respiratory failure or pulmonary. On examination, restricted
chest movement, cyanosis, and late inspiratory rates are found with restricting lung function
abnormality and reduced gas transfer.
Operations involving exposure to dust
25
Nodules
or scars in
the lungs
Radiography of Silicosis
 Silicosis usually develops after many years of exposure at levels of exposure normally
prevailing in industrialised countries. The rate of development of silicosis and the
severity of the disease depends on the level of exposure, the biological activity of the
dust and the presence or absence of substances that delay tissue reaction. The early
stages of silicosis, is as a rule, not accompanied by any symptoms or signs of respiratory
disease. X-rays are relatively more specific methods of detection.
 Classification of Silicosis:
Classification of silicosis is made according to the disease's severity (including
radiographic pattern), onset, and rapidity of progression. These include:
 Chronic Simple Silicosis:
Usually resulting from long-term exposure (10 years or more) to relatively low
concentrations of silica dust and usually appearing 10-30 years after first
exposure. This is the most common type of silicosis. Patients with this type of
silicosis, especially early on, may not have obvious signs or symptoms of disease,
but abnormalities may be detected by x-ray. Chronic cough
and exertion dyspnea (shortness of breath) are common findings. Raiographically,
chronic simple silicosis reveals a profusion of small (<10 mm in diameter)
opacities, typically rounded, and predominating in the upper lung zones.
 Accelerated Silicosis:
26
Silicosis that develops 5–10 years after first exposure to higher concentrations of silica
dust. Symptoms and x-ray findings are similar to chronic simple silicosis, but occur
earlier and tend to progress more rapidly. Patients with accelerated silicosis are at
greater risk for complicated disease, including progressive massive fibrosis (PMF).
 Complicated Silicosis:
Silicosis can become "complicated" by the development of severe scarring (progressive
massive fibrosis, or also known as conglomerate silicosis), where the small nodules
gradually become confluent, reaching a size of 1 cm or greater. PMF is associated with
more severe symptoms and respiratory impairment than simple disease. Silicosis can
also be complicated by other lung disease, such as tuberculosis, non-tuberculous
mycobacterial infection, and fungal infection, certain autoimmune diseases, and lung
cancer. Complicated silicosis is more common with accelerated silicosis than with the
chronic variety.
 Acute Silicosis:
Silicosis that develops a few weeks to 5 years after exposure to high concentrations of
Respirable silica dust. This is also known as silicoproteinosis. Symptoms of acute
silicosis include more rapid onset of severe disabling shortness of breath, cough,
weakness, and weight loss, often leading to death. The x-ray usually reveals a diffuse
alveolar filling with air Broncho grams, described as a ground-glass appearance, and
similar to pneumonia, pulmonary edema, alveolar haemorrhage, and alveolar cell lung
cancer.
 Signs & Symptoms:

Because chronic silicosis is slow to develop, signs and symptoms may not appear until years
after exposure. Signs and symptoms include:
 Dyspnea (shortness of breath) exacerbated by exertion

 Cough, often persistent and sometimes severe
 Fatigue
 Tachypnea (rapid breathing) which is often laboured,
 Loss of appetite and weight loss (Anorexia)
 Chest pain
 Fever
27
 Gradual darkening of skin (blue skin)

 Gradual dark shallow rifts in nails eventually leading to cracks as protein fibres within
nail beds are destroyed.
In advanced cases, the following may also occur:
 Cyanosis, pale along upper parts of body (blue skin)

 Corpulmonale (right ventricle heart disease)
 Respiratory insufficiency
Patients with silicosis are particularly susceptible to tuberculosis (TB) infection—known

as silico-tuberculosis.
7.2.1.2. ASBESTOSIS :
 Asbestosis is a generic term for a group of naturally occurring fibrous mineral silicates. The
occupations which have the greatest risk of workers developing asbestosis are mining and
processing of asbestos, transport of asbestos, manufacturing of asbestos products, and
disposal of asbestos wastes.
 Prolonged exposure to airborne fibres results in a substantial retention of asbestos fibres
which penetrate the airways. Some short fibres are engulfed by macrophases and carried to
the lymphonodes, spleen and other tissues.
 Asbestosis is a chronic diffuse interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. Its severity is related to the
length and intensity of the exposure. An experiment has suggested that fibres, of about 0.1
µm diameter and length of about 8 µm or more are responsible for causing asbestosis. After
a latent period i.e. less than 20 years and up to 28 years or more after the first occupational
exposure, lung cancer, malignant mesothelioma of the pleura or gastrointestinal cancer may
develop.
28
 Mesotheliomas are usually linked with exposure to blue asbestos. The patient frequently
feels with chest pain. A pleural diffusion, often blood stained, may develop and cause
breathlessness.
 Many patients are symptomless and the disease is diagnosed on routine radiography. This
particularly applies to the peripheral types. The carcinoid adenoma is one of the causes of
repeated haemoptysis occurring over a period of years. Frequently there is a complete
freedom from the symptoms between attacks, though occasionally wheezing and an
irritating cough are present. Symptoms due to bronchial obstruction and lung infection are
also seen at times. Simple uninfected atelectasis or pulmonary suppuration with abscess or
an empyema, the underlying tumour is completely unsuspected, until bronchoscopy is
performed.
 The diagnosis can be established by:
 Occupational history and clinical signs
 Aspiration for cytology pleural biopsy
 X-ray appearance of irregular parietal wall tumour and exclusion of
bronchial cancer by bronchoscopy
 T scan
7.2.1.3. BAGASSOSIS:
 Bagasse is the fibre of sugarcane stalks. Inhalation of dried bagasse may cause
“bagassosis”. This disease occurs only when dry bagasse is handled. Various industries
where such a hazard is encountered, include industries associated with building materials,
cardboard, explosives, fertilizers, fuel, paper, poultry feed, refractory bricks, etc.
 Bagasse is the fibrous cellulose residue of sugar. Inhalation of bagasse dust, which contains
thermophillic microbes, “Thermoacinomyces Sacchari”, causes bagassosis, actually a form
of “extrinsic alveolitis” (EAA). Like other forms of EAA, bagassosis is present in two
forms.
29
a). Acute effects:

Acute effects takes place where high dose exposure occurs. Symptoms start several hours after
exposure.
 Influenza like symptoms may develop.
 Breathlessness and cough with sputum and even haemoptysis may develop
 Constitutional upsets, headache and muscle pain may be present
 Severe loss of appetite and weight loss may be present
 If exposure is stopped, the symptoms usually abate in 2 to 10 days
 If exposure continues, the symptoms increase and inspiratory crackles appear
on auscultation
 Chest radiograph may show a generalized haze, with loss of sharpness of
vascular markings. Coalesced modules as patchy consolidation may be present
 Pulmonary function test shows obstructive and subsequently restrictive changes
b). Chronic effects:
Chronic effects manifest as irreversible pulmonary fibrosis, which usually has a history of a
two to three years exposure or prolonged exposure. The chronic symptoms usually present are:
 Progressive breathlessness and considerable weight loss
 Cough & Sputum
 Scattered inspiratory crackles in the lungs
 Chronic irreversible changes such as linear shadows, honey combings, collapse
of the lobe with compensatory emphysema of lobes
 Restrictive changes
The diagnosis is carried out by:
 Occupational history and clinical signs
 Partial or total reversibility of symptoms in the initial stages on withdrawal and
exposure
 Characteristic chest X-ray and lung function changes
 Demonstration of precipitating antibodies to the casual antigen in the patient’s
serum
30
7.2.1.4. BYSSINOSIS:
 Byssinosis is caused by exposure to airborne dusts of cotton, flax, and soft hemp. Airborne
dust in flax and soft hemp is usually composed of plant debris and microorganisms that
grow on flax during retting. Exposure to cotton dust takes place in various operations like:
 Ginning, in which cotton seeds are separated from lint;
 Bale pressing in exporting countries, and
 Cotton manufacturing, which involves bale opening, carding, spinning, preparation
of yarn, and weaving. Cotton waste is used to produce cotton wool, which is almost
entirely composed of clean cellulose fibres. The remaining waste contains a high
portion of earthy matter and plant debris. In the processing of flax, the first
operation is the retting of the dried flax plant in water tanks. Then the flax fibres
are dried and broken in order to separate the fibres for spinning and weaving. These
operations are dusty, workers in the textile industry carrying out dusty operations
are at a greater risk.
 In Byssinosis, the initial symptom is the acute bronchiolitis, associated with symptoms and
signs of generalised air flow obstruction, which tend to be worse, after weekend breaks, but
31
eventually become continuous. There is no radiological abnormality. In the early stages,

byssinosis is characterised by symptoms of chest tightness on the first day of work after the
weekend break or after holidays.
 Except for irritation in the upper respiratory tract most symptoms tend to disappear within
one or two days. As the disease progresses, the chest tightness is accomplished by
breathlessness, with the symptoms becoming worse and persisting for a longer time. In its
late stages, the disease resembles chronic bronchitis and emphysema, except for the history
of chest tightness and decline in ventilatory capacity. Chest X-rays do not show any specific
changes, nor has any specific pathology been identified in the lungs of workers who have
died this disease.
 The diagnosis is carried out by:
 Examining occupational history and clinical signs
 Lung function test: patients having productive cough on walking up in the
morning for more than 3 months in a year for three consecutive years and
having byssinosis are said to have typical byssinotic with chronic bronchitis.
 Radiology which is not of much help
 Arterial blood gas analysis which does not help in diagnosis.
7.3. DUST CONTROL METHODS:
To prevent lung diseases, some control measures are as under:
1. Know the exposure limits of dusts. Dust below 5 microns size is invisible. Depending on
toxicity, exposure limits vary from 0.1 to 10 mg/m3. Employ effective measures based on
this safe limit and nature of the dust.
2. Elimination of dusty process e.g. improved casting technique to eliminate dusty fettling
process.
3. Substitution by a less toxic or non-toxic dust, e.g. shot blasting in place of sand moulds
and glass fibre or slag wool in place of asbestos insulation.
4. Segregation & Enclosure of the process if dust generation cannot be prevented. Dusty
process should be enclosed in a room and be connected with effective exhaust and dust
collector. Complete enclosure is the best segregation. E.g. blasting cabinet, fuming
cupboard.
32
5. Wet methods prevent particles becoming airborne. Powdered material is suspended or

dissolved in a liquid. The correct degree of wetting should be maintained and it should not
be allowed to dry out.
6. Local exhaust ventilation should be applied to collect the dust from the nearest possible
distance. The smaller enclosure gap requires smaller exhaust rate. Suction flow should be
away from the worker’s breathing zone. Dust collection, filtration, and disposal are the
subsequent steps. Various kinds of air cleaning devices are also available.
7. Other methods are:

 Working upwind of dust sources where possible.
 Posting warning Signs where necessary.
 Limiting Exposure time.
 Training all employees on appropriate work procedures.
 Good housekeeping practices.
 Fit testing of all employees required to wear respiratory devices.
 Training employees in the proper use of respiratory devices.
33
 Making sure employees understand the hazards of dust and the importance of
respirator use.
 Regular checking and cleaning of non-disposable respirators.
7.4. DUST SAMPLING:

 “Sampling” means the use of valid and suitable occupational hygiene techniques to
derive a quantitative estimate of the exposure of employees to substances hazardous to
health.
 In the case of airborne contaminants monitoring involves the periodic or continuous
sampling of the atmosphere at the workplace and will usually require sampling in the
breathing zone of the operative by means of personal sampling equipment.
 In addition to personal monitoring, fixed position/static monitoring can also offer
limited information as to an individual’s exposure. However, it can provide a guide to
the sources of contaminants, effectiveness of control measures and the general
workroom atmospheric concentrations.
7.4.1. DUST SAMPLING STRATEGIES:
To effectively control the Respirable coal and silica dust exposure of mine workers, it
is necessary to identify the sources of dust generation and quantify the amount of dust liberated
by these sources. Once the dust sources are identified and quantified, dust control technologies
that offer the greatest protection to the mine workers can then be applied. To quantify the
amount of dust liberated by a source, dust sampling must be conducted in a manner that isolates
the identified dust generating source. This is achieved by placing dust samplers upwind and
downwind of the source in question. The difference between these measurements is used to
calculate the quantity of dust liberated by this source.
7.4.2. AIR SAMPLING:
Basic need of air quality sampling and workplace monitoring and analysis is to find the
level of pollution and to work out strategy to reduce it. Need of sampling & monitoring is
statutorily suggested by Form No. 37, Rule 12B of the Gujarat Factories Rules. The format
calls for identification of airborne contaminants, sampling instruments and methods, number
of samples and comparison of measured value with the TWA concentration in 2nd schedule of
34
the Factories Act to access the working environment, and also the number of workers exposed
to that. Correct record of such workplace monitoring is essential for good health and good
housekeeping.
The need of sampling and monitoring is also inferred from the types, sources and
hazards of air pollutants. Monitoring is more than air sampling or medical examination of a
worker. It includes a series of actions to assess the protection necessary.
7.4.2.1. Purpose of Sampling:

1. To determine type & concentration of exposure due to health hazards to workers
2. To determine the types and effectiveness of the control measures provided, any change
if necessary in them and new control measures to be provided
3. To investigate complaints and
4. For research purposes
7.4.2.2. Occupational hygiene sampling protocols:
Purpose Type of Sample
Health Risk Evaluation Personal

Environmental protection Area, Environmental
Compliance Personal, Environmental, Stack
Process control Area, Personal, Stack
Source identification Area, Stack
Documentation of exposure Personal
7.4.2.3. DUST SAMPLING APPROACHES:

1. Personal sampling
2. Area sampling
3. Source sampling
4. Surface sampling
7.4.2.3.1. Personal sampling:
It involves placing a sampler in the breathing zone of the worker, usually attached to
the lapel. The breathing zone is defined as a 'hemisphere (generally accepted to be 0.3 m in
35
radius) extending in front of the human face, centred on the mid-point of a line joining the ears;
the base of the hemisphere is the plane through this line, the top of the head and the larynx.
The choice of lapel, left or right may produce differing results depending on the location of the
contamination source. Personal sampling is typically used where the chemical exposure of a
worker due to inhalation is of greatest concern and can be used to demonstrate which tasks
performed during a shift are leading to the highest levels of exposure. It removes variation due
to proximity to point sources of contamination by providing a more realistic measurement of
actual exposure.
7.4.2.3.2. Area Sampling:

 In area sampling, the air samples are taken at fixed places in a work room or confined
spaces to evaluate general concentrations of flammable, explosive or toxic material in air
for the purpose of isolation or restriction to work or to design the control measures.
 Area samples are positioned in the general area of the worker and/or operation of concern.
This produces general or background measurements that can show the spread of
contaminants or indicate when entry to an area may be considered safe, e.g. in a spray booth
where adequate time is required to allow the local exhaust ventilation (LEV) to remove any
Isocyanates and/or other dangerous substance present. Area sampling can establish trends
in air concentrations and provide information on exposure due to control or containment
not being present or being inadequate as well as deposited material becoming re-suspended.
36
Area Dust Sampler

7.4.2.3.3. Source Sampling:
Source samples are samples taken adjacent to a source of the hazardous substance. It may miss
out the effect of control measures such as LEV as it may be placed closer than a worker may
be. This can be used to determine the effectiveness of controls.
Source Sampling
7.4.2.3.4. Surface Sampling:
Surface sampling, such as wipe tests, lift-off tape or more complex techniques such as X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) can provide information on settled contaminants that may have deposited
and not be air-borne during the sampling period.
7.4.2.3.5. Gravimetric Sampling:
This method depends on the formation of a precipitate or a residue which can be weighed.
Example is analysis of free silica dust samples.
37
Surface Sampling
Gravimetric Sampler
7.4.2.4. DUST SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

7.4.2.4.1. Grab or snap sampling:
It can be used as a screening technique; it will give the concentration of a contaminant at a

specific time and location and will help to confirm the presence of and/or identify a suspected
contaminant.
Concentration
Time
38
7.4.2.4.2. Short term sampling:
It will determine concentrations over a short time period, normally up to 10 or 15 minutes.

Results are normally calculated as a time weighted average (TWA) and can be compared with
any relevant recommended short term exposure limits (especially WELs) and to quantify
exposures to acute hazards e.g. cadmium.
Concentration
Time
7.4.2.4.3. Long term sampling :
It is similarly determined on a time-weighted average basis and related to long term (8 hour
TWA) recommended limits. Half Shift (4 hours), or the time to complete a specific operation
or full shift (nominally 8 hours) and normally the time periods monitored.
Concentration
Time
7.4.2.4.4. Continuous Sampling:
Monitoring will indicate the variations in concentrations and is similar to grab sampling in that
peak levels can be identified as well as the average concentrations/exposures being determined.
39
Concentration
Time
8. HAZARDOUS GASES:
8.1. IRRITANT GASES
 These can cause irritation or inflammation of the mucous membranes with which they come
into contact. This property depends on their degree of solubility in water.
 Highly soluble gases like ammonia, affects the upper parts of the respiratory.
 Less soluble gases like chlorine and sulfur dioxide affect both upper respiratory passages
and lung tissues.
 Gases which are even less soluble, nitrogen oxides and phosgene act essentially on lungs.
 Ex: SO2, NH3, HCHO, HF, O3, Cl2, COCl2 and NOx.
 Sulphur dioxide:
 It results from the combustion of fuels, and present in front of furnaces,
 Exposure causes irritation of the eyes and upper respiratory passages.
 High concentrations may cause oedema of the larynx, pulmonary oedema,
pneumonia and even death.
 Ammonia (NH3):
 A common upper airway tract irritant.
 It is a highly soluble alkaline gas, widely used in industry as refrigerant, and in the
manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, and plastics.
 It attacks the skin, the conjunctiva and the mucous membranes of the upper
respiratory tract.
 Larynx and Pulmonary Oedema results due to exposure at higher concentration
and can cause death.
 Formaldehyde (HCHO) :
 Cause irritation to upper respiratory part
 Used as disinfectant and industrial cleaner.
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 It is an animal carcinogen and may cause acute bronchial irritation in humans.

 Hydrogen Fluoride (HF):
 Upper respiratory tract acid irritant and causes pulmonary oedema.
 It is used in the microelectronics industry for etching silicon chips and is used to
etch glass.
 Ozone (O3):
 Important irritant produced by photochemical oxidation of vehicle exhaust fumes
and also generated from arc welding.
 Ozone causes eye and nose irritation.
 Respiratory tract irritant causing coughing, chest tightness, shortness of breath.
 Chlorine (Cl2):
 Greenish yellow gas with pungent irritating odor.
 Affects lower and upper respiratory tract.
 Exposure occurs in the production of NaOH.
 The gas is used in bleaching and water disinfection and exposure can occur during
transport of liquid chlorine.
 Irritation to the eyes.
 Exposure to large concentration causes pulmonary oedema and death.
 Phosgene (COCl2):
 Results from decomposition of chlorinated hydrocarbons when they come into
contact with hot surface.
 Causes irritation to upper respiratory tract.
 Causes pulmonary oedema.
 Nitrous Oxides (NOX):
 Exposure occurs in fertilizer, explosive industries and in the manufacture of nitric
or sulfuric acids and welding operations.
 Severe irritant effect for lung system because of their less solubility.
 Causes pulmonary oedema.
8.2. ASPHYXIATING GASES:

 Can cause asphyxia either by displacing oxygen or by some other mechanism.
 Simple Asphyxiants
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 Chemical Asphyxiants
 Simple Asphyxiants: replace oxygen ex: nitrogen, methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide.
 Chemical Asphyxiants: interfere through some chemical action with respiratory
function of the blood, tissue cells. Ex: carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide,
hydrocyanic acid.
 Nitrogen (N2):
 A simple Asphyxiant used in fertilizer industry and present in mine when oxygen is
consumed.
 In mines it can be detected by safety lamps which is extinguished at O2 of 17 %.
 At 12 % there is dyspnea, cyanosis, unconsciousness, convulsions, death.
 Methane (CH4):
 It results from the decomposition of organic matter and is present in marshes,
sewers, and mines.
 It is a simple Asphyxiant, inflammable and lighter than air.
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
 Results from combustion of fuels.
 It is a colorless gas heavier than air.
 It can be found in mines, wells, caves and close to furnaces, and brick kilns.
 It is also present in the manufacture of soft drinks, beer, in the sugar industry and it
is used as dry ice.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO):
 Colorless, odorless gas which results from the incomplete combustion of the fuels.
 It is the product of coal distillation plants, steel furnaces, fuel boilers and furnaces.
 Also present in vehicle exhaust fumes.
 It has great affinity to hemoglobin (HbCO) and thus interferes with oxygen
transport.
 Exposure causes headache, dizziness, chest oppression, unconsciousness,
convulsions, cardiovascular effects, coma and death (depending on the % of HbCO
in the blood).
 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S):
 Colorless gas, heavier than air and has odor of rotten eggs.
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 Exposure occurs in the oil fields, refineries, tanneries, sewers and in the
manufacture of rayon and artificial rubber.
 It can be detected by its smell and causes paralysis of olfactory nerve after a short
while.
 Also cause irritation to the eyes and skin.
 Causes asphyxia by combining with cytochrome oxidase enzyme and prevent tissue
respiration.
 Hydrocyanic Acid (HCN):
 Colorless gas and has odor of bitter almonds.
 Highly poisonous.
 Used for pesticides, photography, metal hardening, electroplating, and extraction of
gold from ore.
 The gas absorbed through the skin and inhibits the cytochrome oxidase enzyme and
prevent tissue respiration.
 Signs and symptoms appear within minutes: dizziness, oppression of the chest,
cardio-respiratory manifestations, unconsciousness and death in severe cases.
8.3. TOXIC GASES:
Many gases have toxic properties, which are often assessed using the LC50 (median lethal dose)
measure. In the United States many of these gases have been assigned an NFPA 704 health
rating of 4 (may be lethal) or 3 (may cause serious or permanent injury), and/or exposure limits
(TLV, TWA or STEL) determined by the ACGIH professional association. Some, but by no
means all, toxic gases are detectable by odour which can serve as a warning. Among the best
known toxic gases are carbon monoxide, chlorine, nitrogen dioxide and phosgene.
9. HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS:
9.1. ORGANIC SOLVENTS:
 Solvent: Any substance that dissolves another substance (without changing their
chemical composition) resulting in a solution.
 Solvents may be aqueous (water based) or Organic (hydrogen carbon based).
 An Organic Solvent is lipophilic and volatile liquid at room temperature.
 Organic solvents are used in:
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 Extraction of oils and fats in the food industry

 Chemical industries
 Paint, varnishes, Enamel
 Degreasing process
 Dry cleaning, printing and dying in the textile and rayon industries.
 Solvents are absorbed mainly through the lungs, via the gastrointestinal tract if taken
by mouth and many of them can be absorbed through skin.
 Affects nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, kidney, blood forming
organs, and cause skin diseases.
 Other organic solvents: Hazards:

o Nervous system:
 Dizziness, unconsciousness and death, peripheral neuritis, affection of
vision, insomnia, headache and fatigue.
o Gastrointestinal system:
 Dyspepsia, anorexia and nausea and liver infection.
o Respiratory tract:
 irritation in upper part
o Kidney :
 Nephritis or Renal failure
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o Blood forming organs:

 Anemia, Leukemia.
o Skin:
 Skin cancer or skin dermatitis.
9.2. HEAVY METALS:

 Heavy metal: refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high density
and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations.
 Elements are with metallic properties and atomic number > 20.
 Ex: cadmium, chromium, zinc, copper, mercury, lead, arsenic, platinum, nickel,
beryllium, manganese, etc.
 Living organisms require varying amounts of heavy metals. Iron, copper, manganese and
zinc are required by humans.
 All metals are toxic at higher concentrations and can cause damaging to the organisms.
 They accumulate and thus disturb function in vital organs and glands of our body such as
heart, brain, kidneys, bone, liver, etc.
 They dislocate vital nutritional minerals from their original place and thus hinder their
biological function.
 Heavy Metal sources:
Mining
Smelting
Metallurgical industries
Corrosion
Waste disposal
Fossil fuel combustion
Agriculture & Forestry
9.2.1. LEAD:
Lead is a soft malleable metal with good anticorrosive properties. It has been used extensively
in the construction industry as well as in the production of batteries, bullets and weights. It has
45
also been mixed with other metals to form useful alloys such as tin/lead solder. Its various
compounds are toxic and can be inhaled, ingested or absorbed through the skin. Acute effects
are rare, as lead is mainly a cumulative chronic poison, but some organo lead compounds [such
as that used in leaded gasoline] can be quickly absorbed through the skin and affect the brain
causing death in some cases. Chronic effects are observed with the slow accumulation of
inorganic lead in the body, often being deposited in the bones and being latter released if a
trauma occurs. Chronic effects range from stomach pains to lethargy and anaemia, ultimately
causing death. It can give rise to brain damage especially to the young and unborn.
9.2.2. CHROMIUM:
Chromium is a steel-grey, hard metal element, which will take on a high lustre. Its high
melting point, 1900 0C, together with its inert nature makes the metal useful as an alloying
material and for electro-plating. It has a number of radioactive isotopes, which have found use
in medicine. It is capable of having a number of valent states and the range of salts reflects this
i.e. chromos, chromic and chromyl. Some have irritant properties similar to chromium trioxide
(chromic acid) causing dermal irritation, ulceration and allergic dermatitis. Inhalation will also
cause primary irritation, nasal septum perforation, and pulmonary irritation whilst carcinoma
has also been associated with exposure to chromate salts.
9.2.3. CADMIUM:
Cadmium use has been restricted due to its toxicity, however it is still used within the aviation
industry as an anticorrosive coating, and in NiCad batteries. The physiological effects of
excessive cadmium exposure can be separated into two distinct categories as follows; the acute
effects include nausea, vomiting and severe gastro-intestinal disturbances whilst chronic
effects range from fatigue and emphysema to liver and kidney damage. In severe cases of acute
poisoning, for example after flame-cutting of cadmium plated bolts, death can quickly follow
from a chemical pneumonia.
9.2.4. NICKEL:
Nickel is widely used in industry, primarily refining, electroplating, and welding. The National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health warns that workers who inhale nickel laced dust
and fumes are at an increased risk for lung cancer and fibrosis.
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The increasingly common use of nanoparticles has introduced a new generation of health
concerns… with good reason. South Africa’s National Institute for Occupational Health
recently attributed the death of a 38-year-old man to respiratory distress caused by inhaling
nickel nanoparticles during an industrial manufacturing process.
9.2.5. MERCURY:
Mercury poisoning is a type of metal poisoning, due to exposure to mercury. Symptoms may
include muscle weakness, poor coordination, numbness in the hands and feet, skin rashes,
memory problems, trouble speaking, trouble hearing, or trouble seeing. Symptoms depend
upon the type, dose, method, and duration of exposure. The effects of long term low dose
exposure to methyl mercury is unclear. High level exposure to methyl mercury is known
as Minamata disease. Exposure in children may result in acrodynia (pink's disease) in which
the skin becomes pink and peels. Long term complications may include kidney problems and
decreased intelligence.
9.2.6. BERYLLIUM:
According to NIOSH (the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2011),
"workers exposed to particles, fumes, mists and solutions from beryllium-containing materials
may develop beryllium sensitization or chronic beryllium disease, a potentially disabling or
even fatal respiratory disease." Depending on how workers are exposed, the diseases can affect
different tissues and organs. Breathing in fumes or dusts of beryllium compounds may injure
the lungs. Beryllium may also affect such organs as the liver, kidneys, heart, nervous system,
and the lymphatic system. Direct contact with beryllium fumes or dusts may injure the exposed
areas of the body, such as the eyes or the skin. Skin sensitization may also occur.
Beryllium is also a known cancer causing substance, with higher levels of lung cancer being
reported. It is classified as a Group 1 - Carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency
for Research on Cancer (IARC), and as an A1 - Confirmed human carcinogen by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
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Types of Heavy Metals & Their Permissible limits:
9.3. PESTICIDES:
 Group of chemicals used to destroy various kinds of pests including insects, rodents,
weeds, snails, fungi, etc.
 They intended for preventing, destroying, or mitigating any pest or indented for use as
plant growth regulator, defoliant or desiccant. .
 The degree of toxicity of pesticides varies greatly from deadly poisons to slightly
harmful pesticides.
 Exposure to pesticides in industries occurs where:
 Pesticides are manufactured & formulated

 During their application in agriculture
 Their use in homes also.
9.3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES:
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9.3.2. Most frequently used Pesticides:

1. Organophosphates
2. Carbamates
3. Thiocarbamates
4. Pyrethrins
9.3.3. HEALTH EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES:
Hazard = Toxicity x Exposure
The toxicity of a pesticide is a measure of its capacity or ability to cause injury or illness. The
toxicity of a particular pesticide is determined by subjecting test animals to varying dosages of
the active ingredient (a.i.) and each of its formulated products. The active ingredient is the
chemical component in the pesticide product that controls the pest. By understanding the
difference in toxicity levels of pesticides, a user can minimize the potential hazard by selecting
the pesticide with the lowest toxicity that will control the pest.
Acute effects:
Acute health problems may occur in workers that handle pesticides, such as abdominal pain,
dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems In China, an estimated
half million people are poisoned by pesticides each year, 500 of whom die. Pyrethrins,
insecticides commonly used in common bug killers, can cause a potentially deadly condition
if breathed in
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Chronic effects:
The chronic toxicity of a pesticide is determined by subjecting test animals to long-term
exposure to the active ingredient. Any harmful effects that occur from small doses repeated
over a period of time are termed “chronic effects.” Suspected chronic effects from exposure to
certain pesticides include birth defects, toxicity to a fetus, and production of benign or
malignant tumours, genetic changes, blood disorders, nerve disorders, endocrine disruption,
and reproduction effects. The chronic toxicity of a pesticide is more difficult than acute toxicity
to determine through laboratory analysis.
9.3.4. HARMFUL EFFFECTS OF SOME PESTICIDE FAMILIES:
9.3.4.1. FUNGICIDES
The acute toxicity of fungicides to humans is generally considered to be low, but fungicides
can be irritating to the skin and eyes. Inhalation of spray mist or dust from these pesticides may
cause throat irritation, sneezing, and coughing. Chronic exposures to lower concentrations of
fungicides can cause adverse health effects. Most cases of human fungicide poisonings have
been from consumption of seed grain. To prevent these types of poisonings, fungicide treatment
now includes a brightly colored dye to clearly indicate that the seed has been treated.
Signs and symptoms of acute exposure for several fungicide active ingredients:
Active Ingredient Brand name Signs & Symptoms

Azoxystrobin Abound, Quadris Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract
Captan Captol, Orthocide Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract
Chlorothalonil Bravo, Daconil Irritation to skin, mucous membranes of the
eye, respiratory tract. Allergic contact
dermatitis.
Copper Compounds Bordeaux mixture, Irritating to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.
Copper sulfate Salts are corrosive to mucous membranes
and cornea Metallic taste, nausea, vomiting,
intestinal pain.
Mancozeb Dithane M-45, Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract
Manzate 200
Maneb Dithane M-22, Irritating to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.
Manzate Skin disease in occupationally exposed
individuals.
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Pentachloronitrobenze PCNB, Terraclor Allergic reactions

ne
Sulfur Cosan, Thiolux Irritating to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.
Breathe odour of rotten eggs. Diarrhea.
.Irritant dermatitis in occupationally exposed
individuals
Thiram Polyram-Ultra, Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory mucous
Spotrete-F membranes
Ziram Cuman, Vancide Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract
Prolonged inhalation causes neural and
visual disturbances
9.3.4.2. HERBICIDES
In general, herbicides have a low acute toxicity to humans because the physiology of plants is
so different than that of humans. However, there are exceptions; many can be dermal irritants
since they are often strong acids, amines, esters, and phenols. Inhalation of spray mist may
cause coughing and a burning sensation in the nasal passages and chest. Prolonged inhalation
sometimes causes dizziness. Ingestion will usually cause vomiting, a burning sensation in the
stomach, diarrhea, and muscle twitching.
Signs and symptoms of acute exposure for several insecticide active ingredients:
Active Ingredient Brand Name Signs and Symptoms

2,4- 2,4-D, Irritating to skin, mucous membranes. Vomiting,
dichlorophenoxyacetic Barrage headache, diarrhea, confusion. Bizarre or
acid aggressive behavior. Muscle weakness in
occupationally exposed individuals.
Acetochlor Harness, Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract.
Surpass
Atrazine Aatrex, Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract.
Atranex Abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting. Eye
irritation, irritation of mucous membranes, skin
reactions.
Dicamba Banvel, Irritating to skin, respiratory tract. Loss of
Metambane appetite (anorexia), vomiting, muscle weakness,
slowed heart rate, shortness of breath. Central
nervous system effects.
51

Glyphosate Rodeo, Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract.
Roundup
Mecoprop Kilporp, Irritating to skin, mucous membranes. Vomiting,
MCPP headache, diarrhea, confusion. Bizarre or
aggressive behavior. Muscle weakness in
occupationally exposed individuals.
Metolachlor Bicep, Dual Irritating to skin, eyes
Paraquat Gramoxone Burning in mouth, throat, chest, upper abdomen.
Diarrhea. Giddiness, headache, fever, lethargy.
Dry, cracked hands, ulceration of skin.
Pendimethalin Prowl, Stomp Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract
Propanil Propanex, Irritating to skin, eyes, respiratory tract
Stampede
9.3.4.3. INSECTICIDES
Insecticides cause the greatest number of pesticide poisonings in the United States. The
most serious pesticide poisonings usually result from acute exposure to organophosphate and
carbamate insecticides. Organophosphate insecticides include chlorpyrifos, diazinon,
dimethoate, disulfoton, malathion, methyl parathion, and ethyl parathion. The carbamate
compounds include carbaryl, carbofuran, methomyl, and oxamyl. Organophosphates and
carbamates inhibit the enzyme cholinesterase, causing a disruption of the nervous system. All
life forms with cholinesterase in their nervous system, such as insects, fish, birds, humans, and
other mammals, can be poisoned by these chemicals.
Signs and symptoms of acute exposure for several insecticide active ingredients.

Acephate Orthene Headache, excessive salivation and tearing,
(organophosphate) muscle twitching, nausea, diarrhea. Respiratory
depression, seizures, loss of consciousness.
Pinpoint pupils.
Aldicarb (N-methyl Temik Malaise, muscle weakness, dizziness, sweating.
carbamate) Headache, salivation, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal pain, diarrhea. Nervous system
depression, pulmonary edema in serious cases.
52

Carbaryl (N-methyl Sevin Malaise, muscle weakness, dizziness, sweating.
carbamate) Headache, salivation, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal pain, diarrhea. Nervous system
depression, pulmonary edema in serious cases.
Chlorpyrifos Dursban Headache, excessive salivation and tearing,
Pinpoint pupils.
Endosulfan Thiodan Itching, burning, and tingling of skin. Headache,
(organochlorine) dizziness, nausea, vomiting, lack of
coordination, tremor, mental confusion.
Seizures, respiratory depression, coma.
Malathion Cythion Headache, excessive salivation and tearing,
Pinpoint pupils.
Methyl Parathion Penncap-M Headache, excessive salivation and tearing,
Pinpoint pupils.
Phosmet Imidan Headache, excessive salivation and tearing,
Pinpoint pupils.
Pyrethrins (natural Irritating to skin and upper respiratory tract.
origin) Contact dermatitis and allergic reactions—
asthma.
Pyrethroids (synthetic Cypermethrin, Abnormal facial sensation, dizziness, salivation,
pyrethrin) permethrin headache, fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea. Irritability
to sounds or touch. Seizures, numbness.
9.3.5. EXPOSURE & PREVENTIVE MEASURES:
The hazard or risk involved with using a pesticide depends on both the toxicity of the
product and the amount of exposure to the product (Hazard = Toxicity x Exposure). Ideally,
use a low-toxicity product when possible, but even they can be harmful if your exposure level
is high. However, regardless of the product’s toxicity, if the exposure level is low, then the
hazard will also be low. To reduce the possibility of exposure and to protect your health, always
wear the personal protective equipment (PPE) as indicated on the product label. The following
are general PPE guidelines to protect against the four routes of entry.
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Dermal:
More than 95 percent of all exposures are dermal. Dermal absorption may occur as the result
of a splash, spill, or drift or when cleaning or repairing equipment. Wear unlined, chemical-
resistant gloves to eliminate most dermal exposures. Minimum dermal protection for most
pesticides consists of a long-sleeved shirt, long trousers, gloves, and proper footwear. For extra
precaution, consider wearing coveralls, a waterproof hat, and unlined rubber boots.
Additionally, wearing a liquid- proof apron or rain suit is recommended when mixing and
pouring concentrates or when using highly toxic products.
Inhalation:
For many toxic chemicals, the respiratory (breathing) system is the quickest and most direct
route of entry into the circulatory system. Respiratory protection is especially important when
pesticide powders, dusts, gases, vapours, or small spray droplets can be inhaled.
Use the respirator as designed for its intended use, and always follow the manufacturer’s
instructions. Select only equipment approved by the National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).
Oral:
Accidental oral exposure most frequently occurs when pesticides have been taken from the
original container and put into an unlabelled bottle or food container. Unfortunately, children
are the most common victims in these situations. Store pesticides only in their original
containers, and keep the original label attached to the container. Store pesticides only in their
original containers and keep the original label attached to the container. Store in a locked
cabinet and/or on a high shelf to keep out of the reach of children. Never use your mouth to
clear a spray line or to siphon a pesticide from a tank or container. After handling or working
with pesticides, wash your hands and face thoroughly with soap and water before eating,
drinking, or smoking.
Eyes:
54
Eyes are very sensitive to many pesticides and, considering their size, are able to absorb large
amounts of chemical. Serious eye exposure can result from a splash, spill, or drift or by rubbing
the eyes with contaminated hands or clothing. Tight-fitting chemical splash goggles or a full-
face shield should be worn if there is any chance of getting pesticides in the eyes, especially
when pouring or mixing concentrates and handling dusts. When pouring from a container, keep
the container below eye level to avoid splashing or spilling chemicals on your face or protective
clothing.
9.4. CORROSIVES:
 Corrosives are materials that can attack and chemically destroy exposed body tissues.
Corrosives can also damage or even destroy metal. They begin to cause damage as soon
as they touch the skin, eyes, respiratory tract, digestive tract, or the metal. They might be
hazardous in other ways too, depending on the particular corrosive material.
 Most corrosives are either acids or bases. Common acids include hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid, nitric acid, chromic acid, acetic acid and hydrofluoric acid. Common bases
are ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) and sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda).
 Other chemicals can be corrosive too. Check the supplier labels on chemical product
containers.
 It is wise to treat unknown materials as very hazardous until they are positively identified.
 Corrosive materials are present in almost every workplace. Acids, bases (which include
caustics or alkalis), and other chemicals may be corrosive. Everyone who works with
corrosives must be aware of their hazards and how to work safely with them.
 Health hazards of Corrosives:
 Corrosives can burn and destroy body tissues on contact. The stronger, or more
concentrated, the corrosive material is and the longer it touches the body, the
worse the injuries will be.
 Some corrosives are toxic and can cause other health problems.
 Corrosive materials can severely irritate, or in some cases, burn the eyes. This
could result in scars or permanent blindness. The stronger, or more concentrated,
55
the corrosive material is and the longer it touches the eyes, the worse the injury
will be.
 Corrosives touching the skin can severely irritate or even badly burn and blister
the skin. Severe corrosive burns over a large part of the body can cause death.
 Breathing in corrosive vapours or particles irritates and burns the inner lining of
the nose, throat, windpipe and lungs. In serious cases, this results in pulmonary
edema, a build-up of fluid in the lungs that can be fatal.
 Swallowing corrosives burns the sensitive lining of the mouth, throat, oesophagus
and stomach. In nonfatal cases, severe scarring of the throat may occur and could
result in losing the ability to swallow.
 Some corrosives are also flammable or combustible and can easily catch fire and
burn or explode.
 Some corrosives are incompatible with other chemicals. They may undergo
dangerous chemical reactions and give off toxic or explosive products if they
contact each other.
10. ACCIDENTS IN CONFINED SPACES:
The hazards encountered and associated with entering and working in confined spaces
are capable of causing bodily injury, illness, and death to the worker. Accidents occur among
workers because of failure to recognize that a confined space is a potential hazard. It should
therefore be considered that the most unfavourable situation exists in every case and that the
danger of explosion, poisoning, and asphyxiation will be present at the onset of entry.
Before forced ventilation is initiated, information such as restricted areas within the
confined space, voids, the nature of the contaminants present, the size of the space, the type of
work to be performed, and the number of people involved should be considered. The ventilation
air should not create an additional hazard due to recirculation of contaminants, improper
arrangement of the inlet duct, or by the substitution of anything other than fresh (normal) air
(approximately 20.9% oxygen, 78.1% nitrogen, and 1% argon with small amounts of various
other gases). The terms air and oxygen are sometimes considered synonymous. However, this
is a dangerous assumption, since the use of oxygen in place of fresh (normal) air for ventilation
will expand the limits of flammability and increase the hazards of fire and explosion.
56
Hazardous conditions covered in this discussion include: Hazardous Atmospheres

(flammable, toxic, irritant, and asphyxiating), and General Safety Hazards (mechanical,
communications, entry and exit, and physical).
10.1. TYPES OF CONFINED SPACES
Confined spaces can be categorized generally as those with open tops and with a depth
that will restrict the natural movement of air, and enclosed spaces with very limited openings
for entry. In either of these cases, the space may contain mechanical equipment with moving
parts. Any combination of these parameters will change the nature of the hazards encountered.
Degreasers, pits, and certain types of storage tanks may be classified as open topped confined
spaces that usually contain no moving parts. However, gases that are heavier than air (butane,
propane, and other hydrocarbons) remain in depressions and will flow to low points where they
are difficult to remove. Open topped water tanks that appear harmless may develop toxic
atmospheres such as hydrogen sulfide from the vaporization of contaminated water. Therefore,
these gases (heavier than air) are a primary concern when entry into such a confined space is
being planned. Other hazards may develop due to the work performed in the confined space or
because of corrosive residues that accelerate the decomposition of scaffolding supports and
electrical components.
Confined spaces such as sewers, casings, tanks, silos, vaults, and compartments of ships
usually have limited access. The problems arising in these areas are similar to those that occur
in open topped confined spaces. However, the limited access increases the risk of injury. Gases
which are heavier than air such as carbon dioxide and propane, may lie in a tank or vault for
hours or even days after the containers have been opened. Because some gases are odorless,
the hazard may be overlooked with fatal results. Gases that are lighter than air may also be
trapped within an enclosed type confined space, especially those with access from the bottom
or side.
Hazards specific to a confined space are dictated by: (1) the material stored or used in
the confined space; as an example, damp activated carbon in a filtration tank will absorb
oxygen, thus creating an oxygen deficient atmosphere; (2) the activity carried out, such as the
fermentation of molasses that creates ethyl alcohol vapors and decreases the oxygen content of
57
the atmosphere; or (3) the external environment, as in the case of sewer systems that may be
affected by high tides, heavier than air gases, or flash floods.
The most hazardous kind of confined space is the type that combines limited access and
mechanical devices. All the hazards of open top and limited access confined spaces may be
present together with the additional hazard of moving parts. Digesters and boilers usually
contain power-driven equipment which, unless properly isolated, may be inadvertently
activated after entry. Such equipment may also contain physical hazards that further complicate
the work environment and the entry and exit process.
10.2. REASONS FOR ENTERING CONFINED SPACES
Entering a confined space as part of the industrial activity may be done for various
reasons. It is done usually to perform a necessary function, such as inspection, repair,
maintenance (cleaning or painting), or similar operations which would be an infrequent or
irregular function of the total industrial activity.
Entry may also be made during new construction. Potential hazards should be easier to
recognize during construction since the confined space has not been used. The types of hazards
involved will be limited by the specific work practices. When the area meets the criteria for a
confined space, all ventilation and other requirements should be enforced.
One of the most difficult entries to control is that of unauthorized entry, especially when
there are large numbers of workers and trades involved, such as welders, painters, electricians,
and safety monitors.
A final and most important reason for entry would be emergency rescue. This, and all
other reasons for entry, must be well planned before initial entry is made and the hazards must
be thoroughly reviewed. The standby person and all rescue personnel should be aware of the
structural design of the space, emergency exit procedures, and life support systems required.
10.3. HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERES
Hazardous atmospheres encountered in confined spaces can be divided into four distinct
categories: Flammable, Toxic, Irritant and/or Corrosive, and Asphyxiating.
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10.3.1. Flammable Atmospheres
A flammable atmosphere generally arises from enriched oxygen atmospheres,

vaporization of flammable liquids, by-products of work, chemical reactions, concentrations of
combustible dusts, and desorption of chemical from inner surfaces of the confined space.
An atmosphere becomes flammable when the ratio of oxygen to combustible material

in the air is neither too rich nor too lean for combustion to occur. Combustible gases or vapours
will accumulate when there is inadequate ventilation in areas such as a confined space.
Flammable gases such as acetylene, butane, propane, hydrogen, methane, natural or
manufactured gases or vapours from liquid hydrocarbons can be trapped in confined spaces,
and since many gases are heavier than air, they will seek lower levels as in pits, sewers, and
various types of storage tanks and vessels. In a closed top tank, it should also be noted that
lighter than air gases may rise and develop a flammable concentration if trapped above the
opening.
The by-products of work procedures can generate flammable or explosive conditions

within a confined space. Specific kinds of work such as spray painting can result in the release
of explosive gases or vapours. Welding in a confined space is a major cause of explosions in
areas that contain combustible gas.
Chemical reactions forming flammable atmospheres occur when surfaces are initially
exposed to the atmosphere, or when chemicals combine to form flammable gases. This
condition arises when dilute sulphuric acid reacts with iron to form hydrogen or when calcium
carbide makes contact with water to form acetylene. Other examples of spontaneous chemical
reactions that may produce explosions from small amounts of unstable compounds are
acetylene-metal compounds, peroxides, and nitrates. In a dry state, these compounds have the
potential to explode upon percussion or exposure to increased temperature. Another class of
chemical reactions that form flammable atmospheres arise from deposits of pyrophoric
substances (carbon, ferrous oxide, ferrous sulphate, iron, etc.) that can be found in tanks used
by the chemical and petroleum industry. These tanks containing flammable deposits will
spontaneously ignite upon exposure to air.
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Combustible dust concentrations are usually found during the process of loading,
unloading, and conveying grain products, nitrated fertilizers, finely ground chemical products,
and any other combustible material. High charges of static electricity, which rapidly
accumulate during periods of relatively low humidity (below 50%), can cause certain
substances to accumulate electrostatic charges of sufficient energy to produce sparks and ignite
a flammable atmosphere. These sparks may also cause explosions when the right air or oxygen
to dust or gas mixture is present.
10.3.2. Toxic Atmospheres:
The substances to be regarded as toxic in a confined space can cover the entire spectrum of
gases, vapours, and finely-divided airborne dust in industry. The sources of toxic atmospheres
encountered may arise from the following:
1. The manufacturing process (for example, in producing polyvinyl chloride, hydrogen

chloride is used as will as vinyl chloride monomer, which is carcinogenic).
2. The product stored [removing decomposed organic material from a tank can liberate
toxic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)].
3. The operation performed in the confined space (for example, welding or brazing with
metals capable of producing toxic fumes).
During loading, unloading, formulation, and production, mechanical and/or human error may
also produce toxic gases which are not part of the planned operation.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a hazardous gas that may build up in a confined space. This
odorless, colourless gas that has approximately the same density as air is formed from
incomplete combustion of organic materials such as wood, coal, gas, oil, and gasoline; it can
be formed from microbial decomposition of organic matter in sewers, silos, and fermentation
tanks. Carbon monoxide is an insidious toxic gas because of its poor warning properties. Early
stages of CO intoxication are nausea and headache. Carbon monoxide may be fatal at 1000
ppm in air, and is considered dangerous at 200 ppm, because it forms carboxyhaemoglobin in
the blood which prevents the distribution of oxygen in the body.
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Carbon monoxide is a relatively abundant colourless, odorless gas, therefore, any

untested atmosphere must be suspect. It must also be noted that a safe reading on a combustible
gas indicator does not ensure that CO is not present. Carbon monoxide must be tested for
specifically. The formation of CO may result from chemical reactions or work activities,
therefore fatalities due to CO poisoning are not confined to any particular industry. There have
been fatal accidents in sewage treatment plants due to decomposition products and lack of
ventilation in confined spaces. Another area where CO results as a product of decomposition
is in the formation of silo gas in grain storage elevators. In another area, the paint industry,
varnish is manufactured by introducing the various ingredients into a kettle, and heating them
in an inert atmosphere, usually town gas, which is a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
In welding operations, oxides of nitrogen and ozone are gases of major toxicological
importance, and incomplete oxidation may occur and carbon monoxide can form as a by-
product. Another poor work practice, which has led to fatalities, is the recirculation of diesel
exhaust emissions. Increased CO levels can be prevented by strict control of the ventilation and
the use of catalytic convertors.
10.3.3. Irritant (Corrosive) Atmospheres
Irritant or corrosive atmospheres can be divided into primary and secondary groups.
The primary irritants exert no systemic toxic effects (effects on the entire body). Examples of
primary irritants are chlorine, ozone, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, sulphuric acid,
nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, and Sulfur dioxide. A secondary irritant is one that may produce
systemic toxic effects in addition to surface irritation. Examples of secondary irritants include
benzene, carbon tetrachloride, ethyl chloride, trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, and
chloropropene.
Irritant gases vary widely among all areas of industrial activity. They can be found in
plastics plants, chemical plants, the petroleum industry, tanneries, refrigeration industries, paint
manufacturing, and mining operations.
Prolonged exposure at irritant or corrosive concentrations in a confined space may

produce little or no evidence of irritation. This may result in a general weakening of the defense
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reflexes from changes in sensitivity. The danger in this situation is that the worker is usually
not aware of any increase in his/her exposure to toxic substances.
10.3.4. Asphyxiating Atmospheres
The normal atmosphere is composed approximately of 20.9% oxygen and 78.1% nitrogen,
and 1% argon with small amounts of various other gases. Reduction of oxygen in a confined
space may be the result of either consumption or displacement.
The consumption of oxygen takes place during combustion of flammable substances, as

in welding, heating, cutting, and brazing. A more subtle consumption of oxygen occurs during
bacterial action, as in the fermentation process. Oxygen may also be consumed during chemical
reactions as in the formation of rust on the exposed surface of the confined space (iron oxide).
The number of people working in a confined space and the amount of their physical activity
will also influence the oxygen consumption rate.
A second factor in oxygen deficiency is displacement by another gas. Examples of gases

that are used to displace air, and therefore reduce the oxygen level are helium, argon, and
nitrogen. Carbon dioxide may also be used to displace air and can occur naturally in sewers,
storage bins, wells, tunnels, wine vats, and grain elevators. Aside from the natural development
of these gases, or their use in the chemical process, certain gases are also used as inerting agents
to displace flammable substances and retard pyrophoric reactions. Gases such as nitrogen,
argon, helium, and carbon dioxide, are frequently referred to as non-toxic inert gases but have
claimed many lives. The use of nitrogen to inert a confined space has claimed more lives than
carbon dioxide. The total displacement of oxygen by nitrogen will cause immediate collapse
and death. Carbon dioxide and argon, with specific gravities greater than air, may lie in a tank
or manhole for hours or days after opening. Since these gases are colorless and odorless, they
pose an immediate hazard to health unless appropriate oxygen measurements and ventilation
are adequately carried out.
Oxygen deprivation is one form of asphyxiation. While it is desirable to maintain the

atmospheric oxygen level at 21% by volume, the body can tolerate deviation from this ideal.
When the oxygen level falls to 17%, the first sign of hypoxia is a deterioration to night vision
which is not noticeable until a normal oxygen concentration is restored. Physiologic effects are
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increased breathing volume and accelerated heartbeat. Between 14-16% physiologic effects are
increased breathing volume, accelerated heartbeat, very poor muscular coordination, rapid
fatigue, and intermittent respiration. Between 6-10% the effects are nausea, vomiting, inability
to perform, and unconsciousness. Less than 6%, spasmatic breathing, convulsive movements,
and death in minutes.
11. MONITORING & SAMPLING TECHNIQUES FOR AIRBORNE

CONTAMINANTS
The techniques of air monitoring in workplace environment are intended to be use of use to
manufactures, government agencies, and chemists, safety personnel, industrial hygienists,
public service groups and environment science students.
The important points to be considered for monitoring airborne chemicals at workplace

environment are:
 Purpose of sampling
 Preliminary survey
 Sampling strategies
 Sampling equipment
 Sampling and analytical techniques
 Interpretation of results
 Benefits of environmental monitoring
11.1. PURPOSE OF SAMPLING:

Air sampling is performed for a variety of reasons, namely,
 To identify the potential toxic contaminants in the work room environment and assess
their levels of exposure.
 To determine compliance status with respect to various occupational health hazards
 To check the efficacy or efficiency of the existing environmental control systems
 To suggest control measures to minimise the levels of toxic substances at the locations
identified
 To contribute to the collection of national data and setting up of national standards,
having relevance to control health hazards in factories
 To conduct seminars, workshops, and training programmes for the personnel related to
work environment.
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11.2. PRELIMINARY SURVEY:

It should cover the following points:
 Study work operations and processes and obtain full details of the nature of work,
materials and equipment used, products and by-products, control measures adopted,
ventilation, number and gender of employees, hours of work and housekeeping.
 Study the substances for physio-chemical properties, toxicity, routes of entry,
continuity of exposure, continuity of exposure and quantity involved, individual
susceptibility and permissible exposure limits.
 Statutory provisions pertaining to the industry/processes/operations.
11.3. SAMPLING STRATTEGIES:
1. Where to sample - Location
2. How to sample - Duration
3. How many samples - Number
4. When to sample - Covering typical operations
1. The choice of sampling locations is clearly important and its frequency involves one or
more of the following:
 Breathing zones of workers

 General workplace atmosphere, and the release of pollutants
 A point close to potential sources of:
o Samples from the breathing zones of the workers and from the general
atmosphere of the work environment would demonstrate the actual
exposure conditions.
o Sampling throughout a plant would document the environmental
characteristics of the workplace.
2. The substances being evaluated will determine the type of sampling devices to be used,
and the analytical requirements will specify the time and perhaps the flow rates of
sampling. The duration of sampling or the volume of the air to be drawn can be
calculated by using the following formula:
μg × 24.45
𝐿=
ppm × Mol. wt
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Where,
L =Litres of air to be drawn
ppm =Permissible exposure limit of the chemical to be determined

(i.e. 1/5th of the PEL in ppm)
Mol.wt =molecular weight of the chemical
The number of samples to be collected depends on the purpose of sampling. Generally, a

minimum 4 to 5 samples may be necessary to indicate exposure for a certain task or cycle of
operations.
11.4. SAMPLING EQUIPMENT:
The criteria to be considered for selecting sampling equipment are:
 Size of the dust and the density

 Solubility
 Vapour pressure and
 Chemical stability of gases, vapours, fumes and mists.
The basic requirements of any air sampling equipment are:
a. Source of suction: which may be an electrically operated, battery or hand operated

pump, an aspirator or squeeze bulb.
b. Absorption medium should be able to efficiently retain the contaminants to be sampled
by absorption, adsorption, chemical reaction, or mechanical retention.
c. Flow rate meter: to indicate the rate of suction of air for calculating the amount of air
pumped. The flow meter attached to the equipment must be calibrated before use.
11.5. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR SAMPLING:
There are many available methods for analysing laboratory samples for contaminants.
Some of the more commonly used techniques for quantifying gases and vapours in air include
gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, atomic absorption, infrared and UV spectroscopy and
polarography.
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Gas chromatography is a technique used to separate and concentrate chemicals in

mixtures for subsequent quantitative analysis. There are three main components to the system:
the sample injection system, a column and a detector. A liquid or gaseous sample is injected
using a syringe, into an air stream that carries the sample through a column where the
components are separated. The column is packed with materials that interact differently with
different chemicals, and slows down the movement of the chemicals. The differential
interaction causes each chemical to travel through the column at a different rate. After
separation, the chemicals go directly into a detector, such as a flame ionization detector (FID),
photo-ionization detector (PID) or electron capture detector (ECD); a signal proportional
to concentration is registered on a chart recorder. The FID is used for almost all organics
including: aromatics, straight chain hydrocarbons, ketones and some chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Concentration is measured by the increase in the number of ions produced as a volatile
hydrocarbon is burned by a hydrogen flame. The PID is used for organics and some inorganics;
it is especially useful for aromatic compounds such as benzene, and it can detect aliphatic,
aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbons. Concentration is measured by the increase in the
number of ions produced when the sample is bombarded by ultraviolet radiation. The ECD is
primarily used for halogen-containing chemicals; it gives a minimal response to hydrocarbons,
alcohols and ketones. Concentration is measured by the current flow between two electrodes
caused by ionization of the gas by radioactivity.
Portable Gas Chromatography
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The mass spectrophotometer is used to analyse complex mixtures of chemicals

present in trace amounts. It is often coupled with a gas chromatograph for the separation and
quantification of different contaminants.
Mass Spectrophotometer
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is primarily used for the quantification of metals

such as mercury. Atomic absorption is the absorption of light of a particular wavelength by a
free, ground-state atom; the quantity of light absorbed is related to concentration. The technique
is highly specific, sensitive and fast, and is directly applicable to approximately 68 elements.
Detection limits are in the sub-ppb to low-ppm range.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
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Infrared analysis is a powerful, sensitive, specific and versatile technique. It uses the
absorption of infrared energy to measure many inorganic and organic chemicals; the amount
of light absorbed is proportional to concentration. The absorption spectrum of a compound
provides information enabling its identification and quantification.
FTIR
UV absorption spectroscopy is used for analysis of aromatic hydrocarbons when

interferences are known to be low. The amount of absorption of UV light is directly
proportional to concentration.
UV-Spectrophotometer
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Polarographic methods are based upon the electrolysis of a sample solution using an
easily polarized electrode and a non-polarizable electrode. They are used for qualitative and
quantitative analysis of aldehydes, chlorinated hydrocarbons and metals.
12. TOXIC GAS MONITORING BY USING DETECTORS:
 Gas detectors can be used to detect combustible, flammable and toxic gases,
and oxygen depletion.
 Types of Gas detectors:
1. Hand held detectors
2. Air Sampling
3. Gas Monitors
4. Flame Safety Lamp
5. Smoke detectors
6. Flame detectors
7. Combustible gas sensors
8. Photoionization detectors
9. Ultrasonic sensors
10. Electrochemical gas sensors
11. Semiconductor sensors
12.1. Canary in a Cage:
Canary is a pale yellow color bird. Canaries are more susceptible than humans to low oxygen,
methane gas, or CO gas. In ancient times and all, canaries in cage are used to detect the presence
of toxic gases. It is an old method of toxic gas detection. This method is widely used in mines,
in order to detect the presence of METHANE gas, which is both toxic & noxious. A passed out
canary means a dangerous gas situation.
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12.2. Flame Safety Lamp:

 It was discovered by SIR HUMPHREY DAVY in 1815.
 It was discovered with dual purpose of detecting methane as well as mine illumination.
It is also known as “Davy lamp” for use in flammable atmospheres.
 It consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen. It was created
for use in coal mines, to reduce the danger of explosions due to the presence of methane
and other flammable gases, called firedamp or mine damp.
 Oil flame adjusted to specific height in fresh air
 Flame contained within a glass sleeve and with a flame arrestor
 High flame means methane gas present
 Low flame means low oxygen
12.3. Electrochemical Gas Detectors:

 Electrochemical gas sensors are gas detectors that measure the concentration of a
target gas by oxidizing or reducing the target gas at an electrode and measuring the resulting
current.
 The sensors contain two or three electrodes, occasionally four, in contact with
an electrolyte. The electrodes are typically fabricated by fixing a high surface area precious
metal on to the porous hydrophobic membrane. The working electrode contacts both the
electrolyte and the ambient air to be monitored usually via a porous membrane. The
electrolyte most commonly used is a mineral acid, but organic electrolytes are also used for
some sensors. The electrodes and housing are usually in a plastic housing which contains
a gas entry hole for the gas and electrical contacts.
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 The gas diffuses into the sensor, through the back of the porous membrane to the
working electrode where it is oxidized or reduced. This electrochemical reaction results
in an electric current that passes through the external circuit.
 In addition to measuring, amplifying and performing other signal processing functions,
the external circuit maintains the voltage across the sensor between the working and
counter electrodes for a two electrode sensor or between the working and reference
electrodes for a three electrode cell. At the counter electrode an equal and opposite
reaction occurs, such that if the working electrode is an oxidation, then the counter
electrode is a reduction.
 The magnitude of the current is controlled by how much of the target gas is oxidized at
the working electrode. Sensors are usually designed so that the gas supply is limited
by diffusion and thus the output (Current) from the sensor is linearly proportional to the
gas concentration.
 Electrochemical gas detectors are used in a wide variety of environments such as
refineries, gas turbines, chemical plants, underground gas storage facilities, and more.
Electrochemical Gas Sensor
12.4. Ultrasonic Gas Detectors
 Ultrasonic gas detectors use acoustic sensors to detect changes in the background noise
of its environment. Since most high-pressure gas leaks generate sound in the ultrasonic
range of 25 kHz to 10 MHz, the sensors are able to easily distinguish these frequencies
from background acoustic noise which occurs in the audible range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
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 The ultrasonic gas leak detector then produces an alarm when there is an ultrasonic
deviation from the normal condition of background noise. Ultrasonic gas leak detectors
cannot measure gas concentration, but the device is able to determine the leak rate of
an escaping gas because the ultrasonic sound level depends on the gas pressure and size
of the leak.
 Ultrasonic gas detectors are mainly used for remote sensing in outdoor environments
where weather conditions can easily dissipate escaping gas before allowing it to reach
leak detectors that require contact with the gas to detect it and sound an alarm. These
detectors are commonly found on offshore and onshore oil/gas platforms, gas
compressor and metering stations, gas turbine power plants, and other facilities that
house a lot of outdoor pipeline.
Ultrasound Gas Detector
12.5. Semiconductor Sensors
 Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place when the
gas comes in direct contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most common material
used in semiconductor sensors, and the electrical resistance in the sensor is decreased
when it comes in contact with the monitored gas.
 The resistance of the tin dioxide is typically around 50 kΩ in air but can drop to around
3.5 kΩ in the presence of 1% methane. This change in resistance is used to calculate the
gas concentration. Semiconductor sensors are commonly used to detect hydrogen,
oxygen, alcohol vapor, and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide.
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 One of the most common uses for semiconductor sensors is in carbon monoxide
sensors. They are also used in breathalysers, because the sensor must come in contact
with the gas to detect it, semiconductor sensors work over a smaller distance than
infrared point or ultrasonic detectors.
Semiconductor Sensor
12.6. Catalytic Bed Sensor/Pellistor Sensor
 Catalytic bead sensors are commonly used to measure combustible gases that present
an explosion hazard when concentrations are between the lower explosion limit (LEL)
and upper explosion limit (UEL).
 Active and reference beads containing platinum wire coils are situated on opposite
arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit and electrically heated, up to a few hundred
degrees Celsius. The active bead contains a catalyst that allows combustible
compounds to oxidize, thereby heating the bead even further and changing its electrical
resistance.
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 The resulting voltage difference between the active and passive beads is proportional
to the concentration of all combustible gases and vapours present. The sampled gas
enters the sensor through a sintered metal frit, which provides a barrier to prevent an
explosion when the instrument is carried into an atmosphere containing combustible
gases.
 Pellistors measure essentially all combustible gases, but they are more sensitive to
smaller molecules that diffuse through the sinter more quickly. The measureable
concentration ranges are typically from a few hundred ppm to a few volume percent.
Such sensors are inexpensive and robust, but require a minimum of a few percent
oxygen in the atmosphere to be tested and they can be poisoned or inhibited by
compounds such as silicones, mineral acids, chlorinated organic compounds, and
Sulfur compounds.
12.7. Gas Monitors
 The Monitors can detect and monitor a wide range of gases including Carbon Monoxide
(CO), Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) and Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S).
 Different types of Gas Monitors:
1. Single gas monitors for oxygen deficiency
2. Single gas monitors for combustible gases
3. Single gas monitors for Toxic gases
4. Multiple gas monitors for Oxygen & combustible gases
5. Multiple gas monitors for Oxygen, combustible gases & Toxic gases
6. Photoionization devices for Toxic gases & vapors
7. Detector tube sampling systems
8. Personal & Area sampling
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12.7.1. Single Gas Monitors for Oxygen deficiency:

 Measures atmospheric concentrations of Oxygen.
 Concentrations are generally measured over a range of 0 to 25 % oxygen in air.
 Oxygen indicators are calibrated with uncontaminated fresh air containing minimum
of 20.8% oxygen.
 An alarm is activated when oxygen levels drop below 19.5%
Gas Monitors for Oxygen Deficiency
12.7.2. Single Gas Monitors for Combustible Gases:
o Combustible gas is measured on the basis of “Percent (of) Lower Explosive Limit, or
%LEL of a specific target gas.
o LEL values for most gases are well known and alarm values can be readily calculated
for maximum safety.
o Generally, alarm values are set for 20% LEL (high alarm) and 40% LEL (high-high
alarm), but may vary based on gas and risk.
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12.7.3. Single Gas Monitors for Toxic Gases:
 Compact, battery powered devices can be used to measure levels of gases such as CO,
H2S, depending on the model selected.
 Toxic gas monitors use electrochemical cells. If the gas of interest enters the cell, the
reaction produces a current output proportional to the amount of gas in the sample.
 With these instruments, audible and visible alarms sound if the gas concentration
exceeds a optimum level.
 used in confined spaces containing motors or engines, which can generate large
quantities of CO, as well as in sewers, waste treatment plants, and “sour crude”
processing stations which tend to have hazardous volumes of H2S.
12.7.4. Multiple Gas Monitors for Oxygen, Combustible & Toxic Gases:
 Toxic gases & vapors, which can be inhaled or absorbed through the skin are frequently
found in confined spaces.
 Measures the LEL of combustible gases, Oxygen levels and Toxic levels (in ppm) of
H2S, CO and other toxic gases.
 Alarms alert the user to low & high levels of oxygen & toxic gases respectively.
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Gas Monitors for Oxygen, Combustible & Toxic Gases
12.7.5. Detector Tube Sampling System:
 It for quick detection of Toxic gas.

 With detector tubes, a known volume of air is drawn through the tube using manually
operated sampling pump.
 If gas or vapor present in air, chemically treated granules in the tube are stained a
different color.
 The length of the color stain within the tube, gives the concentration level of toxic gas.
■ Most tubes are made of glass, have break-off tips, and are filled with treated chemical
granules.
■ Generally, they have shelf life of 12 to 24 months.
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12.7.6. Photoionization for Toxic Gases & Vapors:
 Photoionization Detectors (PIDs) use a high-photon-energy UV lamp to ionize

chemicals in the sampled gas. If the compound has an ionization energy below that of
the lamp photons, an electron will be ejected, and the resulting current is proportional
to the concentration of the compound.
 Common lamp photon energies include 10.0 eV, 10.6 eV and 11.7 eV; the standard
10.6 eV lamp lasts for years, while the 11.7 eV lamp typically last only a few months
and is used only when no other option is available. A broad range of compounds can be
detected at levels ranging from a few ppb to several thousand ppm.
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 Detectable compound classes in order of decreasing sensitivity include: aromatics and

alkyl iodides; olefins, Sulfur compounds, amines, ketones, ethers, alkyl bromides and
silicate esters; organic esters, alcohols, aldehydes and alkanes; H2S, NH3, PH3 and
organic acids. There is no response to standard components of air or to mineral acids.
 Major advantages of PIDs are their excellent sensitivity and simplicity of use; the main
limitation is that measurements are not compound-specific. Recently PIDs with pre-
filter tubes have been introduced that enhance the specificity for such compounds as
benzene or butadiene. Fixed, hand-held and miniature clothing-clipped PIDs are widely
used for industrial hygiene, hazmat, and environmental monitoring.
12.7.7. Personal Sampling Pumps:
 These are designed to measure individual worker’s

exposure, so typically they are lightweight, belt-mounted,
battery powered devices.
 Draws a predetermined volume of air through a filter designed to trap contaminants.

 The filter is contained in a plastic cassette, which is attached by plastic tubing to a
personal or sampling pump.
 After air samples are drawn, the filters are sent to a laboratory where they are
examined to determine the level of exposure.
 Personal sampling determines the concentration found in the “breathing zone” or
the area near the workers face, which is usually measured at or near the collar or
lapel.
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13. How can Exposure be Reduced ?
The surest way to prevent toxic chemicals from causing harm is to minimize or prevent
exposure. Below are some methods of controlling exposure.
13.1. TRAINING:
Everyone who works with toxic substances should know the names, toxicity, and other
hazards of the substances they use. Employers are required by law to provide this information,
along with training in how to use toxic substances safely. A worker may obtain information
about a chemical’s composition, physical characteristics, and toxicity from the Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS). Under California law manufacturers are required to supply an MSDS for
products that contain toxic substances. Employers obtain the MSDS when they purchase the
product and must make the MSDS available to employees. Unfortunately, the precise chemical
composition may be proprietary (trade secret) information, and the toxicity information on an
MSDS may be incomplete and unreliable. HESIS can help you interpret the information on an
MSDS.
13.2. ENGINEERING CONTROLS:

Limiting exposure at the source is the preferred way to protect workers. The types of
engineering controls, in order of effectiveness, are listed below.
Substitution is using a less hazardous substance. But before choosing a substitute, thoroughly
consider its physical and health hazards. For example, mineral spirits (Stoddard solvent) is less
of a health hazard than perchloroethylene for dry cleaning, but is more of a fire hazard. Also
consider environmental aspects such as air pollution and waste disposal.
Process or equipment enclosure is the isolation of the source of exposure, often through
automation. This completely eliminates the routine exposure of workers. For example,
handling of radioactive materials is often done by mechanical arms or robots.
Local exhaust ventilation is a hood or intake close to the source of exposure to capture or
draw contaminated air from its source before it spreads into the room and into your breathing
zone. All ventilation systems require careful engineering design and regular maintenance.
General or dilution ventilation is continual replacement and circulation of fresh air sufficient
to keep concentrations of toxic substances diluted below hazardous levels. However,
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concentrations will be highest near the source, and overexposure may occur in this area. If the
dilution air is not well mixed with the room air, pockets of high concentrations may exist.
13.3. WORK PRACTICES
Work practices are behaviours performed by workers in order to reduce exposures. Controlling
dust dispersion by spraying water (or dust suppressant products), closing containers of volatile
Chemicals when not in use, and labelling containers of hazardous substances, are common and
effective chemical control work practices.
13.4. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS
The following devices should be used only when engineering controls are not possible or are
not sufficient to reduce exposure.
Respiratory Protective Equipment consists of devices that cover the mouth and nose to
prevent substances in the air from being inhaled. A respirator is effective only when used as
part of a comprehensive program established by the employer, which includes measurement of
concentrations of hazardous substances, selection of the proper respirator, training the worker
in its proper use, fitting of the respirator to the worker, maintenance, and replacement of parts
when necessary. A health care professional must first determine whether the individual worker
can wear a respirator safely.
Protective Clothing includes gloves, aprons, goggles, boots, face shields, and any other
materials worn as protection. It should be made of material designed to resist penetration by
the particular chemical being used. Such material may be called impervious to that chemical.
However, most materials do not remain impervious for very long. The manufacturer of the
protective clothing usually can provide some information regarding the substances that are
effectively blocked and how often replacement is necessary.
14. BILOGICAL HAZARDS:
Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat
to the health of living organism, especially that of humans. These hazards can be encountered
anywhere in the environment, including home, school or work.
14.1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:

A fundamental difference between chemical and biological hazards is that biological agents,
whether bacteria, viruses or moulds have the ability in the right conditions to rapidly replicate
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themselves. This means that the focus on control is not only avoidance of contact with the
agent, but also on ensuring that conditions favourable for growth of the organism are prevented.
The three main categories of biological agents that we will be covering examples of, are
bacteria, viruses and fungi.
 Bacteria: single celled microorganisms that live in soil, water and air. There are many
thousands of different types of bacteria – many are harmless, or even beneficial, but some
bacteria are pathogenic - that is they cause disease. Examples of diseases caused by bacteria
include Legionnaires disease, various types of food poisoning (e.g. salmonella) and
anthrax. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections.
 Viruses: tiny parasitic organisms that can only reproduce within living cells. They consist
of nucleic acids (RNA or DNA) with a protein coat. Largest known virus approx. 1000 x
smaller than the average bacteria. Viruses cause many diseases including the common cold,
influenza, measles, rabies, hepatitis and AIDS. Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses
but many viral diseases are controlled by vaccines.
 Fungi: simple plants lacking chlorophyll and normal plant structures (e.g. leaves, stems
etc). Fungi include yeasts, moulds, mildews and mushrooms.
 Moulds: Moulds are microscopic fungi that grow in the form of branching threads or
filaments. They reproduce by means of microscopic spores which can give rise to new
mould growth which in turn can produce millions of spores. If inhaled, fungal spores may
cause allergic rhinitis or other allergic responses such as alveolitis.
Moulds can be found wherever there is moisture, oxygen and a source of nutrients. They
grow on dead organic matter such as on rotting vegetation and dead leaves, especially in moist
shaded areas. In industrial situations bakeries, breweries, dairies and greenhouses are examples
of ideal places for moulds to grow. Any areas where fresh food is stored are also potential sites
where mould growth is possible. Well documented examples include grain stores or silos,
particularly if the grain has been stored slightly damp.
Indeed, in any indoor environment, mould may grow in damp places such as in poorly
ventilated basements, bathrooms, and humidifier and air-conditioning units. Indeed they can
thrive in any area where surfaces or materials are damp. Reduction of moisture and humidity
levels is the most important factor in mitigating mould growth.
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 The response of each individual to exposure to micro-organisms depends on his or her state
of immunity, i.e. the power of the individual to resist disease. There are many factors
involved in immunity including:
 whether the individual has already experienced a particular illness
 immunisation levels
 individual resistance
 fatigue
 age
To simplify how risks from different organisms should be managed they are categorised into
different risk groups. Control measures required should be matched to the risk group:
 Risk Group 1 - (low individual and community risk). An organism that is unlikely to
cause human or animal disease.
 Risk Group 2 - (moderate individual risk, limited community risk). A pathogen that
may cause human or animal disease and which might be a hazard to laboratory workers,
but is unlikely to spread to the community, livestock or the environment. Laboratory
exposures may cause serious infection, but effective treatment and preventive measures
are available and the risk of spread is limited.
 Risk Group 3 - (high individual risk, low community risk). A pathogen that can cause
serious human disease but does not ordinarily spread from one individual to another.
 Risk Group 4 - (high individual and community risk). A pathogen that usually
produces serious human or animal disease and may be readily transmitted from one
individual to another, directly or indirectly.
There are also four Biosafety levels which give the containment precautions which need to be
used to control different biohazards. The levels of containment range from the lowest biosafety
level 1 to the highest at level 4.
 Biosafety Level 1 – Little containment or segregation of the facility but with
precautions such as separation and labelling of waste materials.
 Biosafety Level 2 – Staff have specific training in handling pathogenic agents, access
to the laboratory is limited when work is being conducted, extreme precautions are
taken with contaminated sharp items; and certain procedures in which infectious
aerosols or splashes may be created are conducted in biological safety cabinets.
83
 Biosafety Level 3 – All procedures involving the manipulation of infectious materials

are conducted within biological safety cabinets or other physical containment devices,
or by personnel wearing appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment. The
laboratory has special engineering and design features such as double-door access
zones.
 Biosafety Level 4 – The facility is either in a separate building or in a controlled area
within a building. The facility has controlled ventilation maintaining it under negative
pressure. All activities are carried out in Class III biological safety cabinets, or Class II
biological safety cabinets used with one-piece positive pressure personnel suits
ventilated by a life support system.
14.2. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO BILOGICAL HAZARDS:
 Most obvious work place in which employees are subjected to hazards as a result that the
work requires handling and manipulation of biological agents include: surgery, autopsy,
contaminated discharges, and blood, pipettes, laboratory specimens etc.
 There are at least 193 important biological agents that show infectious, allergenic, toxic, or
carcinogenic activities in the working population.
 These agents are viruses, bacteria, fungi, plant substances, invertebrate animals (mostly
arthropods), and substances derived from vertebrate animals.
 Large occupational groups are exposed to these biohazards.
 The risk is greatest among health care and laboratory workers who are threatened by human
pathogens.
 Agricultural workers who are at risk from dust-borne biological allergens and toxins and
by parasitic worms in warm climates.
84
 Laboratory Research: Health personnel such as Laboratory technicians and scientists

working on biological specimens are at risk with biological hazards in the laboratory.
Specimen such as blood, pus, stool and other tissue samples may expose the workers to
hazards such as HIV, Hepatitis, etc.
 Hospitals: Many potential biological agents exist in hospital environment. These are
bacterial infection and viral agents. Those working in laundry, housekeeping, laboratory,
central supply, nursing station and dietary are highly exposed to biohazard from the
patient they handle, from the specimen they collect and from the cloth, needle and pans
they handle and from their general day to day activities.
 Laundry: Workers in laundry are exposed to discharges from patients by virtue that they
are constantly in contact with linen (bed sheet), nightdresses and washable articles that
are sent to the laundry for cleaning every day.
 Biohazards are also important risk factors for many other professions, including
woodworkers, workers of textile plants, sewage and compost workers, miners and
renovators.
85
14.3. HOW BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS ENTER THE BODY?

Biological hazards can enter the body in many ways. When determining appropriate protective
measures, measures are clear understanding of how it can enter the body.
o Inhalation through breathing.
o Absorption direct contact through breaks in the skin, even chapped skin, or through
mucous membranes/contact with eyes, nose, mouth.
o Ingestion through swallowing.
o Injection through a puncture.
14.4. HOW BILOGICAL HAZARDS SPREAD?
Biohazard Disease Spread Precaution/Control
Bacteria Pink eye Human to Do not share eye makeup; wash

human contact hands
Virus Hepatitis A Human to Do not ingest contaminated water
human contact or food; avoid direct contact with
infected person
Virus Hepatitis B Human to Immunization; avoid contact
human contact with infected people; avoid
tattooing and body piercing
dispose of sharps in disposal
container.
Virus Hepatitis C Human to Avoid direct contact with
human contact infected person; avoid tattooing
and body piercing; follow
standard precautions
Virus Measles Human to human Immunization; avoid direct
contact spread by contact with infected people
cough and nasal
droplets
14.5. LEPTOSPIROSIS AND WEIL’S DISEASE:

It is caused by a bacterium found in the urine of rats. In humans, the kidneys and liver
are attacked causing high temperatures and headaches followed by jaundice and, in up to 20%
of cases, it can be fatal. It enters the body either through the skin or by ingestion. The most
common source is contaminated water in a river, sewer or ditch and workers, such as canal or
sewer workers, are most at risk.
86
Leptospirosis is always a risk where rats are present, particularly if the associated
environment is damp. Good impervious protective clothing, particularly wellington boots, is
essential in these situations and the covering of any skin wounds. For workers who are
frequently in high-risk environments (sewer workers), immunization with a vaccine may be the
best protection. Weil’s disease is strictly a severe form of leptospirosis. The symptoms of
leptospirosis are similar to influenza but those for Weil’s disease are anaemia, nose bleeds and
jaundice. While the most common source of infection is from the urine of rats, it has been
found in other animals, such as cattle; therefore, farm and veterinary workers may also be at
risk.
14.6. LEGIONELLA:
It is an airborne bacterium and is found in a variety of water sources. It produces a form of
pneumonia caused by the bacteria penetrating to the alveoli in the lungs. This disease is known
as Legionnaires’ disease, named after the first documented outbreak at a State Convention of
the American Legion held at Pennsylvania in 1976. During this outbreak, 200 men were
affected, of whom 29 died. That outbreak and many subsequent ones were attributed to air-
conditioning systems. The legionella bacterium cannot survive at temperatures above 608ºC
but grows between 20 and 458ºC, being most virulent at 378ºC. It also requires food in the
form of algae and other bacteria. Control of the bacteria involves the avoidance of water
temperatures between 20 and 458ºC, avoidance of water stagnation and the build-up of algae
and sediments and the use of suitable water treatment chemicals. This work is often done by a
specialist contractor. The most common systems at risk from the bacterium are:
 Water systems incorporating a cooling tower
 Water systems incorporating an evaporative condenser
 Hot and cold water systems and other plant where the water temperature may exceed
208ºC.
An approved code of practice (Legionnaires’ disease – The control of legionella bacteria in
water systems -L8) was produced by the Health and Safety Executive in 2000. Where plant at
risk of the development of legionella exists, the following is required:
 a written ‘suitable and sufficient risk assessment
 The preparation and implementation of a written control scheme involving the
treatment, cleaning and maintenance of the system
87
 Appointment of a named person with responsibility for the management of the control
scheme
 the monitoring of the system by a competent person
 Record keeping and the review of procedures developed within the control scheme.
The code of practice also covers the design and construction of hot and cold water systems
and cleaning and disinfection guidance. There have been several cases of members of the public
becoming infected from a contaminated cooling tower situated on the roof of a building. It is
required that all cooling towers are registered with the local authority. People are more
susceptible to the disease if they are older or weakened by some other illness. It is, therefore,
important that residential and nursing homes and hospitals are particularly vigilant.
14.7. HEPATITIS
It is a disease of the liver and can cause high temperatures, nausea and jaundice. It can be
caused by hazardous substances (some organic solvents) or by a virus. The virus can be
transmitted from infected faeces (hepatitis A) or by infected blood (hepatitis B and C). The
normal precautions include good personal hygiene particularly when handling food and in the
use of blood products. Hospital workers who come into contact with blood products are at risk
of hepatitis as are drug addicts who share needles. It is also important that workers at risk
regularly wash their hands and wear protective disposable gloves.
14.8. SALMONELLOSIS
Salmonellosis is the name given to an infection caused by any of the Salmonella group of
bacteria. Salmonella bacteria may be carried by most types of farm animal. Infections are
usually associated with ingestion of contaminated food or may result from contact with farm
animal dung e.g. using contaminated hands to eat, drink or smoke.
Symptoms develop suddenly about 12 to 24 hours after infection and include malaise,
headache, nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhoea and fever. Symptoms normally last 2 to 3 days
but can persist longer. Dehydration or septicaemia (blood poisoning) may also occur.
14.9. ANTHRAX:
The disease is caused by the spore forming bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Many animals may
carry the anthrax bacteria or spores including cattle, horses, goats and sheep. Spores on hides,
wool and animal hair may be a problem for subsequent manufacturing processes using these
products. The spores are very resistant and grazing land may remain infected for many years.
88
There are two main forms of anthrax disease that may occur in humans; cutaneous anthrax (a
skin disease) or pulmonary anthrax (affecting the lungs).
 Cutaneous – the most common form following skin contact. A red spot at the site of
the infection develops to a pustule with a black centre. Without treatment, the lesion
normally begins to heal after about 10 days. In a small proportion of cases, bacteria
from the lesion enter the blood stream producing a septicaemia which may be fatal.
 Pulmonary or inhalation anthrax – due to the inhalation of spore containing material.
The spores enter the lungs and are taken up by the immune system. Initial symptoms
are similar to those of influenza but these develop rapidly as the spores germinate in
the lymphoid tissue, multiply and produce a powerful toxin. The disease progresses
with breathing difficulty, skin discolouration and disorientation, leading to coma and
death within 24 - 48 hours.
The main occupations at risk include agricultural workers, abattoirs, animal by-product
processing, vets and the wool and tanning industries.
14.10. ZOONOSES
Zoonoses are infections that are naturally transmitted from animal to humans. There are over
150 known zoonoses which range from ring worm to anthrax and rabies. Zoonoses primarily
affect people who work closely with animals and animal products such as farm workers,
laboratory workers, vets, forestry workers and those working in the wool and tanning
industries.
Infection can occur through contact with:
 Animal and animal products (meat, bone meal, fur, feathers, skins, wool)
 Animal tissue & body fluids (blood, saliva etc)
 Birth products (placenta etc)
 Waste products (urine, dung, faeces)
 Contaminated materials (ground, fencing, clothing etc)
Infection may occur via inhalation, ingestion or through broken skin or contact with mucous
membranes.
14.11. HUMIDIFIER FEVER
 Humidifier fever is associated with exposure to many different types of microorganisms
including various bacteria and fungi found in humidifier reservoirs and air-conditioning
units. The micro-organisms have been found in both large ventilation systems as well as in
89
small units. Significant concentrations of these organisms can be dispersed into the
environment in the aerosol mist generated by the humidifiers during normal operation.
 Humidifier fever generally causes a flu-like illness with fever, chills, headache, muscle
ache and fatigue. These symptoms usually occur a few hours after exposure and usually
subside within a day or so. However, in some cases it may manifest as an allergic alveolitis.
 Controls to prevent humidifier fever centre on ensuring that the bacteria and fungi do not
multiply and reach high concentrations in the water reservoir.
 Approaches include regular cleaning and maintenance schedules, coupled with
disinfection.
14.12. CONTROLLING EXPOSURE TO BILOGICAL HAZARDS:
There are three approaches to control hazards. The first consideration for controlling
biological hazards is to look at engineering controls. If a hazard cannot be eliminated through
engineering methods a second approach to controlling hazards is administrative. Then, if
exposure to a hazard cannot be prevented with either engineering or administrative controls
then PPE is necessary.
 Engineering Controls:
These controls are the first line of defense and include built in protection in building, work
areas, equipment or supplies. Examples are:-
o Ventilation systems and construction seals to create negative pressure rooms
o Bio-safety hoods, with specific ventilation systems
 Administrative Controls:
These controls are steps in work procedures or work processes that minimize the risk of
exposure to a hazard. This type if control does not eliminate a hazard but can significantly
reduce the risk of injury. Examples are:-
o Worker training
o Rules that require regular hand washing
 Personal Protective Equipment:
o When a hazard poses a threat, even after engineering and administrative controls have
been implemented, then PPE is necessary. Then PPE methods can protect you from
biohazard.
o Some PPE measure that can protect you are
o a proper mask and latex gloves for biohazards
90
o eye protection
o For PPE to be effective it must be worn correctly and must be comfortable and fitted
for each person. Workers must be trained properly so that it is worn when needed.
***********************
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DIS06 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE & OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE: CHEMICAL HAZARDS

1. INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH HAZARDS AT WORKPLACE:

In the work environment, workers are exposed to a variety of chemicals, which

1.1. CHEMICAL SAFETY:

 Enactment of factories (Amendment) act, 1987 and preparation of model rules;

2. RECOGNITION OF HEALTH HAZARDS AT WORKPLACE:

3. THE WALK-THROUGH INSPECTION/SURVEY:

3.1. Observations and questions to ask on a walk-through survey:

4. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (MSDS):

1. Composition/Data on components: This gives details of the different chemicals

8. Exposure controls and personal protection: Outlines requirements such as Personal

5. EVALUATION OF HEALTH HAZARDS AT WORKPLACE:

In these circumstances some provision for continuous evaluation is necessary; that is

6.1. PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION OF AIRBORNE CONTAMINANTS:

6.2. MODES OF ENTRY:

Routes of entry to Human system:

b. Absorption through Gastrointestinal tract/Ingestion:

c. Absorption through lungs (Inhalation or respiratory tract):

Rate of breathing for an average man is as under:

Activity Air inhaled (l/min)

6.3. TOXICITY OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS IN THE WORKPLACE:

6.4. NOTIFIABLE DISEASES UNDER THE FACTORIES ACT, 1948:

Following 4 sections of the Factories Act are relevant:

10. Chrome ulceration

6.6. OCCUAPTIONS INVOLVING RISK OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES:

Occupational diseases, symptoms

10 Asbestosis Asbestos mining and lining, Chest pain, breathlessness, pleurisy

compounds, aircraft piston

chloroform, paralysis, affected speech, effect on

radioactive tracers, radium

7.2. OCCUPATIONAL DUST HAZARDS:

 Acute silicosis is a rapidly progressive disease. In extreme conditions, breathlessness and

Operations involving exposure to dust

 Signs & Symptoms:

 Dyspnea (shortness of breath) exacerbated by exertion

 Gradual darkening of skin (blue skin)

In advanced cases, the following may also occur:

 Cyanosis, pale along upper parts of body (blue skin)

Patients with silicosis are particularly susceptible to tuberculosis (TB) infection—known

a). Acute effects:

eventually become continuous. There is no radiological abnormality. In the early stages,

5. Wet methods prevent particles becoming airborne. Powdered material is suspended or

7. Other methods are:

7.4. DUST SAMPLING:

7.4.2. AIR SAMPLING:

7.4.2.1. Purpose of Sampling:

7.4.2.2. Occupational hygiene sampling protocols:

Purpose Type of Sample

Health Risk Evaluation Personal

7.4.2.3. DUST SAMPLING APPROACHES:

7.4.2.3.2. Area Sampling:

Area Dust Sampler

7.4.2.3.4. Surface Sampling:

7.4.2.3.5. Gravimetric Sampling:

7.4.2.4. DUST SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

It can be used as a screening technique; it will give the concentration of a contaminant at a

7.4.2.4.2. Short term sampling:

It will determine concentrations over a short time period, normally up to 10 or 15 minutes.

7.4.2.4.3. Long term sampling :

7.4.2.4.4. Continuous Sampling:

 It is an animal carcinogen and may cause acute bronchial irritation in humans.

8.2. ASPHYXIATING GASES:

8.3. TOXIC GASES: