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2.0
Statistical Mechanics
1 v
Entropy, Order Parameters, and
Complexity
202
James P. Sethna
ress
Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
14853-2501
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The author provides this version of this manuscript with the primary in-
tention of making the text accessible electronically—through web searches
and for browsing and study on computers. Oxford University Press retains
rd U
ownership of the copyright. Hard-copy printing, in particular, is subject to

the same copyright rules as they would be for a printed book.
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2020
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2.0
Preface to the second
edition
The second edition of Statistical Mechanics: Entropy, Order Parameters,

and Complexity features over a hundred new exercises, plus refinement
and revision of many exercises from the first edition. The main chapters
are largely unchanged, except for a refactoring of my discussion of the
renormalization group in Chapter 12. Indeed, the chapters are designed
to be the stable kernel of their topics, while the exercises cover the
growing range of fascinating applications and implications of statistical
mechanics.
This book reflects “flipped classroom” innovations, which I have found
to be remarkably effective. I have identified a hundred pre-class ques-
tions and in-class activities, the former designed to elucidate and rein-
force sections of the text, and the latter designed for group collaboration.
These are denoted with the symbols p and a , in an extension of the
difficulty rating 1 – 5 used in the first edition. Human correlations,
Fingerprints, and Crackling noises are some of my favorite activities.
These exercises, plus a selection of less-specialized longer exercises, form
the core of the undergraduate version of my course.
Extensive online material [181] is now available for the exercises.
Mathematica and python notebooks provide hints for almost fifty com-
putational exercises, allowing students to tackle serious new research
topics like Conformal invariance, Subway bench Monte Carlo, and 2D
turbulence and Jupiter’s great red spot, while getting exposed to good
programming practices. Handouts and instructions facilitate activities
such as Pentagonal frustration and Hearing chaos. The answer key for
the exercises now is polished enough that I regret not being able to share
it with any but those teaching the course.
Finally, the strength of the first edition was in advanced exercises,
which explored in depth the subtleties of statistical mechanics and the
broad range of its application to various fields of science. Many sub-
stantive exercises continue this trend, such as Nucleosynthesis and the
arrow of time, Word frequencies and Zipf ’s law, Pandemic, and Kinetic
proofreading in cells.
I again thank the National Science Foundation and Cornell’s physics
department for making possible the lively academic atmosphere at Cor-
nell and my amazing graduate students; both were crucial for the success
of this endeavor. Thanks to the students and readers who stamped out
errors and obscurities. Thanks to my group members and colleagues who
Copyright Oxford University Press 2021 v2.0 --

vi Preface to the second edition
contributed some of the most creative and insightful exercises presented

here—they are acknowledged in the masterpieces that they crafted.
Thanks to Jaron Kent-Dobias for several years of enthusiasm, insight,
and suggestions. A debt is gratefully due to Matt Bierbaum; many of
the best exercises in this text make use of his wonderfully interactive
Ising [28] and mosh pit [32] simulations.
Enormous thanks are due to my lifelong partner, spouse, and love,
Carol Devine, who tolerates my fascination with solving physics puzzles
and turning them into exercises, because she sees it makes me happy.
James P. Sethna
Ithaca, NY
September 2020

Preface
The purview of science grows rapidly with time. It is the responsibility

of each generation to join new insights to old wisdom, and to distill the
key ideas for the next generation. This is my distillation of the last fifty
years of statistical mechanics—a period of grand synthesis and great
expansion.
This text is careful to address the interests and background not only
of physicists, but of sophisticated students and researchers in mathe-
matics, biology, engineering, computer science, and the social sciences.
It therefore does not presume an extensive background in physics, and
(except for Chapter 7) explicitly does not assume that the reader knows
or cares about quantum mechanics. The text treats the intersection of
the interests of all of these groups, while the exercises encompass the
union of interests. Statistical mechanics will be taught in all of these
fields of science in the next generation, whether wholesale or piecemeal
by field. By making statistical mechanics useful and comprehensible to
a variety of fields, we enrich the subject for those with backgrounds in
physics. Indeed, many physicists in their later careers are now taking
excursions into these other disciplines.
To make room for these new concepts and applications, much has
been pruned. Thermodynamics no longer holds its traditional key role
in physics. Like fluid mechanics in the last generation, it remains incred-
ibly useful in certain areas, but researchers in those areas quickly learn it
for themselves. Thermodynamics also has not had significant impact in
subjects far removed from physics and chemistry: nobody finds Maxwell
relations for the stock market, or Clausius–Clapeyron equations appli-
cable to compression algorithms. These and other important topics in
thermodynamics have been incorporated into a few key exercises. Sim-
ilarly, most statistical mechanics texts rest upon examples drawn from
condensed matter physics and physical chemistry—examples which are
then treated more completely in other courses. Even I, a condensed
matter physicist, find the collapse of white dwarfs more fun than the
low-temperature specific heat of metals, and the entropy of card shuf-
fling still more entertaining.
The first half of the text includes standard topics, treated with an
interdisciplinary slant. Extensive exercises develop new applications of
statistical mechanics: random matrix theory, stock-market volatility,
the KAM theorem, Shannon entropy in communications theory, and
Dyson’s speculations about life at the end of the Universe. The second
half of the text incorporates Monte Carlo methods, order parameters,

viii Preface
linear response and correlations (including a classical derivation of the

fluctuation-dissipation theorem), and the theory of abrupt and contin-
uous phase transitions (critical droplet theory and the renormalization
group).
This text is aimed for use by upper-level undergraduates and gradu-
ate students. A scientifically sophisticated reader with a familiarity with
partial derivatives and introductory classical mechanics should find this
text accessible, except for Chapter 4 (which demands Hamiltonian me-
chanics), Chapter 7 (quantum mechanics), Section 8.2 (linear algebra),
and Chapter 10 (Fourier methods, introduced in the Appendix). An un-
dergraduate one-semester course might cover Chapters 1–3, 5–7, and 9.
Cornell’s hard-working first-year graduate students covered the entire
text and worked through perhaps half of the exercises in a semester.
I have tried to satisfy all of these audiences through the extensive use
of footnotes: think of them as optional hyperlinks to material that is
more basic, more advanced, or a sidelight to the main presentation. The
exercises are rated by difficulty, from 1 (doable by inspection) to 5 (ad-
vanced); exercises rated 4 (many of them computational laboratories)
should be assigned sparingly. Much of Chapters 1–3, 5, and 6 was de-
veloped in an sophomore honors “waves and thermodynamics” course;
these chapters and the exercises marked 1 and 2 should be accessible
to ambitious students early in their college education. A course designed
to appeal to an interdisciplinary audience might focus on entropy, order
parameters, and critical behavior by covering Chapters 1–3, 5, 6, 8, 9,
and 12. The computational exercises in the text grew out of three differ-
ent semester-long computational laboratory courses. We hope that the
computer exercise hints and instructions on the book website [181] will
facilitate their incorporation into similar courses elsewhere.
The current plan is to make individual chapters available as PDF files
on the Internet. I also plan to make the figures in this text accessible
in a convenient form to those wishing to use them in course or lecture
presentations.
I have spent an entire career learning statistical mechanics from friends
and colleagues. Since this is a textbook and not a manuscript, the
presumption should be that any ideas or concepts expressed are not
mine, but rather have become so central to the field that continued
attribution would be distracting. I have tried to include references to
the literature primarily when it serves my imagined student. In the
age of search engines, an interested reader (or writer of textbooks) can
quickly find the key ideas and articles on any topic, once they know
what it is called. The textbook is now more than ever only a base from
which to launch further learning. My thanks to those who have patiently
explained their ideas and methods over the years—either in person, in
print, or through the Internet.
I must thank explicitly many people who were of tangible assistance
in the writing of this book. I thank the National Science Foundation
and Cornell’s Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics for their
support during the writing of this text. I thank Pamela Davis Kivel-

Preface ix
son for the magnificent cover art. I thank Eanna Flanagan, Eric Siggia,
Saul Teukolsky, David Nelson, Paul Ginsparg, Vinay Ambegaokar, Neil
Ashcroft, David Mermin, Mark Newman, Kurt Gottfried, Chris Hen-
ley, Barbara Mink, Tom Rockwell, Csaba Csaki, Peter Lepage, and Bert
Halperin for helpful and insightful conversations. Eric Grannan, Piet
Brouwer, Michelle Wang, Rick James, Eanna Flanagan, Ira Wasser-
man, Dale Fixsen, Rachel Bean, Austin Hedeman, Nick Trefethen, Sarah
Shandera, Al Sievers, Alex Gaeta, Paul Ginsparg, John Guckenheimer,
Dan Stein, and Robert Weiss were of important assistance in develop-
ing various exercises. My approach to explaining the renormalization
group (Chapter 12) was developed in collaboration with Karin Dah-
men, Chris Myers, and Olga Perković. The students in my class have
been instrumental in sharpening the text and debugging the exercises;
Jonathan McCoy, Austin Hedeman, Bret Hanlon, and Kaden Hazzard
in particular deserve thanks. Adam Becker, Surachate (Yor) Limkumn-
erd, Sarah Shandera, Nick Taylor, Quentin Mason, and Stephen Hicks,
in their roles of proofreading, grading, and writing answer keys, were
powerful filters for weeding out infelicities. I thank Joel Shore, Mohit
Randeria, Mark Newman, Stephen Langer, Chris Myers, Dan Rokhsar,
Ben Widom, and Alan Bray for reading portions of the text, providing
invaluable insights, and tightening the presentation. I thank Julie Harris
at Oxford University Press for her close scrutiny and technical assistance
in the final preparation stages of this book. Finally, Chris Myers and I
spent hundreds of hours together developing the many computer exer-
cises distributed through this text; his broad knowledge of science and
computation, his profound taste in computational tools and methods,
and his good humor made this a productive and exciting collaboration.
The errors and awkwardness that persist, and the exciting topics I have
missed, are in spite of the wonderful input from these friends and col-
leagues.
I especially thank Carol Devine, for consultation, insightful comments
and questions, and for tolerating the back of her spouse’s head for per-
haps a thousand hours over the past two years.
James P. Sethna
Ithaca, NY
February, 2006

Contents
Preface to the second edition v
Preface vii
Contents xi
List of figures xxi
1 What is statistical mechanics? 1

Exercises 4
1.1 Quantum dice and coins 5
1.2 Probability distributions 6
1.3 Waiting time paradox 6
1.4 Stirling’s formula 7
1.5 Stirling and asymptotic series 8
1.6 Random matrix theory 9
1.7 Six degrees of separation 10
1.8 Satisfactory map colorings 13
1.9 First to fail: Weibull 14
1.10 Emergence 15
1.11 Emergent vs. fundamental 15
1.12 Self-propelled particles 16
1.13 The birthday problem 17
1.14 Width of the height distribution 18
1.15 Fisher information and Cramér–Rao 19
1.16 Distances in probability space 20
2 Random walks and emergent properties 23

2.1 Random walk examples: universality and scale invariance 23
2.2 The diffusion equation 27
2.3 Currents and external forces 28
2.4 Solving the diffusion equation 30
2.4.1 Fourier 31
2.4.2 Green 31
Exercises 33
2.1 Random walks in grade space 33
2.2 Photon diffusion in the Sun 34
2.3 Molecular motors and random walks 34
2.4 Perfume walk 35

xii Contents
2.5 Generating random walks 36

2.6 Fourier and Green 37
2.7 Periodic diffusion 38
2.8 Thermal diffusion 38
2.9 Frying pan 38
2.10 Polymers and random walks 38
2.11 Stocks, volatility, and diversification 39
2.12 Computational finance: pricing derivatives 40
2.13 Building a percolation network 41
2.14 Drifting random walk 43
2.15 Diffusion of nonconserved particles 44
2.16 Density dependent diffusion 44
2.17 Local conservation 44
2.18 Absorbing boundary conditions 44
2.19 Run & tumble 44
2.20 Flocking 45
2.21 Lévy flight 46
2.22 Continuous time walks: Ballistic to diffusive 47
2.23 Random walks and generating functions 48
3 Temperature and equilibrium 49

3.1 The microcanonical ensemble 49
3.2 The microcanonical ideal gas 51
3.2.1 Configuration space 51
3.2.2 Momentum space 53
3.3 What is temperature? 56
3.4 Pressure and chemical potential 59
3.5 Entropy, the ideal gas, and phase-space refinements 63
Exercises 65
3.1 Temperature and energy 66
3.2 Large and very large numbers 66
3.3 Escape velocity 66
3.4 Pressure simulation 67
3.5 Hard sphere gas 67
3.6 Connecting two macroscopic systems 68
3.7 Gas mixture 68
3.8 Microcanonical energy fluctuations 68
3.9 Gauss and Poisson 69
3.10 Triple product relation 70
3.11 Maxwell relations 70
3.12 Solving the pendulum 71
3.13 Weirdness in high dimensions 73
3.14 Pendulum energy shell 73
3.15 Entropy maximum and temperature 74
3.16 Taste, smell, and µ 74
3.17 Undistinguished particles 75
3.18 Ideal gas glass 75
3.19 Random energy model 76

Contents xiii
4 Phase-space dynamics and ergodicity 79

4.1 Liouville’s theorem 79
4.2 Ergodicity 81
Exercises 85
4.1 Equilibration 86
4.2 Liouville vs. the damped pendulum 86
4.3 Invariant measures 87
4.4 Jupiter! and the KAM theorem 89
4.5 No Hamiltonian attractors 91
4.6 Perverse initial conditions 91
4.7 Crooks 91
4.8 Jarzynski 93
4.9 2D turbulence and Jupiter’s great red spot 94
5 Entropy 99
5.1 Entropy as irreversibility: engines and the heat death of
the Universe 99
5.2 Entropy as disorder 103
5.2.1 Entropy of mixing: Maxwell’s demon and osmotic
pressure 104
5.2.2 Residual entropy of glasses: the roads not taken 105
5.3 Entropy as ignorance: information and memory 107
5.3.1 Nonequilibrium entropy 108
5.3.2 Information entropy 109
Exercises 112
5.1 Life and the heat death of the Universe 113
5.2 Burning information and Maxwellian demons 113
5.3 Reversible computation 115
5.4 Black hole thermodynamics 116
5.5 Pressure–volume diagram 116
5.6 Carnot refrigerator 117
5.7 Does entropy increase? 117
5.8 The Arnol’d cat map 117
5.9 Chaos, Lyapunov, and entropy increase 119
5.10 Entropy increases: diffusion 120
5.11 Entropy of glasses 120
5.12 Rubber band 121
5.13 How many shuffles? 122
5.14 Information entropy 123
5.15 Shannon entropy 123
5.16 Fractal dimensions 124
5.17 Deriving entropy 126
5.18 Entropy of socks 126
5.19 Aging, entropy, and DNA 127
5.20 Gravity and entropy 127
5.21 Data compression 127
5.22 The Dyson sphere 129
5.23 Entropy of the galaxy 130

xiv Contents
5.24 Nucleosynthesis and the arrow of time 130

5.25 Equilibration in phase space 133
5.26 Phase conjugate mirror 134
6 Free energies 139

6.1 The canonical ensemble 140
6.2 Uncoupled systems and canonical ensembles 143
6.3 Grand canonical ensemble 146
6.4 What is thermodynamics? 147
6.5 Mechanics: friction and fluctuations 151
6.6 Chemical equilibrium and reaction rates 152
6.7 Free energy density for the ideal gas 155
Exercises 157
6.1 Exponential atmosphere 158
6.2 Two-state system 159
6.3 Negative temperature 159
6.4 Molecular motors and free energies 160
6.5 Laplace 161
6.6 Lagrange 162
6.7 Legendre 162
6.8 Euler 162
6.9 Gibbs–Duhem 163
6.10 Clausius–Clapeyron 163
6.11 Barrier crossing 164
6.12 Michaelis–Menten and Hill 165
6.13 Pollen and hard squares 166
6.14 Statistical mechanics and statistics 167
6.15 Gas vs. rubber band 168
6.16 Rubber band free energy 169
6.17 Rubber band formalism 169
6.18 Langevin dynamics 169
6.19 Langevin simulation 170
6.20 Gibbs for pistons 171
6.21 Pistons in probability space 171
6.22 FIM for Gibbs 172
6.23 Can we burn information? 172
6.24 Word frequencies: Zipf’s law 173
6.25 Epidemics and zombies 175
6.26 Nucleosynthesis as a chemical reaction 177
7 Quantum statistical mechanics 179

7.1 Mixed states and density matrices 179
7.2 Quantum harmonic oscillator 183
7.3 Bose and Fermi statistics 184
7.4 Noninteracting bosons and fermions 185
7.5 Maxwell–Boltzmann “quantum” statistics 188
7.6 Black-body radiation and Bose condensation 190
7.6.1 Free particles in a box 190

Contents xv
7.6.2 Black-body radiation 191

7.6.3 Bose condensation 192
7.7 Metals and the Fermi gas 194
Exercises 195
7.1 Ensembles and quantum statistics 195
7.2 Phonons and photons are bosons 196
7.3 Phase-space units and the zero of entropy 197
7.4 Does entropy increase in quantum systems? 198
7.5 Photon density matrices 198
7.6 Spin density matrix 198
7.7 Light emission and absorption 199
7.8 Einstein’s A and B 200
7.9 Bosons are gregarious: superfluids and lasers 200
7.10 Crystal defects 201
7.11 Phonons on a string 202
7.12 Semiconductors 202
7.13 Bose condensation in a band 203
7.14 Bose condensation: the experiment 203
7.15 The photon-dominated Universe 204
7.16 White dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes 206
7.17 Eigenstate thermalization 206
7.18 Drawing wavefunctions 206
7.19 Many-fermion wavefunction nodes 207
7.20 Cooling coffee 207
7.21 The greenhouse effect 208
7.22 Light baryon superfluids 208
7.23 Why are atoms classical? 208
7.24 Is sound a quasiparticle? 209
7.25 Quantum measurement and entropy 210
7.26 Entanglement of two spins 212
7.27 Heisenberg entanglement 213
8 Calculation and computation 217

8.1 The Ising model 217
8.1.1 Magnetism 218
8.1.2 Binary alloys 219
8.1.3 Liquids, gases, and the critical point 220
8.1.4 How to solve the Ising model 220
8.2 Markov chains 221
8.3 What is a phase? Perturbation theory 225
Exercises 227
8.1 The Ising model 228
8.2 Ising fluctuations and susceptibilities 228
8.3 Coin flips and Markov 229
8.4 Red and green bacteria 229
8.5 Detailed balance 229
8.6 Metropolis 230
8.7 Implementing Ising 230

xvi Contents
8.8 Wolff 231

8.9 Implementing Wolff 232
8.10 Stochastic cells 232
8.11 Repressilator 234
8.12 Entropy increases! Markov chains 236
8.13 Hysteresis and avalanches 237
8.14 Hysteresis algorithms 239
8.15 NP-completeness and kSAT 240
8.16 Ising hard disks 243
8.17 Ising parallel updates 243
8.18 Ising low temperature expansion 243
8.19 2D Ising cluster expansions 244
8.20 Unicycle 244
8.21 Fruit flies and Markov 245
8.22 Metastability and Markov 246
8.23 Kinetic proofreading in cells 248
9 Order parameters, broken symmetry, and topology 253

9.1 Identify the broken symmetry 254
9.2 Define the order parameter 254
9.3 Examine the elementary excitations 258
9.4 Classify the topological defects 260
Exercises 265
9.1 Nematic defects 265
9.2 XY defects 267
9.3 Defects and total divergences 267
9.4 Domain walls in magnets 268
9.5 Landau theory for the Ising model 269
9.6 Symmetries and wave equations 271
9.7 Superfluid order and vortices 273
9.8 Superfluids and ODLRO 274
9.9 Ising order parameter 276
9.10 Nematic order parameter 276
9.11 Pentagonal order parameter 277
9.12 Rigidity of crystals 278
9.13 Chiral wave equation 279
9.14 Sound and Goldstone’s theorem 280
9.15 Superfluid second sound 281
9.16 Can’t lasso a basketball 281
9.17 Fingerprints 282
9.18 Defects in crystals 284
9.19 Defect entanglement 285
9.20 Number and phase in superfluids 285
10 Correlations, response, and dissipation 287

10.1 Correlation functions: motivation 287
10.2 Experimental probes of correlations 289
10.3 Equal-time correlations in the ideal gas 290

Contents xvii
10.4 Onsager’s regression hypothesis and time correlations 292

10.5 Susceptibility and linear response 294
10.6 Dissipation and the imaginary part 295
10.7 Static susceptibility 296
10.8 The fluctuation-dissipation theorem 299
10.9 Causality and Kramers–Krönig 301
Exercises 303
10.1 Cosmic microwave background radiation 303
10.2 Pair distributions and molecular dynamics 305
10.3 Damped oscillator 307
10.4 Spin 308
10.5 Telegraph noise in nanojunctions 308
10.6 Fluctuation-dissipation: Ising 309
10.7 Noise and Langevin equations 310
10.8 Magnet dynamics 311
10.9 Quasiparticle poles and Goldstone’s theorem 312
10.10 Human correlations 313
10.11 Subway bench Monte Carlo 313
10.12 Liquid free energy 315
10.13 Onsager regression hypothesis 315
10.14 Liquid dynamics 316
10.15 Harmonic susceptibility, dissipation 316
10.16 Harmonic fluctuation-dissipation 317
10.17 Susceptibilities and correlations 317
10.18 Harmonic Kramers–Krönig 318
10.19 Critical point response 318
11 Abrupt phase transitions 321

11.1 Stable and metastable phases 321
11.2 Maxwell construction 323
11.3 Nucleation: critical droplet theory 324
11.4 Morphology of abrupt transitions 326
11.4.1 Coarsening 326
11.4.2 Martensites 330
11.4.3 Dendritic growth 330
Exercises 331
11.1 Maxwell and van der Waals 332
11.2 The van der Waals critical point 332
11.3 Interfaces and van der Waals 333
11.4 Nucleation in the Ising model 333
11.5 Nucleation of dislocation pairs 334
11.6 Coarsening in the Ising model 335
11.7 Origami microstructure 336
11.8 Minimizing sequences and microstructure 338
11.9 Snowflakes and linear stability 339
11.10 Gibbs free energy barrier 341
11.11 Unstable to what? 342
11.12 Nucleation in 2D 342

xviii Contents
11.13 Linear stability of a growing interface 342

11.14 Nucleation of cracks 343
11.15 Elastic theory does not converge 344
11.16 Mosh pits 346
12 Continuous phase transitions 349

12.1 Universality 351
12.2 Scale invariance 358
12.3 Examples of critical points 363
12.3.1 Equilibrium criticality: energy versus entropy 364
12.3.2 Quantum criticality: zero-point fluctuations ver-
sus energy 364
12.3.3 Dynamical systems and the onset of chaos 365
12.3.4 Glassy systems: random but frozen 366
12.3.5 Perspectives 367
Exercises 368
12.1 Ising self-similarity 368
12.2 Scaling and corrections to scaling 368
12.3 Scaling and coarsening 369
12.4 Bifurcation theory 369
12.5 Mean-field theory 370
12.6 The onset of lasing 371
12.7 Renormalization-group trajectories 372
12.8 Superconductivity and the renormalization group 373
12.9 Period doubling and the RG 375
12.10 RG and the central limit theorem: short 378
12.11 RG and the central limit theorem: long 378
12.12 Percolation and universality 381
12.13 Hysteresis and avalanches: scaling 383
12.14 Crackling noises 384
12.15 Hearing chaos 385
12.16 Period doubling and the onset of chaos 386
12.17 The Gutenberg–Richter law 386
12.18 Random walks and universal exponents 386
12.19 Diffusion equation and universal scaling functions 387
12.20 Hysteresis and Barkhausen noise 388
12.21 Earthquakes and wires 388
12.22 Activated rates and the saddle-node transition 389
12.23 Biggest of bunch: Gumbel 391
12.24 Extreme values: Gumbel, Weibull, and Fréchet 392
12.25 Critical correlations 393
12.26 Ising mean field derivation 394
12.27 Mean-field bound for free energy 394
12.28 Avalanche size distribution 395
12.29 The onset of chaos: lowest order RG 396
12.30 The onset of chaos: full RG 397
12.31 Singular corrections to scaling 398
12.32 Conformal invariance 399

Contents xix
12.33 Pandemic 402
Fourier methods 405

A.1 Fourier conventions 405
A.2 Derivatives, convolutions, and correlations 408
A.3 Fourier methods and function space 409
A.4 Fourier and translational symmetry 411
Exercises 413
A.1 Sound wave 413
A.2 Fourier cosines 413
A.3 Double sinusoid 413
A.4 Fourier Gaussians 414
A.5 Uncertainty 415
A.6 Fourier relationships 415
A.7 Aliasing and windowing 415
A.8 White noise 416
A.9 Fourier matching 417
A.10 Gibbs phenomenon 417
References 419
Index 433
EndPapers 465

List of figures
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1.2 Ising model at the critical point 3
1.3 The onset of chaos 4
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2.2 Random walk: scale invariance 26
S&P 500 index / avg. return
S&P
2 Random
2.3 S&P 500, normalized 27 1.5
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
2.4 Continuum limit for random walks 28

Year
ρ
a
x
2.5 Conserved current 29 J(x) ρ(x ) ∆x J(x + ∆x)
2.6 Many random walks 32 ATP ADP, P
2.7 Motor protein 34 fext Motor

V
Free energy
2.8 Effective potential for moving along DNA 35 Focused
δ
V
∆x
laser
2.9 Laser tweezer experiment 35

Distance x
Bead
RNA
DNA
fext
2.10 Emergent rotational symmetry 36 0.4

ρ(x, t = 0) - ρ0
2.11 Initial profile of density 37 -0.4

0
0 5 10 15 20
2.12 Bond percolation network 42

Position x
2.13 Site percolation network 43

2.14 Lévy flight 47
3.1 Energy shell 50 E

E + δE P
R’
3.2 The energy surface 54

E
E +δ E
p R
1
∆E
3.3 Two subsystems 59

S (E , V , N ) S (E ,V , N )
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
∆V
∆N
3.4 The surface of state 60 r
3.5 Hard sphere gas 67

3.6 Excluded area around a hard disk 67 p
3.7 Pendulum energy shells 73 θ
3.8 Glass vs. Crystal 76 (a) (b)
4.1 Conserved currents in 3D 80 t
4.2 Incompressible flow 81

4.3 KAM tori and nonergodic motion 82 p
ρ(t)
4.4 Total derivatives 86

=0)
ρ(t
−π 0 x

xxii List of figures
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

4.5 Invariant density 88
x
µ
4.6 Bifurcation diagram in the chaotic region 88
4.7 The Earth’s trajectory 89
4.8 Torus 90
Σ
C
4.9 The Poincaré section 90
Ω (E+W)
Ω (E)
4.10 Crooks fluctuation theorem: evolution in time 92
U
−1
Σ
D
4.11 Crooks fluctuation theorem: evolution backward in time 92

p0
mV x0 =∆L(
No
Collis
ion
0
V p/m
x ∆ L = L−L’ L
4.12 One particle in a piston 93
1−p
4.13 Collision phase diagram 94

0 /(m
V)) x0
∆L 2∆ L
Comp x0 =∆L(−
−mV 2p /(m
ressio 0 V))
n Expa
nsion
4.14 Jupiter’s Red Spot 94

4.15 Circles 96
T1
5.1 Perpetual motion and Carnot’s cycle 100

Q 2+W ∆ Q 2+W +∆
Carnot power ∆ impossible
refrigerator plant engine
Q2 W Q2
T1 T2
Q2
T2
P
P
a
Heat In Q1
5.2 Prototype heat engine 100
5.3 Carnot cycle P –V diagram 101
Pressure P
PV = N kBT1
Compress
b
d Expand
PV = N kBT2
V V c
Heat Out Q2
5.4 Unmixed atoms 104

Volume V
2V
5.5 Mixed atoms 104

5.6 Ion pump as Maxwell’s demon 105
5.7 Double-well potential 106
Vi
δi
T 1g
T 2g qi
T g3
T 4g
T g5
T 6g
0.4
f(λa+(1-λ)b)
5.8 Roads not taken by the glass 107
T 7g 0.3
5.9 Entropy is concave 110

f(a)
-x log(x)
0.2
λ f(a) + (1-λ) f(b) f(b)

0.1
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
5.10 Information-burning engine 114

0 x
0
0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
5.11 Minimalist digital memory tape 114
5.12 Expanding piston 114
A
5.13 Pistons changing a zero to a one 114
B
XOR A B = (different?)
4P0 Th
5.14 Exclusive-or gate 115
5.15 P –V diagram 117
P a c Is
ot herm
P0
1 Tc b
p
V0 4V 0
5.16 Arnol’d cat map 118

0 1
V
x
p p
0 1
h
x
1.2
1
Cooling
Heating
−h
0
5.17 Evolution of an initially concentrated phase-space density 118

5.18 Glass transition specific heat 121
cp/ molecule
0 x
0.4
100 200 300
5.19 Rubber band 121

Temperature ( C)
d
Ak
1/2 1/2 1/6 L
1/3
1/3
1/4
1/3
1/3
1/4
c
1/3
1/3
1/4 1/4
1/4
1/4
1/3
q
B
5.20 Rational probabilities and conditional entropy 126
5.21 Three snapshots 128
k
(a) (b) (c)
5.22 The Universe as a piston 130

Expansion
5.23 PV diagram for the universe 131

High
Eq
Big
ui
Fusion
lib
Cru
P Bottleneck
riu
nch
m
"F
Ou
e"
Un
ive
r "H
rse
Un
"
ive Fusion
rse
Low
5.24 Nonequilibrium state in phase space 133

−27 3 V per baryon 3
10 m 1m
(a) (b)
5.25 Equilibrating the nonequilibrium state 133

Phase Conjugate Mirror
ed
ver
(a) (b)
Sil
5.26 Phase conjugate mirror 135

M alf
r
irro
H
Cloud
Mirror
5.27 Corner mirror 135

θ1 θ2 θ1
Corner
θ3
x Cloud
5.28 Corner reflector 136

z
L
6.1 The canonical ensemble 140

Bath
6.2 Uncoupled systems attached to a common heat bath 143

L R
∆E ∆E
L R
Ei Ej
∆E
∆E
System
Φ1( T1,V1, µ1)
∆N
Bath
T, µ
6.3 The grand canonical ensemble 146
System
G1(T1 ,P1 ,N1)
∆V
Bath
T, P
6.4 The Gibbs ensemble 150
h
h*
m
K(h − h0)
6.5 A mass on a spring 151

mg h* h 0
6.6 Ammonia collision 152

6.7 Barrier-crossing potential 154
Energy
x0 xB
Position x

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most natural for us to do, but each hand on its corresponding
shoulder, and if they feel very cold, they bring their elbows together
in front and shrink their heads into their shoulders, so that the ears
touch the sides of the hands.
They are fond of gambling, particularly the inhabitants of Loanda,
and also the slaves and servants of the white men on the coast. For
this they use playing-cards, and also small round pieces of crockery
ground on a stone to the size of a sixpence, and these they shake in
the hands and throw up in the same way as a handful of halfpence in
our game of “toss,” and according as a greater or lesser number of
the plain or coloured sides come down uppermost, so do the players
win or lose. I have also seen in several places a board in which were
a number of shallow pits, and in these a few seeds or round pebbles,
which were rapidly shifted about into the different holes by the two
players, but I could never make out the plan of the game. Beyond
this, and the “batuco” or dance, and playing the “marimba,” the
natives of Angola have absolutely no game or amusement of any
kind whatever.
The youngsters have no toys or playthings, and never race or play
together as ours do.
None, either young or old, know or practise a single game of skill
or strength; there is not an indication anywhere that they ever
contended at ball, stick, wrestling, or any other exercise or feat. This
to my mind is striking in the highest degree, and most suggestive of
a singularly low type, one in which no sentiment of emulation or
rivalry exists, and consequently very difficult to work upon with much
chance of success for its advancement.
I have never seen or heard of any monument, or sculptured rocks
or stones being found in the country, which might indicate the
existence of a previous race; and the most curious thing is that even
tradition of any kind is unknown to the blacks of Angola. In no case
could they trace events further back than during the reign of five
“sobas;” no very great length of time when it is considered that these
are generally old men when elected. They do not even know the
history of the crucifixes now-existing amongst them as “fetishes” of
the “sobas;” and when I have explained to them that they formerly
belonged to the missionaries, they were astonished, and gave as a
reason for their ignorance and my knowledge, that the white men
could write, whereas, when they died, nothing they had seen or
known was preserved, as our writings were, for the information of
their children.
This again, I think, is very indicative of their low type; as also is the
fact that no animal is tamed or utilized by the negro, or made
subservient to his comfort in any way. Even the cows or goats are
not milked except by the natives south of the River Quanza. In no
part of Angola (and the same holds good, I believe, of the whole
negro race) is a single animal employed in agriculture as a beast of
burden, or for riding.
The burial places of the blacks of Angola are almost everywhere
alike. A square place is raised about a foot from the ground, and the
earth enclosed by short stakes or flat pieces of rock, and on this
raised space broken bottles and crockery of every description are
placed.
The ordinary burial places, like those mentioned about Ambriz, are
merely mounds of earth or stones, with a stick to mark the grave of a
man, and a basket that of a woman; and sometimes a slab of rock is
stuck upright in the ground to indicate the head of the grave.
Occasionally, in the case of a big “soba,” there are several tiers of
earth raised one above the other, and ornamented with broken glass
and crockery and various figures representing “fetishes,” and I have
also seen a shade of sticks and grass erected over the whole, to
keep it from the rain.
Plate XVI.
Pelopœus spirifex and nest.—Devil of the Road.—Dasylus sp.—
Caterpillars’ nests.—Mantis and nest.—Manis multiscutatum
and Ants’ nests.
To face page 277.
The “Salalé” or “white ant,” as the larva of quite a small black ant
is called, is, from its numbers and the ravages it commits, a very
important insect, and merits some notice. It is most abundant in the
interior, where the soil, from the decomposition of the clay and mica
slate, is more earthy or clayey, as it is not fond of rocky, stony, or
sandy ground unless it is very ferruginous. Their nests are
sometimes large, pointed masses of earth three and four feet high,
and as many in diameter at the base, internally tunnelled in every
direction, and swarming with ants, eggs, and larvæ; but the usual
nests are about a foot or eighteen inches high, like a gigantic
mushroom, with from one to six round curved heads placed one on
top of the other (Plate XVI.). These nests are very hard, and the
exceedingly fine earth or clay of which they are made must be mixed
with some gummy secretion, by means of which it becomes so hard
on drying.
My cook at Cambambe was very clever at making small dome-
shaped ovens from old ants’ nests, which he ground fine and mixed
to a thick paste or mortar. When the oven was dry (nothing else
being used in building it but this mortar), he lit a fire in it, and it burnt
to almost the hardness of stone, and without a crack or flaw in it; it
was then ready for use, and lasted a long time. These ovens were
big enough to bake three small loaves of bread at a time.
These nests are sometimes so numerous, particularly in the
grassy plains of the interior, as to render walking difficult in many
places, and, when the grass has been burnt off, they give a very
peculiar appearance to the surface, looking something like a field of
brown cauliflowers. They are, like the larger ones, perforated with
galleries in every direction, and also full of ants and larvæ. It is
curious that considering the existence of the countless millions of
these ants over large areas of country, no bird, and with the
exception of the rare Manis multiscutata, no animal, should be found
to feed on them. This animal is something like an armadillo, with a
long tail, and covered with large, hard, long scales (Plate XVI.).
Specimens are sold at Loanda and elsewhere, and used as
“fetishes” by the natives. A species of the “ant-bear,” apparently the
same as that found at the Cape, is not uncommon in Benguella, but I
have seen its burrows in situations near the sea, in salt, dusty plains,
&c., where very little or no “Salalé” is found, and from examination of
the dung, I found that its food must consist principally of small lizards
and larvæ of insects, and beetles, especially the Psammodes
oblonga, Dej., so extremely abundant in its haunts.
The natives of Benguella say there are two kinds, one very much
larger than the other. I once tasted a roasted leg of the ant-bear,
called “Jimbo” by the natives, and its flavour was very much like
pork.
It is a well-known fact that the white ant is most destructive to
timber and woodwork of every description, as well as to all clothes
and fabrics. Nothing comes amiss to its insatiable jaws, with the
exception of metal and some very few woods. Goods, provisions,
&c., must be kept on tables or frames built on wooden legs, as if
placed on the ground they would quickly be destroyed; but even then
care must be taken to examine the legs or supports of the frames
every day, as they will run up these in search of the good things on
the top. The white ant is about a quarter of an inch long, and its body
is very soft and white, but with a black head provided with most
powerful jaws for so small a creature.
It never ventures into the light, and when it leaves the shelter of
the ground always protects itself by building a flattened tube of earth
or sand as it goes along; it will carry this tube up a wall to reach a
window-sill or other woodwork, or right up to the roof timbers. Any
object left for a little time on the ground, particularly in a closed or
dark store, is quickly covered over with earth, and then completely
eaten away. I have known a pair of shoes thus covered in one night,
and the thread, being the softest part, devoured, so that the leathers
came apart at the seams when they were lifted.
I once left a trunk full of clothes at Loanda whilst I was away for
about a month on an excursion inland. When I returned the trunk
seemed all right, but on opening it I found that a black cloth coat I
had laid at the top was at the bottom, and under it about a couple of
handfuls of dust was all that remained of my boxfull of clothes.
Window or door frames I have seen completely eaten away from
the walls, leaving only a thin covering, often not thicker than a sheet
of brown paper, or little more than the thickness of the paint.
Whilst lying awake one night, I noticed a peculiar thrumming noise
made by the white ant when manufacturing a tube up the wall near
my bedside. In the morning I carefully peeled off the top of the tube
with a penknife, just sufficiently to observe the motions of the little
masons within, and I saw a string of larvæ coming up loaded with
little pellets of clay, which they delivered to others at the top, who
simultaneously, and at intervals of four or five seconds, patted them
down, thus producing the noise I had heard. This noise can be very
plainly heard if the larvæ are working on the “loandos” or mats with
which the huts or stick-houses are covered.
Towards the end of the rainy season the white ant attains its
perfect form, and on a still, warm evening, generally after a shower
of rain, a wonderful sight presents itself when the perfect winged
insects issue forth in countless myriads from the ground. This is
everywhere full of little holes, about the size of a goose-quill, from
which the ants are forcing their way out, not singly, but in a solid
compact body or stream. They instantly take wing and rise upwards
for about six to twelve feet, when the breeze wafts them about in
every direction. The air becomes so full of these ants, that a mist
seems to hang over the ground, and I have seen the whole of the
bottom of the valley at Bembe completely enshrouded by them.
Great is the feast of birds and animals at this time. Birds of all kinds
are attracted by the sight and collect in numbers, flying low, and
gorging themselves with them. I have shot hawks and eagles with
their crops full to their beaks. Poultry eat them till they go about with
their beaks open, unable to find room for any more. Several tame
monkeys I had at Bembe used to sit on the ground, and, taking
pinches of the ants as they issued from their holes, bite off the
succulent bodies and throw away the wings.
On our last journey to Bembe my wife was very much amused to
see two little children come out of a hut, each with a slice of
“quiquanga,” and, sitting down on the ground close by an ant-hole,
proceed to take pinches of the ants (exactly as I have described the
monkeys as doing), and eat them as a relish to their “quiquanga.”
After rising in the air for a very little while, the ants quickly fall, lose
their wings, and disappear in the ground, leaving it covered with the
pretty, delicate, transparent wings. These lie so thickly that a handful
can easily be collected together. This will give some idea of the
number of these destructive pests, which Nature seems to provide
with wings simply to enable them to spread about and form new
colonies. It is very fortunate that they do not attack live plants or
roots. These soft, delicate little mites doubtless play an important
part in Nature’s most wonderful plan for the balance of life by quickly
destroying all dead timber and other vegetable matter that the quick
growing and ever luxuriant vegetation would otherwise soon
completely cover, thereby choking up the surface of the country.
These ants do not wait for the fall of a dead tree, or even a branch,
for they will find the latter out, and carrying their earthen tube up the
tree quickly consume the rotten limb. I do not know how intelligence
of a likely morsel is conveyed to the larvæ underground, but it is
most likely carried by the ants. They will construct four or five feet of
tube up a wall in one night, straight to a coat or any other object that
may be hanging up; they will also come through a wall, in which they
have bored, exactly behind anything placed against it that may be
likely food for their jaws.
There are many other species of ants in Angola; one very large
black kind migrates in columns of perhaps eight to ten abreast, and
as much as ten or twelve yards in length; they walk very fast, and do
not deviate from their intended path unless compelled to do so by an
impassable obstacle.
On touching one of these columns with a stick, a curious fizzing
noise is produced, which is communicated to the whole body, and
they instantly open out in all directions in search of the supposed
enemy; after a great deal of running backwards and forwards with
their powerful hooked mandibles open and upraised, they again
collect and fall into a column and proceed on their way.
I remember a laughable incident that happened at a small town on
the road to Bembe, where I once put up for the night. Some of my
carriers had gone to sleep in a hut, and towards morning I was
awakened by screams and shouts, and saw a number of these
blacks coming pell-mell out of it, dancing, jumping, and running
about like mad. All the town was alarmed, and the natives came
running out of their huts to ascertain what was the matter. I had
hardly got on my feet when the cries were mixed with peals of
laughter, they having quickly found out the cause of the terrific
uproar.
It was nothing else than a column of these ants that had passed
through the hut and had instantly fastened on the bodies of the
sleeping blacks with which it was filled. They fasten their great jaws
into the skin so tightly, that their bodies can be pulled off their heads
without relaxing their hold. The mandibles must discharge a
poisonous fluid into the wound, as their bite feels exactly like a sharp
puncture from a red-hot needle, and they always draw blood.
I once unconsciously put my foot upon a column, but luckily only
three or four fastened on my ankle and leg, and I shall never forget
the sudden and sharp hot bite of the wretches.
There is another kind very abundant on bushes and trees, of a
semi-transparent watery-red colour, with long legs; their bite is also
very sharp. They build nests by attaching the leaves together with
fine white web; these nests are from the size of an apple to that of a
hat.
Their food must be principally the fruit and seeds of the plants they
are usually found on. Some seeds, particularly those of the india-
rubber creeper, I had the greatest difficulty in obtaining ripe, from
these ants eating them up whilst green.
A minute red ant, like that which infests our kitchens and houses,
is extremely abundant, and is very difficult to keep out of sugar and
other provisions; the best way is to place the legs of the table in
saucers of vinegar and water, or have safes suspended by a rope,
which must be tarred, or they will find their way down. If anything on
which they are swarming is placed in the sun, they immediately
vanish. A small piece of camphor, tied up in a bit of rag and placed in
a sugar-basin or safe, will effectually keep them out, without
flavouring the sugar, &c., in the least.
The best and cheapest preventive against the white ant is ordinary
petroleum; they will not come near a place where the least trace of
its smell exists.
Of other insects the most abundant and worthy of note, besides
the mosquitoes already described, are the many species of wasps.
One of these, brightly barred with yellow and having a comical habit
of dropping down its long legs in a bunch straight under its body as it
flies, is the Pelopœus spirifex (Plate XVI.)—(called “marimbondo” by
the natives)—and is one of the large family found in the tropics and
called “mud-daubers” from their habit of making clay or mud nests in
which they store up spiders and caterpillars as provision for the
grubs or larvæ. It is a very singular fact that of the fifty or sixty
species known to entomologists, all are males, the females not
having yet been discovered. It is supposed that the latter are
parasites on other insects, or perhaps in ants’ nests, &c. I have
opened many hundreds of the clay cells and invariably found a grub
or perfect male insect, or the empty chrysalis of one; and I further
ascertained that the male insect does not bring the female in its legs
or mouth to lay the egg in the cell, nor does he bring the egg, but the
young, hatched grub. I watched one nest being built, and when it
was ready, I saw the insect fly away and return and go into it, and on
examination I found that it had deposited the small grub at the
bottom. In its next journeys it brought spiders till the cell was full of
them, when it procured some clay and quickly plastered over the
aperture. To procure the spiders it first stabs them with its dreadful
sting, and then picks them up and flies away with them to its nest.
Whilst at Bembe, I fortunately witnessed a fight between a large
specimen of these wasps and a powerful spider which had built its
fine web on my office wall. The spider nearly had the wasp
enveloped in its web several times, and by means of its long legs
prevented the wasp from reaching its body with its sting, but at last,
after a few minutes hard fighting, the wasp managed to stab the
spider right in the abdomen, when it instantly curled up its legs and
dropped like dead to the ground. The wasp pounced down on it, but I
interfered, and picking up the spider placed it under a tumbler to
ascertain how long it would live, as I had noticed that the spiders
stored in the nests were always alive, although unable to crawl away
when taken out. It lived for a week, and, although moving its legs
when touched, had no power of locomotion, showing that the poison
of the wasp has a strong paralysing effect. I have counted as many
as twenty spiders in a single cell, and there are seldom less than
three cells together, and sometimes as many as eight or ten.
These wasps are fond of building their nests in the houses, on
curtains, behind picture-frames, books, or furniture, and I once found
the inside of a harmonium full of them. Each cell is about the size of
a thimble; they are very smoothly and prettily made, and a wasp will
build one in a day easily. I never found anything else in these cells
but spiders and caterpillars.
It is satisfactory to know that these savage destroyers of spiders
have in their turn enemies from which they have no escape. These
are large, long-bodied, brown flies (Dasylus sp. and Dasypogon sp.)
(Plate XVI.), with long legs and a very quiet inoffensive look and
manner of flying. They settle on the backs of the different species of
wasps, their long legs enabling them to keep at such a distance that
the wasp cannot reach them with its sting, then insert a long sharp
proboscis into the wasp’s back and suck its body dry, when they fly
off in search of another. Other beautiful flies of splendent metallic
colouring (Stilbum sp.) also prey on the wasps and mud-daubers.
These flies again are an easy prey to the numerous insectivorous
birds, and thus we get a series of links of the complicated chain of
the apparently somewhat cruel law of Nature, by means of which the
due proportion of animal life would appear to be principally adjusted,
and an undue preponderance of one kind over another prevented.
On the stems of the high grass may very often be seen little round
nests about the size of a hen’s egg, having the appearance of rough
glazed paper, and made by the different species of Mantis (Plate
XVI.). These nests are applied by the black women to an odd use;
they rub the soles of their children’s feet with them in the belief that it
will make them good walkers when they grow up, and I have often
seen the little brats struggling and yelling in their mothers’ laps whilst
being thus tickled.
A large species of wasp (Synagris cornuta) is called the “devil of
the road” by the natives, from the alleged poisonous character of its
bite and sting. It is a ferocious-looking creature with very large and
powerful mandibles (Plate XVI.). It is an inch and a half long, and is
said to have a habit of settling on the paths: hence its name, and the
natives then always give it a wide berth.
The sting of this class of insect is poisonous. One very small
species once stung me in the back of the neck, and it was greatly
swollen, for several hours; and I have seen a black who had been
stung in the ear by a moderate sized one, with not only his ear but
the side of his face very much swollen for a couple of days.
Centipedes are very abundant, but their bite is not dangerous. I
was bitten by one in the shoulder whilst asleep, and on awaking, and
putting my hand instinctively to the place, I was bitten a second time
in the wrist, and, although it was a large specimen, beyond the sharp
puncture and considerable irritation near the spots, no other ill effect
was produced. Whilst I was at Bembe a Portuguese officer was
bitten between the fingers, and his hand and arm as far as the
shoulder were swollen slightly for two or three days, but without
much pain.
Many of the caterpillars are very gorgeously coloured and
fancifully ornamented with tufts of hair, but generally the moths and
butterflies are of a more dull and sombre colouring than might be
expected from the tropical latitude of Angola. Insect life as a rule is
scarce, with the exception of ants and mosquitoes, and not only very
local in its occurrence but also confined to a short space of time.
Hardly an insect of any kind is to be seen in the “cacimbo,” and in
the hot season the different species of butterflies only appear for a
very few weeks, and sometimes only days. Beetles are remarkably
scarce at any time. The finest butterflies are, of course, found in the
forest region of the first and second elevation, and almost exclusively
in the places most deeply shaded, where they flit about near the
ground between the trees. The sunny open places full of flowering
plants are not so much frequented by butterflies as might be
expected, but the great abundance of insectivorous birds may
possibly supply an explanation of this circumstance.
The following interesting note on the butterflies of Angola has
been kindly written by my friend, Mr. W. C. Hewitson, so well known
from his magnificent collection, and his beautiful work on ‘Exotic
Butterflies’:—
“Until very recently we knew nothing of the butterflies of Angola,
and very little of those of Africa north of the Cape of Good Hope,
except what we could learn from the plates of Drury. The great
genus Romaleosoma, so peculiar to that country, and remarkable for
its rich colour, rivalling even Agrias of America, was only represented
in the British Museum. Now we have them in abundance, and
several species are plentiful in Angola.
“We have had large collections from that country during the last
two years from Mr. Rogers, a collector sent out by me, and from Mr.
Monteiro, who, with the assistance of his wife, caught and brought
home a fine collection of Lepidoptera.
“With the first collections of Mr. Rogers, made on the banks of the
River Quanza, I was greatly disappointed. With a very few
exceptions they contained those butterflies only which we had
previously received in abundance from the Cape and from Natal. A
collection from the mountainous district of Casengo was much more
promising, and supplied us, together with some new species, with
several varieties little known before, amongst them Charaxes
Anticlea and Harma Westermanni.
“Mr. Monteiro’s collection, though also deficient in new species,
contained several of great value, and only recently discovered—
Godartia Trajanus, so remarkable for its nearly circular wings, which
had been previously taken by Mr. Crossley on the Cameroons; the
rare Charaxes Lysianassa, figured by Professor Westwood in his
‘Thesaurus;’ Charaxes Bohemani, which we had previously received
from the Zambesi; the very beautiful Crenis Benguella, described by
Mr. Chapman; and a number of varieties of Acræa Euryta, and the
Diademas, which so closely resemble them.
“The most remarkable new species in the collection was the large
Euryphene Plistonax, since figured in the ‘Exotic Butterflies.’
“It is interesting to learn that the same species of butterflies are in
Africa spread over a very large extent of country. The distance from
the Cape of Good Hope to Angola is 1400 miles. Several new
species which I have had from the West Coast have been received
by Mr. Ward from Zanzibar, a distance of 36 degrees. Two new
species of Papilio, remarkable because unlike anything previously
seen from Africa, which I had received from Bonny, were very soon
afterwards sent to Mr. Ward from Zanzibar.”
Mr. H. Druce has published a list of the butterflies we collected in
the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1875.
Several caterpillars form very curious nests or houses to protect
their bodies. One is made of bits of twig about an inch and a half
long, attached round a strong cocoon or web (Plate XVI.); the head
and front legs alone are protruded at will, which enables the insect to
walk about on the under side of the leaves on which it feeds. Another
is built up on the same plan, but the bits of twig are short and laid
across the length of the cocoon, and the whole enveloped in a strong
white web (Plate XVI.).
The coast of Angola has never to my knowledge been dredged for
shells. The surf grinds and destroys any that may be thrown up on
the beach, but as this is almost everywhere sandy and very slightly
shelving from the land, dredging would probably prove its fauna to
be rich. Land and fresh-water shells are rare.
I have seen land tortoises at Benguella and Musserra only, and
they appear to be confined to the gneiss and granite rocks of those
two places. They are only found in the hot season, and according to
the natives they hybernate in holes in the rock during the “cacimbo.”
The natives eat them, so that it is not easy to obtain live specimens.
Two that I brought home from Musserra lived for some time at the
gardens of the Zoological Society, and were described by Dr. Selater
as the Cinixys erosa and the Cinixys belliana (Proc. Zool. Soc.
1871).
Porcupines are not uncommon, and I often found their quills lying
on the ground. The natives are fond of the flesh of this pretty animal;
they are also fond of sticking the quills in the wool of their heads as
an ornament, but they have no acquaintance with the story of their
being able to project their quills when angry, or as a means of
defence.
Fruits are by no means so abundant in Angola as they might be. It
is only within the last few years that the Portuguese have followed
the good example of the old missionaries in planting fruit-trees. Most
of the European fruit-trees grow remarkably well. Oranges are of
delicious quality. Mulberries bear most abundantly, but only a very
few trees are to be seen. Limes grow wild in many places. Mangoes
(Mangifera Indica) grow splendidly, but are scarce everywhere
except about the Bengo country; there are none on the Quanza, the
natives having a prejudice against planting the tree, as they believe it
would be unlucky. Sweet and sour Sop (Anona sp.) and Papaw
(Carica Papaya) are very common. The Guava (Psidium Guaiava)
grows wild in abundance in many places, and the Araçá, another
species (P. Araçá) is also cultivated. The Jambo (Jambosa vulgaris)
is found growing wild, and, although rather insipid, it has a delicious
scent of attar of roses. The “Munguengue” is the name of a tree (a
species of Spondiaceæ) bearing bunches of yellow, plum-like fruit of
a very delicious flavour and scent, and its pulp mixed with water and
sugar makes one of the nicest drinks I have tasted. It is a very
handsome tree with leaves of a bright, spring green, of which goats,
sheep, and other animals are exceedingly fond. The wood is soft and
useless for carpentry, but the branches are much used for fences
round huts and enclosures, as any piece stuck in the ground quickly
takes root, and soon grows into a fine shady tree. The natives on the
coast eat the fruit of the Chrysobolamus Icaca, var., which they call
“Jingimo”; it is like a round, black-purple plum, tasteless and
astringent. It is a common sea-side plant, covering large stretches of
coast, and growing from large trailing masses a few inches high, to
small bushy trees. It has a round, bright, shiny, green leaf.
Pineapples are generally very fine, and might be grown to any
extent. Grapes and figs are sparingly grown, but bear well.
The only plants employed by the natives as scents are the seeds
of the Hibiscus Abelmoschus, smelling strongly of musk, and a very
sweet-smelling wood. These they keep in their boxes with their
cloths, &c., and also rub them over the head and body. The natives
from the interior also rub themselves over with a stinking nut
something like an acorn, with a powerful smell like rotten onions.
These are brought to the coast for sale to the natives of Ambriz. On
my asking one of them how he could bear to rub his body with such
a bad-smelling substance, he answered by another question, “Do not
you whites use Eau-de-Cologne?”
The blacks also use the skin of the musk or civet-cat, which is very
common in the interior, to scent their cloths and bodies. The smell of
this animal is so powerful that the clothes of a person passing
through grass where one has previously been, acquire such a strong
smell of musk as to retain it perceptibly for days.
Angola is poor in dyes, and only a few are employed by the
blacks. For red they use the fresh pulp enveloping the seeds of the
“annatto” (Bixa Orellana); for yellow they employ yellow ginger. The
Quissamas and some of the natives on the River Quanza dye their
cloths of a bluish-black with the black mud of the river, mixed with
the infusion of a plant that I believe to be a species of indigo. Cloths
are also made black by rubbing them with charred ground-nuts
reduced to a fine paste, and, as already mentioned, a fine red for
painting their faces, bodies, and houses, is obtained by rubbing
tacula-wood to a pulp with water on a rough stone, and drying the
resulting paste.
Large land-lizards are rare except at Benguella, where they
abound. They are brown, and from two to three feet long. I tried very
often to preserve them alive, but without success, although I gave
them every kind of food I could think of. A very long yellow-spotted
water-lizard (Monitor Niloticus), with a handsome bead-like pattern
on its back and legs, and as much as six or eight feet long, is
common in the rivers, and is said to be very destructive to poultry.
The natives state that this lizard feeds upon the eggs and young of
the alligator.
Snakes are nowhere very abundant—I may say singularly scarce;
and in the years that I have travelled in Angola I have not only never
trodden on or been attacked by one, but have only seen them a very
few times. The most common is the boa-constrictor, but only in the
marshy places near rivers. In these the River Jack (Clotho
nasicornis) is also found; one of these which had been caught in a
fish-basket set to catch “Bagre” in the River Luqueia, was brought
alive to me at Bembe. It was a very fine one and very brilliantly
marked. I kept it in a large box covered with wire-gauze. It lived for
several months, and died a natural death shortly after shedding its
skin. It is called “Uta-maza” (water-snake) by the natives, and is held
in the greatest fear by them, its bite being said to be deadly, and no
antidote or cure for it known. I can well believe this from witnessing
the effect of its bite on the live rats with which I fed it.
I was obliged to feed it on live rats, as it refused to eat any kind of
animal or bird that it had not itself killed. If I placed a dead rat in its
cage with the live one, I would find in the morning it had swallowed
the one it had killed, but had left the dead one. On placing a rat in
the cage, the snake, which was generally coiled up in a corner,
would lift up its head and hiss slightly at the rat, which seemed
conscious of its danger, and would run about seeking for some
means of escape. The snake would continue to watch it with uplifted
head till it passed close enough, when it would suddenly strike it a
blow with incredible rapidity, the action being so instantaneous that I
could never see how the fangs were projected forwards, or, in fact,
how the blow was delivered. The poor rat would only give a small
squeak on receiving the blow, run a few paces, then stagger, fall on
its side, stretch itself out, and die after a few feeble convulsions.
This snake would never make more than one dart at its prey, and
would only swallow it at night; and although I watched it for hours in
perfect quiet, and with a shaded light, I never succeeded in seeing it
eat.
There is a dangerous snake (Naja heje) not uncommon about
Benguella. It is small in size, but remarkable from its habit of spitting
to a considerable distance, and its saliva is said to blind a person if it
touches the eyes. It is called “Cuspideira” by the Portuguese. One of
these snakes was captured by the natives and brought to the mine at
Cuio, where it was placed in a cage. An English miner was standing
over the cage, which was on the ground, teasing the snake with a
stick; when it spat up in his face, and he felt some of the liquid enter
one of his eyes. He immediately had it washed out with water, but
the eye was very much irritated for several days after. I was absent
at the time, and the snake was unfortunately destroyed, but I have
no reason for doubting the miner’s statement or that of his
companions, corroborated as it is by that of the natives and
Portuguese. A harmless snake is found under floorings of houses
and stores, and is very useful in ridding them of rats and mice.
One of these snakes once gave me considerable trouble at
Loanda. My bedroom was on the ground-floor under an office, and
outside my door was the staircase leading to it. Every morning, just a
little before daybreak, I used to be awakened by hearing a loud crack
on the table as if made by a blow from a thick whip. This excited my
curiosity greatly, as I could find no possible explanation for the noise.
At last I determined to be on the watch. I had lucifers and a candle
ready, and was luckily awake when I heard the noise repeated on my
table. I instantly struck a light, and saw a snake about six feet long
glide off the table on to the ground and quickly disappear in a hole in
a corner of the room. I then ascertained that Mr. Snake went up the
staircase every night to the office above, where he hunted about for
rats, and towards morning returned through a hole in the flooring
immediately above my table, dropping a height of about ten feet, and
producing the whip-like sound that had so perplexed me for many
nights. A bung in the hole in the floor above stopped his return that
way for the future, but I could not help being thankful that my bed
had not been placed where the table stood, for, notwithstanding that
I believed it was simply a harmless and inoffensive ratcatcher, still
six feet of cold snake wriggling over my face and body might not
have been quite pleasant in the dark.
We collected a number of sphynx-moths, both at Ambriz and on
the road to Bembe. At Ambriz they always came to the flowers of the
shrubby jasmine I have described as being so abundant near the
coast (Corrissa sp.) Farther inland we saw them flitting about only on
the white flowers of a herbaceous plant (Gynandropsis pentaphylla,
D.C.), a very common weed, particularly around the towns and in
open, cleared spaces.
A large scarabæus beetle (which my friend, Mr. H. W. Bates, finds
to be a new species, and has named Ateuchus Angolensis) is very
abundant wherever cow-dung is found; and it is amusing to see them
at work, making it up into balls nearly the size of a billiard-ball, an
egg having been deposited in each. Two or three may often be seen
pushing the ball along backwards—the custom of these beetles
everywhere. I once saw a curious episode at Ambriz:—one beetle
was on the top of a ball fussing about as if directing two others that
were pushing it along with all their might; suddenly he came down
and commenced fighting with one of them, and after a hard tussle
(during which they made quite a perceptible hissing noise), beat him
off and took his place.
I discovered at Benguella a very beautiful lemur, named by Mr. A.
D. Bartlett the Galago Monteiri, and described and figured in the
‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ (June 1863). It is of a light,
chinchilla-grey colour, with black nose and ears, and dark brown feet
and toes. This animal can turn back and crumple up its rather large
and long ears at will. Its tail is long, and, like the rest of the body,
very furry. It is very quiet and gentle, nocturnal in its habits, and
sleeps much during the day. The natives use its long, fine fur to
stanch bleeding from cuts or wounds.
CHAPTER XI.
CONCLUSION.
I have now brought to a close my description of a small portion of

the terra incognita, comparatively speaking, of Africa, and it may not
be out of place, in conclusion, to note those results of my long
experience in Angola that bear on the important questions of the
civilization and mental advancement of the negro race, and the
material development of tropical Africa.
I have given the reasons that have convinced me of the
rudimentary quality of the negro intellect, naturally corresponding to
the peculiar insensibility of his organization, the result of the “natural
selection” that, through perhaps thousands of years of struggling
against malaria, has at last resulted in his adaptability to inhabit with
perfect impunity what to the white race is the deadly, unhealthy
climate of a great part of tropical Africa. I have also attempted to
show that the malignity of the climate of the West Coast is, as I
believe, principally due to its low level, and that this unhealthy
character or influence is continued in many places far inland,
although perhaps resulting from other causes.
From the mental constitution of the race, and the impossibility of
ameliorating the climate, I can see no hope of the negro ever
attaining to any considerable degree of civilization, owing to his
incapacity for spontaneously developing to a higher or more perfect
condition, and the impossibility of the white race peopling his country
in sufficient numbers to enforce his civilization; consequently, should
science not discover a means for the successful combating of the
African climate, the negro must ever remain as he has always been,
and as he is at the present day.
The greatest good or improvement we can hope for is, that in the
comparatively healthy parts, as Angola for instance, the more
barbarous customs or habits may be abolished by the more intimate
contact with Europeans; but even this gain or advantage will not be
an unmixed good, as it will be counterbalanced by the creation of an
amount of vice and immorality unknown to the negro in his native or
unsophisticated state.
That this is not an imaginary result, but one inevitably following the
contact of the white race with one of so inferior a type as the negro,
is, for example, notably evidenced at Sierra Leone. The contact of
the Portuguese with the natives of Angola, however, does not appear
to have acted so prejudicially as ours in Sierra Leone, for although
there is not much difference for the better in the morals of the whites
or of the civilized natives, the latter certainly have not the astounding
impudence and cant of the Sierra Leone blacks. It is true that in
Angola the natives have not been muddled by the present style of
missionary work, which I am sorry to say is not only nearly useless,
but must be blamed as the cause of the above very objectionable
characteristics. It does seem a pity that so much money and well-
intentioned zeal should for so many years have been expended on
the negro of British West Africa with an almost negative result.
There is more hope for the development of the material resources
of tropical Africa. The negro is capable of being acted upon to a
certain extent by the desire for something more than the absolute
necessaries of life, to satisfy which he is willing to work a little. The
country is so extensive, and the soil and natural productions so rich,
that a very little exertion on the part of the population suffices to
bring forth a considerable amount of produce; but another and more
industrious race will have to take the place of the negro in Africa if its
riches and capabilities are to be fully developed.
The introduction of Coolies and Chinese into tropical Africa would,
in my opinion, be the most important and valuable step that could be
devised. The starving millions of China and other parts of the East
would find in Africa a congenial climate, and a bountiful reward for
their industry, with the greatest benefit to themselves and the rest of
mankind. The useless negroes would then sooner follow their
apparent fate of future extinction, or become merged into a more
highly organized and industrious race.

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Statistical mechanics : entropy, order

parameters, and complexity 2nd Edition

Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Molecular Simulation

An Introduction to Statistical Mechanics and

Statistical Mechanics: Fourth Edition R.K. Pathria

Foundations of Statistical Mechanics Roman Frigg

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering 2nd Edition P

Statics and Mechanics of Materials 2nd Edition

High-Entropy Alloys(Second Edition) B.S. Murty

Entropy of Complex Processes and Systems Eugene Barsky

ownership of the copyright. Hard-copy printing, in particular, is subject to

CLARENDON PRESS . OXFORD

The second edition of Statistical Mechanics: Entropy, Order Parameters,

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contributed some of the most creative and insightful exercises presented

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The purview of science grows rapidly with time. It is the responsibility

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linear response and correlations (including a classical derivation of the

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Preface to the second edition v

List of figures xxi

1 What is statistical mechanics? 1

2 Random walks and emergent properties 23

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2.5 Generating random walks 36

3 Temperature and equilibrium 49

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4 Phase-space dynamics and ergodicity 79

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5.24 Nucleosynthesis and the arrow of time 130

6 Free energies 139

7 Quantum statistical mechanics 179

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7.6.2 Black-body radiation 191

8 Calculation and computation 217

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8.8 Wolff 231

9 Order parameters, broken symmetry, and topology 253

10 Correlations, response, and dissipation 287

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10.4 Onsager’s regression hypothesis and time correlations 292

11 Abrupt phase transitions 321

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11.13 Linear stability of a growing interface 342

12 Continuous phase transitions 349

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12.33 Pandemic 402

Fourier methods 405

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1.1 Random walks 2

1.6 Small world network 11

:0/--2-;& *924(-.+,& '()#(%&

2.1 Drunkard’s walk 25

2.3 S&P 500, normalized 27 1.5

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

2.4 Continuum limit for random walks 28

2.5 Conserved current 29 J(x) ρ(x ) ∆x J(x + ∆x)

2.6 Many random walks 32 ATP ADP, P

2.7 Motor protein 34 fext Motor

2.9 Laser tweezer experiment 35

2.10 Emergent rotational symmetry 36 0.4

2.11 Initial profile of density 37 -0.4