electronics
Article
A Novel DOA Estimation Algorithm Based on Robust Mixed
Fractional Lower-Order Correntropy in Impulsive Noise
Xiaoyu Lan 1 , Jingyi Hu 1 , Yudi Zhang 2, *, Shuang Ma 1
Citation: Lan, X.; Hu, J.; Zhang, Y.;
Ma, S.; Tian, Y. A Novel DOA
Estimation Algorithm Based on
Robust Mixed Fractional Lower-Order
Correntropy in Impulsive Noise.
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics13122386
Academic Editor: Hirokazu
Kobayashi
Received: 10 May 2024
Revised: 7 June 2024
Accepted: 9 June 2024
Published: 18 June 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13122386
and Ye Tian 1
1 College of Electronic Information Engineering, Shenyang Aerospace University, Shenyang 110000, China;
lanxiaoyu1015@sau.edu.cn (X.L.); hujingyi@stu.sau.edu.cn (J.H.); mashuang2@stu.sau.edu.cn (S.M.);
tianye171@mails.ucas.ac.cn (Y.T.)
2 Road Traffic Safety Research Center of the Ministry of Public Security, Beijing 100062, China
* Correspondence: zyd950720@163.com; Tel.: +86-188-4016-8322
Abstract: The estimation of direction of arrival (DOA) is paramount in the realm of practical array
signal processing systems. Nevertheless, traditional estimation methods often rely heavily on the
Gaussian noise assumption, rendering them ineffective in achieving high-precision estimates in
environments plagued by strong impulsive noise. To address this challenge, this paper introduces a
novel DOA estimation algorithm that leverages mixed fractional lower-order correntropy (MFLOCR)
in the context of Alpha-stable distributed impulsive noise. Correntropy is used as a measure of the
similarity of the signals, using a Gaussian function to smooth extreme values and provide greater
robustness against impulsive noise. By utilizing diverse kernel lengths to jointly regulate the kernel
function, the concept of correntropy is expanded and implemented in the fractional lower-order
moment (FLOM) algorithm for received signals. Subsequently, the MFLOCR is derived by adjusting
the resulting form of correntropy. Finally, an enhanced DOA estimation algorithm is proposed that
combines the MFLOCR operator with the MUSIC algorithm, specifically tailored for impulsive noise
environments. Furthermore, a proof of boundedness is provided to validate the effectiveness of the
proposed approach in such noisy conditions. Simulation experiments confirmed that the proposed
method outperforms existing DOA estimation methods in the context of intense impulsive noise, a
low generalized signal-to-noise ratio (GSNR), and a smaller number of snapshots.
Keywords: array signal processing; direction of arrival estimation; impulsive noise; fractional
low-order moments; correntropy
1. Introduction
Direction of arrival (DOA) estimation is a critical area in array signal processing and
has wide applications in sonar, 5G communication, radar, and smart antennas [1–3]. How-
ever, most studies on DOA estimation have been performed assuming white Gaussian
conditions of ideal additive noise. As a result, many algorithms have been developed, in-
cluding super-resolution DOA estimation algorithms such as Multiple Signal Classification
(MUSIC) [4–6] and Signal Parameter Estimation Using Rotational Invariance Techniques
(ESPRIT) [7–9]. In practical environments, many signals and noises do not exactly follow
Gaussian distributions. For example, natural lightning, switch transients in car ignitions,
and accidental impacts on telephone lines can induce noise with strong impulsive char-
acteristics [10–12]. The probability density functions (PDFs) of these impulsive noises
decay more slowly than Gaussian distributions, resulting in thicker tails. The presence of
impulsive noise can significantly degrade, or even nullify, the performances of algorithms
designed under ideal noise conditions [13].
Common models used to describe impulsive noise include the Alpha-stable distribu-
tion [14], the mixed Gaussian distribution [15,16], and the Middleton Class A model [17,18].
Typically, impulsive noise has infinite variance, resulting in the absence of its second- or
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 2 of 13

higher-order moments, but it does exhibit finite fractional lower-order statistics (FLOS).
Therefore, several FLOS-based algorithms have been developed, such as fractional low-
order moments (FLOM) [19,20], robust covariance-based (ROC) algorithms [21], and phase-
controlled fractional low-order moments (PFLOM) [22]. However, when the parameters of
the impulse noise are unknown, it is difficult to select the optimal settings to suppress the
noise. This uncertainty limits the effectiveness of FLOS-based algorithms [23].
In recent years, correntropy has gained significant attention in robust signal process-
ing and machine learning [24–26]. A higher-order statistic quantifies the two random
process time structures and statistical distribution. Compared to the conventional corre-
lation function, correntropy can extract more information, offering excellent impulsive
noise suppression without requiring prior knowledge of the noise [27,28]. Zhang pro-
posed the CRCO-MUSIC algorithm [29], which combines the MUSIC algorithm with
correntropy-based correlation (CRCO). Although CRCO-MUSIC has improved the denois-
ing performance and signal application, its accuracy still needs to be improved in cases
where the signal snapshots are small and the noise is highly impulsive. The authors of [30]
proposed a method using cyclic correntropy (CC) in an impulsive noise environment. The
algorithm analyzes cyclic signal processing in a steady state, which has good robustness to
impulsive noise.
In [31], Chen devised a correntropy-based covariance matrix (CBCM) with the MUSIC
technique for source localization amidst impulsive noise. Although this method notably
enhances accuracy and robustness, its real-time applicability may be hampered by consid-
erable computational demands. In [32], Dai presented an enhanced Toeplitz approximation
method incorporating a correntropy-based generalized covariance (CEGC) operator. While
boasting high resolution and sidestepping array aperture loss, the method might struggle
with substantial computational complexity in expansive scenarios. A bi-iterative complex
fixed-point algorithm (BI-CFPA) was presented by Wang in [33] to solve the non-convex
optimization issue in signal subspace estimations. This method exhibits superior efficacy
across various impulsive noise conditions, especially in intense impulsive noise. Neverthe-
less, its optimization process complexity could be a limiting factor.
In [34], a new fractional lower-order correlation (FLOCR) algorithm was proposed,
which utilizes correlation and FLOM. The algorithm outperforms other algorithms in terms
of the root mean square error in highly impulsive noise environments. In [35], the authors
introduced the concept of mixed correntropy to enhance the suppression of impulsive
noise by mixing two Gaussian functions as kernel functions. However, when the impulsive
noise intensity is high, the performance of the above DOA algorithm deteriorates due to
the interference of outliers. In [36], Cai introduced an adaptive weight factor based on
correntropy to suppress impulsive noise and constructed a multilayer deep neural network
(DNN) framework with a real-numbered vectorized pseudo-covariance matrix as input.
Despite its remarkable accuracy and resilience, this DNN-based approach can require
extensive training data and computational resources.
Contributions—The invention of a novel method for DOA estimation based on mixed
fractional lower-order correntropy (MFLOCR) to enhance DOA estimation in environments
with impulsive noise is the primary innovation of this study. The following are the primary
contributions of this study:
1. Development of MFLOCR: This paper proposes a new correntropy called MFLOCR,
which extends the concept of correntropy using different kernel lengths to jointly
regulate the kernel function. The proposed method is based on the theory of FLOS and
uses mixed correntropy with an exponential kernel instead of the traditional covari-
ance matrix, which provides greater robustness against impulsive noise and enhances
the effectiveness of the algorithm in environments with Alpha-stable distributed
impulsive noise.
2. MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm: An improved DOA estimation algorithm, MFLOCR-
MUSIC, was developed by combining the MFLOCR operator with the traditional
 Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 3 of 13

MUSIC algorithm. This combination is specifically tailored for improved performance

in impulsive noise environments.
3. Proof of Boundedness: The proof of boundedness serves to verify the efficiency and
stability of the proposed MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm under impulsive noise and
ensures its reliability in real applications.
4. Superior Performance in Simulations: Simulation experiments showed that the pro-
posed MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm outperforms existing DOA estimation methods in
various characteristic indices. It was proven to be highly accurate and robust.
The rest of this paper is structured as follows. In Section 1, we formulate the problem,
introduce signal and impulse noise models, and review existing methods based on FLOS.
In Section 2, we provide an overview of correntropy and propose a new operator called
MFLOCR for two independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) SαS random variables.
This operator can be used to create subspace techniques when there are noise and α-stable
distributed signals present. In Section 3, we present the simulation results to validate the
proposed algorithm. Finally, we present conclusions in Section 4.

2. Problem Formulation
2.1. Signal Model of DOA Estimation
Taking into account the impulsive noise and half-wavelength spaced uniform linear
array (ULA) of M sensors that are impinged upon by K far-field narrowband sources,
the fundamental observation of the mth array element at the sampling time t may be
represented as follows, using the first antenna as the reference, as seen in Figure 1:

K
xm (t) = ∑ si (t)e j2π sin θi (m−1)d/λ , m = 1, 2, . . . , M (1)
i =1

where si (t) and θi are the ith incident signal and the direction of arrival, respectively. λ is
the signal wavelength, and the distance d is between two sensors, where d ≤ λ/2, and nm (t)
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
is the measurement noise in the mth array element followed by the symmetric Alpha-stable
(SαS) distribution.

90°

1 2 3 ... M
Figure
Figure 1. The
1. The uniform
uniform line
line array
array model.
model.
T
Hence,Noise
2.2. Impulsive Model of the received signals at time t is x(t) = [x1 (t), . . . , x M (t)] . This
the vector
vector can be expressed as
The impulsive noise has a stronger tail compared to the Gaussian noise, making the
x(t) = A(θ)s(t) + n(t) (2)
probability of outliers higher, which when modeled as an SαS (symmetric Alpha-stable)
[s1 (t), ·as· · , sK (t)]T denotes the signal vector; A = [a(θ1 ), · · · , a(θK )] is the
where s(t)is=defined
distribution
h iT
array steering matrix,  (where
x) = exp{a(θjk) x=− 1,| ·x·|· ,[1e−+j2πd sin θ (m−1)/λ , · · · , e− j2πd sin θk ( M −1)/λ
j  sgn(k x)( x, )]} (3)
is the steering vector of the kth signal source; and n(t) = [n1 (t), · · · n M (t)]T denotes the
impulsive noise vector. tan( / 2)   1
 ( x, ) =  (4)
(2 /  )log | x |  = 1

1 x0

sgn( x) = 0 x = 0 (5)
−1 x  0

 Figure 1. The uniform line array model.

2.2. Impulsive Noise Model

Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 The impulsive noise has a stronger tail compared to the Gaussian noise, making the
4 of 13
probability of outliers higher, which when modeled as an SαS (symmetric Alpha-stable)
distribution is defined as

 ( x) = exp{ j  x −  | x | [1 + j  sgn( x)( x, )]}

2.2. Impulsive Noise Model (3)
The impulsive noise has a stronger tail compared to the Gaussian noise, making the
probability of outliers higher, which when  / 2) asan 1SαS (symmetric Alpha-stable)
tan(modeled
distribution is defined as  ( x, ) =  (4)
(2 /  )log | x |  = 1
ϕ( x ) = exp{ jµx − γ| x |α [1 + jβsgn( x )ω ( x, α)]} (3)
 1 x0
α ̸= 1
= x) = 0
tan(πα/2)
ω ( x, α) sgn(
 x = 0
(2/π ) log| x | α = 1 (5)(4)
−1 x  0
 1 x>0
sgn( x ) = 0 x=0 (5)
where   (0, 2] describes the characteristic  exponent of the impulsive noise intensity.
−1 x < 0
When  = 2 , the distribution reduces to Gaussian. The symmetry parameter   [−1,1]
where αthe
indicates ∈ degree
(0, 2] describes the of
of skewness characteristic
the distribution. Whenofthe
exponent = 0 impulsive noise intensity.
, the distribution is sym-
When α = 2, the distribution reduces to Gaussian. The symmetry parameter β ∈ [−1, 1]
metric and is called the SαS distribution. The scale parameter   ( 0, + ) is similar to the
indicates the degree of skewness of the distribution. When β = 0, the distribution is
variance of a and
symmetric regular distribution.
is called   ( −, + ) The
the SαS distribution. is thescale
positional parameter.
parameter +∞probabil-
γ ∈ (0,The ) is similar
itytodensity
the variance of a regular
functions distribution.
of the SαS distribution (−∞,
µ ∈ for +∞) is characteristic
different the positional exponents
parameter.are The
probability density functions of the SαS distribution for different characteristic
shown in Figure 2. In this study, we simulated the impulsive noise environment using exponents
SαSaredistributions.
shown in Figure 2. In this study, we simulated the impulsive noise environment using
SαS distributions.

Figure 2. The probability density functions for the SαS distribution.

2.3. Correntropy
As a novel statistical measure, correntropy is employed to quantify the spatial struc-
ture and statistical distribution of two random processes. It possesses the ability to extract
richer information and mitigate the impact of outliers resulting from impulsive noise. Con-
sequently, correntropy introduces a novel metric within the sample space. The correntropy
can be expressed as
Vσ ( X, Y ) = E[κσ ( X − Y )] (6)
where E[·] and κσ (·) are the expectation and kernel functions with a width of σ, respectively. In
practice, the prior probabilities are unknown. Therefore, the correntropy
n of o
random variables
can only be estimated from a limited number of observations (xi , yi )iN=1 (i = 1, 2, . . . , N ),
which can be expressed as
1 N
V̂σ ( X, Y ) = ∑ κσ ( xi − yi ) (7)
N i =1
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 5 of 13

where N is the number of observations, and the Gaussian kernel function is the most often
utilized kernel function in correntropy. It is effective in suppressing outliers [37] and can be
written as
ε2
κσ ( X, Y ) = G (ε) = exp(− 2 ) (8)
2σ
A Taylor series expansion of (8) is further described as
+∞
1 (−1)n
Vσ ( X, Y ) = √ ∑
2πσ n=1 2n n!σ2n
E[(ε)2n ] (9)

where ε = X − Y is the error variable. From the above equation, it can be known that the
correntropy contains all the information of the second- and even higher-order moments.
Furthermore, the correntropy can induce a distance measure known as the correntropy-
induced metric (CIM), denoted as

CIM( X, Y ) = sqrt{E[κ (0) − κσ ( X − Y )]} (10)

√
where κ (0) = 1/ 2πσ. The CIM exhibits mixed-norm properties that are entirely con-
trolled by the width of the kernel [38]. In order to estimate the DOA of the source precisely,
the kernel width σ is varied based on the intensity of impulsive noise.

3. The Proposed MFLOCR-MUSIC Algorithm

3.1. FLOM-MUSIC Algorithm
The statistical measures of signals contain abundant information about signal charac-
teristics. In traditional signal processing, second-order or higher-order statistical measures
are often used to extract signal features. However, in an impulsive noise environment,
only statistical measures less than the characteristic exponent α(α ≤ 2) exist for noise
that follows the SαS distribution. This causes no second-order or higher-order statistical
measurements of the received signals to exist, leading to degraded or even invalid DOA
estimation results. In [19], a FLOM-based MUSIC estimation algorithm was proposed for
DOA estimation in impulsive noise environments with an SαS distribution. The FLOM
matrix is written as follows:
h i
RFLOM = E XY < p−1> , 1 < p < α (11)

where X and Y are two random variables that follow the SαS distribution. The operator
(·)< p> is defined as |(·)| p−1 (·)∗ . The (I,j)th element of the FLOM matrix is defined as
h
p −2 ∗
i
RFLOM (i, j) = E xi (t) x j (t) x j (t) , 1 < p < α ≤ 2 (12)

where xi (·) is the ith row of the element; if p = 2, the FLOM matrix turns into a conventional
correlation. With the EVD of RFLOM , we obtain

RFLOM = US Σ S USH + U N Σ N U N
H
(13)

where Σ S and Σ N are the diagonal matrices that have the remaining (M − K) lesser eigen-
values and the K biggest eigenvalues of RFLOM , respectively. US and U N are the matrices
composed of eigenvectors corresponding to Σ S and Σ N .

1
PFLOM−MUSIC = (14)
aH (θ)U N UH
N a(θ)

Then, the K greatest peaks of the spatial spectrum might be found in order to estimate
the DOAs.
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 6 of 13

3.2. MFLOCR-MUSIC Algorithm

In order to further improve the suppression effect of the correntropy on the effect
of the outliers caused by impulsive noise, a new estimator named MFLOCR-MUSIC is
proposed that can be applied in SαS distributions for a wide range of 1 < α < 2.
Mixed correntropy is more effective in capturing the diverse interference scales intro-
duced by impulsive noise, which uses two Gaussian functions with different kernel widths.
The length of the kernel can influence the sensitivity of the system to transient changes in
impulsive noise. A shorter kernel length may be sensitive to transient changes in impulsive
noise, whereas a longer kernel length may assist in identifying long-term trends in the
background signal and therefore facilitate a more effective separation of noise and signal.
The utilization of kernel functions with varying kernel lengths enables a more effective
differentiation of transient alterations induced by impulsive noise.
By adjusting the kernel length with different parameters, an analytical model that is
more insensitive to impulsive noise can be constructed, which further improves the accuracy
of DOA estimation under impulsive noise. This model can be considered a promotion of
the original correlation, which contains more statistical information, defined as

M ( X, Y ) = E[ρ1 Gσ1 (e) + ρ2 Gσ2 (e)] (15)

The mixture factor satisfies conditions ρ1 ≤ ρ2 and ρ1 + ρ2 = 1. If ρ1 = 0, it becomes a

single kernel function with an entropy of either Gσ1 (·) or Gσ2 (·) and σ1 ≤ σ2 is the width
of the kernel. As a more flexible similarity measure, appropriate mixing coefficients ρ can
improve the performance of mixed correntropy. Given that the Gaussian kernel function
performs well in reducing impulsive noise, by substituting (8) into (15), we have

e2 e2
M ( X, Y ) = E[ρ1 exp(− ) + ρ 2 exp (− )] (16)
2σ1 2 2σ2 2

It is seen that, as the kernel length increases, the higher-order moment information
decays faster, resulting in the second-order statistic becoming the primary component.
When n = 1, the correntropy is proportional to E[( X − Y )2n ], which indicates that all
conventional correlation information is contained in the correntropy. In contrast to con-
ventional correntropy, mixed correntropy allows the simultaneous consideration of signal
features at different time scales which improves the performance and stability of the DOA
estimation and reduces the risk of overfitting.
As a result, to effectively mitigate outliers stemming from impulsive noise and enhance
the DOA estimation, a novel estimator named MFLOCR was introduced. This estimator
builds upon the foundation of the FLOM algorithm and is motivated by the concept of
mixed correntropy mentioned above. The matrix can be defined as
" ! ! #
|X − Y∗ | < p −1> |X − Y∗ | ∗ ∗ < p −1>
RMFLOCR = E ρ1 (exp − XY ) + ρ2 exp − Y X (17)
2σ12 2σ22
where xi (·) is the ith row of the element. The (I,j)th element Qi,j of RMFLOCR is denoted as
     
1 N xi (t) − x ∗j (t) x i ( t ) − x ∗ (t)
j
Qi,j = ∑ ρ1 exp−  xi (t) x < p−1> (t) + ρ2 exp−  x ∗j (t) xi∗ < p−1> (t) (18)
j
N i =1 2σ12 2σ22

Based on the proposed algorithm’s exceptional performance, we replace the covariance

matrix in MUSIC with RMFLOCR to estimate the DOAs.

3.3. The Implementation of MFLOCR–MUSIC

In this section, the conventional subspace-based methods are extended from Gaussian-
distributed noise to SαS-distributed noise environments by applying MFLOCR. We propose
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 7 of 13

a new algorithm, MFLOCR-MUSIC, which combines MFLOCR with the subspace decom-
position of the MUSIC algorithm. The algorithm used to estimate DOAs in an environment
with impulsive noise consists of the following main steps:
Step 1. Utilizing (17) and (18), the matrix RMFLOCR with dimensions of M × M is
constructed from the data with the snapshot number N.
Step 2. Execute the eigenvalue decomposition (EVD) of the covariance RMFLOCR to
obtain the M × (M − K) dimensional noise subspace matrix Un :

Un = [ uK +1 , uK +2 , · · · , u M ] (19)

where {uK+1 , uK+2 , · · · , u M } is the eigenvector corresponding to the M − K smaller eigenvalues.

Step 3. Compute the spatial spectrum of the MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm:

1
PMFLOM−MUSIC = H
(20)
aH (θ)U N U N a(θ)

Step 4. Search for the K peaks of PMFLOCR−MUSIC (θ) to estimate the DOAs of the K
sources {θ1 , θ2 , · · · , θK }.

3.4. The Boundedness of MFLOCR

To ensure that the MFLOCR can be effectively applied to the DOA estimation problem
under impulsive noise, RMFLOCR needs to be bounded. Assuming that X and Y, which are
two independent random variables with similar distributions and characteristic indices
1 < α ≤ 2, follow the SαS distribution, the boundedness of RMFLOCR is proved as follows:
     
|X−Y∗ | <p−1> |X−Y∗ | ∗ ∗< p−1>
RMFLOCR ≤ E exp − 2σ2 XY + exp − 2σ2 Y X
1 2
h i
<p−1> ∗ ∗< p−1>
≤ E XY + Y X
h i
p−1>
≤ E |X| Y<p−1> + |Y∗ | X∗< (21)
h i
≤ E |X||Y|p−2 |Y∗ | + |Y∗ ||X∗ |p−2 |X|
h i
= E |X||Y|p−1 + |Y||X|p−1

For when the characteristic parameter satisfies 1 < α < 2, it is stated in [39] that the
expectation of | X | p can be defined as
( p
p C ( p, α)γ α −1 < p < α
E[| X | ] = (22)
∞ p≥α

where
p +1
Γ( )Γ(− αp )
C ( p, α) = 2 p+1 √2 p (23)
α πΓ(− 2 )
R∞ Γ(( p+1)/2)Γ(− p/α)
where Γ(x) = 0 tx−1 exp(−t)dt is the function of Gamma. Suppose that h1 = √
α πΓ(− p/2)
.
In practice, the fractional low-order moment parameter ξ satisfies −1 < ξ < ( p − 1)
and is infinitely close to −1. Since the function h1 is monotonically decreasing and
ξ < ( p − 1) < 1, this leads to

Γ( ξ + 1
2 ) Γ (− α )
ξ
h1 ≤ <∞ (24)
Γ(− 2ξ )
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 8 of 13

For E[| X |], we can prove its boundedness by replacing the parameter p with 1 in the
above equation:
1
2γ α 1
E[| X |] ≤ − Γ(− ) (25)
απ α
Combining this with (24) and (25), we can obtain
ξ +1
< p −1> − 2ξ +2 γ α Γ(− α1 )Γ(− αξ )Γ( ξ + 1
2 )
E[ XY ]≤ 3 <∞ (26)
α2 π 2 Γ(− 2ξ )

The boundedness of E[Y ∗ X ∗< p−1> ] can be proved in the same way. Based on the above,
RMFLOCR is bounded. The boundedness proof of MFLOCR above provides a theoretical
basis for its application to impulsive noise DOA estimation.

4. Simulation
In this study, a comparative analysis of the proposed method against PFLOM-MUSIC [22],
CRCO-MUSIC [29], and FLOCR-MUSIC [34] was conducted through numerous simulations
to demonstrate the efficacy of the algorithm. Specifically, a scenario was considered where
two far-field narrowband signals possessing equal power and a frequency of 1 GHz, were
incident on a linear array comprising M = 8 sensors spaced at half-wavelength intervals.
The noise in this scenario followed the SαS distribution. The DOAs were θ1 = −20◦ and
θ1 = 45◦ . The widths of the correntropy kernel were σ1 = 0.5 and σ2 = 2, and the mixing
coefficients of the mixed correntropy were ρ1 = 0.4 and ρ2 = 0.6. In our experiment, we set
the parameter p to 1.2.
The GSNR was used in the scheme of impulsive noise, in place of the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR), as follows:
GSNR = 10lg(E(|s(t)|2 )/γ) (27)
The following simulation was subjected to a comprehensive evaluation framework
comprising 500 independent Monte Carlo trials. The performance is assessed using two
key metrics: the probability of successful resolution and the RMSE. Specifically, the ratio
of successfully resolved cases to the total number of Monte Carlo trials was used to cal-
culate the probability of successful detection. The successful resolution was defined as
θ̂i (k) − θi ≤ 1◦ , i = 1, 2, where in the kth Monte Carlo trial, θ̂i (k) represents the predicted
DOA of the ith target. The RMSE is defined as
r
1 k 1
2
RMSE = ∑ θ̂i (l ) − θi (28)
K i =1 L

where L is the number of Monte Carlo trials, and K is the number of signals. The results
from the simulations were acquired using a personal computer equipped with an Intel
Core i5 @ 3.0 GHz CPU and MATLAB R2021b.

4.1. Effect of GSNR

The purpose of this experimental study was to investigate the algorithm performance
in relation to the GSNR. The algorithm was tested from −4 dB to 8 dB to determine the
effect of changing the GSNR on the method’s performance. The snapshot number was
fixed at N = 200, and the characteristic exponent of α = 1.5 was kept constant during
the analysis.
As depicted in Figure 3a, the RMSE exhibits a gradual decline as the GSNR increases,
indicating a significant improvement in the performance of all algorithms. Notably, when
the GSNR surpasses 2 dB, the RMSEs of all algorithms fall below 0.5. However, the
proposed algorithm consistently achieves a lower RMSE compared to the other algorithms,
demonstrating its superior performance. Turning to Figure 3b, it is evident that with an
increasing GSNR, the probability of successful resolution also rises, indicating an increase
 Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 9 of 13

in the accuracy of these algorithms. Notably, when the GSNR reaches or exceeds 0 dB,
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14
the proposed algorithm achieves a probability of successful resolution over 0.9. This
indicates that the MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm outperforms other methods and exhibits the
highest accuracy.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. Estimation
Figure performance
3. Estimation comparison
performance under
comparison different
under GSNRs:
different (a)(a)
GSNRs: RMSE; (b)(b)
RMSE; probability of of
probability
successful resolution.
successful resolution.

4.2.4.2. Effect
Effect of the
of the Number
Number of Snapshots
of Snapshots
The objective of this experimental
The objective of this experimental investigation
investigation was was to assess
to assess the influence
the influence of an of
in-an
increasing
creasing snapshot
snapshot number,
number, ranging
ranging fromfrom
100100 to 800,
to 800, on the
on the performance
performance of the
of the algorithms,
algorithms,
while
while maintaining
maintaining a constant
a constant characteristic
characteristic exponentα==
exponent 1.51.5and
andaaGSNRGSNR==5 5dB. dB.
AsAs shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 4a,4a,
asasthethe snapshot
snapshot number
number increases,
increases, thethe observation
observation matrix
matrix
becomes more comprehensive, containing more useful information.
becomes more comprehensive, containing more useful information. This results in a con- This results in a
tinuous decline in the RMSE for all four direction estimation methods. Notably, the pro-the
continuous decline in the RMSE for all four direction estimation methods. Notably,
proposed
posed novelnovel
method method
exhibitsexhibits theperformance
the best best performance amongamong allsimulated
all the the simulated algorithms.
algorithms.
In Figure 4b, it is evident that with an increasing snapshot
In Figure 4b, it is evident that with an increasing snapshot number, the proposed number, the proposed
algorithm
algorithm achieves
achieves significant
significant improvements
improvements in in accuracy
accuracy and and tends
tends to to stabilize
stabilize compared
compared
to the other three algorithms. Furthermore, it is particularly effective
to the other three algorithms. Furthermore, it is particularly effective at lower snapshot at lower snapshot
counts, underscoring the advantages of the
counts, underscoring the advantages of the proposed algorithm.proposed algorithm.
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 10 of 13

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure4.4.Estimation
Estimationperformance comparisonunder
performance comparison underdifferent
different numbers
numbers of snapshots:
of snapshots: (a) RMSE; (b)
(a) RMSE;
probability of successful
(b) probability resolution.
of successful resolution.

4.3. Characteristic Exponent

4.3. Characteristic Exponent
With a fixed GSNR of 5 dB and N = 200 snapshots, the aim of this series of tests was to
With a the
investigate fixed GSNR
impact of 5characteristic
of the dB and N = exponent
200 snapshots, the aim of this
on the algorithm’s series of As
performance. tests was
tothe
investigate the impact of the characteristic exponent on the algorithm’s
characteristic exponent increases, the effect of impulsive noise diminishes. performance.
As theFigure
characteristic exponent
5a illustrates that allincreases,
algorithmsthe effectbetter
perform of impulsive noise diminishes.
as the characteristic exponent
FigureNotably,
increases. 5a illustrates
the RMSEthatofall
thealgorithms perform consistently
proposed algorithm better as theremained
characteristic exponent
below 0.6,
and the algorithm outperformed the other three algorithms.
increases. Notably, the RMSE of the proposed algorithm consistently remained below 0.6,
and the Figure 5b shows
algorithm that for all algorithms,
outperformed the probability
the other three algorithms. of a successful resolution
increases
Figure 5b shows that for all algorithms, the probability the
when the characteristic exponent increases. However, of aproposed algorithm
successful resolution in-
demonstrates superior performance in the presence of strong impulsive noise. Specifically,
creases when the characteristic exponent increases. However, the proposed algorithm
the accuracy of the suggested approach had already reached 0.9 when the characteristic
demonstrates
exponent goessuperior performance
above a certain threshold, inwhereas
the presence of strong
the probability impulsiveresolution
of successful noise. Specifi-
cally, the
for the accuracy
other of the
algorithms suggested
remains belowapproach
0.6 with α had
= 1.0.already reached 0.9 when the charac-
teristic exponent goes above a certain threshold, whereas the probability of successful res-
olution for the other algorithms remains below 0.6 with  = 1.0 .
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 11 of 13

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. 5.
Figure Estimation performance
Estimation performancecomparison
comparison under
under different characteristicexponent
different characteristic exponent values: (a)
values:
RMSE; (b) probability
(a) RMSE; of successful
(b) probability resolution.
of successful resolution.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In order to overcome the performance drawbacks of conventional estimation tech-
In order
niques to overcome
in environments the
with performance
impulsive drawbacks
noise, this of conventional
work introduced estimation tech-
the MFLOCR-MUSIC
niques in environments with impulsive noise, this work introduced the
algorithm. The proposed algorithm leverages the mixed correntropy of FLOS, effectively MFLOCR-MUSIC
algorithm.
replacing The proposed algorithm
the covariance leverages the
matrix in conventional mixed correntropy
approaches and providing of FLOS,
robusteffectively
sup-
replacing
pression of impulsive noise. The MUSIC method performs exceptionally well when used sup-
the covariance matrix in conventional approaches and providing robust
for DOA
pression of estimation
impulsivewith theThe
noise. proposed
MUSIC correntropy. Notably,exceptionally
method performs it performs exceptionally
well when used
well even in situations with few snapshots and severe impulsive
for DOA estimation with the proposed correntropy. Notably, it performs noise, and it does not
exceptionally
require previous knowledge of the steady distribution noise. A thorough
well even in situations with few snapshots and severe impulsive noise, and it does not analysis showed
that the suggested MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm works better than alternative techniques
require previous knowledge of the steady distribution noise. A thorough analysis showed
in a number of ways, achieving a high accuracy and low RMSE. The experimental results
that the suggested MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm works better than alternative techniques
demonstrate that the MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm outperforms the other three algorithms
in tested.
a numberUnderof ways, achieving
low GSNR a high
conditions, theaccuracy and low algorithm
MFLOCR-MUSIC RMSE. The experimental
achieved an RMSEresults
demonstrate
improvement from 0.1 to 0.3 and an estimation accuracy improvement from 5% toalgorithms
that the MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm outperforms the other three 15%
tested. Under
compared lowother
to the GSNR conditions,
algorithms. the MFLOCR-MUSIC
In scenarios algorithm
with a low snapshot number,achieved
the MFLOCR- an RMSE
improvement from 0.1 to 0.3 and an estimation accuracy improvement from 5% to 15%
compared to the other algorithms. In scenarios with a low snapshot number, the
MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm showed an RMSE improvement from 0.05 to 0.15 and an es-
timation accuracy improvement from 1% to 3%. Under conditions of intense impulsive
Electronics 2024, 13, 2386 12 of 13

MUSIC algorithm showed an RMSE improvement from 0.05 to 0.15 and an estimation
accuracy improvement from 1% to 3%. Under conditions of intense impulsive noise, the
MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm exhibited an RMSE improvement from 0.05 to 0.4 and an
estimation accuracy improvement from 17% to 40% over the competing methods.
In summary, the MFLOCR-MUSIC algorithm significantly enhances the DOA esti-
mation performance in challenging environments characterized by a low GSNR, a small
snapshot number, and strong impulsive noise.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.L. and J.H.; methodology, X.L. and J.H.; software
simulation and parameter optimization, X.L. and J.H.; validation, Y.Z. and Y.T.; writing—original
draft preparation, X.L. and J.H.; writing—review and editing, S.M.; supervision, X.L. X.L. and J.H.
are co-first authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Xingliao Talent Program Project of Liaoning Province, grant
number XLYC1907195; Songshan Laboratory Pre-Research Project, grant number YYJC062022017;
National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 61801308; Liaoning Provincial Ed-
ucation Department Facial Project, grant number LJKMZ20220535; the National Natural Science
Foundation of China, grant number 62173237; the Natural Science Foundation of Liaoning Province
of China, grant No. 2022-BS-216; the Open Fund of State Key Laboratory of Dynamic Measure-
ment Technology, grant number 2023-SYSJJ-04; and Aeronautical Science Foundation of China,
grant number 2020Z017054001.
Data Availability Statement: The MATLAB code is available from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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