Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

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Natural Products of
Silk Road Plants
 Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants
Series Editor:
Raymond Cooper

This unique book series focuses on the natural products chemistry of botanical medicines from differ-
ent countries such as Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Brazil, China, Africa, Borneo, Thailand, and Silk Road
Countries. These fascinating volumes are written by experts from their respective countries. The series
will focus on the pharmacognosy, covering recognized areas rich in folklore as well as botanical medici-
nal uses as a platform to present the natural products and organic chemistry. Where possible, the authors
will link these molecules to pharmacological modes of action. The series intends to trace a route through
history from ancient civilizations to the modern day showing the importance to man of natural products
in medicines, foods, and a variety of other ways.

RECENT TITLES IN THIS SERIES

Traditional Herbal Remedies of Sri Lanka
Viduranga Y. Waisundara
Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh and West Bengal
Botany, Natural Products, and Ethnopharmacology
Christophe Wiart
Brazilian Medicinal Plants
Luzia Modolo and Mary Ann Foglio
Natural Products of Silk Road Plants
Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin
 Natural Products of
Silk Road Plants

Edited by
Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to
copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been
acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Cooper, Raymond, editor. | Deakin, Jeffrey John, editor.
Title: Natural products of Silk Road plants / edited by Raymond Cooper and
Jeffrey John Deakin.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2021] |
Series: Natural products chemistry of global plants | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020020115 (print) | LCCN 2020020116 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367184513 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367184339 (paperback) |
ISBN 9780429061547 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Phytochemicals—History. | Botanical chemistry—History. |
Ethnobotany—History. | Medicinal plants—History. | Silk Road—History. |
Natural products—History. | Plants—Social aspects—History—To 1500.
Classification: LCC QK861.N396 2021 (print) | LCC QK861 (ebook) |
DDC 572/.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020115
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020116

ISBN: 978-0-367-18451-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-18433-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-06154-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents

Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... vii

Editors ....................................................................................................................................................... ix
Contributors .............................................................................................................................................. xi

Section I Introduction

Section II Eastern Asia

Mongolia
1. Medicinal Plants of Mongolia ......................................................................................................... 7
Narantuya Samdan and Odonchimeg Batsukh

China
2. Medicinal Plants of China Focusing on Tibet and Surrounding Regions ................................ 49
Jiangqun Jin, Chunlin Long, and Edward J. Kennelly

Section III Central and Southern Asia

India
3. Medicinal Plants of the Trans-Himalaya..................................................................................... 73
Ajay Sharma, Garima Bhardwaj, Pushpender Bhardwaj, and Damanjit Singh Cannoo

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

4. Medicinal Plants of Central Asia ................................................................................................ 105
Farukh S. Sharopov and William N. Setzer

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

5. Melons of Central Asia .................................................................................................................133
Ravza F. Mavlyanova, Sasha W. Eisenman, and David E. Zaurov

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

6. Resources along the Silk Road in Central Asia: Lagochilus inebrians Bunge
(Turkestan Mint) and Medicago sativa L. (Alfalfa) ...................................................................153
Oimahmad Rahmonov, David E. Zaurov, Buston S. Islamov, and Sasha W. Eisenman

Section IV Western Asia and the Middle East

Iran
7. An Overview of Important Endemic Plants and Their Products in Iran ............................... 171
Reza E. Owfi

v
vi Contents

Iran
8. Crocus sativus and the Prized Commodity, Saffron ................................................................. 201
Jeffrey John Deakin and Raymond Cooper

Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan

9. Natural Plant Dyes of Oriental Carpets ..................................................................................... 211
Jeffrey John Deakin

Iraq and Syria

10. Wheat and Rice – Ancient and Modern Cereals........................................................................219
Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin

Georgia
11. Ethnobotany of the Silk Road – Georgia, the Cradle of Wine ................................................ 229
Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua Zambrana, Shalva Sikharulidze, Zaal Kikvidze,
David Kikodze, David Tchelidze, and Ketevan Batsatsashvili

Turkey
12. Plants Endemic to Turkey Including the Genus Arnebia ......................................................... 255
Ufuk Koca Çalışkan and Ceylan Dönmez

Section V Maritime Routes

Sri Lanka
13. Maritime Routes through Sri Lanka: Medicinal Plants and Spices ....................................... 271
Viduranga Y. Waisundara

Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 283

Index ...................................................................................................................................................... 285
Preface

CRC Press is publishing a new series of books under the general title, The Natural Products Chemistry
of Global Plants. The series of books focuses on pharmacognosy; covering recognized uses in folklore,
presenting natural products, and, where possible, linking these to pharmacological modes of action.
Books in the series relate to many different countries including Bangladesh, Borneo, Brazil, Cambodia,
Cameroon, Ecuador, Iran, Madagascar, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, Vietnam,
and Yunnan Province (China). The series of books has been written by experts from each country with
an intention to bring forward scientific literature not widely appreciated in the West. This volume in the
series of books, Natural Products of Silk Road Plants, concerns plants and extracts from nations along
the historic Silk Road.
The books in the series are intended for chemistry students who are at university level and for scholars
wishing to broaden their knowledge in pharmacognosy.

Raymond Cooper PhD

Editor-in-Chief, ‘The Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants’
Department of Applied Biology & Chemical Technology
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Aims and Purpose

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants comprises an edited series of chapters, each presented by authors
expert in their field. Contributors provide new and fresh insights upon significant plants, plant extracts,
and chemical products from the flora of nations connected by the historic Silk Road.
A route is also traced through history showing the important value to humankind of natural products
in folk medicines, in foods, and in multiple other ways which, in the contemporary world, are associated
with valuable and important commodities.
The Silk Road – a complex network of trade routes over thousands of miles of vast regions that con-
nected China with the rest of the Eurasian continent by land and sea – contributed to the transformation
of the ethnic, cultural, and religious identities of diverse peoples. Just as civilizations in the East and
West were shaped through trade, plants, plant extracts, and spices were exchanged and improved. Plants,
which were of economic significance and indigenous to countries along the trading routes of the Silk
Road, yielded medicines, cereals, spices, beverages, dyes, and euphoric and exotic compounds.
This book describes many selected plants, key natural products, and chemical extracts. Consideration
is given to the locale in which the plants grow and to the scientific application of extracts. Enquiry is
made, where practicable, into the fascinating chemistry of building blocks which make up the large
molecules of complex natural products. The pharmacological nature of natural products is described
where possible.
This book will appeal to university students of botany and chemistry and to scholars who wish to
broaden their knowledge of pharmacognosy.

Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin

Editors

vii
Editors

Raymond Cooper is a visiting professor at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He earned his PhD in
organic chemistry from the Weizmann Institute in Israel. His dissertation researched the ancient wild
wheat of the Middle East, examining germination properties and chemical profiles. After completing a
postdoctoral fellowship at Columbia University, New York, he spent 15 years in drug discovery research
of plant and microbial natural products in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. He then
moved to the nutraceutical and dietary supplements industry to develop botanical products from tradi-
tional Chinese medicine including ginkgo, cordyceps, red yeast rice, green tea, and many other botani-
cal medicines. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom, an honorary
visiting professor at the College of Pharmacy, University of London, and a member of the American
Pharmacognosy Society. He has published over 120 research papers, edited 5 books, co-authored the
book Natural Products Chemistry: Sources, Separations and Structures and received the American
Society of Pharmacognosy 2014 Varro Tyler Award for Contributions to Botanical Research.

Jeffrey John Deakin earned a first-class honors degree in chemistry from the University of London
followed by a PhD degree in chemistry from the University of Cambridge. He has published a number
of peer-reviewed research papers. After a long and successful career in the United Kingdom as a science
educator, he now writes articles and books with the aim of broadening the appeal of science and deepen-
ing interest in chemistry in particular. He and Ray were the co-authors of the book entitled Botanical
Miracles, Chemistry of Plants that Changed the World. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry
in the United Kingdom.

ix
Contributors

Ketevan Batsatsashvili Jeffrey John Deakin

Institute of Ecology Royal Society of Chemistry
Ilia State University London, United Kingdom
Tbilisi, Georgia
Ceylan Dönmez
Odonchimeg Batsukh Faculty of Pharmacy
Gurun Graduate Institute Department of Pharmacognosy
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia İzmir Katip Çelebi University
İzmir, Turkey
Garima Bhardwaj
Department of Chemistry Sasha W. Eisenman
Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Horticulture Program
Technology Department of Architecture and Environmental
Longowal, India Design
Tyler School of Art and Architecture
Pushpender Bhardwaj Temple University
Department of Medicinal Plants Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Defence Institute of High-Altitude Research
Delhi, India Buston S. Islamov
Department of Botany
Rainer W. Bussmann Samarqand State University
Department of Ethnobotany Samarqand, Uzbekistan
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine
Botanical Garden Jiangqun Q. Jin
Ilia State University Department of Botanical Sciences
Tbilisi, Georgia Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant
Cultivation
Ufuk Koca-Çalışkan Chongqing, China
Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Pharmacognosy Edward J. Kennelly
Gazi University Department of Chemistry
Ankara, Turkey City University of New York
New York, New York
Damanjit Singh Cannoo
Department of Chemistry David Kikodze
Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Department of Ethnobotany
Technology Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine
Longowal, India Botanical Garden
Ilia State University
Raymond Cooper Tbilisi, Georgia
Department of Applied Biology and Chemical
Technology Zaal Kikvidze
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Ecology
Kowloon, Hong Kong 4-D Research Institute
Ilia State University
Tbilisi, Georgia

xi
xii Contributors

Chunlin L. Long Ajay Sharma

Life and Environmental Sciences Department of Chemistry
Minzu University of China Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and
Beijing, China Technology
Longowal, India
Ravza F. Mavlyanova
World Vegetable Center Farukh S. Sharopov
Tashkent, Uzbekistan Chinese-Tajik Innovation Center for Natural
Products
Reza E. Owfi Academy of Sciences of the Republic of
Faculty of Natural Resources Tajikistan
Department of Rangeland Management Dushanbe, Tajikistan
University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Resources Shalva Sikharulidze
Gorgan, Iran Department of Ethnobotany
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine
Narel Y. Paniagua Zambrana Botanical Garden
Department of Ethnobotany Ilia State University
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Tbilisi, Georgia
Botanical Garden
Ilia State University David Tchelidze
Tbilisi, Georgia Department of Ethnobotany
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine
Oimahmad Rahmonov Botanical Garden
Faculty of Earth Sciences Ilia State University
Department of Physical Geography Tbilisi, Georgia
University of Silesia in Katowice
Sosnowiec, Poland Viduranga Y. Waisundara
Australian College of Business and Technology
Narantuya Samdan Kandy, Sri Lanka
Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia David E. Zaurov
Department of Plant Biology & Pathology
William N. Setzer School of Environmental and
Department of Chemistry Biological Sciences
University of Alabama Rutgers University
Huntsville, Alabama New Brunswick, New Jersey
 Section I

Introduction

The History and Geography of the Silk Road

The term, Silk Road, denotes the complex network of trade routes connecting China with the rest of the
Eurasian continent over land and sea. Its very existence promoted trade and cultural exchange among the
peoples it connected. The Silk Road contributed to forming and transforming the cultural, ethnic, and
religious identities of diverse peoples: Chinese, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Arabs, Turks and Mongolians.
During the Western Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC, the Chinese imperial envoy, Zhang Qian,
was sent to Central Asia. The mission gave the Chinese much knowledge about Central Asia and opened
trade between China and Central Asia and beyond, extending to North Africa and the Mediterranean
coast. There was no single road. These ancient trade routes collectively became known as the Silk Road.
The term referred to a multiplicity of routes: camel trails, mountain passes, seaports, and desert pas-
sages, which connected the great economic centers of the classical world, Han China and the Roman
Mediterranean. As the caravans rolled and trade flourished, cities and towns along the route grew, usu-
ally at strategic points such as crossroads or water wells. Traders and middlemen became rich.
The Silk Road extended some 10,000 km from east to west and 3,000 km from north to south. Initially,
goods moved along the Silk Road from east to west and in the return direction. It linked Constantinople
to Xi’an in China. Eventually, trade developed in other directions: goods headed north into the Russian
principalities and south to Persia, modern-day Iran.
In Mongolia, there were two main arteries: in the north and in the south. The Hunnu, Xi'an, Juan-juan,
Turkic and Uyghur peoples controlled the northern element of the Great Silk Road and made substantial
profits. The route ran southwest of the Bulgan River in the Altai Range. There was also the “Yellow
Road” in the south, a trade route in the Gobi region (Sukhbaatar, 1992). During the golden age of the
Mongol Empire (1206–1371), territory under control extended well into Asia as far as Europe. It was at
the time the largest contiguous empire in history (Figure 1).
Mongols led a nomadic life, were dependent upon horses for mobility and for transport, and traded
them for goods. The Mongols improved communications by establishing a courier system, along a line
of stations called Örtöö, which connected the empire with other nations using the Great Silk Road.
Through these measures, the Mongol Empire was able to provide military protection for convoys of
caravans using the routes of the Silk Road from the capital, Karakorum, to Samarkand, to Bukhar, and
on into Mongolian-occupied Chagatai Khanate (Cleaves, 1982). During the Mongol Empire, the Great
Silk Roads became more secure and were radically extended. European visitors began to arrive via the
2 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 1 Extent of the Mongol Empire at its zenith.

Great Silk Roads: emissaries of King Louis IX of France; envoys of Pope IV Innocent; and the merchant
and adventurer, Marco Polo.
Many hundreds of different finished products passed along the Silk Road: gunpowder from China,
beautiful Venetian glass, and Levantine gold. Inevitably, as economic exchange grew, so did the influ-
ence of different religions notably Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. The Silk Road helped to trans-
fer innovation in logical thought too – in mathematics, in algebra, and in chemistry. A considerable
part of the commerce was handled by itinerant traders famed for their caravans and financial acumen.
Many items were known to have been carried; among them were silk, linen, woolen cloth, saffron,
pepper, camphor, and artifacts of gold and silver. Traders were the ‘glue that connected towns, oases,
and regions. They played a major role in Chinese silk reaching the eastern Mediterranean while silver
European ornaments have been found in the tombs of the Chinese elite (Frankopan, 2015). Trade in silk
was an early catalyst for commerce. The prominence of trade in Chinese silk probably resulted in the
trading routes themselves becoming known as the Silk Roads.
However, the land routes of the Silk Road were not easy to traverse. Goods were carried from the
Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea and were taken to and from India by sea and land. Exchange with
Sri Lanka, China, and the eastern Mediterranean rose sharply. As trade between India and the Greco-
Roman world increased, spices came to rival silk and other commodities in importance. By the time of
the medieval period, Muslim traders dominated maritime spice-trading routes throughout the Indian
Ocean, shipping spices from trading centers in India westward to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea
from which overland or sea routes led to Europe. However, restriction of east-west trade in the east-
ern Mediterranean, Anatolia, and the Arabian Peninsula by the Ottoman Turks during medieval times
motivated western European trading nations to seek maritime routes to the Far East as an alternative
(Figure 2). Vasco da Gama was born in the 1460s and died in 1524. He was a Portuguese explorer and the
first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India (1497–1499) was the first to link Europe
and Asia by an ocean route via the Atlantic and the Indian oceans thereby connecting the Occident
to the Orient. Da Gama's discovery of the sea route was highly significant and opened the way for the
Portuguese to establish a colonial empire in Asia. Traveling the ocean route allowed the Portuguese to
avoid sailing across the highly disputed Mediterranean Sea and traversing dangerous land routes to the
Orient over the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. In 1498, Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut (modern-day
Introduction 3

FIGURE 2 Routes of the Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road (UNESCO, 1990).

Kozhikode), a city in the state of Kerala in southern India, and quickly established exclusive European
access to Indian spice routes. At first, pepper and cinnamon were obtained but soon many other spices
new to Europe were sourced. Sri Lanka is known as The Pearl of the Indian Ocean due to its geographi-
cal shape and natural beauty. The island has a strategic location in the southwest of the Bay of Bengal
and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea. Deep-water harbors, such as that at Trincomalee, became key
maritime locations from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to the modern era. Great commercial
importance was placed upon spices as a commodity. Key spices were cinnamon, cardamom, and cloves.
Not only were these spices used as flavoring agents, locally as well as overseas, but they also had thera-
peutic properties well known to traditional medicinal practitioners since ancient times.
Portugal maintained commercial monopoly of these commodities for several decades before other
European powers, notably Dutch, English, and French, were able to challenge her naval supremacy on
the Cape Route and hence her trading position. Trade was transformed when new maritime routes such
as these were established. An extended period of European domination of commerce in the East was the
result as well as increased cultural exchange among diverse cultures. The predominance of trade along
maritime routes led to inevitable, consequential decline in the importance of historic overland routes of
the Silk Road.
Russian investment in the infrastructure of the “Iron Silk Road” led, in 1880, to the construction of
the Trans-Caspian Railway connecting Samarkand and Tashkent. Then the Trans-Siberian Railway and
connections with associated branches, such as the Chinese Eastern Railway, were completed in 1916.
Thus, the first rail connection was established between Europe and Asia, from Moscow to Vladivostok.
The line, at 9,200 km (5,720 mi), is the longest in the world and led to a boom in trade (Frankopan, 2015).
By 2018, a major rail terminal had been located in Germany near Duisburg (Figure 3). It is claimed that
up to 80% of direct rail freight traffic between China and Western Europe passes through the city as an
entrepôt (Posaner, November 2018).
The economic factors of cost and speed determine that direct rail links between China and Europe are
intermediate in importance to air and sea options. Rail freight tends to be used for bulky goods that
are valuable and moderately urgent where the time advantage of rail over ship is notable, and the goods
4 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 3 How China put German rust-belt city on the map; courtesy Joshua Posaner.

are heavy enough to make the cost saving over air transport noticeable. It is anticipated that the volume
of goods moving by rail will remain a small percentage of that carried by sea, but rail transfer may well
affect significantly the volume of air cargo. Other rail routes for the “Iron Silk Road” between China and
Europe may yet be developed via Turkey connecting with Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and
Iran. One such is the Marmaray project which would involve a new tunnel under the Bosporus replacing
a much slower rail ferry (Usal, November 2013).
Despite huge actual and proposed investment in transport infrastructure, Central Asia remains in the
21st century lightly populated and largely underdeveloped. Through successful collaboration by China,
Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan in 2014, UNESCO has recognized “The Corridor of the Silk Road” (from
Xi’an in China to Central Asia) as a World Heritage region. Recent efforts by the Chinese government to
establish a “Silk Road Economic Belt” are also helping to bring greater economic prosperity stimulating
resurgence in the rich legacy of the Silk Road.

REFERENCES
F.W. Cleaves, 1982. The Secret History of the Mongols (translated into English with commentary) Volume 1,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 225.
Jeffrey Deakin and Raymond Cooper with a contribution on Mongolia from Dr. J. Gerelbadrakh of the
Mongolian National University of Education in Ulaanbaatar.
P. Frankopan. 2015. The Silk Roads: A New History of the World. Bloomsbury, London.
J. Posaner. 01 November 2018. How China put a German rust-belt city on the map. CET.
G. Sukhbaatar, 1992. Mongolian Nirun khanate (330–555). Press Articles, Ulaanbaatar, 236–237.
O. Uysal. 12 November 2013. Is Marmaray Key for Europe-Asia Rail Connection? Rail Turkey.
 Section II

Eastern Asia
Mongolia

1
Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

Narantuya Samdan
Mongolian Academy of Sciences

Odonchimeg Batsukh
Gurun Graduate Institute

CONTENTS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Edible Plants Documented in The Secret History of Mongols .............................................................. 8
Allium microdictyon Prokh. [Amaryllidaceae] ................................................................................ 9
Allium senescens L. [Amaryllidaceae]........................................................................................... 10
Lilium pumilum Delile [Liliaceae] ................................................................................................. 10
Padus asiatica L. (Rosaceae) synonym Prunus padus ...................................................................11
Potentilla anserina L. [Rosaceae] ...................................................................................................11
Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae) ........................................................................................... 13
Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. [Ericaceae] ............................................................................................. 13
Plants Important for Liver Disorders ...................................................................................................14
Achillea asiatica Serg. [Asteraceae] .............................................................................................. 15
Dianthus versicolor Fisch. ex Link. [Caryophyllaceae] .................................................................16
Dianthus superbus L. [Caryophyllaceae] .......................................................................................17
Iris potaninii Maxim. [Iridaceae]....................................................................................................18
Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauverd [Asteraceae] ................................................... 19
Oxytropis myriophylla DC. [Fabaceae] ......................................................................................... 20
Rhodiola quadrifida Fisch. & Mey. [Crassulaceae] ....................................................................... 21
Rhodiola rosea L. [Crassulaceae] .................................................................................................. 22
Salsola laricifolia Turcz. [Chenopodiaceae] ................................................................................. 23
Saussurea amara Less [Asteraceae] .............................................................................................. 24
Stellera chamaejasme L. [Thymelaeaceae] ................................................................................... 25
Endemic and Rarely Reported Plants ................................................................................................. 27
Adonis mongolica Simanovich [Ranunculaceae]........................................................................... 27
Astragalus mongholicus Bunge [Fabaceae] ................................................................................... 27
Bidens tripartita L. [Asteraceae] ................................................................................................... 29
Equisetum arvense L. [Equisetaceae] ............................................................................................ 30
Gentiana macrophylla Pall. [Gentianaceae] ...................................................................................31
Oxytropis muricata DC [Fabaceae] ............................................................................................... 32
Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa Gontsch. ex Grubov [Fabaceae] ...................................................... 33
Thalictrum foetidum L. [Ranunculaceae] ...................................................................................... 34

7
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 7. Râmtonoo is probably meant for Râmatanu, body of Râma, but when a
name has once become familiar in its modern Bengali form, I do not always like to
put it back into its classical Sanskrit form.
8. A full account of this Saint is to be found in a book lately published by me,
“Râmakrishna, his Life and Sayings,” by F. M. M., 1898.
9. The Interpreter, Nov. 1898, p. 303.
10. See an excellent account of his life by Karkaria.
11. Kâmesvar Aiyar, Sandhyâvandana, pp. 58, 105, 113.
12. Sandhyâ is derived from Sandhi, literally the joining, the coming together
of day and night, or night and day. Sandhivelâ is twilight, and Sandhyâ has the
same meaning. Sandhyâvandana was originally the twilight-worship, the morning
and evening prayer, to which a third was added (the Mâdhyâhnika) the noon
prayer, when the sun culminated. These prayers were once incumbent on every
Brâhman, though they have now assumed a very perfunctory form, or are omitted
altogether.
13. I still have a letter from the late M. Bergaigne, in which he asks when my
Index would be published, and adds: “Je m’étais décidé pendant ces vacances à
écrire tout le Rig-Véda sur des fiches, et à me composer ainsi un index qui pût me
permettre des essais d’interprétation indépendante. Je suis arrivé à la moitié de ce
travail, et grâce à la rapidité que je suis parvenu à atteindre, et aussi à une grande
puissance de travail, je puis le terminer en moins d’un mois ... S’il n’était pas trop
exiger, je vous prierais de me dire aussi si vous citez tous les emplois de chaque
mot sans aucune exception, ou si vous êtes départi de cette rigueur pour les mots
très usuels, et enfin si vous adoptez l’ordre alphabétique pur et simple.” I could
answer all these questions in the affirmative.
14. Giuseppe Turrini, Raccolta degli Inni del Vèda, Libro I, Fascicolo I,
Bologna, 1899.
15. Rig-Veda X, 39, 1.
16. Rig-Veda III, 29, 6.
17. Rig-Veda III, 20, 1.
18. Rig-Veda I, 116, 17.
19. Rig-Veda X, 39, 12.
20. Dawn.
21. The cloud.
22. Name of the Dawn. It requires a considerable acquaintance with phonetic
laws to doubt the identity of the names Ushas in Sanskrit and Eos in Greek. Yet I
believe that even this has been achieved by those who seem to imagine that
scepticism is the best proof of knowledge.
 23. Savitri, the sun-god, but distinct from Sûrya, the sun and sun-god.
24. Name of Dawn.
25. Day and Night, Dawn and Twilight are conceived as sisters, and spoken of
as Ahanî, the two days, one bright, the other dark, like the Asvins.
26. Varuna, sometimes the highest god, whose laws have to be obeyed by all
creatures.
27. Their appointed course.
28. Kratu, thought, will, here command.
29. The order in which the heavenly bodies come and go, which gave the first
intimation of order in the universe.
30. The sun.
31. Dawn is often spoken of in the plural, being conceived as new every day, or
being considered manifold in her wide expanse.
32. Perhaps it should be remembered that in the Mahâbhârata the wife of
Kasyapa, the mother of the Âdityas, was called Dakshâyanî; see Pramatha Nâth
Mullick, “Origin of Caste,” p. 33.
33. Cf. “Chips,” IV, p. 385.
34. The two words are used together, as ubhayor antaram veda,
sûnritânritayor api, Mahâbh. V, 5667.
35. Agni, fire, is here, as often, taken for the light of day.
36. Mitra and Varuna stand for morning and evening, or day and night.
37. Râtrî, night, sometimes called the black day, Krishnam ahar, opposed to
Argunam ahar, the bright day. Cf. Rig-Veda VI, 9, 1.
38. Evil, physically darkness, morally sin.
39. Pins of the chariot.
40. The departed.
41. Explained as stars.
42. The sun.
43. Bergaigne, Vol. II, p. 277: ‘Les interprétations purement naturalistes,
appliquées à l’analyse des mythes du Rig-Véda, laissent toujours, ou presque
toujours, un résidu liturgique, et ce résidu, le plus souvent négligé jusqu’alors, en
est précisément la partie la plus importante pour l’exégèse des hymnes.’
44. See M. M., “Physical Religion,” p. 120.
45. I have tried to preserve some of the Vedic rhythm in these translations, but
I must apologise for these poetic efforts of mine in English. I have consulted, of
course, the translations of Grassmann, Ludwig, Griffiths, and Bergaigne, and
others where accessible, and have adopted some of the renderings which seemed to
me particularly happy.
46. Flowers and plants in general are supposed to be supported by warmth
within them.
47. The clouds that give their milk, the rain.
48. The culminating point of the sun, between sunrise and sunset.
49. The milk of the clouds, or the rain.
50. The fire on the hearth, in which oblations were offered.
51. On the altar or the omphalos of the earth.
52. Made visible.
53. The rubbing of the fire-sticks required great strength and skill to bring out
the fire that was supposed to be hidden in the wood. The fire, when lighted on the
hearth, was supposed to bring the gods to their offerings; nay, by a change of cause
and effect the fire kindled on the hearth was identified with the light kindled in the
sky at the approach of the dawn.
54. The fire on the altar was supposed to call the gods, like a priest.
55. Heaven and earth, gods and men.
56. The place where the fire was kept.
57. X, 3, 3.
58. X, 4, 4.
59. The darkness of the night is lighted by the light of the moon and stars.
60. The dawn or bright day that lasts from morning till evening.
61. The darkness, caused by the retreat of Dawn or Day, is lighted up by the
brilliant Night.
62. See “A Sketch of the Life of Gokulaji Zâlâ and of the Vedânta.” By
Manassukharâma Sûryarâma Tripâthi. 1881.
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 CONTENTS.

PAGE
BADMINTON LIBRARY (THE) 1010
BIOGRAPHY, PERSONAL MEMOIRS, &c. 1007
CHILDREN’S BOOKS 1025
CLASSICAL LITERATURE TRANSLATIONS, &c. 1018
COOKERY, DOMESTIC MANAGEMENT, &c. 1028
EVOLUTION, ANTHROPOLOGY, &c. 1017
FICTION, HUMOUR, &c. 1021
FUR, FEATHER AND FIN SERIES 1012
HISTORY, POLITICS, POLITY, POLITICAL MEMOIRS, &c. 1003
LANGUAGE, HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF 1016
LONGMANS’ SERIES OF BOOKS FOR GIRLS 1026
MANUALS OF CATHOLIC PHILOSOPHY 1016
MENTAL, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY 1014
MISCELLANEOUS AND CRITICAL WORKS 1029
MISCELLANEOUS THEOLOGICAL WORKS 1032
POETRY AND THE DRAMA 1019
POLITICAL ECONOMY AND ECONOMICS 1016
POPULAR SCIENCE 1024
SILVER LIBRARY (THE) 1027
SPORT AND PASTIME 1010
STUDIES IN ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE 1017
TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE, THE COLONIES, &c. 1008
VETERINARY MEDICINE, &c. 1010
WORKS OF REFERENCE 1025
 INDEX OF AUTHORS AND EDITORS.
Abbott (Evelyn), 1003, 1018
—— (T. K.), 1014
—— (E. A.), 1014
Acland (A. H. D.), 1003
Acton (Eliza), 1028
Adeane (J. H.), 1007
Æschylus, 1018
Ainger (A. C.), 1011
Albemarle (Earl of), 1010
Allen (Grant), 1024
Allingham (F.), 1021
Amos (S.), 1003
André (R.), 1012
Anstey (F.), 1021
Archer (W.), 1008
Aristophanes, 1018
Aristotle, 1014, 1018
Armstrong (G. F. Savage), 1019
—— (E. J. Savage), 1007, 1019, 1029
Arnold (Sir Edwin), 1008, 1019
—— (Dr. T.), 1003
Ashbourne (Lord), 1003
Ashby (H.), 1028
Ashley (W. J.), 1016
Atelier du Lys (Author of), 1029
Ayre (Rev. J.), 1025

Bacon, 1007, 1014

Baden-Powell (B. H.), 1003
Bagehot (W.), 1007, 1016, 1029
Bagwell (R.), 1003
Bain (Alexander), 1014
Baker (Sir S. W.), 1008, 1010
Balfour (A. J.), 1011, 1032
Ball (John), 1008
—— (J. T.), 1003
Baring-Gould (Rev. S.), 1027, 1029
Barraud (C. W.), 1019
Baynes (T. S.), 1029
Beaconsfield (Earl of), 1021
Beaufort (Duke of), 1010, 1011
Becker (W. A.), 1018
Beddard (F. E.), 1024
Bell (Mrs. Hugh), 1019
—— (Mrs. Arthur), 1007
Bent (J. Theodore), 1008
Besant (Sir Walter), 1003
Bickerdyke (J.), 1011
Bicknell (A. C.), 1008
Bird (R.), 1032
Bland (Mrs. Hubert), 1020
Boase (Rev. C. W.), 1004
Boedder (Rev. B.), 1016
Boevey (A. W. Crawley-), 1007
Bosanquet (B.), 1014
Boyd (Rev. A. K. H.), 1029, 1032
Brassey (Lady), 1009
—— (Lord), 1003, 1008, 1011, 1016
Bray (C. and Mrs.), 1014
Bright (Rev. J. F.), 1003
Broadfoot (Major W.), 1010
Brögger (W. C.), 1008
Browning (H. Ellen), 1009
Buck (H. A.), 1011
Buckland (Jas.), 1025
Buckle (H. T.), 1003
Buckton (C. M.), 1028
Bull (T.), 1028
Burke (U. R.), 1003
Burrows (Montagu), 1004
Butler (E. A.), 1024
—— (Samuel), 1018, 1029

Cameron of Lochiel, 1012

Campbell (Rev. Lewis), 1032
Camperdown (Earl of), 1007
Cannan (E.), 1017
Channing (F. A.), 1016
Cheancy (Sir G.), 1003
Chisholm (G. G.), 1025
Cholmondeley-Pennell (H.), 1011
Churchill (W. Spencer), 1009
Cicero, 1018
Clarke (Rev. R. F.), 1016
Clodd (Edward), 1017
Clutterbuck (W. J.), 1009
Coleridge (S. T.), 1019
Comparetti (D.), 1030
Comyn (L. N.), 1026
Conington (John), 1018
Conway (Sir W. M.), 1011
Conybeare (Rev. W. J.) & Howson (Dean), 1027
Coolidge (W. A. B.), 1008
Corbett (Julian S.), 1003
Corder (Annie), 1019
Coutts (W.), 1018
Coventry (A.), 1011
Cox (Harding), 1010
Crake (Rev. A. D.), 1025
Creighton (Bishop), 1003, 1004
Crozier (J. B.), 1007, 1014
Cuningham (G. C.), 1003
Curzon of Kedleston (Lord), 1003
Custance (Col. H.), 1012
Cutts (Rev. E. L.), 1004
Dellinger (F. W.), 1004
Davidson (W. L.), 1014, 1016, 1032
Davies (J.F.), 1018
Deland (Mrs.), 1021, 1026
Dent (C. T.), 1011
Deplolge (S.), 1017
De Salis (Mrs.), 1028, 1029
De Tocqueville (A.), 1003
Devas (C. S.), 1016
Dickinson (G. L.), 1004
Diderot, 1021
Dougall (L.), 1021
Douglas (Sir G.), 1019
Dowden (E.), 1031
Doyle (A. Conan), 1021
Dreyfus (Irma), 1030
Du Bois (W. E. B.), 1004
Dufferin (Marquis of), 1011
Dunbar (Mary F.), 1020

Eardley-Wilmot (Capt. S.), 1008

Ebrington (Viscount), 1012
Ellis (J. H.), 1012
—— (R. L.), 1014
Evans (Sir John), 1030

Farrar (Dean), 1016, 1021

Fitzwygram (Sir F.), 1010
Folkard (H. C.), 1012
Ford (H.), 1012
Fowler (Edith H.), 1021
Foxcroft (H. C.), 1007
Francis (Francis), 1012
Freeman (Edward A.), 1004
Freshfield (D. W.), 1011
Frothingham (A. L.), 1030
Froude (James A.), 1004, 1007, 1009, 1021
Furneaux (W.), 1024

Galton (W. F.), 1017

Gardiner (Samuel R.), 1004
Gathorne-Hardy (Hon. A. E.), 1012
Gerard (Dorothea), 1026
Gibbons (J. S.), 1012
Gibson (Hon. H.), 1013
—— (C.H.), 1014
—— (Hon. W.), 1032
Gilkes (A. H.), 1021
Gleig (Rev. G. R.), 1008
Goethe, 1019
Gore-Booth (Eva), 1019
—— (Sir H. W.), 1011
Graham (P. A.), 1013, 1021
—— (G. F.), 1016
Granby (Marquis of), 1012
Grant (Sir A.), 1014
Graves (R. P.), 1007
Green (T. Hill), 1014
Greener (E. B.), 1004
Greville (C. C. F.), 1004
Grey (Maria), 1026
Grose (T. H.), 1014
Gross (C.), 1004
Grove (F. C.), 1011
—— (Mrs. Lilly), 1010
Gurdon (Lady Camilla), 1021
Gwilt (J.), 1025

Haggard (H. Rider), 1021, 1022

Hake (O.), 1011
Halliwell-Phillipps (J.), 1008
Hamlin (A. D. F.), 1030
Hammond (Mrs. J. H.), 1004
Harding (S. B.), 1004
Harte (Bret), 1022
Harting (J. E.), 1012
Hartwig (G.), 1024
Hassall (A.), 1006
Haweis (Rev. H. R.), 1007, 1030
Heath (D. D.), 1014
Heathcote (J. M. and C. G.), 1011
Helmholtz (Hermann von), 1024
Henderson (Lieut-Col. G. F.), 1007
Henry (W.), 1011
Henty (G. A.), 1026
Herbert (Col. Kenney), 1012
Hewins (W. A. S.), 1017
Hill (Sylvia M.), 1021
Hillier (G. Lacy), 1010
Hirne (Lieut.-Col. H. W. L.), 1030
Hodgson (Shadworth H.), 1014
Holroyd (Maria J.), 1007
Homer, 1018
Hope (Anthony), 1022
Horace, 1018
Hornung (E. W.), 1022
Houston (D. F.), 1004
Howell (G.), 1016
Howitt (W.), 1009
Hudson (W. H.), 1024
Hullah (I.), 1030
Hume (David), 1014
Hunt (Rev. W.), 1004
Hunter (Sir W.), 1005
Hutchinson (Horace G.), 1011

Ingelow (Jean), 1019, 1026

James (W.), 1014
Jefferies (Richard), 1030
Jerome (Jerome K.), 1022
Johnson (J. & J. H.), 1030
Jones (H. Bence), 1025
Jordan (W. L.), 1016
Jowett (Dr. B.), 1017
Joyce (P. W.), 1005, 1022, 1030
Justinian:, 1014

Kant (I.), 1014

Kaye (Sir J. W.), 1005
Kerr (Rev. J.), 1011
Killick (Rev. A. H.), 1014
Kingsley (Rose G.), 1030
Kitchin (Dr. G. W.), 1004
Knight (E. F.), 1009, 1011
Köstlin (J.), 1007

Ladd (G. T.), 1015

Lang (Andrew), 1005, 1010, 1011, 1013,, 1017, 1018, 1019, 1020, 1022,
1026, 1030, 1032
Lascelles (Hon. G.), 1010, 1011, 1012
Laughton (J. K.), 1008
Laurence (F. W.), 1017
Lawley (Hon. F.), 1011
Layard (Nina F.), 1019
Leaf (Walter), 1031
Lear (H. L. Sidney), 1029
Lecky (W. E. H.), 1005, 1019
Lees (J. A.), 1009
Lejeune (Baron), 1007
Leslie (T. E. Cliffe), 1016
Lester (L. V.), 1007
Levett-Yeats (S.), 1022
Lillie (A.), 1013
Lindley (J.), 1025
Lodge (H. C.), 1004
Loftie (Rev. W. J.), 1004
Longman (C. J.), 1010, 1012, 1030
—— (F. W.), 1013
—— (G. H.), 1011, 1012
Lowell (A. L.), 1005
Lubbock (Sir John), 1017
Lucan, 1018
Lutoslawski (W.), 1015
Lyall (Edna), 1022
Lyttelton (Hon. R. H.), 1010
—— (Hon. A.), 1011
Lytton (Earl of), 1019

Macaulay (Lord), 1005, 1006, 1019

MacColl (Canon), 1006
Macdonald (G.), 1009