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POLYMER SCIENCE AND
NANOTECHNOLOGY
 POLYMER
SCIENCE AND
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Fundamentals and Applications

Edited by

RAVIN NARAIN
Professor, Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
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they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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ISBN: 978-0-12-816806-6

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Typeset by SPi Global, India

 Contributors
Marya Ahmed Department of Chemistry &
Faculty of Sustainable Design Engineering,
University of Prince Edward Island,
Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
Muhammad Arshad Department of
Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Anika Benozir Asha Department of Chemical
and Materials Engineering, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Keshwaree Babooram Department of Chemistry,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Seth Beck Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Rabin Bissessur Department of Chemistry,
University of Prince Edward Island,
Charlottetown, PE, Canada
Jingsi Chen Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Hyo-Jick Choi Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Manika Chopra Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Diana Diaz Dussan Department of Chemical
and Materials Engineering, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Mitsuhiro Ebara International Center for
Materials Nanoarchitectonics, National
Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan
Maria Kaliva Department of Materials Science
and Technology, University of Crete; Institute
of Electronic Structure and Laser, Foundation
for Research and Technology-Hellas,
Heraklion, Greece
ix
Surjith Kumar Kumaran Department of
Chemical and Materials Engineering,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Mingwei Mu International Center for Materials
Nanoarchitectonics, National Institute for
Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan
Ravin Narain Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Nauman Nazeer Department of Chemistry,
University of Prince Edward Island,
Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
Euna Oh Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Yi-Yang Peng Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Saadman S. Rahman Department of
Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Shruti Srinivas Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Aman Ullah Department of Agricultural, Food
and Nutritional Science, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Maria Vamvakaki Department of Materials
Science and Technology, University of Crete;
Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser,
Foundation for Research and Technology-
Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
Wenda Wang Department of Chemical and
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada
Rui Yang Department of Chemical Engineering,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, People’s Republic
of China
x Contributors

Shin-ichi Yusa Department of Applied Wenling Zhang Department of Chemical and

Chemistry, University of Hyogo, Himeji, Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Hyogo, Japan Edmonton, AB, Canada
Hongbo Zeng Department of Chemical and Muhammad Zubair Department of
Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science,
Edmonton, AB, Canada University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
 Preface
The fields of polymer science and nano-
technology have seen significant develop-
ments during the last few decades. A large
number of technologies have been possible
through a combination of knowledge from
both fields, thus bringing together these fun-
damental aspects in one book is a convenient
way to provide readers with easy access to
the much sought-after information.
This book is organized in two parts with
the first one designed to provide a compre-
hensive account of the fundamental aspects
of polymer science including polymer syn-
thesis, characterization, and applications.
Topics such as hydrogels, smart polymers,
biopolymers, and natural polymers, which
are conventionally not covered in polymer
science textbooks, are also discussed. The
first part also covers the fundamental aspects
xi
of controlled radical polymerization namely
nitroxide-mediated polymerization, revers-
ible addition-fragmentation chain transfer
process, and atom transfer radical poly-
merization. The next part focuses on nano-
technology by providing the readers with a
complete description of the different types
of nanomaterials, their synthesis and charac-
terization, and their applications.
I am tremendously thankful to all the
contributors for dedicating their time to put
together their respective chapters in a way
comprehensible for a far-reaching reader-
ship. I would also like to express my sincere
appreciation to Elsevier for all the support
and patience throughout the entire project.
Ravin Narain
 C H A P T E R

1
Brief overview of polymer science
Keshwaree Babooram
Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

1.1 Basic concepts

The simplest definition one can use for a polymer is a long-chain molecule made up of
many chemically bonded repeating units called monomers. The word polymer is of Greek
origin, “poly” meaning many and “mer” meaning part [1]. In other words, “many” of the
same “part” are connected to form a long chain known as a polymer. Hence, polymers have
a very large number of atoms in one molecule. The number of atoms can often be in hundreds
of thousands which is the reason why polymers are also called macromolecules. As an exam-
ple, linking together a large number of paper clips to make a long chain, is a good illustration
of how small molecules come together (in other words polymerize) to form a polymer. Poly-
mers are everywhere and we encounter them every single day of our lives, many times a day!
Right from the bottle we drink water from, to the plastic bag we carry our groceries in, to the
numerous electronic devices, we have become so dependent on or attached to polymeric ma-
terials that they have become an integral part of human lives. Polymers are, however, not lim-
ited to these inanimate objects. Natural polymers like polynucleotides (deoxyribonucleic acid
[DNA] and ribonucleic acid [RNA]), polysaccharides (starch and cellulose), and proteins (col-
lagen and hemoglobin) are biologically important because they sustain life. Rubber and other
protein polymers such as hair, horn, and spider silk are examples of naturally occurring poly-
mers. Some of the latter can also be made synthetically, like polyisoprene which is the syn-
thetic form of rubber [2].
The most common classes of polymers are composed only of carbon and hydrogen, some
examples of these being polyethylene (used a lot in packaging), polypropylene (used in pack-
aging, fashion and sports industry, and medical applications), and polystyrene (used exten-
sively in consumer goods). While these polymers contain only carbon atoms in their
backbone, other commonly manufactured polymers contain heteroatoms such as nitrogen,
oxygen, silicon, and phosphorous. What makes the difference in the composition of the poly-
mer backbone is the polymerization mechanism used in the synthesis of these polymers.

Polymer Science and Nanotechnology 3 # 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816806-6.00001-7
4 1. Brief overview of polymer science

Addition polymerization which is the sequential addition of monomers such as olefins and
vinyl-based molecules, or the ring-opening polymerization of a sterically strained cyclic mol-
ecule, results in a carbon-only backbone. Condensation polymerization, on the other hand,
occurs between molecules carrying different functional groups that react successively with
the loss of a smaller molecule. The result is the formation of a new functional group that be-
comes part of the polymer backbone [3].
Polymer structures can vary depending on how monomers are brought together. In a one-
dimensional structure, monomers are joined to form chains, while in a two-dimensional ar-
rangement, the chains further bond to each other through certain atoms forming a sheet. Fi-
nally, in the third type of arrangement, chains of the polymer bond to one another in three
dimensions forming a more complex network. In today’s world, synthetic polymers are com-
monly referred to as plastics, which typically contain one or more polymers along with ad-
ditives and fillers that are intended to expand their properties to fit various applications. The
end uses of polymers or plastics are governed primarily by their composition, synthesis
method, and structure [2, 3].

1.2 Classification of polymers

Thousands of synthetic polymers are known today and there is no doubt that with the
rapid advancement in the field of polymer synthesis, more will be added [2]. While all poly-
mers can be broadly organized into two major groups based on the type of polymerization
technique used in their synthesis, a more specific classification system based on polymer
structure, method of polymerization, and intermolecular forces helps ease the understanding
of polymer properties.

1.2.1 Polymer structure

When based strictly on their structure, polymers can be classified into three types namely,
linear, branched, and cross-linked polymers. Many of the commercially important polymers
have a uniquely simple linear structure. Such polymers are a collection of long continuous
chains in which monomers have been linked together through covalent bonds to form a back-
bone [3]. The chemical structure of the latter varies depending on the composition of the
monomers. Linear polymers can further be broken down into polymers with (i) all-carbon
backbones, typically synthesized from monomers containing carbon-carbon double bonds;
(ii) heteroatoms in the backbones, resulting from the condensation polymerization of various
functional groups (such as alcohols, amines, or carboxylic acids) on the monomers, and
(iii) inorganic backbones that are composed of certain elements of the second or higher rows
of the periodic table linked to either themselves or to oxygen or nitrogen. Linear polymers are
generally of higher densities and have high melting points and tensile strength since the
intermolecular forces are generally of higher magnitude, leading to the chains being well-
packed. Table 1.1 shows some examples of the different types of linear polymers and their
repeating units.

I. Polymer science
TABLE 1.1 Examples of linear polymers.
Type of backbone Polymer Monomer(s) Repeating unit

All-carbon Polyethylene CH2]CH2 H H

C C
H H n

Polypropylene CH2]CHCH3 H H
C C
H CH3 n

Polyvinylchloride (PVC) CH2]CHCl H H

C C
H Cl n

Polystyrene CH2]CH(C6H5) H H
C C
H n

Presence of heteroatoms Nylon 6,6

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Polyethylene glycol (PEG)

Continued
TABLE 1.1 Examples of linear polymers—cont’d
Type of backbone Polymer Monomer(s) Repeating unit
Inorganic Plastic sulfur S8

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)

Polydimethylsilazane
 1.2 Classification of polymers 7
The second class of structural polymers results from branches of varying lengths growing
from random points along the linear chain, hence the name branched polymers [3]. The pres-
ence of branches reduces the extent of close packing of the main chains, resulting in low-
density polymers with low melting points. While branching can be due to shortfalls during
polymerization, it is also occasionally intentionally introduced to tailor the properties of the
polymers for specific applications. Besides, randomly branched chains and branched internal
loops can also be formed. This happens when branches that are growing out of the main chain
at irregular intervals recombine and form cyclic structures. Another type of branching, which
is the result of many short side chains emerging from the main molecule, gives rise to a comb-
like structure. Fig. 1.1 depicts the difference between the different types of branching. Linear
and branched polymers belong to a class of materials called thermoplastics as they can flow
when heated and can, therefore, be molded into different shapes that are retained when the
materials cool down.
In cross-linked polymers, branches (or side chains) emerging from individual polymer
chains covalently bond to one another, hence permanently connecting them. Cross-linking
leads to the formation of three-dimensional networks that resist solvent attack, heat softening,
and mechanical deformation. Such polymers, called thermoset plastics, are hard and brittle and
tend to take on a shape that cannot be changed unless the polymer is destroyed. Bakelite and
melamine are common examples of cross-linked polymers.

1.2.2 Polymerization techniques

The mechanism of polymerization used in the synthesis of polymers allows for the classi-
fication of the latter into two major classes, namely, addition and condensation polymers. The
former kind is produced by the repeated and sequential addition of monomers without the loss
of a smaller molecule during the process. Therefore, no by-product is formed and the repeating
unit of additional polymers has the same formula as the alkene or functionally-substituted al-
kene monomers used to make them. These addition reactions follow a stepwise mechanism

Polymer main chain

Side chains
(branches)

(A) (B)

(C)
FIG. 1.1 Different types of branched polymers (A) randomly branched; (B) branched with internal loop;
(C) comb-like branching.

I. Polymer science
8 1. Brief overview of polymer science

that involves reactive intermediates such as radicals or ions that help in the conversion of a pi
bond in the monomer into a sigma bond in the polymer. The four different polymerization
techniques used in the synthesis of addition polymers are (i) radical polymerization,
(ii) cationic polymerization, (iii) anionic polymerization, and (iv) coordination catalytic-
polymerization [3–5].
The mechanism of radical polymerization follows three steps namely, initiation, propaga-
tion, and termination. During initiation, a molecule called a radical initiator is broken down
into free radicals either thermally or photolytically. A radical then attacks the pi bond in the
alkene monomer forming a covalent bond with one of the carbon atoms and turning the other
one into a reactive radical. The propagation stage then follows with the latter continuously
adding on more monomers and growing into a chain. Termination of chain growth finally
occurs when the radical chains either combine or participate in disproportionation reactions
involving pulling hydrogen from another radical chain. Cationic and anionic polymerization
follows an overall similar pathway with their initiators being strong acids and Lewis acids (to
covert the alkene into a cation), or strong bases, alkali metals, and organolithium compounds
(to convert the alkene monomer to an anion). Fig. 1.2 summarizes the mechanism of the for-
mation of addition polymers by radical, cationic, and anionic polymerization.
Catalytic polymerization also called the Ziegler-Natta polymerization technique, employs
catalysts that are transition metal-based coordination complexes derived from transition
metal halides and organometallic reagents. Developed in the 1950s by Karl Ziegler and Giulio
Natta, this technique allows better control over the configuration of polymers synthesized
from terminal alkenes and also facilitates the production of unbranched and high molecular
weight compounds, hence, stronger polyolefins at relatively lower temperature and pressure
than required by other addition polymerization methods. The polymerization of ethene using
a titanium-based Ziegler-Natta catalyst is shown in Fig. 1.3.

H H H
H H I* H H2C=CHR
C C I C C* C C
H R R (n times)
H H R n+1

I* : Initiating species; can be a radical, cation, or anion

FIG. 1.2 Mechanism of formation of addition polymers by radical, cationic, and anionic polymerization.

FIG. 1.3 Catalytic polymerization of ethene using a Ziegler-Natta catalyst.

I. Polymer science
 1.2 Classification of polymers 9
The second class of polymers consisting of a large number of very useful materials are
those produced by the polycondensation of monomers combined in an alternating struc-
ture. Condensation polymers are the result of the transformation of functional groups on
monomers that are bi-functional so that each monomer can connect with two others. Poly-
merization typically proceeds with the loss of a smaller molecule which can be in the form
of water, gas, or salt. One very well-known condensation polymer is nylon 6,6 which is a
polyamide made from adipic acid (a dicarboxylic acid) and 1,6-hexamethylenediamine,
the combination of which leads to the loss of water molecules. Nylon 6,6 finds numerous
applications in the production of clothing, cooking utensils, carpets, fishing lines, and
many more. Polycondensation tends to be slower than polyaddition, often requiring
heating the reaction. A direct consequence of the slow polymerization is generally the for-
mation of lower molecular weight polymers. Highly crystalline condensation polymers
with high tensile strength result from strong interchain interactions when polar functional
groups are present along the chains. Fig. 1.4 shows the formation of nylon 6,6 by the poly-
condensation of adipic acid with 1,6-hexamethylenediamine.

FIG. 1.4 Condensation polymerization of adipic acid and 1,6-hexamethylenediamine to produce nylon 6,6.

I. Polymer science
10 1. Brief overview of polymer science

1.2.3 Intermolecular forces

Covalent bonds are the strong forces that hold atoms together in a molecule and they are of
the intramolecular type. In a polymer backbone, they hold atoms together, making a long
chain molecule. Intermolecular forces, on the other hand, are of weaker intensity and they
help keep molecules closer together [6]. The presence of intermolecular forces in polymers
along with their intensity help in a closer packing of the chains and heavily influence the
properties and behavior of the material. Four types of polymers can be defined based on their
intermolecular forces (i) elastomers; (ii) thermoplastics; (iii) thermosets; and (iv) fibers [1].
Elastomers have the characteristics of rubber, that is, they are flexible and elastic. They can
be easily stretched with the application of just a little force but return to their original form
once the stress is removed. For polymers to show elastic behavior, they must consist of ex-
tremely flexible chains with very weak intermolecular forces between them. Although this
property allows the polymer to be stretched, for it to go back to its original shape, it is also
very important that some degree of cross-linking is present between the chains as it prevents
them from sliding past one another (called plastic flow or deformation). Natural rubber is
sticky and very readily experiences plastic flow which limits its applications. However, its
treatment with controlled amounts of elemental sulfur helps introduce cross-links between
the chains which, in turn, reduces plastic flow and incorporates elasticity in rubber. The pro-
cess is known as the vulcanization of rubber and produces the material used in car tires.
The second type of polymers, called thermoplastics, have sufficiently strong intermolecular
forces between the chains thus, preventing plastic flow at room temperature. Thermoplastics
are, therefore, solid at ambient temperature but when heated they soften and turn into a thick
fluid as the intermolecular forces are weakened. When allowed to cool down, they harden into a
solid mass. This characteristic makes these polymers easy to transform into the desired shape
by applying heat and molding. For these reasons, the recycling of the wastes of thermoplastic
polymers is also made easier and nowadays they are increasingly being collected and recycled
into new products of lower added value [5]. Polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, and polystyrene
are very important examples of commercial thermoplastics.
Thermosets, on the other hand, are materials that do not melt on heating. Thermoset poly-
mers are generally synthesized from semi fluids composed of relatively small chains of lower
molar masses. Upon heating or chemical treatment, a considerably large amount of chemical
cross-linking takes place between the individual chains which cause the material to harden.
The resulting three-dimensional network sets into any given shape after which, unlike ther-
moplastics, cannot be reshaped by heating. Such polymers will undergo degradation when
heated but will not melt. They also resist mechanical deformation and attack by solvents. For
these reasons, thermoset polymers are not easily recycled. Used extensively in the making of
kitchenware, and electrical and automotive components because of its high resistance to heat
and electricity, bakelite (made from the condensation polymerization of phenol and formal-
dehyde) is a well-known example of a thermosetting polymer.
Polymers, that are classified as fibers are characterized by the presence of very strong
intermolecular forces as well as a highly regular structure resulting in high crystallinity.
The intermolecular forces are normally hydrogen bonds or strong dipole-dipole interactions
that considerably lower the elasticity and increase the tensile strength of the polymer which is
thread-like with a high melting point. Nylon 6,6 made from the polycondensation of adipic

I. Polymer science
 1.3 Natural vs synthetic polymers 11
acid and 1,6-hexamethylenediamine, is one example of a synthetic polymer fiber with excel-
lent heat and chemical resistance. It is widely used in the making of carpets and textiles. Other
polymeric fibers like polyesters are turned into fabrics used in clothing and upholstery.

1.3 Natural vs synthetic polymers

When considering the incredibly large number of polymers surrounding us, the simplest
way to classify them is depending on their source, that is, natural or synthetic. Natural poly-
mers occur in nature and originate either from plants or animals. They are designed by nature
to achieve a very specific task which is primarily to sustain life [3, 5]. They belong to one of the
three main categories which are polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and proteins. Polysaccharides
are low molecular weight polymer chains that covalently link together sugar molecules (com-
prised of numerous hydroxyl groups). The most important polysaccharides are those made of
glucose or its derivatives. Starch and cellulose are both glucose-based polysaccharides that
make up the structure of plants. With a large number of hydroxyl groups along the polymer
chains causing strong intermolecular forces through hydrogen bonding, natural cellulose is
highly crystalline and very strong. For this reason, they have remarkable textile properties
that are still superior to synthetic alternatives. Proteins, on the other hand, are the building
blocks of animals and are polypeptides formed by the polymerization of amino acids. They
can be composed of long-chain molecules or cross-linked chains, each type of protein having a
characteristic sequence of amino acids and structure that determines its distinct activity or
purpose. Hemoglobin, albumin, collagen, and actin are some examples of very important pro-
teins. DNA and RNA are further examples of natural polymers found in living organisms.
Responsible for storing and reading genetic information, they are linear polymers consisting
primarily of sugar molecules, phosphates, and bases.
Synthetic polymers are man-made and produced in a laboratory using controlled polymer-
ization parameters that help tailor the properties of the polymers to suit specific needs. Most
of the world around us is made of synthetic polymers with polyolefins like polyethylene and
polypropylene, and nylon being examples of materials that are produced on a massive scale
worldwide. In some cases, chemical modifications are made to natural polymers to optimize
their properties and commercial value. These polymers are called semi-synthetic and one
such example is vulcanized rubber which is produced by chemically cross-linking the chains
in natural rubber using sulfur [5].
Rubber is a very interesting example of a polymer that occurs naturally but can also be
synthesized in a laboratory. Natural rubber, composed of isoprene units, is a sticky milky liq-
uid and therefore, hard to handle. It lacks good mechanical properties and is also not as du-
rable as it decays with time. As mentioned earlier, one way to improve its properties is
vulcanization that turns it into semi-synthetic material. Another solution to the shortcomings
of natural rubber is the production of the entirely synthetic version of the polymer. The latter
is preferred because synthetic rubber can be easily made from isoprene monomer which can,
in turn, be produced in pure form in the laboratory. Furthermore, synthesizing rubber in a
laboratory allows for a myriad of possibilities to create rubber with the desired properties
by using different monomers in varying amounts.

I. Polymer science
12 1. Brief overview of polymer science

References
[1] A. Rudin, The Elements of Polymer Science and Engineering: An Introductory Text and Reference for Engineers
and Chemists, second ed., Academic Press, San Diego, USA, 1999.
[2] J.R. Fried, Polymer Science & Technology, third ed., Prentice Hall, 2014.
[3] P. Munk, T.M. Aminabhavi, Introduction to Macromolecular Science, second ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York,
2002.
[4] A.E. Tonelli, M. Srinivasarao, Polymers From the Inside Out, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001.
[5] C.E. Carraher Jr., Carraher’s Polymer Chemistry, eighth ed., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Florida, 2011.
[6] C.D. Craver, C.E. Carraher Jr., Applied Polymer Science, 21st Century, Elsevier, Oxford, 2000.

I. Polymer science
 C H A P T E R

2
Nature and molecular structure
of polymers
Yi-Yang Peng, Shruti Srinivas, Ravin Narain
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB, Canada

2.1 Natural vs synthetic polymers

Polymers of both natural and synthetic origin are a versatile and promising class of mate-
rials that have been used for a range of applications. These polymers have been extensively
investigated because of the flexibility in modifying or synthesizing them, for instance, to
match the physical and mechanical properties with various tissues and organs of the body
[1–4].
Natural polymers also referred to as biopolymers have excellent biocompatibility, unique
mechanical properties, and closely mimic the cellular environment. These polymers are bio-
degradable via both enzymatic and hydrolytic mechanism and their applications range from
wound dressings and skin grafts to fibers and fabrics [5, 6]. As these polymers mimic the com-
ponents of the extracellular matrix (ECM) they are readily accepted by the body and avoid
chronic immunological reactions and toxicity. Some examples of natural polymers includes
(i) polysaccharides, (ii) polyesters, and (iii) proteins derived from both plants and animals
[7, 8]. The intermolecular interactions such as hydrogen bonding are responsible for the
strength and physical properties of natural macromolecules [9].
Synthetic polymers are an attractive class of man-made polymers. They have excellent
reproducibility and can be designed with appropriate physical and chemical properties. They
can be tailored for specific applications by influencing their rate of degradation. Their
degradation rate can be influenced by altering their mechanical or chemical properties and mo-
lecular weight [10–12]. The resulting inter/intramolecular interactions such as dipole-dipole
interactions are responsible for the physical properties of the synthetic macromolecules [9].
Synthetic polymers are categorized into (i) thermoplastics, (ii) thermosets, (iii) elastomers,
and (iv) synthetic fibers.

Polymer Science and Nanotechnology 13 # 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816806-6.00002-9
14 2. Nature and molecular structure of polymers

2.2 Structure of polymers

2.2.1 Amorphous vs crystalline polymers

Amorphous polymers (Fig. 2.1A) are polymers that have an irregularly shaped structure
with generally (but not necessarily) bulky pendent groups. The molecular packing of amor-
phous polymers looks like long chains that are intertwined around each other, while some
polymers can form crystalline structures, their molecular packing looks more like woven
threads. The chains of amorphous polymers are characterized by a short-range order of re-
peating units and are not capable of an orderly arrangement. Amorphous polymers are in
a glassy state below their glass transition temperature (Tg), whereas above their Tg they
are in a soft and rubbery state. Examples of glassy amorphous polymers include atactic
PS, polycarbonates made from bisphenol A (BPA), and polymethylmethacrylate [13, 14].
The polymer chains of crystalline polymers (Fig. 2.1B) are characterized by a long-range
order of repeating units that are three-dimensional and are capable of an orderly arrange-
ment. When these polymers are cooled, the molecules tend to aggregate into a solid with very
less potential energy. However, as the chains of the crystalline polymers are long, they cannot
form a perfect arrangement. The degree of crystallinity varies from a few percentage to about
90% based on the conditions of crystallinity [15]. The degree of crystallinity is calculated by:
ρc ðρs  ρa Þ
degree of crystallinity ¼ ∗ 100 (1.1)
ρs ð ρc  ρa Þ
ρc is the density of the completely crystalline polymer and ρa is the density of the completely
amorphous polymer. ρs is the density of the sample.
Examples of crystalline polymers include PE and its copolymers, polypropylene, polyes-
ters, and nylons. The three factors that lead to the metastable states in the crystals are the mo-
lecular size, flexibility, and the chemical regularity of the polymer chains [16]. The increase of
crystallinity elevates the strength of the polymers. For instance, the high-density PE with
64%–80% crystallinity has a higher tensile strength (21–38 MPa) in comparison to low-density
PE (4.1–16 MPa) with 42%–53% crystallinity [17].
However, not all simple organic molecules have the ability to form polymers despite the
conditions being right to initiate polymerization. The condition needed for the molecules to

FIG. 2.1 Amorphous polymer (A), crystalline polymer (B), and semi-crystalline polymer (C).

I. Polymer science
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 BOOK X.
CONCERNING PARTITION, LIMITATION, AND BOUNDARIES.

TITLE I. CONCERNING PARTITION, AND LANDS CONVEYED BY CONTRACT.

I. A Partition Once Made, shall Remain Forever in Force.

II. No Partition Made Between Brothers shall be Revoked, Even if it was not
Made in Writing, but Only in the Presence of a Competent Witness.
III. Where a Partition is Made Among Many Persons by the Majority, and
those Entitled to the Larger Share, it shall not be Changed by any Act
of the Minority.
IV. One Heir shall have the Right to Act for all the Others, either as Plaintiff
or Defendant.
V. Where Anyone Violates a Contract Establishing a Partition, and Seizes a
Portion of the Property.
VI. Where an Heir Plants a Vineyard, or Erects a House, on Land Belonging
to his Co-Heirs.
VII. Where one Person Plants a Vineyard on the Land of Another, to which he
has no Title.
VIII. Concerning the Division of Lands Made Between Goths and Romans.
IX. Concerning Forests Still Undivided Among Goths and Romans.
X. Whatever Acts a Slave may Perform, without the Order of his Master,
shall be Void, except when Otherwise Provided by Law.
XI. Whoever Enters upon Land, under a Lease, must Comply with his
Contract.
XII. Where Lands are Leased, by a Written Contract, for a Term of Years.
XIII. Where he who Rents Land under Contract, Cultivates a Greater Area
than he has a Right to do, under the Conditions of the Same.
XIV. Where a Dispute Arises Between Landlord and Tenant, Concerning
Arable Lands, or Forests, which are Leased.
XV. Both Tenants must Pay the Rent for Land which has been Sublet.
XVI. Where Goths have Appropriated any of the Third Part of Land Belonging
to Romans, they shall Restore the Entire Amount to the Romans,
under Order of Court.
XVII. Concerning the Partition of Property Among the Blood-Relatives of
Slaves, and the Distribution of their Personal Estates.
XVIII. All Personal Property shall be Classed under One Title.
XIX. Where a Contract is not Complied with, according to its Terms.

I. A Partition Once Made, shall Remain Forever in Force.

 A just partition once made, shall always remain in force, and, for
no reason, shall it ever be altered thereafter.

II. No Partition made Between Brothers shall be Revoked,

Even if it was not Made in Writing, but Only in the Presence of a
Competent Witness.
We hereby decree that a partition made between brothers, even
though it be not evidenced by an agreement in writing, shall remain
in force, provided it can be proved by competent testimony; and,
when this has been done, said partition shall have full validity in law.

III. Where a Partition is Made Among Many Persons by the

Majority, and those Entitled to the Larger Share, it shall not be
Changed by any Act of the Minority.
Where several heirs are interested in a partition of property,
whatever is determined upon, as equitable, by a majority of the
same, shall prevail, and shall not be interfered with thereafter by the
minority.
FLAVIUS CHINTASVINTUS, KING.
IV. One Heir shall have the Right to Act for all the Others,
either as Plaintiff or Defendant.
It was established by a former law that, where a cause is heard in
court, one person shall not have the right to answer for another,
unless the latter, who is equally interested, should be present, and
should consent; and, for this reason, we consider it superfluous to
make further provision in such matters, in cases where litigation
arises, and each person must plead his own cause. However, lest
through the artifice of an adversary, where a party interposes delay
on behalf of one joined with him in the case, the term of thirty years
may run against the complainant; after due deliberation, we hereby
decree, that no excuse for delay shall be allowed in behalf of any
party; and that any party to a suit may appear for all others joined
with him, in the same manner as if he alone were interested. If,
however, an heir should lose the suit either through corruption, or by
his own negligence, the rights of none of his co-heirs shall be
prejudiced thereby; and should any of them desire to reopen the
case, they shall be permitted to do so. The law hereinbefore
mentioned, which relates to this subject, is hereby abrogated; and
we enjoin the observance of the present one upon all the people of
our realm. And we hereby decree, that the same rule shall be
observed where one of several parties interested in the prosecution
of a claim thinks that a suit ought to be brought to collect it.

V. Where Anyone Violates a Contract Establishing a

Partition, and Seizes a Portion of the Property.
Whoever violates the provisions of a partition made between
heirs, and seizes any property belonging to a co-heir, shall forfeit as
much of his own share as he attempted to take from the other.

VI. Where an Heir Plants a Vineyard, or Erects a House, on

Land Belonging to his Co-Heirs.
Where anyone plants a vineyard, or builds a house, upon the
land of any of his co-heirs, whether the owner of the same is
ignorant of the fact, or consents to it, (even if he who planted said
vineyard, or built said house, was ignorant of what part of said land
belonged to his co-heirs), when he shall establish this, either by his
own oath, or by the testimony of witnesses, he shall give to the
owner upon whose premises he planted the vineyard, an equal
quantity of land of the same value, and shall remain secure in the
possession of the vineyard which he planted. If, however, he should
plant said vineyard against the consent of the owner, he shall forfeit
all right to the same. The same rule shall apply to buildings of every
description. We also decree that if anyone should sell, give away, or
exchange, land belonging to another; as soon as it shall be
discovered that he had no title to the same, and if he who received
said land should have built a house upon it, or should have planted a
vineyard, olive-grove, garden, or orchard therein; or should have
added anything to the value of said land by his labor; and the party
to whom said land belongs should delay to claim it; or should be
ignorant that it had been so disposed of; or should be unwilling to
assert his rights to the same, in order to thereafter reap the benefit of
the additional value it has acquired from the labor of another; when
the said owner shall establish his title to said land in court, he shall
receive another similar tract, double in value, from the party who
made the illegal sale or transfer, and he who improved said land
shall under no circumstances lose the fruits of his toil.

VII. Where one Person Plants a Vineyard on the Land of

Another, to which he has no Title.
Whoever plants a vineyard upon the land of another, who is not
his co-heir, without the permission of said owner, either by force, or
when said owner was ignorant of the fact, or absent (even if he
should not have been forbidden to do so), shall lose the vineyard
that he planted; for the reason that he ought to know that whoever
appropriates the property of another should not profit twofold by his
illegal act.

VIII. Concerning the Division of Lands Made Between Goths

and Romans.
A division of arable lands or forests made between Goths and
Romans, shall under no circumstances be interfered with, provided
said division shall be proved to have been publicly made, and no
Roman shall take, or claim for himself, any part of the two thirds of
said land allotted to a Goth in said division; nor shall any Goth dare
to seize, or claim for himself, any of the third part of said land allotted
to a Roman, unless it should have been bestowed upon him by our
generosity; and any division made between parents or neighbors
shall not be disturbed by their posterity.

IX. Concerning Forests Still Undivided Among Goths and

Romans.
In the case of forests which are still undivided, where any Goth or
Roman has appropriated a portion of the same, and placed it under
cultivation, we hereby decree that if any woodland of equal value
belongs to the party bound under the law to make compensation, the
person entitled to receive said compensation shall not refuse to
accept the woodland aforesaid. If, however, the former should have
no woodland of equal value, the tract which is under cultivation shall
be divided between the two parties.

X. Whatever Acts a Slave may Perform, without the Order of

his Master, shall be Void, except when Otherwise Provided by
Law.
Wherever a slave makes a division of any property, or does any
other act without the order of his master, except where authorized by
law, we declare said act to be invalid, unless the master of said slave
should be willing to sanction the same.

XI. Whoever Enters upon Land, under a Lease, must Comply

with his Contract.
Whoever rents land under the terms of a legal contract, for a
fixed annual rental, shall have possession of said premises, and
must pay the rent at the end of each year, according to the terms of
the lease; because no contract should be violated. Where the tenant
neglects to pay the rent at the end of each year, the owner shall be
entitled to the possession of his land; and he who did not comply
with his contract shall, through his own fault, lose all the profit which
might accrue to him under said contract.

XII. Where Lands are Leased, by a Written Contract, for a

Term of Years.
Where the use of land is granted by an instrument in writing, for a
certain term of years, he who received said land shall restore the
same to the owner, at the expiration of said term, and shall do so
without unnecessary delay, according to the conditions of the
contract.

XIII. Where he who Rents Land under Contract, Cultivates a

Greater Area than he has a Right to do, under the Conditions of
the Same.
Whoever rents land under a lease, shall occupy as much of said
land as the owner permits him to use, and no more. If, however, he
should cultivate more land than he is entitled to under his contract, or
should bring in others for that purpose, or his sons and grandsons,
inmates of his house, should cultivate lands not included in his lease;
or he should occupy any fields without the permission of the owner;
or should, without authority, cut down any grove, for the purpose of
having tillable land, or meadows, or to build fences out of the timber;
he shall lose everything which he has appropriated without
permission; and it shall rest in the discretion of the owner whether he
shall increase the rent, or shall at once take possession of the land
not included in the lease. And where only arable land is rented to
any person and no woodland or pasture is included, no lessee shall
have the right to use said woodland or pasture without the consent of
the owner thereof.

XIV. Where a Dispute Arises Between Landlord and Tenant,

Concerning Arable Lands, or Forests, which are Leased.
Where any dispute arises between the parties to a lease,
concerning the quantity of land granted under said lease the lessor, if
he is living, and if he is dead, his heirs, shall make oath that said
lessor did not lease a larger tract of land than is designated by them.
And after they have made oath as aforesaid, they shall attach their
seals to the same in the presence of witnesses, to the end that no
cause for dispute may arise thereafter. If, however, said parties
should not be worthy of credit, or should be unwilling to make oath
as aforesaid, or should have any doubt concerning the amount of
land so leased, they shall not make oath and imperil their souls, but
they shall divide each of the whole number of aratra received by
themselves, as heirs of their parents, into fifty arepennes: so that
every portion occupied or cultivated shall include said fifty
arepennes; nor shall they presume to occupy any more than said
portion measured and allotted to them, unless with the consent of
the owner or owners of said land. Any tenant who occupies more
than said quantity of land, shall pay double the amount of rent of the
tract he illegally entered upon.

XV. Both Tenants must Pay the Rent for Land which has
been Sublet.
 Where a landlord receives a tenant on his land, and it afterward
happens that the latter sublets a third of the same to another party,
both shall be considered tenants of the landlord, and shall pay rent
to him in proportion to the amount of land they occupy.
XVI. Where Goths have Appropriated any of the Third Part of
Land Belonging to Romans, they shall Restore the Entire
Amount to the Romans, under Order of Court.
Judges, governors, and other authorities, in all cases where
Romans have been deprived of their lands, shall take them from
those who occupy them, and restore them to the Romans, in order
that the royal treasury may sustain no loss; provided, however, that
the period of fifty years shall not have elapsed, so that, by limitation
of time, the rights of the Romans to said lands may not have been
lost.
FLAVIUS CHINTASVINTUS, KING.
XVII. Concerning the Partition of Property Among the Blood-
Relatives of Slaves, and the Distribution of their Personal
Estates.
It is the just province of the law to amend or repeal by new
decrees, any former statutes which may be devoid of reason or
equity; and the cause of abuses must first be determined, before
laws can be enacted for their correction. As a son is born of both
parents, why should he follow the condition of his mother, while he
owes his being equally to his father. It is, therefore, but reasonable
that we decree that where one slave has married a slave owned by
another person, any issue of said marriage shall belong equally to
the masters of both slaves. Where, however, there is but one son
born to said parents, since he cannot serve both masters at once, he
shall remain with his mother until his twelfth year, at which age he
will be able to work. The master of the female slave shall then pay to
the master of her husband one half of the value of the child, after
said value shall have been appraised by men of respectability. A
similar rule shall be observed in the cases of other children of slaves,
where said children are not of even number. All personal property
which said male and female slave has accumulated, while living
under one roof, shall belong to both masters. And if said slaves
should have accumulated any property on land belonging to a third
person, or any building, or any real estate of any description, or any
personal property that is not portable, the masters of said slaves
shall have a right to the division of said property among themselves,
in the same manner as if it had been acquired through relationship
by blood. If one of the said masters should be opposed to the
marriage of the slaves aforesaid, he may straightway separate them,
under this condition: that, after said marriage shall have come to the
knowledge of said masters, and they should not desire its
continuance, they must dissolve it within a year. If, through their
negligence, this reasonable time prescribed by law should have
elapsed, whatever issue said slaves may have after that time, shall
be equally divided between their masters; the sex, number, and ages
of said children being taken into consideration. If more than a year
should elapse without one or both of their masters being aware of
said marriage, all issue of the same shall be divided between them,
as aforesaid.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.
XVIII. All Personal Property shall be Classed under One Title.
We often see wicked persons, for the purpose of contention,
pervert the meaning of the law; and, in order to prevent such
conduct, as far as possible, we desire to simplify matters whenever
this can be done. Therefore, we decree that no difference shall exist
in the classification of all kinds of personal property, whether said
property be tangible, or merely held in trust by one for another; in
order that the subtle distinctions which have arisen in the
classification of said property may be abolished.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.
XIX. Where a Contract is not Complied With, according to its
Terms.
Whenever any person obtains possession of land, vineyards, or
any other real estate, under a lease for the tenth part of its annual
yield, or for any other payment, or consideration, whether said lease
is in writing, or verbal, provided he who leases it does so under
some contract for rent, the lessee shall, without demand or
solicitation from the lessor, pay his rent regularly; nor shall the right
of the landlord to said rent be affected, in any way, should he not do
so. For wherever the provisions or covenants of a lease are not
fulfilled, the right of the owner shall not be affected; because the
controversy has not arisen through the act of the landlord, but
through the fraud of the tenant. If the tenant should refuse to fulfil his
contract, or to comply with any of its provisions, he shall pay double
the amount to the landlord which he agreed to pay him under the
terms of the lease. And if the tenant, alleging various pretexts,
should not comply with his contract for such a time that the rights of
the owner are lost by the limitation of the law, that is, for fifty years,
he shall forfeit said property, with all the increase in value of the
same resulting from his labors thereon.
 TITLE II. CONCERNING THE LIMITATIONS OF FIFTY AND THIRTY YEARS.

I. After the Lapse of Fifty Years, Neither Goths nor Romans can Assert a
Claim to Property.
II. No Fugitive Slave shall Again be Reduced to Servitude, after the Lapse of
Fifty Years.
III. No Suit at Law shall be Brought Thirty Years After the Cause of Action has
Arisen.
IV. The Limitation of Thirty Years shall Run in all Cases Excepting those
where Slaves of the Crown are Concerned.
V. Concerning Claims made within Thirty Years.
VI. The Limitation of Thirty Years shall not Run while Persons are Exiled.
VII. Within what Time Slaves Belonging to the Crown can Again be Reduced
to Slavery.

I. After the Lapse of Fifty Years, Neither Goths nor Romans

can Assert a Claim to Property.
Lands apportioned between Goths and Romans, which have not
been claimed within fifty years, can under no circumstances be
claimed afterwards.

II. No Fugitive Slave shall Again be Reduced to Servitude,

after the Lapse of Fifty Years.
Fugitive slaves who have not been found within fifty years, shall
not, after that time, be returned to servitude.

III. No Suit at Law shall be Brought Thirty Years After the

Cause of Action has Arisen.
All suits at law, whether well founded or not, and also all criminal
cases, which shall not have been brought or determined in thirty
years; or any disputes relating to the ownership or possession of
slaves, which have not been settled within that time, shall under no
circumstances be prosecuted afterwards. Where any person
attempts to bring a suit thirty years after the cause of action has
arisen, he shall be barred by the limitation aforesaid, and shall be
compelled to give a pound of gold to whomever the king may direct.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.
 IV. The Limitation of Thirty Years shall Run in all Cases,
Excepting those where the Slaves of the Crown are Concerned.
Want of care and resolution in an owner often disturbs the rightful
possession of property, and what vigilance was not exerted to
preserve, illegal license appropriates. The passage of the aforesaid
period of thirty years is seen to occur so constantly in human affairs,
that now it does not seem to have originated in the institutions of
man, but rather to have arisen, in the course of nature, from the
affairs themselves; and for this reason, therefore, we hereby decree,
for all time hereafter, that if any beneficiary of the king, or any
employee of the Crown, except royal slaves, should have held any
property belonging to anyone for the space of thirty years, he shall
have the right to claim and retain said property for himself, forever;
and the demand of no one shall avail against said limitation, after it
shall have been legally established.
Royal slaves whose servile origin is publicly known, who are at
large, and wandering from place to place, even though they should
pay no taxes, and should lie concealed in hiding places, or remain
under the protection of any person for the space of thirty years, as
aforesaid, shall not thereby escape the restraints of slavery, but shall
be restored to their original condition without regard to lapse of time.
Those only shall be excepted from the operation of this law who
have received their freedom from the king.
FLAVIUS CHINTASVINTUS, KING.
V. Concerning Claims made within Thirty Years.
Long continued possession frequently transfers the ownership of
property from one person to another; for whatever anyone has held
for thirty years without molestation, can never be lost through the
claims of another. To the end, however, that the rights of claimant as
well as those of possessor may be properly protected, we hereby
decree that the following law shall be observed by all, to wit: that
wherever any property has been held by any person for from twenty-
five to thirty years, and another person should claim said property;
and the possessor should be notified of said claim either by the
judge or the claimant, and should fail to make restitution, or to
answer within a reasonable time; or should interpose delay under
any pretext; or should assert his claim while the possessor of said
property is absent, that is to say, while he is in another province, or
in the army; under such circumstances, the judge shall deliver said
property into the possession of the claimant in the presence of three
witnesses, in order that the limitation of time may not run against
said claim. And if the judge should order the property in dispute to be
delivered into the possession of the claimant by a bailiff, he shall
issue a writ directed to said bailiff, signed by his own hand, and
according to the form hereinafter specified; and if there should be
other property than that claimed in the place where the latter is
situated, in order that no dispute may arise, the doors or gates of the
enclosure where said property is situated shall be sealed with the
signet of the judge or of the bailiff, and shall remain sealed for eight
days; and the claimant shall retain possession of it for only eight
days; but he must not waste, spoil, or dispose of said property, in
any way, but must care for the same to the best of his ability. After
the expiration of that time he must leave the property intact, in the
possession of him who originally held it, and no responsibility
whatever shall attach to him who had possession of it for the eight
days aforesaid. And he himself, or any of his family or descendants,
shall have the right to assert their claim to said property, at any time
within thirty years from the day when the claimant made the demand
as aforesaid. And if said person should not be able to establish the
justice of his claim, he shall render satisfaction to the owner of the
property, as a person making an unjust demand for something to
which he was not entitled. If he should damage said property, or
dispose of it, in any way, while in his possession, he shall be
compelled to restore fourfold its value; and neither he, nor any of his
family or posterity, shall have a right to make any claim for said
property at any time thereafter.
We also hereby decree that if the property in dispute should
consist of different articles, and should be situated in different
places, an order issued by the judge relating to any one of said
articles shall have the same force as if it related to all. The form of
the order issued by the judge shall be as follows:—
 ITEM.
WRIT OF INFORMATION. THE JUDGE TO THE BAILIFF.

We inform you that such-and-such a person claims property in

the possession of so-and-so, and we hereby order you to place said
property in the possession of said claimant, in the presence of two or
three witnesses; to be left in his possession for the space of eight
days only, according to the provisions of the law; and if you should
find any property to which the seal of the owner thereof is not
attached, you will attach your own seal thereto, to remain unbroken
for the aforesaid term of eight days, in order to remove all cause of
dispute or opportunity for fraud; and none of said property shall be
removed by you.
FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.

VI. The Limitation of Thirty Years shall not Run while

Persons are Exiled.
The more humanity is oppressed by misfortune, the more we
should provide by our clemency for the evils with which it is afflicted.
Wherefore, whenever any person of noble rank, or any freeman, or
even a slave, is confined in prison, or sent into exile, by order of the
king; and should afterwards be liberated, or pardoned, and return to
his country, and anyone should have claimed any of his property
during his absence; the time which he passed in confinement or exile
shall not be counted as a part of the thirty or fifty year limitation
barring a claim, or action at law; but the time during which he was
imprisoned, or absent from the country, and unable to assert his
rights, shall be excepted from the period of limitation aforesaid. In all
other cases the laws which have already established periods of
limitation relating to claims and actions at law, shall remain in force
hereafter.
FLAVIUS EGICA, KING.

VII. Within what Time Slaves Belonging to the Crown can

Again be Reduced to Slavery.
We hereby repeal the former law by which slaves belonging to
the Crown could be reduced to their former condition of servitude,
without consideration of the lapse of time, and, in the place thereof,
issue the following decree, to wit: that whoever has had in his
possession any slaves of the Crown for the space of thirty years, and
said slaves have not been transferred to the possession of any other
person during that time; or if any such slaves should wander from
place to place, without paying any tax for the space of fifty years;
said slaves shall under no circumstances be reclaimed by the
Crown. But those persons under whose control such slaves were, for
either the thirty or the fifty year period aforesaid, must make suitable
compensation for their services to the royal treasury; to the end that
one and the same law may prevail concerning the slaves of both
prince and people.
 TITLE III. CONCERNING BOUNDARIES AND LANDMARKS.

I.How Boundaries and Landmarks shall be Preserved.

II.Concerning the Destruction and Removal of Landmarks.
III.What is to be Done when a Dispute Arises Concerning Boundaries.
IV. Where One Person makes a Claim to Land Included within the
Boundaries of Another.
V. Where any Change was made in the Boundaries of Land During the Time
of the Romans, no Claim Based upon Other Boundaries shall Prevail.

I. How Boundaries and Landmarks shall be Preserved.

We hereby decree that all ancient landmarks and boundaries
shall stand as established in former times, and that they shall not be
disturbed or removed.

II. Concerning the Destruction and Removal of Landmarks.

Whoever levels any landmarks for the purpose of travel, or dares
to remove any established landmarks, for every landmark so
fraudulently disturbed, if he is a freeman, he shall pay twenty solidi;
and if he is a slave he shall receive fifty lashes, and shall restore
said landmark. If any person while plowing land, or planting a
vineyard, should involuntarily disturb a landmark, he shall restore the
same in the presence of the neighbors, and shall not, thereafter, be
liable to any damage or penalty for removing the same.

III. What is to be Done when a Dispute Arises Concerning

Boundaries.
Whenever a dispute arises concerning the boundaries of land,
search shall be made for the old landmarks; that is to say, the
mounds of earth, or squared stones, which, in ancient times, were
made or placed in order to define the boundaries of lands; or for any
stones which have been buried, and are carved to show that they
were intended as landmarks. Should any of said landmarks be
wanting, search must then be made for such trees as might have
been marked in former times, to define the boundaries between
different tracts of land.
 THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.
IV. Where One Person makes a Claim to Land Included within
the Boundaries of Another.
Where anyone inherits or acquires land within the boundaries of
another person, or, during the absence, or without the knowledge of
the owner of the same, obtains possession of such land for a long
period of time, or for more than the term of fifty years, even though
his occupation of said property was public and notorious, he shall
have no permanent title thereto; and as soon as the boundaries of
said land shall have been established by the discovery of the ancient
landmarks, by persons appointed to find the same, he shall restore
said land so appropriated to the owner thereof. Nor shall any
obligation of the owner, nor undisputed possession for a long period
of time, avail against the ancient landmarks, when they are
discovered. But it must be proved, if it can be ascertained, whether
said land was acquired by one of the contesting parties or by the
ancestors of either of them; for if such time should have elapsed that
neither of said parties, nor any of their ancestors, knew who first
obtained the title to or possession of said property, and the party in
possession is unable to show by an instrument in writing, or by
witnesses, whence the title to said premises was derived, because
the fact of original possession is in doubt; whoever of said claimants
is in possession of said land at the time shall have an irrevocable
right to retain it. Where, however, one person seems to have been in
possession of said land without the other claimant asserting any right
to the same, and such possession shall be public, and apparently
established by existing landmarks, and no evidence of fraud be
disclosed; it is not reasonable that the title of the owner should be
lost by reason of its occupation for a protracted period by another.
Where one person has obtained possession of land by force or
fraud, this shall in no wise affect the rights of another claimant. If,
however, one person should attempt to gain possession of property
occupied by another, not through fraud or insolence, but by a judicial
proceeding, if his claim is just, he shall be entitled to possession of
said property. But if, unknown to the owner, he should unexpectedly
attempt to gain possession of the land of the latter, the owner of the
same shall have the right to accuse him of being a trespasser with
violence, and, by legal proceedings, compel him to surrender said
property.

V. Where any Change was made in the Boundaries of Land

During the Time of the Romans, no Claim Based upon Other
Boundaries shall Prevail.
Where real property, in which any person claims an interest, was
disposed of before the coming of the Goths, and was transferred to
the possession of another party either by sale, donation, partition, or
any other transaction, whatever title or right to said property shall be
proved to have been formerly conveyed by the Romans shall remain
inviolable. But where a title to real property cannot be established by
any certain landmarks or boundaries, the following proceeding must
be observed, to wit: an examination of the premises must be made
by persons selected by the consent of all parties; and the judge, for
his own information, shall cause the oldest residents of the
neighborhood to be sworn, that they will, without fraud, show where
the boundaries of the land in question are situated; and no one shall
establish a new boundary without the presence of the other party, or
in the absence of one of the inspectors appointed by common
consent, as aforesaid. If a freeman should violate this provision, he
shall be liable for the penalty of forcible entry, as prescribed by law.
Where a slave commits this offence, without the knowledge of his
master, he shall receive two hundred lashes in public, but his master
shall incur no liability for his act.[50]
 BOOK XI.
CONCERNING THE SICK AND THE DEAD, AND MERCHANTS
WHO COME FROM BEYOND SEAS.

TITLE I. CONCERNING PHYSICIANS AND SICK PERSONS.

I. No Physician shall Presume to Bleed a Woman, in the Absence of her

Relatives.
II. No Physician shall Visit Persons Confined in Prison.
III. Where a Physician Treats Disease under a Contract.
IV. Where a Sick Person Dies, while a Physician is Treating him under a
Contract.
V. Where a Physician Removes a Cataract from the Eye.
VI. Where a Freeman or a Slave Dies from Being Bled.
VII. Concerning the Compensation to be Received for the Instruction of a
Student in Medicine.
VIII. No Physician shall be Imprisoned without a Hearing.

I. No Physician shall Presume to Bleed a Woman, in the

Absence of her Relatives.
No physician shall presume to bleed a freeborn woman without
the presence of her father, mother, brother, son, uncle, or some other
relative, except urgent necessity should demand it; and where it
happens that none of the above-named persons can be present, the
woman must be bled in the presence of respectable neighbors or
slaves, of either sex, according to the nature of her illness. If a
physician should do this without the presence of any of the aforesaid
persons, he shall be compelled to pay ten solidi to the husband or
the relatives of said woman; for the reason that it is not at all
improbable that, on such an occasion, wantonness may sometimes
occur.[51]

II. No Physician shall Visit Persons Confined in Prison.

No physician shall presume to enter a prison when governors,
tribunes, or deputies, are excluded therefrom, without being
accompanied by the jailer, lest the prisoners, influenced by fear, may