Contents

1. Fundamental of computer .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Generation of Computer ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
3. History of Computer ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
4. Categories Of Computer ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
 Fundamental of computer
The terms 'computer' is come from the Latin word 'Computare' this means to calculate.
Computer is an electronic device, which takes raw data as input from the user then process these data as per given instruction then gives output (result) and
store it for future use. In one word, any electronic machine that can perform 'IPO' (Input, Processing, Output) cycle is known as Computer.
Full form of COMPUTER Data and Information: Data is a collection of
C =Common
unorganized(असंगठित) facts and figure and does not provide
O =Operating
any further information regarding patterns, context.
M =Machine
Computer processes data to produce information.
P =Purpose
Information is a structured(संरचित) data i.e. organized
U =Used for
meaningful and process data.
T =technological and
E =Educational
R =Research

1) Speed(गति): A computer is very fast device. It can perform a work in a few seconds that a human being can do in entire year if he/she works
day and night. It can perform complex(जटिल) calculation at a very high speed. It can perform billion of works within a second. The speed of
computer is measured in MHz (Mega Hertz), that is one million instructions(टिर्दे शि) per second.
2) Accuracy(सुद्धिा): Computer always gives 100% actual output (result), if the user provides correct input and instruction which are referred as GIGO
(Garbage In Garbage Out). If any mistake occurs in any calculation, they are due to manual error not of Computer. Since it is very accurate.
3) Storage Capability (भण्डारण क्षमिा): The storage characteristic of a computer has made it different from a calculator because calculator cannot store the
data; it only processes the given data and produces output. But computer store a huge amount of data in its storage unit for the future use.
0,1 = 1 bit (Binary Digit)
4 Bits = 1 Nibble
2 Nibble = 1 character (Byte)
1024 Byte = 1 KB (Kilo Byte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte)
 1024 GB = 1 TB (Tera Byte)
1024 TB = 1 PB (Peta Byte)
4) Automatic(स्वचातिि): A computer is automatic. When we give any command to computer to do work continuous it do its work automatically. However,
a computer being a machine cannot start itself.
5) Reliability(तिश्वसनीयिा): A computer has a high degree of reliability because it carries out calculation with high speed and accuracy. It does the calculation
repeatedly without making mistakes.
6) Diligence(िगनशीि): Diligence is a capacity of performing repeated operation without any tiredness and any mistakes. A computer is capable of
performing the required task continuously with the same speed, accuracy and efficiently(कुशलतापूर्वक)without any error. Computer never gets tired, bored
and laziness to do the task.
7) Versatility(बहुमख ु ी प्रतिभा): A computer is a versatile machine. Million of people use computers all over the world. The use of computer has increased
to a large extent. It can perform activities ranging from the complex calculations in scientific research and space research to daily office work. It can be
used in weather forecasting, space explorations, teaching, railways, banking, medicine, etc.

Limitation of computer
 IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER IN OUR DAILY LIFE.
• A computer is a vital tool for accessing and processing information and data.
• It is an important tool for science students, who generally rely(भरोसा) on it in preparing their educational reports and projects.
• It facilitates(सुटर्धा) ways of communicating with others by editing and writing messages and preparing reports and documents.
• It is an effective(प्रभावकारी)element in achieving success in the educational process.
• It is a major tool in distance education, this type of education cannot be completed without the presence(उपस्थिटत) of a laptop or computer.
• It helps to be familiar (पररचित) with the news and stay up to date, as it is a means of communicating with the outside world.
• It helps in doing some electronic transactions, such as making payments, purchasing, and others.
• It provides tools and means to facilitate work, such as tables, worksheets, presentations, and many more.
• It preserves(बचाउिु) and stores information away from the damaging factors of traditional methods of storage.
• It facilitates making and storing calculations.
• The importance of the computer also appears in filling leisure time with games and watching valuable videos, and its role in entertainment also
emerges(दे खापर्नु).
1. Computer in Industry and Business (उद्योग र व्यापार): Computers are used in industry in different types of systems. Computer controlled robots are
used to perform many complicated jobs in industries. Robots are computer controlled programmable machines. They can perform mechanical jobs, too,
like pick and place different parts, welding or painting cars etc. Computer programs are used to design the model of a product on the computer. This
process is called computer Aided Design (CAD).
2. Computer in Hospitals (अस्पिाि): Main function of the computer in hospitals is to connect it with the surgical machines and keep watch on the
developments happening during operation and other clinical researches (अर्नसन्धार्). Its example is the machines used Scan, MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging) and eye examination, which are operated through computer. Besides this, the job of hospitals record keeping is also done, which could easily be
retrieved (प्राप्त) when required.
3. In Communications (संचार): Modern computer and internet have brought revolution (क्रास्ि) in the field of telecommunications (र्दूरसंचार). You can call
any person far and near conveniently (सुटर्धाजिक) and vice versa (टर्पररत). In telecommunications computer makes it possible to make the world a global
village. You can talk for longer hours through internet connected computer without caring for STD (subscriber trunk dialing) or ISD bills. You can make
friends and exchange views with the people inside and outside the country.
4. Computer in Engineering: Computers are being used today to draw technical designs of bridges, houses and vehicles before their construction. This job
was previously done on paper by the engineers and for carrying out any changes, they had to redraw the entire drawings again. These days software are
available for drawing the engineering designs, which itself create the design by simply inputting relevant (उपुक्त) data and desired objectives.
5. Computer in Banks: In Banks and other financial institutions, computer is used to maintain accounts. It was inconvenient (असुटर्धाजिक) to the trace
details of the accounts of thousands of people in thick ledges and that process consumed lot of time. But through computer, account details of any account
holder can be viewed in no time by simply typing his account number and pressing a button. These days banks are connected through network and
consumers are being provided with the facility of depositing and withdrawing the cash from any branch. Online banking, online shopping can also be
done from computer and internet.
6. Computer in Education: The computer has brought out several changes to our society. Its contribution (योगदार्) towards education sector has been truly
marvelous (आक्ष्ियुजर्क). Computers have taken the education systems in the entire world to a different level altogether. It is now used in education sector
in various ways. In schools, computer is used to teach subjects like mathematics, science and Geography etc. By using computer there is no need for the
teacher to draw and erase diagrams, maps on the board again and again.
7. Computer in Office: In offices, besides typing of letters and dispatching (पिाउर्न their printed output, jobs live computing the pay of employees are done
on computer. Messages sending through fax can be sent by email using internet facility. Computer is leading to us in an era where offices will be paper
free places helping us save our trees and forests.
 Generation of Computer

The development of computers took place in five distinct (टभन्न) stages (चरणमा) based on the technologies used, known as Generation of Computers. Each
generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operates, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful, more efficient (कुसल) and reliable (भरपर्दो) devices.
The generations of digital computer is classified on the basis of :
a. The technology used by them (hardware and software)
b. Computing characteristics (speed, i.e.. number of instructions executed per second)
c. Physical appearances, and
d. Their applications.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following,
approximate dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted. Following are the main five generations of computers.
1. First Generation (1940-1956): The period of first generation was from 1940-1956. The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic
components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to
fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to afford it. In this generation, mainly batch processing operating
system was used. Punch cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used machine code as
the programming language.
The main features of the first generation are -
• Vacuum tube technology Some computers of this generation were
• ENIAC
• EDVAC
 • Unreliable (अववस्वस्र्ीय)
• Supported machine language only
• Very costly
• Generated a lot of heat
• Slow input and output devices
• Huge size
• Need of AC
• Non-portable
• Consumed a lot of electricity

Fig:1st Generation
2. Second Generation (1956-1963): The period of second generation was from 1956-1963. In this generation, transistors were used that were cheaper,
consumed (खपत) less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first-generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation,
magnetic cores (चुम्बटकय कोर) were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation,
assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.
The main features of second generation are:
• Use of transistors
• Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
• Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
• Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
• Consumed less electricity
as compared to first generation computers
• Faster than first generation computers
• Still very costly
• Supported machine and assembly languages
• AC required
 Some computers of this generation were -
• IBM 1620
• IBM 7094
• CDC 1604
• CDC 3600
• UNIVAC 1108

3. Third Generation (1964-1971): The period of third generation was from 1964-1971. The computers of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in
place of transistors.. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size.
reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multiprogramming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-
II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
The main features of third generation are
• IC used
• More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
• Smaller size
• Generated less heat
• Faster (टििो)
• Lesser maintenance (कम ममवत)
• Costly (महँगो)
• AC required
• Consumed lesser electricity
• Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were
• IBM-360 series
• Honeywell-6000 series
• PDP (Personal Data Processor)
• IBM-370/168 Fig:3rd Generation
4. Fourth Generation (1971-present): The period (अवचध) of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it
possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
The main features of fourth generation are
• VLSI technology used
• Very cheap
• Portable and reliable
• Use of PCs
• Very small size
• No AC required
• Concept of internet was introduced
• Great developments in the fields of networks.
• Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were -
• DEC 10
• STAR 1000
• PDP-11 Fig:4th Generation
• CRAY-1 (Super Computer)
• CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)
5. Fifth Generation (Present-Beyond): The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large
Scale Integration) technology. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and Al (Artificial Intelligence) software. Al is an emerging branch
in computer science, which interprets the means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++,
Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.
The main features of fifth generation are -
• Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language processing
• Advancement in Superconductor technology
More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
• Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are -
• Desktop
• Laptop
• Notebook
• Ultrabook
 • Chrome Book

Generation of Computer Timeline Main Component

First generation of computer 1940-1956 Vacuum tube
Second generation of computer 1956-1963 Transistor
Third generation of computer 1964-1971 Integrated Circuit (IC)
Fouth generation of computer 1971-1980 (Present) VLSI (very large-scale integration)/Microprocessor
Fifth generation of computer 1980-till date ULSI (Ultra large-scale integration)/Bio-chip

History of Computer
Long, long ago, in the early history of man, written numbers did not exist. People counted things using their fingers and toes. This worked well for a small number
of items. The stone age man used pebbles, tally sticks, marks on the earth, scratches (कोर्)नु on the stones and knots (गााँिो) on a rope for counting. These tools had
the added advantage of storing easily the intermediate results for later use but the computing speed was slow. This necessitated the development of new machines
for better and faster computation (गणर्ा). Let us now see some important developments that leads to the invention (अववस्कार) of modern-day computers.

Timeline Inventions Inventors Descriptions Images

(समयरे खा) (आतिस्कार) (अतिस्कारक) (तििरण)

Abacus is known to be the first calculating device. It was developed

by the Chinese in 3000 B.C. It is a device for making arithmetic
calculations, consisting of a frame set with rods on which balls or
3000BC Abacus Chinese People beads are moved. A centre bar divides each of these rods into two
unequal portions (भाग). On the upper smaller portion ← (Heaven)
of each rod are two beads and on the lower portion (Earth) five
beads. Each bead in the upper portion has a value of five; each bead
in the lower portion has a value of one
 John Napier, a scottish mathematician and an astronomer, palyed a
key role in the history of computing. He aslo developed the system
of algorithms in 1614. The Napier's bones consisted of (made up)
multiplication tables inscribed (खोपे को अक्षर) on strips (पट्ठि) of
1617 Napier's Bone John Napier wood or bone. It consisted of a set of 10 rods, which were further
divided into 9 diagonal numbered parts. This invention was used
for multiplying, dividing, and taking square roots and cube roots.

Slide rule device was invented in Germany by William oughtred in

1622 A.D. This concept (धारण) is based on algorithm consisting of
two scales, one small and other one is longer. It was used in
1622 Slide Rule William calculation of product, quotient, multiplication, division, roots,
Oughtred
algorithms and trigonometry etc.

A mathematician and psychologist of France, Baise Pascal invented

the first mechanical adding machine called Pascaline to help in his
father's tax work in 1642 A.D. It consists of eight dials, gears and
wheels. Each wheel had digits from 0 to 9. This machine was
1642 Pascaline or manufactured (उत्पार्दि गिुव) and sold on large scale and was known
Pascal's Blaise Pascal worldwide as an innovated gadget (ियाँ यन्त्र). The machine used to
calculator
add, subtract, multiply and divided. The number were written on
the wheels and calculation was done by dialing the numbers. It was
also called the mechanical calculator.
 It was invented by a German mathematician philosopher Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibnitz in 1671 AD and completed in 1694 A.D. He
Leibniz's Gottfried Wilhelm
improved(सुधार) pascal's invention (अटर्स्कार) to develop this
calculator or Von Leibniz
1671 machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator which was called
Stepped reckoner
the stepped reckoner as instead (सट्टा) of gears it was made of fluted
drums. It has four functions (addition, Subtraction, multiplication,
and division).

Joseph-Marie jacquard was a French weaver (बनन्र्े काम) and

Jacquard's Joseph-Marie merchant (व्यापारी). He played an important role in the
loom Jacquard development of the earliest programable loom (The "jacquard
1801
loom") in 1801. The jacquard loom was the first machine to
use punch card.

Charles Babbage, An English mathematician, designed and

built an automatic, mechanical calculator called Difference
Engine in 1823 A.D. This machine would be able to compute
1823 Difference Charles Babbage tables of numbers, such as logarithms tables. Construction
Engine of Babbage's Difference Engine provide exceedingly difficult
and the soon become the most expensive government
funded project that point in English history.

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles

Babbage in 1833. It was a mechanical computer that used
1833 Analytical Charles Babbage
punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
Engine
mathematical problem and storing information as a
permanent memory.

Lady Agusta Ada Lovelace is considered as the first

computer programmer as she suggested using binary
number system for programs and data to be fed into the
1843 Machine Ada Lovelace Analytical Engine on punched card.
Algorithm
 Dr. Herman Hollerith, an American employed in U.S census
Bureau, invented a punched card tabulating machine. This
1887 Tabulating Herman
machine was used to process the data collected in the
Machine Hollerith
census of the United States.

Mark-I was a general purpose electro-mechanical computer.

It was invented by Howard Aiken. The mark-I become
1937 Harvard Mark-I Howard Aiken
operational in 1944 and was used until 1959. This machine
was 51 feet long, 8 feet tall and 3 feet wide having 18000
vacuum tubes. It had a weight of about 4284 KG. This
machine was built during World War II. It was also known
as the IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled calculator
(ASCC).

John Vincent Atanasoff and his graduate student Clifford

Bery built the world's first electronic-digital computer called
1942 ABC (Electronic John Vincent
Atanasoff Berry Computer at Lowa State University during
digital Atanasoff
1939-1942 A.D. It was the first machine to use vacuum
computer)
tubes for storing and for arithmetic logic functions. The ABC
was designed to solve system of linear algebraic equations.

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical integrator and Computer) was

the first electronic general-purpose computer, which was
John William
completed in 1946. It became operational in February 1946
Mauchly and
1946 ENIAC A.D. and was used until October 1955 A.D. ENIAC used
Presper Eckert
18000 vacuum tubes to process data. It was 10 ft. tall,
occupied 1500 ft2 of floor-space, weighed approximately 30
tons (30000 Kg) and consumed 150 Kilowatts of electric
power.
 EDVAC stand for Electronic Discrete variable Automatic
Computer. The EDVAC is the successor of the ENIAC. It was
1949 EDVAC John William
designed by John Mauchly and J.P Eckert in 1949 A.D. It
Mauchly and
was built for the U.S army's Ballistics Research Laboratory.
Presper Eckert
It used 6000 vacuum tubes and 12000 diodes. It consumed
56 KW of electric power. It covers 45.5m2 of floor and
weighed 7850 kg.

The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC)

was invented by professor Sir Maurice Wilkes, with his team
Maurice Wilkes
in Cambridge university mathematical laboratory in 1949
with his Team
1949 EDSAC A.D. It contained 3000 vacuum tubes and used 30 KW of
electric power. It consisted of five units: arithmetical, central
control, memory, input and output. Programs were input
using paper tape and output results were passed to a
teleprinter.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed
The PDP-1 (Programmed Data Processor-1) is the
first computer in Digital Equipment
Corporation's PDP series and was first produced in 1960. It
1960 Benjamin PDP-1 is famous for being the most important computer in the
Gurley creation of hacker culture at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Bolt, Beranek and Newman and elsewhere. The
PDP-1 is the original hardware for playing history's first
game on a minicomputer, Steve Russell's Spacewar!

Apple-I is a desktop computer released by the Apple

computer company in 1976. It was designed and built by
Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs for personal use. The Apple-I
1976 Steve Wozniak Apple-I was Apple's first product. Apple-I was a fully assembled
and Steve jobs circuit board containing about 30 chips.
 IBM-PC is the brand name of the first popular commercial
PC developed by the IBM corporation. IBM introduced its
first personal computer, the IBM PC. It was created by a
1981 Philip Donald IBM-PC team of engineers and designers under the direction of Don
Estridge Estridge. The IBM PC was powered by a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088
processor. The IBM PC was also code name Acorn.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER IN NEPAL

The history of computer in Nepal, dates back to 2028, when a second generation of computer IBM 1401 computer , was hired on rent by the
government of Nepal, paying Rs. One lakh twenty-five thousand per month to use in the census of that year. IBM 1401 took 1 year, 7 months
and 15 days to process 1 crore and 12.5 lakhs population. After the completion of this work, discussion had taken place whether to send it back
or use and continue it for the continuous processing and proper use of the computer in Bureau of statistics. Later this computer was purchased
by the government for further data processing in bureau of statistics. As, it become necessary to operate the computer continuously, the
electronic data processing centre was set up in 2031 to operate the computer, which was later renamed as "National Computer Centre" (NCC).
Another British model computer called ICL 2950/10 was purchased for the census of 2038 B.S. it was funded by UNDP and UNFPA at 20 lakh
US dollars. The census of 2038 was completed within a year and quarter with the help of this computer. Micro computer such as Apple, vector
and Sirus were introduced in Kathmandu for the first time in B.S. 2039. The companies such as computer consultancy, management information
processing system (MIPS), and Data system international (DSI) were established.

# Write about the history and development of computer in Nepal.

There is not a long history of computers in Nepal. Nepal hired some types of calculators and computers for its census calculation. Following list
shows its history in Nepal.
• In 2018 BS an electronic calculator called "Facit" was used for census.
• In 2028 BS census IBM 1401 a second-generation mainframe computer was used.
• In 2031 BS a Center for electronic data processing, later renamed to National computer center (NCC), was established for national data
processing and computer training.
• In 2038 BS ICL 2950/10 a second generation mainframe computer was used for census.
• Now-a-days probably each and every institution, business organizations, communication centers, ticket counters etc are using computers.
The history of computer in Nepal is not that old since Nepal has not given any contribution (यो in the development of evolution of computer. It
was in 2028 B.S. when HMG brought IBM 1401 (a Second Generation computer) on rent for Rs. 1 lakh and 25 thousand per month to process
census data. Later the computer was bought by National Computer Center (NCC). In 2038 B.S., a fourth-generation computer was imported
with the aid of UNDP and UNFPA from England for 20 lakhs US dollars. Its name was ICL 2950/10. This computer had 64 terminals and it is
kept in museum now.
Categories Of Computer