2.What is sizing?

vessels come in different types and sizes to meet the various demands of marine cargo
transportation.
Navy ships or naval ships are types of ships that are specifically designed for the use of naval
forces. They differ from merchant and civilian ships in terms of design, construction and use.
Navy ships are normally made of specialised steel alloy that makes them damage resilient
during the enemy attacks. Most of navy ships are armed with advanced weapon system with
exception of troop transporters where armament is light or non-existent..
Which are the numbers to be compared while sizing and model testing?
Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to
include in a statistical sample
Pressure height relationship ?
One foot of water height is approximately equal to 0.434 psi. Water or wastewater exerts force
and pressure against the walls of its container, whether it is stored in a tank or flowing in a pipe.
But there is a differ- ence between force and pressure, although they are closely related.

Pressure height relationship ?

----------------------------
The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be interpreted as the total weight of the air
above a unit area at any elevation. At higher elevations, there are fewer air molecules above a
given surface than a similar surface at lower levels. For example, there are fewer molecules
above the 50 km surface than are found above the 12 km surface, which is why the pressure is
less at 50 km.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height.

Stress in welding ?
-------------------
Heat from welding may cause localized expansion, which is taken up during welding by either
the molten metal or the placement of parts being welded. When the finished weldment cools,
some areas cool and contract more than others, leaving residual stresses.

Mach no ?
---------
In fluid dynamics, the Mach number (M or Ma) (/m??x/; German: [ma?]) is a dimensionless
quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound.

Hydrodynamic stability ?
------------------------
In fluid dynamics, hydrodynamic stability is the field which analyses the stability and the onset of
instability of fluid flows. The study of hydrodynamic stability aims to find out if a given flow is
stable or unstable, and if so, how these instabilities will cause the development of turbulence.[1]
The foundations of hydrodynamic stability, both theoretical and experimental, were laid most
notably by Helmholtz, Kelvin, Rayleigh and Reynolds during the nineteenth century.[1] These
foundations have given many useful tools to study hydrodynamic stability. These include
Reynolds number, the Euler equations, and the Navier–Stokes equations. When studying flow
stability it is useful to understand more simplistic systems, e.g. incompressible and inviscid
fluids which can then be developed further onto more complex flows.[1] Since the 1980s, more
computational methods are being used to model and analyse the more complex flows.

Practical conditions of unstable/stable equilibrium ?

For the same reason extra passengers are not allowed on the upper deck of a bus. If they are
allowed to stand in the upper deck the C.G will be raised and the bus will be more unstable
when it takes a sharp turn.

For the same reason even the height of a sports car is reduced to the minimum.

Manufacturers make toys which appear to be unstable but are in fact very stable. For example,
the rocking doll will come back to right position even if you tilt it completely on one side. This is
because of its heavy base (low C.G).
Rocking Toys: These are the toys called 'mobiles' which look unstable and yet do not fall (figure
shown below). The weights of these toys are so adjusted that their center of gravity is very
much near the base. As a result, any push to the toy tends to raise the center of gravity. When
the force is removed, the mobiles swing back and forth about its stable rest position.

Conditions for Stable Equilibrium

The body should have a broad base.

Center of gravity of the body should be as low as possible.
Vertical line drawn from the center of gravity should fall within the base of support.

Righting lever action in a ship ?

--------------------------------
A ship with a small GM will be "tender" - have a long roll period. An excessively low or negative
GM increases the risk of a ship capsizing in rough weather
A larger metacentric height on the other hand can cause a vessel to be too "stiff"; excessive
stability is uncomfortable for passengers and crew. This is because the stiff vessel quickly
responds to the sea as it attempts to assume the slope of the wave. An overly stiff vessel rolls
with a short period and high amplitude which results in high angular acceleration. This increases
the risk of damage to the ship and to cargo and may cause excessive roll in special
circumstances where eigenperiod of wave coincide with eigenperiod of ship roll.
The righting arm (known also as GZ — see diagram): the horizontal distance between the lines
of buoyancy and gravity.[3]
GZ=GMsin at small angles of heel
There are several important factors that must be determined with regards to righting
arm/moment. These are known as the maximum righting arm/moment, the point of deck
immersion, the downflooding angle, and the point of vanishing stability. The maximum righting
moment is the maximum moment that could be applied to the vessel without causing it to
capsize. The point of deck immersion is the angle at which the main deck will first encounter the
sea. Similarly, the downflooding angle is the angle at which water will be able to flood deeper
into the vessel. Finally, the point of vanishing stability is a point of unstable equilibrium. Any heel
lesser than this angle will allow the vessel to right itself, while any heel greater than this angle
will cause a negative righting moment (or heeling moment) and force the vessel to continue to
roll over. When a vessel reaches a heel equal to its point of vanishing stability, any external
force will cause the vessel to capsize.

Sailing vessels are designed to operate with a higher degree of heel than motorized vessels and
the righting moment at extreme angles is of high importance.

Monohulled sailing vessels should be designed to have a positive righting arm (the limit of
positive stability) to at least 120° of heel,[4] although many sailing yachts have stability limits
down to 90° (mast parallel to the water surface). As the displacement of the hull at any particular
degree of list is not proportional, calculations can be difficult, and the concept was not
introduced formally into naval architecture until about 1970.

Difference between compressible & incompressible fluid?

-------------------------------------------------------
In fluid mechanics or more generally continuum mechanics, incompressible flow (isochoric flow)
refers to a flow in which the material density is constant within a fluid parcel—an infinitesimal
volume that moves with the flow velocity. An equivalent statement that implies incompressibility
is that the divergence of the flow velocity is zero (see the derivation below, which illustrates why
these conditions are equivalent).

Incompressible flow does not imply that the fluid itself is incompressible. It is shown in the
derivation below that (under the right conditions) even compressible fluids can – to good
approximation – be modelled as an incompressible flow. Incompressible flow implies that the
density remains constant within a parcel of fluid that moves with the flow velocity.

Compressible flow (gas dynamics) is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with flows having
significant changes in fluid density. Gases, but not liquids, display such behaviour.[1] To
distinguish between compressible and incompressible flow in air, the Mach number (the ratio of
the speed of the flow to the speed of sound) must be greater than about 0.3 (since the density
change is greater than 5% in that case) before significant compressibility occurs. The study of
compressible flow is relevant to high-speed aircraft, jet engines, rocket motors, hyperloops,
high-speed entry into a planetary atmosphere, gas pipelines, commercial applications such as
abrasive blasting, and many other fields.

Difference between pressure & stress ?

--------------------------------------
Pressure is defined as force per unit area applied to an object in a direction perpendicular to the
surface. And naturally pressure can cause stress inside an object. Whereas stress is the
property of the body under load and is related to the internal forces. It is defined as a reaction
produced by the molecules of the body under some action which may produce some
deformation. The intensity of these additional forces produced per unit area is known as stress

Angle of internal friction

--------------------------
A measure of the ability of a unit of rock or soil to withstand a shear stress. It is the angle (f),
measured between the normal force (N) and resultant force (R), that is attained when failure just
occurs in response to a shearing stress (S).

Degrees of freedom of ship

--------------------------
Heave
is the linear vertical (up/down) motion; excessive downward heave can swamp a ship.
Sway
is the linear lateral (side-to-side or port-starboard) motion. This motion is generated directly
either by the water and wind currents exerting forces against the hull or by the ship's own
propulsion; or indirectly by the inertia of the ship while turning. This movement can be comapred
to the vessel's drift from its course.
Surge
is the linear longitudinal (front/back or bow/stern) motion imparted by maritime conditions.
Pitch
is the up/down rotation of a vessel about its lateral/Y (side-to-side or port-starboard) axis. An
offset or deviation from normal on this axis is referred to as 'trim' or 'out of trim'.
Roll
is the tilting rotation of a vessel about its longitudinal/X (front-back or bow-stern) axis. An offset
or deviation from normal on this axis is referred to as list or heel. Heel refers to an offset that is
intentional or expected, as caused by wind pressure on sails, turning, or other crew actions. List
normally refers to an unintentional or unexpected offset, as caused by flooding, battle damage,
shifting cargo, etc. The rolling motion towards a steady state (or list) angle due to the ship's own
weight distribution is referred in marine engineering as heel.
Yaw
is the turning rotation of a vessel about its vertical/Z axis. An offset or deviation from normal on
this axis is referred to as deviation or set.

Difference between low and high carbon steels.

---------------------------------------------
Carbon steel is steel in which the main interstitial alloying constituent is carbon in the range of
0.12–2.0%.As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and
stronger through heat treating; however, it becomes less ductile. Regardless of the heat
treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the higher carbon
content lowers the melting point.
Mild and low-carbon steel
Mild steel, also known as plain-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its
price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many
applications. Low-carbon steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon[1] making it
malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to
form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.[3]

It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example as structural steel. The
density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3 (7850 kg/m3 or 0.284 lb/in3)[4] and the
Young's modulus is 210 GPa (30,000,000 psi).[5]

Low-carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two yield points. The
first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically
after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the
upper and lower yield point then the surface develop Lüder bands.[6] Low-carbon steels contain
less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle.[7]

Higher-carbon steels
Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the
range of 0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have a
significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make
the steel red-short, that is, brittle and crumbly at working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon steel,
such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts around 1,426–1,538 °C (2,599–
2,800 °F).[8] Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low-carbon steels.
These additions turn the material into a low-alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition
of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.

Why angle of attack is required?

--------------------------------
The lift coefficient of a fixed-wing aircraft varies with angle of attack. Increasing angle of attack
is associated with increasing lift coefficient up to the maximum lift coefficient, after which lift
coefficient decreases.[6]

As the angle of attack of a fixed-wing aircraft increases, separation of the airflow from the upper
surface of the wing becomes more pronounced, leading to a reduction in the rate of increase of
the lift coefficient. The figure shows a typical curve for a cambered straight wing. A symmetrical
wing has zero lift at 0 degrees angle of attack. The lift curve is also influenced by the wing
shape, including its airfoil section and wing planform. A swept wing has a lower, flatter curve
with a higher critical angle.

What is beam?
-------------
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting against
bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams are characterized by their profile (shape of cross-section), their length, and their
material.

Use of bending moment in a ship

-------------------------------

Primary hull loads, strength, and bending

The primary strength, loads, and bending of a ship's hull are the loads that affect the whole hull,
viewed from front to back and top to bottom. Though this could be considered to include overall
transverse loads (from side to side within the ship), generally it is applied to longitudinal loads
(from end to end) only. The hull, viewed as a single beam, can bend

down in the center, known as sagging

up in the center, known as hogging.
This can be due to:

hull, machinery, and cargo loads

wave loads, with the worst cases of:
sagging, due to a wave with length equal to the ship's length, and peaks at the bow and stern
and a trough amidships
hogging, due to a wave with length equal to the ship's length, and a peak amidships (right at the
middle of the length)
Primary hull bending loads are generally highest near the middle of the ship, and usually very
minor past halfway to the bow or stern.

Primary strength calculations generally consider the midships cross section of the ship. These
calculations treat the whole ships structure as a single beam, using the simplified Euler-
Bernoulli beam equation to calculate the strength of the beam in longitudinal bending. The
moment of inertia (technically, second moment of area) of the hull section is calculated by
finding the neutral or central axis of the beam and then totaling up the quantity {\displaystyle
I_{y}={\frac {bh^{3}}{12}}+Ad^{2}} I_{y}={\frac {bh^{3}}{12}}+Ad^{2} for each section of plate or
girder making up the hull, with {\displaystyle I_{y}} I_{y} being the moment of inertia of that
section of material, {\displaystyle b} b being the width (horizontal dimension) of the section, {\
displaystyle h} h being the height of the section (vertical dimension), {\displaystyle A} A being
the area of the section and d being the vertical distance of the center of that section from the
neutral axis.

Primary strength loads calculations usually total up the ships weight and buoyancy along the
hull, dividing the hull into manageable lengthwise sections such as one compartment, arbitrary
ten foot segments, or some such manageable subdivision. For each loading condition, the
displaced water weight or buoyancy is calculated for that hull section based on the displaced
volume of water within that hull section. The weight of the hull is similarly calculated for that
length, and the weight of equipment and systems. Cargo weight is then added in to that section
depending on the loading conditions being checked.

The total still water bending moment is then calculated by integrating the difference between
buoyancy and total weight along the length of the ship.

For a ship in motion, additional bending moment is added to that value to account for waves it
may encounter. Standard formulas for wave height and length are used, which take ship size
into account. The worst possible waves are, as noted above, where either a wave crest or
trough is located exactly amidships.

Those total bending loads, including still water bending moment and wave loads, are the forces
that the overall hull primary beam has to be capable of withstanding.

Secondary hull loads, strength, and bending[edit]

The secondary hull loads, bending, and strength are those loads that happen to the skin
structure of the ship (sides, bottom, deck) between major lengthwise subdivisions or bulkheads.
For these loads, we are interested in how this shorter section behaves as an integrated beam,
under the local forces of displaced water pushing back on the hull, cargo and hull and
machinery weights, etc. Unlike primary loads, secondary loads are treated as applying to a
complex composite panel, supported at the sides, rather than as a simple beam.

Secondary loads, strength, and bending are calculated similarly to primary loads: you determine
the point and distributed loads due to displacement and weight, and determine local total forces
on each unit area of the panel. Those loads then cause the composite panel to deform, usually
bending inwards between bulkheads as most loads are compressive and directed inwards.
Stress in the structure is calculated from the loads and bending.

Tertiary hull loads, strength, and bending

Tertiary strength and loads are the forces, strength, and bending response of individual sections
of hull plate between stiffeners, and the behaviour of individual stiffener sections. Usually the
tertiary loading is simpler to calculate: for most sections, there is a simple, maximum hydrostatic
load or hydrostatic plus slamming load to calculate. The plate is supported against those loads
at its edges by stiffeners and beams. The deflection of the plate (or stiffener), and additional
stresses, are simply calculated from those loads and the theory of plates and shells.

---------------------------------------------

Dimensionless nos and physical significance ?

Force experianced by perticularly submerged body (Mathematical expression)? ?
Force experianced if weight W is added to the partially submerged body?
What is parallel sinkage? ?
What is the formula of sliding friction? ?
What is hydrostatics?
Why do engines have more than 1 piston?
Difference between limit state method and working stress method.
Materials used for building ship hull.
Techniques used for joining shell plating
Explain beam theory.
Explain composition of hull structure.
Explain stability.
What is stability?
Neutral equilibrium.
Types of stability.
Cross section of dam.
Pressure on walls of dam.
What is hull?
Pre and post tensioning.
Ratio of aggregates is concrete.
Why is the dam structure trapezoidal?
Why can not we use a rectangular structure as a dam?
Structural members of a ship hull?
Which steel sections are used?
How will you analyse a ship’s structure?
---------------------------------------------