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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

C O M B I N AT O R I A L P H Y S I C S
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

Combinatorial Physics
Combinatorics, quantum field theory, and quantum
gravity models

Adrian Tanasa
University of Bordeaux, France

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
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© Adrian Tanasa 2021
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First Edition published in 2021
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021932400
ISBN 978–0–19–289549–3
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192895493.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

To Luca, Brittany, and to our family

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Graphs, ribbon graphs, and polynomials 7

2.1 Graph theory: The Tutte polynomial 7
2.2 Ribbon graphs; the Bollobás–Riordan polynomial 12
2.3 Selected further reading 15
3 Quantum field theory (QFT)—built-in combinatorics 17
4
3.1 Definition of the scalar Φ model 18
3.2 Perturbative expansion—Feynman graphs and their combinatorial weights 20
3.3 Fourier transform—the momentum space 23
3.4 Parametric representation of Feynman integrands 24
3.5 The propagator and the heat kernel 26
3.6 A glimpse of perturbative renormalization 27
3.6.1 The power counting theorem 29
3.6.2 Locality 30
3.6.3 Multi-scale analysis 32
3.6.4 The subtraction operator for a general Feynman graph 33
3.6.5 Dimensional renormalization 35
3.7 Dyson–Schwinger equation 36
3.8 Combinatorial (or 0-dimensional) QFT and the intermediate field method 36
3.8.1 Combinatorial (or 0-dimensional) QFT 36
3.8.2 The intermediate field method 37
3.9 Selected further reading 38
4 Tree weights and renormalization in QFT 39
4.1 Preliminary results 41
4.2 Partition tree weights 43
4.3 Selected further reading 49
5 Combinatorial QFT and the Jacobian Conjecture 50
5.1 The Jacobian Conjecture as combinatorial QFT model
(the Abdesselam–Rivasseau model) 52
5.2 The intermediate field method for the Abdesselam–Rivasseau model 53
5.3 Selected further reading 55
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viii Contents

6 Fermionic QFT, Grassmann calculus, and combinatorics 56

6.1 Grassmann algebras and Grassmann calculus 57
6.1.1 The Grassmann algebra 57
6.1.2 Grassmann calculus; Pfaffians as Grassmann integrals 58
6.2 On Grassmann Gaussian measures 59
6.3 Lingström–Gessel–Viennot (LGV) formula for graphs with cycles 60
6.4 Stembridge’s formulas for graphs with cycles 63
6.5 A generalization 66
6.6 Tutte polynomial and the parametric representation in QFT 67
6.7 Selected further reading 71
7 Analytic combinatorics and QFT 72
7.1 The Mellin transform technique 72
7.2 The saddle point method 74
7.3 Selected further reading 75
8 Algebraic combinatorics and QFT 76
8.1 Algebraic reminder; Combinatorial Hopf Algebras (CHAs) 77
8.2 The Connes–Kreimer Hopf algebra of Feynman graphs 79
8.3 The B+ operator, Hochschild cohomology of the Connes–Kreimer algebra 83
8.4 Multi-scale renormalization, CHA description 85
8.5 Selected further reading 94
9 QFT on the non-commutative Moyal space and combinatorics 95
9.1 Mathematical setting: Renormalizability 96
9.2 The Mehler kernel and the Grosse–Wulkenhaar model 99
9.3 Parametric representation of Grosse–Wulkenhaar-like models 100
9.4 The Mellin transform and the Grosse–Wulkenhaar model 104
9.5 Dimensional renormalization for the Grosse–Wulkenhaar model 107
9.6 A heat kernel–based renormalizable model 108
9.7 Parametric representation and the Bollobás–Riordan polynomial 110
9.7.1 Parametric representation 110
9.7.2 Relation between the multi-variate Bollobás–Riordan and the
polynomials of the parametric representation 111
9.8 Combinatorial Connes–Kreimer Hopf algebra and its
Hochschild cohomology 112
9.8.1 Combinatorial Connes–Kreimer Hopf algebra 112
9.8.2 Hochschild cohomology and the combinatorial DSE 117
9.9 Selected further reading 120
10 Quantum gravity, group field theory (GFT), and combinatorics 121
10.1 Quantum gravity 121
10.2 Main candidates for a theory of quantum gravity: The holographic principle 122
10.3 GFT models: the Boulatov and the colourable models 123
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Contents ix

10.4 The multi-orientable GFT model 125

10.4.1 Tadpoles and generalized tadpoles 127
10.4.2 Tadfaces 128
10.5 Saddle point method for GFT Feynman integrals 129
10.6 Algebraic combinatorics and tensorial GFT 133
10.6.1 The Ben Geloun–Rivasseau (BGR) model 133
10.6.2 Cones–Kreimer Hopf algebraic description of the combinatorics
of the renormalizability of the BGR model 143
10.6.3 Hochschild cohomology and the combinatorial DSE
for tensorial GFT 153
10.7 Selected further reading 165
11 From random matrices to random tensors 166
11.1 The large N limit 169
11.2 The double-scaling limit 169
11.3 From matrices to tensors 170
11.4 Tensor graph polynomials—a generalization of the Bollobás–Riordan
polynomial 174
11.5 Selected further reading 176
12 Random tensor models—the U(N)D -invariant model 178
12.1 Definition of the model and its DSE 179
12.1.1 U(N)D -invariant bubble interactions 179
12.1.2 Bubble observables 182
12.1.3 The DSE for the model 185
12.1.4 Navigating the following sections of the chapter 187
12.2 The DSE beyond the large N limit 188
12.2.1 The LO 188
12.2.2 Moments and Cumulants 189
12.2.3 Gaussian and non-Gaussian contributions 192
12.2.4 The DSE at NLO 198
12.2.5 The order 1/N D in the quartic model 199
12.3 The double-scaling limit 202
12.3.1 Double-scaling limit in the DSE 202
12.3.2 From the quartic model to a generic model 206
12.4 Selected further reading 208
13 Random tensor models—the multi-orientable (MO) model 209
13.1 Definition of the model 209
13.2 The 1/N expansion and the large N limit 212
13.2.1 Feynman amplitudes; the 1/N expansion 212
13.2.2 The large N limit—the LO (melonic graphs) 214
13.2.3 The large N limit—the NLO 215
13.2.4 Leading and NLO series 216
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x Contents

13.3 Combinatorial analysis of the general term of the large N expansion 219
13.3.1 Dipoles, chains, schemes, and all that 220
13.3.2 Generating functions, asymptotic enumeration,
and dominant schemes 226
13.4 The double-scaling limit 230
13.4.1 The two-point function 231
13.4.2 The four-point function 232
13.4.3 The 2r-point function 232
13.5 Selected further reading 233
3
14 Random tensor models—the O(N ) -invariant model 234
14.1 General model and large N expansion 234
14.2 Quartic model, large N expansion 241
14.2.1 Large N expansion: LO 242
14.2.2 NLO 247
14.3 General quartic model: Critical behaviour 248
14.3.1 Explicit counting of melonic graphs 248
14.3.2 Diagrammatic equations, LO and NLO 252
14.3.3 Singularity analysis 253
14.3.4 Critical exponents 256
14.4 Selected further reading 259
15 The Sachdev–Ye–Kitaev (SYK) holographic model 260
15.1 Definition of the SYK model: Its Feynman graphs 261
15.2 Diagrammatic proof of the large N melonic dominance 264
15.3 The coloured SYK model 271
15.3.1 Definition of the model, real, and complex versions 271
15.3.2 Diagrammatics of the real and complex model 272
15.3.3 More on the coloured SYK Feynman graphs 282
15.3.4 Non-Gaussian disorder average in the complex model 284
15.4 Selected further reading 290
16 SYK-like tensor models 291
16.1 The Gurau–Witten model and its diagrammatics 292
16.1.1 Two-point functions: LO, NLO, and so on 293
16.1.2 Four-point function: LO, NLO, and so on 295
16.2 The O(N )3 -invariant SYK-like tensor model 300
16.3 The MO SYK-like tensor model 303
16.4 Relating MO graphs to O(N )3 -invariant graphs 304
16.5 Diagrammatic techniques for O(N )3 -invariant graphs 306
16.5.1 Two-edge-cuts 306
16.5.2 Dipole removals 307
16.5.3 Dipole insertions 309
16.5.4 Chains of dipoles 310
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Contents xi

16.5.5 Face length 312

16.5.6 The strategy 314
16.6 Degree 1 graphs of the O(N )3 -invariant SYK-like tensor model 316
16.6.1 2PI, dipole-free graph of degree one 316
16.6.2 The graphs of degree 1 319
16.7 Degree 3/2 graphs of the O(N )3 -invariant SYK-like tensor model 323
A Examples of tree weights 331
A.1 Symmetric weights—complete partition 331
A.2 One singleton partition—rooted graph 332
A.3 Two singleton partition—multi-rooted graph 333
B Renormalization of the Grosse–Wulkenhaar model, one-loop examples 335

C The B + operator in Moyal QFT, two-loop examples 338

C.1 One-loop analysis 338
C.2 Two-loop analysis 338
D Explicit examples of GFT tensor Feynman integral computations 345
D.1 A non-colourable, MO tensor graph integral 345
D.2 A colourable, multi-orientable tensor graph integral 345
D.3 A non-colourable, non-multi-orientable tensor graph integral 347
E Coherent states of SU (2) 348
D
F Proof of the double-scaling limit of the U (N ) -invariant tensor model 349

G Proof of Theorem 15.3.2 362

G.1 Bijection with constellations 362
G.1.1 Bijection in the bipartite case 362
G.1.2 The non-bipartite case 365
G.2 Enumeration of coloured graphs of fixed order 366
G.2.1 Exact enumeration 366
G.2.2 Singularity analysis 369
G.3 The connectivity condition and SYK graphs 371
G.3.1 Preliminary conditions 371
G.3.2 The case q > 3 373
G.3.3 The case q = 3 373
G.3.4 The non-bipartite case 374
H Proof of Theorem 16.1.1 376

I Summary of results on the diagrammatics of the coloured SYK

model and of the Gurău–Witten model 380

Bibliography 383
Index 395
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

1
Introduction

The interplay between combinatorics and theoretical physics is a recent trend which
appears to us as particularly natural, since the unfolding of new ideas in physics is
often tied to the development of combinatorial methods, and, conversely, problems
in combinatorics have been successfully tackled using methods inspired by theoretical
physics. A lot of problems in physics are thus revealed to be enumerative. On the other
hand, problems in combinatorics can be solved in an elegant way using theoretical
physics-inspired techniques. We can thus speak nowadays of an emerging domain of
Combinatorial Physics.
The interference between these two disciplines is moreover an interference of multiple
facets. Thus, its most known manifestation (both to combinatorialists and theoretical
physicists) has so far been the one between combinatorics and statistical physics,
or combinatorics and integrable systems, as statistical physics relies on an accurate
counting of the various states or configurations of a physical system.
However, combinatorics and theoretical physics interact in various other ways. One
of these interactions is the one between combinatorics and quantum mechanics, because
combinatorial tools can be used here for a better mathematical understanding of the
algebras underlying quantum mechanics.
In this book, we mainly focus on yet another type of these multiple interactions
between combinatorics and theoretical physics, the one between combinatorics and
quantum field theory (QFT). We estimate that combinatorics is built into the mathe-
matical formulation of QFT. This stems initially from the fact that the most popular
tool of QFT is perturbation theory in the coupling constant of the model, which means
that one considers Feynman graphs, with appropriate combinatorial weights, in order to
encode the physical information of the respective system. Moreover, one elegant way of
expressing the Feynman integrals associated with these graphs is to use the Kirchhoff–
Symanzik polynomials of the parametric representation, polynomials which can be
proven to be related to some multi-variate version of the celebrated Tutte polynomial
of combinatorics. A particularly elegant way to prove this is to use the Grassmann
development of the determinants and Pfaffians involved in these computations. Let us
emphasize here that this Grassmann development uses Grassmann calculus, which were
developed by physicists to express fermionic QFT. Grassmann calculus is further used in
this book to give a simple proof of the celebrated Lingström–Gessel–Viennot (for graphs

Combinatorial Physics: Combinatorics, Quantum Field Theory, and Quantum Gravity Models. Adrian Tanasa,
Oxford University Press (2021). © Adrian Tanasa. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192895493.003.0001
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

2 Introduction

with cycles) and to further generalize some identities, initially proved by Stembridge, in
the same context of graphs with cycles.
The so-called 0−dimensional QFT (called by some authors, combinatorial QFT), or
more precisely the use of the intermediate field method in this setting, allows to establish a
theorem concerning partial elimination of variables in the celebrated Jacobian conjecture
(which concerns the global invertibility of polynomial systems).
Moreover, analytic combinatorial techniques are used on a regular basis in QFT
computations. Thus, the propagator of any scalar model can be represented using the
heat kernel. The Mellin transform technique can also be used in order to rapidly prove
the meromorphy of Feynman integrands. The saddle point method is frequently used to
tame the divergent behaviour of these integrals.
Last but not least, renormalization in QFT (which one can say lies at the very heart of
QFT) has a highly non-trivial combinatorial core, and this has been recently presented
in a combinatorial Hopf algebra form—the Connes–Kreimer Hopf algebra. Related to this,
the Hochschild cohomology of this combinatorial Hopf algebra can be used to express
the combinatorics of the Dyson–Schwinger equation (DSE) as a simple power series in
some appropriate insertion operator of Feynman graphs.
All these combinatorial techniques (analytic or algebraic) generalize to more involved
QFT models. Thus, non-commutative QFT (that is, QFT on a non-commutative space-
time) also possesses most of these combinatorial properties. First, the graphs used in
QFT are uplifted to ribbon graphs (or combinatorial maps). Furthermore, one can still
use the heat kernel for propagators of the theories, but in order to have renormalizable
models, one needs to use a more involved special function, the Mehler kernel or some
non-trivial modification of the heat kernel. Moreover, the Mellin transform technique can
again be used, as in the case of commutative QFT. The corresponding non-commutative
Kirchhoff–Symanzik polynomials are proven to be a limit of a multi-variate version of
the Bollobás–Riordan polynomial (which is a natural generalization for ribbon graphs
of the universal Tutte polynomial). Finally, algebraic combinatorial techniques can also
be used in non-commutative QFT. The corresponding combinatorial Connes–Kreimer
Hopf algebra of ribbon Feynman graphs can be defined and related to non-commutative
renormalization. Furthermore, the appropriate Hochschild cohomology then describes
the combinatorics of the DSE of these models.
Non-commutative QFT can also be seen as a special case of the celebrated matrix
models. Following this line of reasoning, one can naturally generalize random matrix
models to random tensor models,
The combinatorics of tensor models per se is extremely involved. One cannot just use
the genus to characterize the so-called large N expansion, N being the size of the matrix
resp. of the tensor. It is worth emphasizing here that the large N expansion is, from a
combinatorial point of view, a certain asymptotic expansion (corresponding to the limit
N → ∞).
However, in order to make the combinatorics simpler, several QFT-inspired simpli-
fications of tensor models can be proposed. The first two such simplications were the
coloured model and the multi-orientable models. For both of these models, one can
implement the large N expansion and the double-scaling mechanism, which, in the case
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

Introduction 3

of matrix models, are very important mathematical physics tools. Several other models
(based on U (N ) and then O(N ) models have also been studied.
Feynman graphs associated to tensor models, through the celebrated QFT perturba-
tive expansions, are called tensor graphs and can be seen as a natural 3D generalization of
maps or of ribbon graphs. The dominant term of the large N expansion of the previously
mentioned tensor models are the so-called melonic graphs, which are, from a graph
theoretical point of view, a particular case of series-parallel graphs.
The large N expansion is controlled in the 2D case, the matrix model case, by the
genus of the corresponding combinatorial maps. In dimension higher than two, there
is no direct analogue of the genus. Nevertheless, the tensor asymptotic expansion in N
is controlled by an integer, called the degree, which is defined as the half-sum of the
non-orientable genus of ribbon graphs canonically embedded in a tensor graph (called
the jackets of the respective tensor graphs). The degree is thus a half integer, naturally
generalizing the 2D notion of genus for tensor models.
In order to study the general term of the large N expansion of various such tensor
models, we extensively use, in this book, various graph theoretical and enumerative
combinatorics techniques to perform their enumeration and we establish which are the
dominant configurations of a given degree.
It is worth emphasizing here that tensor models have recently been proven by
Witten to be related to the celebrated holographic Sachdev–Ye–Kitaev (SYK) quantum
mechanical model. This comes from the fact that, in the so-called large N expansion
(N being in the case of the SYK model the total number of fermions of the model),
both types of models are dominated by the melonic graphs. The large N expansion
for various SYK-like tensor models is then studied using again graph theoretical and
enumerative combinatorics techniques. These techniques allow us to asymptotically
enumerate Feynman graphs of various SYK-like tensor models.
The book is organized as follows. In Chapter 2, we present some notions of graph
theory that will be useful in the rest of the book. It is worth emphasizing that graph
theorists and theoretical physicists adopt, unfortunately, different terminologies. We
present here both terminologies, such that a sort of dictionary between these two
communities can be established. We then extend the notion of graph to that of maps (or
of ribbon graphs). Moreover, graph polynomials encoding these structures (the Tutte
polynomial for graphs and the Bollobás–Riordan polynomial for ribbon graphs) are
presented.
In Chapter 3, we briefly exhibit the mathematical formalism of QFT, which, as
mentioned previously, has a non-trivial combinatorial backbone. The QFT setting can
be understood as a quantum description of particles and their interactions, a description
which is also compatible with Einstein’s theory of special relativity. Within the framework
of elementary particle physics (or high energy physics), QFT led to the Standard
Model of Elementary Particle Physics, which is the physical theory tested with the best
accuracy by collider experiments. Moreover, the QFT formalism successfully applies
to statistical physics, condensed matter physics, and so on. We show in this chapter
how Feynman graphs appear through the so-called QFT perturbative expansion, how
Feynman integrals are associated to Feynman graphs, and how these integrals can be
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

4 Introduction

expressed via the help of graph polynomials, the Kirchhoff–Symanzik polynomials.

Finally, we give a glimpse of renormalization, of the DSE, and of the use of the so-
called intermediate field method. This chapter mainly focuses on the so-called Φ4 QFT
scalar model.
In Chapter 4, we define specific tree weights which appear natural when considering
a certain approach to non-perturbative renormalization in QFT, namely construc-
tive renormalization. Several examples of such tree weights are explicitly given in
Appendix A.
Chapter 5 deals with a combinatorial QFT approach to the Jacobian conjecture. The
Jacobian Conjecture states that any complex n-dimensional locally invertible polynomial
system is globally invertible with a polynomial inverse. In 1982, Bass et al. proved
an important reduction theorem stating that the conjecture is true for any degree of
the polynomial system if it is true in degree three. We show, in this chapter, a result
concerning partial elimination of variables, which implies a reduction of the generic case
to the quadratic one. The price to pay is the introduction of a supplementary parameter,
0 ≤ n ≤ n parameter, which represents the dimension of a linear subspace where some
particular conditions on the system must hold. We exhibit a proof, in a QFT formulation,
using the intermediate field method exposed in Chapter 3.
In Chapter 6, we use Grassmann calculus, used in fermionic QFT, to first give a
reformulation of the Lingström–Gessel–Viennot lemma proof. We further show that
this proof generalizes to graphs with cycles. We then use the same Grassmann calculus
techniques to give new proofs of Stembridge’s identities relating appropriate graph
Pfaffians to a sum over non-intersecting paths. The results presented here go further
than the ones of Stembridge, because Grassmann algebra techniques naturally extend
(without any cost!) to graphs with cycles. We thus obtain, instead of sums over non-
intersecting paths, sums over non-intersecting paths and non-intersecting cycles. In
the fifth section of the chapter, we give a generalization of these results. In the sixth
section of this chapter we use Grassmann calculus to exhibit the relationship between a
multi-variate version of Tutte polynomial and the Kirchhoff–Symanzik polynomials of
the parametric representation of Feynman integrals, polynomials already introduced in
Chapters 1 and resp. 3.
In Chapter 7, we present how several analytic techniques, often used in combinatorics,
appear naturally in various QFT issues. In the first section, we show how one can use
the Mellin transform technique to re-express Feynman integrals in a useful way for the
mathematical physicist. Finally, we briefly present how the saddle point approximation
technique can be also used in QFT.
In Chapter 8, after a brief algebraic reminder, we introduce in the second section the
Connes–Kreimer Hopf algebra of Feynman graphs and we show its relationship with
the combinatorics of QFT perturbative renormalization. We then study the algebra’s
Hochschild cohomology in relation with the combinatorial DSE in QFT. In the fourth,
section we present a Hopf algebraic description of the so-called multi-scale renorma-
lization (the multi-scale approach to the perturbative renormalization being the starting
point for the constructive renormalization programme).
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

Introduction 5

In Chapter 9, we present the P hi4 QFT model on the non-commutative Moyal

space and the UV/IR mixing issue, which prevents it from being renormalizable. We
then present the Grosse–Wulkenhaar P hi4 QFT model on the non-commutative Moyal
space, which changes the usual propagator of the Φ model (based on the heat kernel
formula) to a Mehler kernel-based propagator. This Grosse–Wulkenhaar model is
perturbatively renormalizable but it is not translation-invariant (translation-invariance
being a usual property of high-energy physics models). We then show how the Mellin
transform technique can be used to express the Feynman integrals of the Grosse–
Wulkenhaar model. In the last part of the chapter, we present another P hi4 QFT
model on the non-commutative Moyal space, which is however both renormalizable
and translation-invariant. We show the relation between the parametric representation
of this model and the Bollobás–Riordan polynomial. Finally, we show how to define a
Connes–Kreimer Hopf algebra for non-commutative renormalization and how to study
its Hochschild cohomology in relation to the combinatorial DSE of these QFT models.
The last part of the book is dedicated to the study of combinatorial aspects of
quantum gravity models. Thus, in Chapter 10, after a brief introductory section to
quantum gravity, we mention the main candidates for a quantum theory of gravity:
string theory, loop quantum gravity, and group field theory (GFT), causal dynamical
triangulations, and matrix models. The next sections introduce some GFT models such
as the Boulatov model, the colourable, and the multi-orientable model. The saddle point
method for some specific GFT Feynman integrals is presented in the fifth section.
Finally, some algebraic combinatorics results are presented: definition of an appropriate
Connes–Kreimer Hopf algebra describing the combinatorics of the renormalization of
a certain tensor GFT model (the so-called Ben Geloun–Rivasseau model) and the
use of its Hochschild cohomology for the study of the combinatorial DSE of this
specific model.
In Chapter 11, after a brief presentation of random matrices as a random surface QFT
approach to 2D quantum gravity, we focus on two crucial mathematical physics results:
the implementation of the large N limit (N being here the size of the matrix) and of the
double scaling mechanism for matrix models. It is worth emphasizing that, in the large
N limit, it is the planar surfaces which dominate. In the third section of the chapter, we
introduce tensor models, seen as a natural generalization, in dimensions higher then two,
of matrix models. The last section of the chapter presents a potential generalization of
the Bollobás–Riordan polynomial for tensor graphs (which are the Feynman graphs of
the perturbative expansion of QFT tensor models).
In Chapter 12, we first briefly present the U (N )D -invariant tensor models (N being
again the size of the tensor, and D being the dimension). The next section is then
dedicated to the analysis of the Dyson–Schwinger equations (DSEs) in the large N
limit. These results are essential to implement the double scaling limit mechanism of the
DSEs which is done in the third section. The main result of this chapter is the doubly-
scaled two-point function for a model with generic melonic interactions. However, several
assumptions on the large N scaling of cumulants are made along the way. They are
proved using various combinatorial methods.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

6 Introduction

Chapter 13 is dedicated to the presentation of the multi-orientable tensor model. After

defining the model, the 1/N expansion and the large N limit are examined in the second
section of the chapter. In the third section, a thorough enumerative combinatorial analysis
of the general term of the 1/N expansion is presented. The implementation of the double
scaling mechanism is then exhibited in the fourth section.
In Chapter 14, we define yet another class of tensor models, endowed with
O(N )3 −invariance, N being again the size of the tensor. This allows to generate, via
the usual QFT perturbative expansion, a class of Feynman tensor graphs which is
strictly larger than the class of Feynman graphs of both the multi-orientable model and
the U (N )3 -invariant models treated in the previous two chapters. We first exhibit the
existence of a large N expansion for such a model with general interactions (not necessary
quartic). We then focus on the quartic model and we identify the leading order (LO)
and next-to-leading (NLO) Feynman graphs of the large N expansion. Finally, we prove
the existence of a critical regime and we compute the so-called critical exponents. This
is achieved through the use of various analytic combinatorics techniques.
In Chapter 15, we first review the SYK model, which is a quantum mechanical
model of N fermions. The model is a quenched model, which means that the coupling
constant is a random tensor with Gaussian distribution. The SYK model is dominated
in the large N limit by melonic graphs, in the same way the tensor models presented
in the previous three chapters are dominated by melonic graphs. We then present a
purely graph theoretical proof of the melonic dominance of the SYK model. As already
mentioned, it is this property which led E, witten to relate the SYK model to the coloured
tensor model. In the rest of the chapter we deal with the so-called coloured SYK model,
which is a particular case of the generalization of the SYK model introduced by D.
Gross and V. Rosenhaus. We first analyse in detail the LO and NLO order vacuum, two-
and four-point Feynman graphs of this model. We then exhibit a thorough asymptotic
combinatorial analysis of the Feynman graphs at an arbitrary order in the large N
expansion. We end the chapter by an analysis of the effect of non-Gaussian distribution
for the coupling of the model.
In Chapter 16, we analyse in detail the diagrammatics of various SKY-like tensor
models: the Gurau–Witten model (in the first section), and the multi-orientable and
O(N )3 -invariant tensor models, in the rest of the chapter. Various explicit graph
theoretical techniques are used.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 16/2/2021, SPi

2
Graphs, ribbon graphs,
and polynomials

In this chapter, we present some notions of graph theory that will be useful in the
rest of this book. Let us emphasize that graph theorists and quantum field theorists
adopt, unfortunately, different terminologies. We present both here, such that a sort of
dictionary between these two communities may be established.
We then extend the notion of graphs to that of maps (or of ribbon graphs). Moreover,
graph polynomials encoding these structures (the Tutte polynomial for graphs and the
Bollobás–Riordan polynomial for ribbon graphs) are presented.
In this chapter, we follow the original article (Thomas Krajewski et al. 2010) and the
review article (Adrian Tanasa 2012).

2.1 Graph theory: The Tutte polynomial

For a general introduction to graph theory, the interested reader may refer to Claude
Berge (1976). Let us now define a graph in the following way:

Definition 2.1.1 A graph Γ is defined as a set of vertices V and of edges E together with an
incidence relationship between them.

Notice that we allow multi-edges and self-loops (see definition 2.1.2 4), but still use
the term ‘graph’ (and not ‘pseudograph’).
The number of vertices and edges in a graph are also noted V and E for simplicity,
since our context prevents confusion.
One needs to emphasize that in QFT a supplementary type of edge exists, external
edges. These edges are only hooked to one of the vertices of the graph, the other end
of the edge being ‘free’ (see Fig. 2.1 for an example of such a graph, with four external
edges). In elementary particle physics, these external edges are related to the observables
in some experiments.

Combinatorial Physics: Combinatorics, Quantum Field Theory, and Quantum Gravity Models. Adrian Tanasa,
Oxford University Press (2021). © Adrian Tanasa. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192895493.003.0002
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