PE 252: Heat Transport Processes

(Heat Transfer Modes/Mechanism)

S. Adjei, Ph.D.
 Lecture Objectives
• Define heat transfer, hear transfer rate and heat flux
• Discuss the mechanism and modes of heat transfer
• Discuss a model for analyzing heat transfer by conduction
• Discuss a model for analyzing heat transfer by convection
• Discuss a model for analyzing heat transfer by thermal radiation

2
 Introduction
• The branch of science which deals with the transfer of thermal energy is called
heat transfer.
• Heat transfer modes describe how heat energy is transferred from one object or
substance to another.
• The fundamental requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature
difference.
• There can be no net heat transfer between two medium that are at the same
temperature.

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 Significance of Heat Transfer
Heat transfer plays a major role in the
design of many devices:
• heat exchangers
• boilers
• heaters
• furnaces
• car radiators
• solar collectors; capture & utilizes
solar energy for heating
• various components of power plants,
etc.
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 Basic Definitions
• The total amount of thermal energy transferred is denoted, Q (Joules, J).

• The amount of thermal energy transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate, 𝑸̇ (Unit of J/s or Watts
(W)).

• Heat transfer rate, 𝑸,̇ focuses on the speed of heat transfer- how quickly heat is transferred.
• Heat transfer, 𝑸,̇ measures the overall quantity of heat exchanged.
• At a known heat transfer rate, the total amount of heat transfer, Q, during a time interval is:

• For the special case of 𝑸̇ constant, the equation reduces to;

Note, t is in seconds
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Heat transfer rate is important as there is the need to either increase or
decrease the rate at which heat flows between two locations.
• Heating and Cooling Systems: The heat transfer rate in HVAC (heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning) systems can be adjusted by modifying
parameters such as the flow rate of the heating or cooling fluid or the
temperature difference across these devices.

• Thermal Insulation: In applications where heat loss or gain needs to be

minimized, such as in building insulation or the design of thermally efficient
equipment, reducing the heat transfer rate is crucial.

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• Heat Exchangers: Heat exchangers are designed to efficiently transfer heat
between two fluids while controlling the heat transfer rate. The design
parameters of the heat exchanger, such as the flow rates, surface area, and type
of heat transfer medium, can be adjusted to achieve the desired heat transfer
rate.

• Thermal Management in Electronics: In electronic devices and systems,

managing heat transfer rate is crucial to prevent overheating and ensure optimal
performance and reliability. Fins, fans, and other cooling mechanisms are used
to enhance heat dissipation and increase the heat transfer rate away from
sensitive electronic components.

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• Heat flux, 𝒒,̇ (W/m2): Heat flux refers to the rate of heat transfer per unit area. It
represents the amount of heat energy that flows through a given surface area
per unit time.
• It measures the amount of heat energy that flows through a specific surface area
in a given amount of time.
• It helps in understanding and characterizing the heat transfer behavior of
materials, systems, and processes

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 Example
• A 10 cm diameter copper ball (spherical in shape) is to be heated from 100 °C
to 150 °C in 30 minutes. Average copper density, ρCu = 8950 kg/m3 and Specific
heat of copper at a constant pressure, Cp = 0.395 kJ/kg°C.

• Calculate the total amount of heat energy transfer to the ball.

• Calculate the average heat transfer rate.
• Calculate the average heat flux at the ball surface.

! #
Volume of sphere = " 𝜋 𝑟 " = $ x 𝐷 "

Surface Area of Spherical Ball =4𝜋 𝑟 %

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 Solution
a) The total amount of heat energy transfer to the ball:

! #
Volume of sphere = 𝜋 𝑟 " = x 𝐷 "
" $

Therefore, 92.6 kJ of heat energy needs to be transferred to the copper ball to

heat it from 100°C to 150°C.
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b) The average heat transfer rate.

𝑄 92.6 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄̇ = = = 0.514 = 51.4 𝑊
Δ𝑡 1800 s 𝑠
30 minutes = 1800 secs

c) The average heat flux at the ball surface

*̇ *̇ -..! 0
q= = = = 1636 W/m2
+ !# ,! !# 1.1-!

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 Modes of Heat Transfer
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference.
• All modes are from the high temperature medium to a lower-temperature medium.

1. Conduction: transfer through solids or stationery fluids (liquids and gases)

2. Convection: uses the motion of fluids to transfer heat/ between a solid surface and
adjacent fluid
3. Radiation: uses electromagnetic waves. Can occur in a vacuum.
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Conduction
(Thermal
Conduction)
 Conduction (Thermal Conduction)
• This is the transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic particles
of a substance due to interaction between the particles.

Thermal conduction is carried out by either:

vmolecular vibration
vmovement of free electrons

• Transfer through molecular vibration to some degree, occurs in all systems in

which a temperature gradient exists and in which molecules of a solid, liquid,
or gas are present.
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 Conduction in Metallic Solids – Movement of Free
Electrons
• In metals, conduction occurs mainly by the movement of free electrons inside
the metal atoms.
• Some of the outermost electrons in a of metal atom can leave their atoms and
move about in the metal as free electrons (electrons are negatively charged).
• The parts of the metal atoms left behind are now positive charged metal ions
due to the loss of electrons.
• After losing electrons, the metal atom is left with fewer negatively charged
electrons compared to the number of positively charged protons in its nucleus.
As a result, the metal atom becomes positively charged, forming a metal ion.
• For example, if a neutral copper atom (Cu) loses two electrons, it becomes a
copper ion (Cu2+) with a positive charge of 2.
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• When the free electrons absorb heat/thermal energy, they move much faster
(gain kinetic energy).
• As they move through the metal, free electrons crash into metal ions. Some of
the kinetic energy of the free electron is absorbed by the metal ions and it
vibrates faster and with greater amplitude.
• This process is very much faster than conduction caused by just passing
vibrations from atom to atom.
• This is the reason for why good electric conductors are also good thermal
conductors-because they contain free electrons. example: Silver, Copper.

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 Conduction in Non-Metallic Solids – Molecular Vibration
• As temperature increases molecules will begin to vibrate at a fixed position.
• Molecules having higher temperature at the hot part of the body will vibrate
with more agitation than molecules at the lower temperature part of the body.
• Kinetic energy is translated between the molecules which are very adjacent to
each other while vibrating.
• The energy is kept on transferred from hot region to the cold region or from hot
body to the cold body.
• Since the gap between the molecules in liquids and gases are high, conduction
heat transfer by vibrational interaction is quite low/negligible in liquids and
gases.
• E.g. of non-metallic solid is insulators (rubber, glass)

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18
 Factors Affecting the Heat Transfer Rate By Conduction
• Temperature difference: the greater the difference (gradient) in temperature
between two ends/locations, the greater the rate of thermal energy transfer,
so more heat is transferred.
• Once the two locations have reached the same temperature, thermal
equilibrium is established, and the heat transfer stops.

The heat, Q, is proportional to the difference in temperature:

𝑄̇ ∞ ΔT
• The area of conduction: the heat transfer rate is proportional to the cross-
sectional area, A. A larger cross-sectional area allows for a greater number of
conducting particles or molecules to participate in the heat transfer process.
𝑄̇ ∞ A
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• The length/thickness or distance the heat must travel: the longer or thicker
the object or farther, the less heat that will make it all the way through.
Therefore, the conducted heat is inversely proportional to the length of the l:

.
𝑄̇ ∞
2

• The amount of time that passes: the heat transfer rate depends on the
amount of time that passes, t — twice the time, twice the heat.

𝑄̇ ∞ t

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The type of material:
• The rate of heat transfer depends on the material through which heat is
transferred.
• The ability of a material to conduct heat is quantified by its thermal
conductivity.
• Thermal conductivity values are numerical values that are determined by
experiment.
• The higher that the value is for a particular material, the more rapidly that heat
will be transferred through that material.
• Materials with relatively high thermal conductivities are referred to as thermal
conductors.
• Materials with relatively low thermal conductivity values are referred to as
thermal insulators.

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• In the most general sense, the thermal conductivity is a tensor quantity- has direction
dependent properties- anisotropy

• Anisotropic materials have high thermal conductivity in some directions and low thermal
conductivity in other directions.

• However, for simplicity and in many practical applications, thermal conductivity is often
treated as a scalar quantity, assuming isotropic materials and independence from
temperature within a given temperature range. This assumption allows for easier
calculations and analysis of heat transfer processes.

• This means that they can simultaneously dissipate heat from a hotspot (local overheating)
in directions with high thermal conductivity, while providing thermal insulation in other
directions.

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• The behavior of thermal conductivity with temperature varies for different
materials.
• In general, the thermal conductivity of gases increases with temperature.
• The relationship between thermal conductivity and temperature for liquids
and solids can be more complex and depend on various factors.
• For some liquids and solids, thermal conductivity tends to decrease with
increasing temperature.
• This can occur due to the increased lattice vibrations at higher temperatures,
which hinder the flow of heat and result in lower thermal conductivity.

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Thermal conductivity of gases increases with temperature
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Fourier’s Law-mathematical equation governing
the heat transfer rate through conduction

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• According to Fourier, the heat transfer rate is directly proportional to the area of the
section at right angles to the flow (cross sectional area) of heat, and also to the
change in temperature and inversely proportional to length over which the
temperature gradient exists.

k (W/m.K) or (W/m.°C)
% &% ')
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ! " = −𝑘𝐴
'( '(

v The constant of proportionality is called the material

thermal conductivity, k, measured in k (W/m.K) or
(W/m.°C)
v The negative sign indicates that heat flows from higher
temperature regions to lower temperature regions.

The equation is called Fourier’s Law of Conduction. It is the basic law governing conduction.
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• The negative sign ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction is a
positive quantity.

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• Fourier’s law of heat conduction is an empirical law based on observation. i.e.
It cannot be derived mathematically through different assumptions and
principles.
• This law was formulated by basic intuition and precise experimentation.
• This empirical law has been found to accurately predict heat transfer rates in a
wide range of practical scenarios and has been widely accepted in the
scientific community.

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 8 98 :<
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 !:; " = −𝑘𝐴 :;

In differential form-1D
*̇ # ?8
𝑞= = >
= −𝑘 @;

In differential form-3D

Ø By expressing the equation in differential form, we can examine the heat transfer rate at
infinitesimally small increments within the material (localized analysis).

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 Fourier’s Assumptions
• Conduction heat transfer will take place under steady-state conditions of an object ;
temperature distribution do not change with time.
• The flow of heat should be 1 dimension
• The temperature gradient should be constant throughout process-this assumption
allows for a linear relationship between the heat transfer rate and the temperature
gradient.
• The internal heat generation should be zero- this assumption implies that any heat
transfer within the material is solely due to the temperature difference and not due
to internal heat sources or chemical reactions.
• The material should be homogeneous (uniform properties) and isotropic (properties
are the same in all directions).

NB: isotropic: Properties of a material are identical in all directions (ie, independent of direction).
anisotropic: Properties of a material depend on the direction (ie, direction-dependent).

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 Examples
• Conduction through a bar
A bar of copper (kcu = 400 W/m.k) contacts a hot source at 500 °C on one the opposite
end of the bar is cooled to ambient (Tcold = 25 °C) by cooling water. The length of the
bar is 1 m, and it is cylindrical with a diameter of 1 inch. What is the
a. heat transfer rate?
b. heat flux?

𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 ! = 𝑑 !
4

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 " #" &.&!() ! !(#(&&
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ! " = −400 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥( )
$% ) *

= 96.2 W

*̇ A$.%
Heat flux, q = +
= 1.111-1$B

= 189855.9 W/m2

• The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale.

• The freezing point of water (0°C), and the boiling point of water (100°C), correspond to
273.15°K and 373.15°K, respectively.
• The difference between the freezing and boiling points of water is 100 degrees in each, so
that the Kelvin has the same magnitude as the degree Celsius.

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Example 2;
The front of a slab of lead (k = 35 W/m. ° C) is kept at 110 °C and the back is kept
at 50 °C. If the area of the slab is 0.4 m2 and it is 0.03 m thick, compute the heat
flux and the heat transfer rate.

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• Heat flux
+%
𝑞* = −𝑘
,(

-.&//. °1
𝑞* = −35 W/m.°𝐶
..." 3

= 70000 W/m^2 or 70 kW/m^2

• Heat transfer rate

𝑸̇ = qA
= 70 (0.4)
= 28 kW

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Convection
(Thermal
Convection)
 Convection
• Heat transfer by convection refers to the transfer of heat through the
movement of a fluid, either a liquid or a gas.
• It involves the combined effects of conduction (thermal energy transfer
between adjacent molecules) and fluid/mixing motion.
• Convection occurs when there is a temperature difference within the fluid,
causing the fluid to move and transport heat from one location to another.
• Convection occurs only in a moving liquid or a gas, never in a solid.
• Convection currents transfer thermal energy through many fluids.
• The upwards movement of hot fluid particles and downward movement of cold
fluid particles is called convectional currents.
• The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.
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• How does all of the water in the pot get hot when it is heated only from the
bottom by the gas flame?

• When water boils, the heat passes from the burner into the pot, heating the
water at the bottom. This hot water rises and cooler water moves down to
replace it, causing a circular motion.

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 Observing convection in liquids using potassium
permanganate crystals
• The water in the region of the Bunsen
flame is heated
• It expands, becomes less dense and
rises.
• It is replaced by the cooler, denser water
which surrounds it.
• This water is in turn heated, expands
becomes less dense and rises.
• The process continues, a convection
current is set up and heat is transferred
through the liquid.
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• In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
• Conduction involves the transfer of heat from molecule to molecule within the
solid and between the solid surface and the fluid in direct contact with it.
• Convection currents play a significant role in transferring thermal energy
through fluids

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 Example: Fluid Movement Across a Plate

• Consider flow of a cooling fluid across a heated surface. What do the velocity
and temperature profiles look like?
• When a fluid flows over a heated surface, convection plays a significant role in
transferring heat from the surface to the fluid.
• As the fluid moves across the hot plate, it undergoes changes in velocity and
temperature.
• These changes can be visualized through the velocity and temperature profiles,
which describe how the fluid properties vary across the flow field.

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 Example: Fluid Movement Across a Plate
• The velocity profile represents the variation in fluid
velocity across the flow field.
• Typically, near the surface of the hot plate, the fluid
velocity is lower due to the frictional effects
between the fluid and the solid surface.
• This region is known as the boundary layer.
• As we move away from the surface, the fluid
velocity gradually increases until it reaches the bulk
flow velocity away from the boundary layer.
• Near the surface the fluid velocity is low, and Velocity and Temperature Profile For Fluid
conduction (diffusion) dominates. Movement Across a Hot Plate
• At distance from the surface, bulk motion increases
and convection dominates

• Rate of Heat Transfer by Conduction = Rate of Heat Transfer by Convection + Rate of Heat Transfer by Radiation (often
negligible) 41
 Example: Fluid Movement Across a Plate
• The temperature profile describes the variation in
fluid temperature across the flow field.
• Initially, the fluid near the surface of the hot plate is
heated and its temperature rises.
• As the fluid moves away from the surface, it
gradually cools down due to the heat transfer to the
fluid from the hot plate.
• The temperature profile is influenced by the heat
transfer rate, fluid properties, flow conditions, and
other factors. Velocity and Temperature Profile For Fluid
Movement Across a Hot Plate

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• Both the velocity and temperature profiles are interconnected in convection
heat transfer.
• The movement of the fluid (velocity profile) affects the rate at which heat is
transferred from the hot plate to the fluid.
• At the same time, the temperature profile influences the fluid properties, such
as density and viscosity, which in turn affect the velocity profile.

43
 Types of Convection
• Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow ;
• Forced Convection: a mechanism of heat transportation in which fluid motion
(convectional current) is generated by an external source (such as a pump,
natural wind, fan, ceiling fan, hair dryer etc.)
• Natural/Free Convection: a mechanism of heat transportation in which the fluid
motion is caused by the difference in fluid density (buoyancy) occurring due to
temperature gradients (e.g., water heating, convective heating in microwave)

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• Examples of forced convection include:
• Air conditioning systems: Air is forced to flow over cooling coils by fans,
transferring heat from the indoor environment to the outside.
• Automobile radiators: The flow of coolant through the radiator is driven by a
water pump, facilitating heat transfer from the engine to the surrounding air.
• Heat exchangers: Fluids are pumped through tubes or channels, promoting
heat transfer between the fluids.

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• Examples of natural convection include:
• Boiling water: As heat is applied to the bottom of a
pot of water, the heated water rises to the top
while cooler water descends, resulting in natural
convection currents.
• Hot air rising: When a room is heated, the warm
air near the heat source rises to the ceiling, and as
it cools, it descends to create a natural circulation
pattern.
• Solar heating: Sunlight heats the air or fluid in a
solar collector, causing it to rise and creating
natural convection currents.

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 Newton’s Law of Cooling for Convection
• Newton's experiments consisted of heating up various bodies and then monitoring their
temperatures as they cooled back down to the ambient temperature.
• Newton observed that the rate of cooling was proportional to the temperature difference
between the object and its surroundings.
• The basic equation for the rate of convection heat transfer is known as Newton's Law of
Cooling.

𝑄̇ !"#$ = ℎ𝐴 𝑇% − 𝑇&
where 𝑄̇ 4567 is the convective heat transfer rate, h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (in units such as W/m2K or
Btu/hft2R), A is the surface area of the object being cooled or heated, T∞ is the bulk temperature of the surrounding fluid,
and Ts is the surface temperature of the object.

47
• The convective heat transfer coefficient, h, (W/m2K) is the measure of how
effectively a fluid transfers heat by convection.
• The higher the convective heat transfer coefficient, the more efficient the heat
transfer process is.
• The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not an inherent property of the
fluid.
• It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the
variables influencing convection such as the surface geometry, the nature of
fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

48
49
 Example
• A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15°C. Heat
is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface
temperature of the wire is measured to be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the
voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured to be 60 V and
1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface
of the wire and the air in the room.

̇ 𝑬̇ 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 = VI
Use Heat generated = 𝑸=

50
 ̇ 𝐸̇=>?>@AB>C = VI = (60 V)(1.5 A) = 90 W
• Heat generated = 𝑄=

• Surface Area of pipe, 𝐴D = 2 𝜋rl= 𝜋DL =

= 𝜋(0.003m)(2m)
= 0.01885 m2

• 𝑄̇ EF?G = ℎ𝐴 𝑇% − 𝑇&

• Assuming all heat loss is through the wire is by convection

Ḣ !"#$ JK L
•ℎ= =
I '! ('" K.KNOOP Q % NPRSNP °U

= 34.9 W/m2. °𝐶 51
Radiation
(Thermal
Radiation)
 Electromagnetic Waves
• Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created when an
electric field comes into contact with an magnetic field.
• An electric field is produced by a charged particle.
• The Magnetic field is produced by a moving charged particle.
• When these fields interact and oscillate, they generate electromagnetic waves.
• Electromagnetic waves transfer energy through space.
• The amount of energy carried by an electromagnetic wave is determined by its
intensity, which is related to the amplitude of the electric and magnetic fields.

53
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves
arranged according to frequency and wavelength.

54
• Thermal radiation energy refers to the energy transferred mainly infrared
through waves.
• It is emitted by objects due to the thermal motion of their particles.
• While infrared radiation is the primary component of thermal radiation, it's
important to note that thermal radiation can encompass a broader range of
wavelengths, including parts of the visible and ultraviolet regions, depending
on the temperature of the emitting object.
• All objects with a temperature above absolute zero (-273.15°C or 0 Kelvin) emit
thermal radiation (lowest temp. that can be theoretically achieved).
• Unlike conduction and convection, thermal radiation involves waves and not
particles, hence can occur in a vacuum.

55
• The hotter the object is, the higher the energy its thermal radiation is.
• Very cool objects emit low energy (and therefore low frequency) EM radiation.
• Examples: oven, sun radiation, Thermal imaging

56
• As the temperature of an object increases, the thermal radiation it emits
can shift into the visible light range, causing the object to appear red,
orange, yellow, and eventually white-hot.

57
 heat + oxygen + fuel source = fire

Different colors because of different wavelengths emitted based on the

composition of the raw materials

58
 • Humans radiate in the infrared.
• This radiation is not visible to the naked eye
but can be detected and visualized using
infrared or thermal imaging cameras.
• These cameras capture the infrared radiation
emitted by objects and convert it into a
visible image, allowing us to see the heat
patterns and temperature distribution of the
human body or other objects.

Thermal cameras to determine elevated temperatures; the higher the temperature, the higher intensity of emitted IR.
59
 Stefan–Boltzmann Law
• It describes the total radiant energy emitted by a black body as a function of its
temperature.
• It establishes a relationship between the temperature of an object and the rate
at which it emits thermal radiation.
• This law states that the energy emitted (rate of change of energy) from a body is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature in Kelvin.

𝑄̇ = 𝐴𝜎𝑇 V
A is the surface area. The proportionality constant, sigma (𝜎) is the Stefan-Boltzman constant equal to 5.67 x 10-8
W/m2K4. T.
üThe Stefan-Boltzmann law implies that as the temperature of an object
increases, the amount of thermal radiation it emits also increases significantly.

60
• A black body absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that is incident to its surface
without reflecting it as a consequence of its absorption properties.
• It emits electromagnetic waves called blackbody radiation.

• The thermal radiation heat transfer also depends on the material properties
represented by 𝜀, the emissivity of the material.
• This is the ability of a surface to emit thermal radiation compared to a
blackbody.
• For a black body epsilon, 𝜀 = 1 (Perfect emitter)

61
• In the real world, blackbody does not exist.
• Real bodies emit radiation at much lower rate than blackbodies.
• Hence, emissivity is used to include the impact of real surfaces on emission.
• The radiation emitted by real surfaces is defined as;

𝑄̇ = 𝜖𝐴𝜎𝑇 "

62
 Example

• A steel pipe with an emissivity of 0.75 is operating at a temperature of 500°C.

The surface area of the pipe is 2 m². Calculate the total thermal energy radiated
by the pipe.

63
 Solution
𝑄̇ = 𝜖𝐴𝜎𝑇 )
𝑄̇ = 0.75 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥5.67 x 10−8 𝑥 (273.15 + 500))
= 30389.91 W

64
The emissivity ε is a number between
0 and 1 characterizing the surface;
black objects have an emissivity near
1, while shiny ones have an emissivity
near 0.

65
• A special case that occurs frequently involves radiation exchange between a small
surface at Ts and a much larger, isothermal surface that completely surrounds the
smaller one.
• It is convenient to express the net radiation heat exchange in the form:

𝑄̇ = 𝜀𝜎𝐴(𝑇#$ − 𝑇%$ )
𝑄̇ = 𝜀𝜎𝐴(𝑇#& + 𝑇%& )( 𝑇# − 𝑇% ) ( 𝑇# + 𝑇% )

• This equation represents the net heat transfer due to radiation between the two
surfaces, taking into account the emissivity of the small surface and the temperature
difference between the two surfaces.

66
 Examples
• A person cools by radiation. Suppose a person stands in a room with dark walls
at a temperature of 18 °C. If the 𝜖DXY? = 0.71 and temperature of the skin is
36 °C, calculate the net radiation. Take A= 1.6 m2. Stefan-Boltzmann constant is
5.76 x 10-8 W/m2 k4.

67
𝑄̇ = 𝜖𝐴𝜎𝑇 )
𝑄̇ = 𝜖𝐴𝜎(𝑇*) − 𝑇+) )
= (5.76 x 10-8)(1.62)(0.71)((36+273)4-(18+273)4)
=126.89 W

68
• An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls
are at 25 °C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface
temperature and emissivity are 200 ° C and 0.8, respectively. If the coefficient
associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is
15 W/m2 .K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of
pipe? Stefan-Boltzmann constant is 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 k4.

69
• Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and by radiation
exchange with the walls .

𝑄̇ = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛
̇ ̇
+ 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣

70
 𝑄̇ = ℎ 𝜋𝐷𝐿 𝑇H − 𝑇I + ε 𝜋𝐷𝐿 𝜎 𝑇H! − 𝑇I
!

The heat loss per unit length of pipe is; pipe heat loss is based on the heat loss per linear foot
rather than the entire area of any given length.

*̇
𝑞= = 15𝑥(𝜋 x 0.07) x (200-25)+ 0.8(𝜋x0.07) x 5.67x10−8x (4734-2984)
J

= 988 W/m

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Steady vs Unsteady State Heat Transfer Processes

Diffusion Equation

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