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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

Language Change, Variation, and Universals

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

Language Change,
Variation, and Universals
A Constructional Approach

P E T E R W. C U L IC OV E R

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
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© Peter W. Culicover 2021
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2021
Impression: 1
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2021931013
ISBN 978–0–19–886539–1
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198865391.001.0001
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

Contents

Acknowledgments ix
Preface xi
List of Abbreviations xv

PA R T I. F O U N D A T I O N S
1. Overview 3
1.1 The problem 3
1.2 Constructions 9
1.2.1 Basics 9
1.2.2 Constructions are not derivations 12
1.3 Antecedents 14
2. Constructions 16
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 What a grammar is for 16
2.3 A framework for constructions 19
2.3.1 Representing constructions 19
2.3.2 Licensing 27
2.3.3 Linear order 28
2.4 Appendix: Formalizing constructions 31
2.4.1 Representations on tiers 31
2.4.2 Connections between tiers 36
2.4.3 Licensing via instantiation 36
3. Universals 41
3.1 Classical Universal Grammar 41
3.1.1 Core grammar 42
3.1.2 Parameters 44
3.1.3 UG and emerging grammars 46
3.2 Another conception of universals 50
3.3 On the notion ‘possible human language’ 53
3.3.1 Possible constructions 53
3.3.2 An example: Negation 56
3.3.3 Another example: The imperative 61
3.4 Against uniformity 66
4. Learning, complexity, and competition 68
4.1 Acquiring constructions 68
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vi contents

4.2 Constructional innovation 75

4.3 Constructions in competition 77
4.3.1 Multiple grammars vs. multiple constructions 78
4.3.2 Defining competition 81
4.3.3 When do we actually have competition? 86
4.4 Economy 87
4.4.1 Representational complexity 88
4.4.2 Computational complexity 90
4.4.3 Interpretive complexity 96
4.5 Simulating competition 100
4.6 Summary 106

P A R T I I . VA R I A T I O N
5. Argument structure 111
5.1 Introduction 111
5.2 Argument structure constructions (ASCs) 112
5.2.1 Devices 112
5.2.2 CS features 118
5.3 Differential marking 120
5.3.1 Differential subject marking 120
5.3.2 Differential object marking 130
5.4 Modeling differential marking 133
5.4.1 Acquisition of ASCs 134
5.4.2 Simulation 139
5.5 Summary 144
6. Grammatical functions 145
6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 The notion of ‘subject’ 146
6.3 Morphologically rich ASCs 147
6.3.1 Plains Cree argument structure 148
6.3.2 Incorporation 152
6.3.3 Complexity in ASCs 156
6.4 Split intransitive 158
6.5 The emergence of grammatical functions 160
6.6 Summary 165
7. Aᆣ constructions 166
7.1 Foundations 166
7.2 Doing Aᆣ work 169
7.2.1 Gaps and chains 169
7.2.2 Relatives 174
7.2.3 Topicalization 175
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

contents vii

7.3 Scope in situ 177

7.3.1 Wh-in-situ 178
7.3.2 In situ in polysynthesis 180
7.3.3 Other in situ 182
7.3.4 Cryptoconstructional in situ 183
7.4 Extensions of Aᆣ constructions 183
7.5 Toward an Aᆣ constructional typology 189
7.6 Summary 194

PA R T I I I. C H A N G E
8. Constructional change in Germanic 197
8.1 Introduction 197
8.2 Basic clausal constructions of Modern German 198
8.2.1 Initial position in the clause 200
8.2.2 Position of the finite verb in the main clause 202
8.2.3 Position of the verb in a subordinate clause 203
8.2.4 Position of the verb in questions 203
8.3 The development of English 204
8.3.1 The position of the verb 205
8.3.2 The ‘loss’ of V2 in English 208
8.3.3 The loss of case marking 213
8.4 The development of Modern German from Old High German 215
8.5 Verb clusters 219
8.6 Conclusion 223
9. Changes outside of the CCore 225
9.1 English reflexives 225
9.1.1 Reflexivity in constructions 225
9.1.2 Variation and change in reflexive constructions 227
9.2 Auxiliary do 230
9.2.1 The emergence of do 230
9.2.2 The spread of do 234
9.3 Preposition stranding 235
9.3.1 Why p-stranding? 235
9.3.2 P-passive 237
9.3.3 Coercion 239
9.4 Conclusion 241
10. Constructional economy and analogy 242
10.1 The elements of style 244
10.2 Analogy 249
10.2.1 Maximizing economy 250
10.2.2 Routines 252
10.2.3 Pure style 257
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

viii contents

10.3 Beyond parameters: Capturing the style 262

10.3.1 Baker’s Polysynthesis Parameter 262
10.3.2 Greenberg’s universals 264
10.3.3 Non-Greenbergian universals 267
10.4 Summary 272
11. Recapitulation and prospects 274

References 279
Language Index 309
Author Index 311
Subject Index 316
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

Acknowledgments

This book has been a long time in the making, and has been profoundly
influenced by many people. As always, thanks to Ray Jackendoff and Susanne
Winkler for their friendship, collegiality, advice, and support. Jack Hawkins
read several early versions of the manuscript and generously shared his
insights—they can be seen throughout. I am very grateful to Jefferson Barlew
for the formal description of the constructional framework developed as
part of our collaboration on minimal constructions, which appears in the
Appendix to Chapter 2 and is based on Barlew & Culicover (2015). And I owe
a tremendous debt to Giuseppe Varaschin, who read the entire manuscript
in various incarnations and made countless detailed and constructive
suggestions, virtually all of which have been incorporated into the current
version.
Thanks also to Brian Joseph and Noah Diewald, from whom I learned so
much in the course of our discussions in our Cree Reading Group, to Greg
Carlson, Ashwini Deo, Adele Goldberg, Björn Köhnlein, Andrew McInnerney,
Rafaela Miliorini, Lorena Sainz-Maza Lecanda, Richard Samuels, Yourda-
nis Sedaris, Andrea Sims, Shane Steinert-Threlkeld, Elena Vaiksnoraite, and
Joshua Wampler for stimulating discussions on a range of topics, to Philip
Miller for helpful comments on the material in Chapter 3 and for his general
perspective on constructional approaches to grammar, to Afra Alishahi for
our collaboration on the simulation of change in argument structure con-
structions, to Andrzej Nowak for our collaboration on language change, and
to Marianne Mithun for helpful insight into active-stative languages. Thanks
to Zoe Edmiston, whose interest in Plains Cree stimulated my own, and to
Morten Christiansen and Nick Chater for giving me the opportunity to write
the foreword to their recent book and to think freshly about the foundations
of linguistic theory.
I am especially indebted to several anonymous reviewers, whose construc-
tive suggestions have pointed to a rethinking of this book in ways that have
led to significant improvements. Of course, any errors and deficiencies that
remain are my responsibility alone.
The Department of Linguistics and The Ohio State University awarded me
a Special Assignment in the Autumn of 2016, which made it possible for me to
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

x acknowledgments

make significant progress on the first draft. My thanks to Shari Speer, for her
constant encouragement and support.
I owe a deep debt to the work of Ivan Sag and Partha Niyogi, and I wish
I could thank them now—sadly, they left us far too soon, with so much left
for us to do without their guidance and insights. I am grateful as well to
the late John Davey of Oxford University Press, whose unflagging support
and encouragement over many years helped me through the publication
of five substantial volumes, each of which contributes significantly to the
foundations of the present work. And it is with great regret and sadness that
I am unable to share this work with my dear friend and colleague, the late
Michael Rochemont.
Finally, deepest thanks and much love as always to Diane, Daniel, and Jen
for always being there.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

Preface

This book began with a nagging worry. By and large, the grammatical literature
assumes that grammatical functions such as subject and object are universal
and independently represented in syntax, and play an integral role in the
description of the form/meaning correspondences that comprise what we call
‘language’. But these supposed universals, like many others, pose several mys-
teries. Where do they come from? Are they part of the biological endowment
for language that is encoded in our genes? Is there a device called Universal
Grammar in our brains that incorporates such notions as subject and object, or
the equivalent? Did biological evolution select for languages whose grammars
make use of these grammatical functions?
As I looked more into the literature on grammatical functions, it became
clear that they are not universal—not all languages appear to make use of
them, and where it appears that they are used, they are not the same cross-
linguistically. Of course, we find the terms ‘subject’ and ‘object’ used all the
time to distinguish the participants in a relation such as ‘The tiger bit Sandy’ in
a given language. And it is possible to stipulate that ‘the tiger’ in some language
has the syntactic representation of what we call ‘subject’ in a language like
English. But on closer investigation, often what is being distinguished are the
phrases that denote entities with thematic roles like agent and patient.
It is often said that “A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single
step”, and each journey starts from a different place. This is one such journey.
No matter where we start from in syntactic theory, the interconnections take
us to places that we did not envision at the outset. In this case, as I thought
about grammatical functions and how arguments are distinguished cross-
linguistically, I found myself engaged in something much more far-reaching
and ambitious: the explanation of language change, variation, and typology.
Why does change proceed in certain directions, why do we get the variation
that we do, why do we get certain variants and not others? How do grammars
carry out the task of encoding the expressive functions of language, and what,
if any, are the limits on how this is done? Why are certain patterns ubiquitous,
across languages and in a single language, while others are rare or non-
existent?
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

xii preface

It is of course possible to formulate descriptions of change, variation, and

typological patterns in any reasonably explicit descriptive framework. But in
order to properly explain them, we need the right descriptive framework. I had
been working on constructional phenomena for some time, beginning in fact
with my dissertation (Culicover 1971), more recently with the publication of
my books Syntactic Nuts (Culicover 1999), Grammar and Complexity (Culi-
cover 2013c), and Explaining Syntax (Culicover 2013b), and in my collabora-
tion with Ray Jackendoff on Simpler Syntax (Culicover & Jackendoff 2005). It
seemed promising to pursue a constructional approach to these issues.
So in the end, this book is not about grammatical functions, although that
is one strand. It is about how and why grammars vary and change, and hence
why there are distinct languages, understood as overt expressions of different
grammars. To address these questions, I argue for a particular constructional
approach to the representation of grammatical knowledge, and I seek to
show how this approach helps us understand how different languages and
typological patterns might arise out of grammatical change and competition
between grammars in the natural social and cognitive environment.
The organization of the book is as follows. Part I lays out the foundations
of this exploration. It covers a statement of the problem, a reassessment of the
notion of Universal Grammar, a theory of constructions, and the conceptual
relationships between syntactic theory, grammatical variation, and grammat-
ical change. This part of the book consists of four chapters.
Chapter 1 (Overview) lays out the general problem of explaining the form
of grammars, and relates this problem to that of characterizing grammatical
complexity. Following much recent work, I take the view that reduction of
complexity is a driving explanatory force whose effects can be seen in change
and in variation. In the overview, I sketch out the general perspective that
I adopt on universals, conceptual structure, constructions, complexity and
change and variation, and how they are related.
Chapter 2 (Constructions) sets out an approach to grammatical description
in which the notions of Chapter 1 can be formally implemented. The account
is a constructional one. I outline the formalism, show how it is used to account
for grammatical phenomena, and highlight its utility in describing variation
and change.
Chapter 3 (Universals) reviews the approach to universals in contemporary
grammatical theory, which is that they are expressions of Universal Grammar
(UG), the human faculty of language. In practice UG is assumed to constrain
syntax, and thus constitutes an explicit statement of grammatical universals.
This chapter formulates a different view, which is that what is universal is
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

preface xiii

conceptual structure, and grammatical universals and typological patterns

arise as a consequence of pressures to formulate constructional grammars
that express conceptual structure as simply as possible. While it is possible
to characterize change and variation in any sufficiently expressive descriptive
framework, I argue that the constructional approach provides a natural frame-
work for explaining language variation and change.
Chapter 4 (Learning, complexity, and competition). This chapter explores
how envisioning a language learner as acquiring a grammar consisting of
constructions allows us to account for change and variation. I develop the idea
that change is not solely the responsibility of early language learners, but may
also occur as innovations initiated by adult speakers. One key explanatory
component is constructional complexity; another is competition between
constructions that have overlapping functions.
In Part II I look at a number of cases of variation in constructions that
deal with two core expressive functions of a language: argument structure
and Aᆣ /filler-gap constructions. I show how the constructional framework
provides a formal apparatus that is suitable both for describing the phenomena
in a given language and for accounting for the observed variation. This part of
the book consists of three chapters.
Chapter 5 (Argument structure) applies the theory to variation in systems
for expressing argument structure. A central point is that there are multiple
devices of comparable complexity that encode the thematic roles; hence it is
not necessary to assume that all languages share a uniform syntactic structure
at some abstract level of representation.
In Chapter 6 (Grammatical functions) I return to the question that triggered
this project, the source of grammatical functions (GFs). I review evidence
that not all languages require GFs, and show how to capture the relevant
correspondences between form and meaning in constructional terms.
Chapter 7 (Aᆣ constructions) applies the theory of the preceding chapters to
Aᆣ constructions, such as wh-questions and relative clauses. The main result
of this chapter is that there is a range of ways in which the conceptual ‘work’
associated with these constructions can be expressed in the correspondence
between syntax, phonology, and meaning. None of them involve ‘movement’
in the classical sense, although constructions can express links between con-
stituents not in canonical position relative to their governing heads, giving the
illusion of movement.
Part III applies the models of constructional learning and network inter-
actions developed in Chapter 3 to establish the plausibility of the account of
change sketched out in Part I. This part of the book consists of three chapters.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

xiv preface

Chapter 8 (Constructional change in Germanic) tracks several of the major

changes in English and German word order and accounts for them in terms of
constructional change as formulated in Chapter 3. It argues that the changes
in Germanic are relatively simple in constructional terms, although the super-
ficial results are quite dramatic. Among the topics addressed are clause-initial
position, V2, VP-initial and VP-final verb position, the loss of V2 and case
marking in English, and verb clusters in Continental West Germanic.
Chapter 9 (Changes outside of the CCore) shows the broader applicability
of the constructional approach. I look at three well-documented developments
in English that do not fall into the category of ‘core phenomena’ as understood
in Chapter 3, reflexivity, do support, and preposition stranding. These changes
are not as central to the expressive function of language as argument struc-
ture, operator/scope, and similar phenomena. I argue that these phenomena
provide additional evidence that the constructional approach is well-suited for
providing genuine explanations for language change and variation.
In Chapter 10 (Constructional economy and analogy), I look more deeply
into what constitutes constructional economy, and why it plays a role in
shaping the form of grammars. I argue that constructional economy is the
consequence of what has been called ‘analogy’ in the traditional linguistics
literature. Specifically, I suggest that economy in constructions derives from
placing a high value on the use and reuse of the components of the processing
routines associated with constructional correspondences. I apply this general
idea to seek explanations for a range of typological patterns that I refer to
generally as ‘style’.
Chapter 11 (Recapitulation and prospects) summarizes the main results of
this book and lays out some general propositions about how to think further
about language variation and change from the perspective of constructional
grammars.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

List of Abbreviations

Adj adjective
ASC Argument structure construction
AUX Auxiliary
BDT Branching Direction Theory
CCore Conceptual Core
CS Conceptual Structure
CWG Continental West Germanic
DM Distributed Morphology
DOM Differential object marking
DSM Differential subject marking
GB (theory) Government Binding theory
GF grammatical function
HPSG Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar
IPP Infinitivus Pro Participio
IS information structure
LFG Lexical Functional Grammar
LID Lexeme Identifier
MGG Mainstream Generative Grammar
MOD Modal
ModE Modern English
ModG Modern German
N noun
Neg Negative
NP noun phrase
OE Old English
OHG Old High German
P&P Principles and Parameters Theory
PA Parallel Architecture
PG Proto-Germanic
PLD primary linguistic data
PP prepositional phrase
RG Relational Grammar
SAI subject Aux inversion
SD Standard Dutch
UG Universal Grammar
V verb
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 20/6/2021, SPi

xvi list of abbreviations

VP Verb Phrase
VPR Verb projection raising
WALS World Atlas of Language Structures
WF West Flemish
ZT Zürich German
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/6/2021, SPi

PART I
F OU N DAT ION S
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/6/2021, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/6/2021, SPi

1
Overview

1.1 The problem

My primary concern in this book is how human languages get to be the way
they are, why they are different from one another in certain ways and not in
others, and why they change in the ways that they do. Given that language
is a universal creation of the human mind, the central question is why there
are different languages at all. Why don’t we all speak the same language?
This chapter lays out the general foundations of inquiry into this question in
contemporary linguistic theory, and the specific assumptions that inform the
answers developed in this book.
I call this central question ‘Chomsky’s Problem’.1 Chomsky’s own answer,
hinted at in Chomsky (1965) and further developed in Chomsky (1973, 1981)
and other work, has been that in a sense we do all speak the ‘same language’.
What we produce is the external manifestation of a universal, biologically
determined, abstract faculty of the human mind, called Universal Grammar
(UG). This classical Chomskyan account, which I refer to throughout
as Mainstream Generative Grammar (MGG), has the following main
components:

(i) There is a set of very general grammatical principles, structures, and

mechanisms, UG, which define the core grammar shared by all
languages.
(ii) These principles and mechanisms are biological universals and consti-
tute I-language.
(iii) Some observable variation is due to differences in the values of core
parameters; hence I-language takes different forms as determined by
these parameters. The parameters are set by learners on the basis of
exposure to primary linguistic data (PLD).
(iv) The set of actual sentences and their meanings, produced by a group
of speakers, referred to as E-language, is itself of no theoretical

1 The parallel with Chomsky’s “Orwell’s Problem” and “Plato’s Problem” is intended.

Language Change, Variation, and Universals: A Constructional Approach. Peter W. Culicover, Oxford University Press.
© Peter W. Culicover 2021. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198865391.003.0001
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