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Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1
 Series Editor
Jean-Charles Pomerol

Concepts and Semantics of

Programming Languages 1

A Semantical Approach with

OCaml and Python

Thérèse Hardin
Mathieu Jaume
François Pessaux
Véronique Viguié Donzeau-Gouge
First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2021

The rights of Thérèse Hardin, Mathieu Jaume, François Pessaux and Véronique Viguié Donzeau-Gouge
to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021930488

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-530-5
 Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Chapter 1. From Hardware to Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Computers: a low-level view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1. Information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2. Memories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3. CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4. Peripheral devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2. Computers: a high-level view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1. Modeling computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2. High-level languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3. From source code to executable programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Chapter 2. Introduction to Semantics of Programming Languages 15

2.1. Environment, memory and state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.1. Evaluation environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2. Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.3. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2. Evaluation of expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1. Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2. Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.3. Evaluation semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3. Definition and assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1. Defining an identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2. Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
vi Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1

Chapter 3. Semantics of Functional Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.1. Syntactic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1. Syntax of a functional kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2. Abstract syntax tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.3. Reasoning by induction over expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1.4. Declaration of variables, bound and free variables . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2. Execution semantics: evaluation functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.1. Evaluation errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2. Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.3. Interpretation of operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.4. Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.5. Evaluation of expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3. Execution semantics: operational semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.1. Simple expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.2. Call-by-value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3.3. Recursive and mutually recursive functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.4. Call-by-name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.5. Call-by-value versus call-by-name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.4. Evaluation functions versus evaluation relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4.1. Status of the evaluation function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4.2. Induction over evaluation trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5. Semantic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5.1. Equivalent expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5.2. Equivalent environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.6. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Chapter 4. Semantics of Imperative Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.1. Syntax of a kernel of an imperative language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2. Evaluation of expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3. Evaluation of definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4. Operational semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.1. Big-step semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.2. Small-step semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4.3. Expressiveness of operational semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.5. Semantic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5.1. Equivalent programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5.2. Program termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5.3. Determinism of program execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.5.4. Big steps versus small steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.6. Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6.1. Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6.2. Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7. Other approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
 Contents vii

4.7.1. Denotational semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

4.7.2. Axiomatic semantics, Hoare logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.8. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Chapter 5. Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

5.1. Type checking: when and how? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.1.1. When to verify types? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.1.2. How to verify types? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.2. Informal typing of a program Exp2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2.1. A first example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2.2. Typing a conditional expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.2.3. Typing without type constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.2.4. Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3. Typing rules in Exp2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3.1. Types, type schemes and typing environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3.2. Generalization, substitution and instantiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3.3. Typing rules and typing trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.4. Type inference algorithm in Exp2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.4.1. Principal type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.4.2. Sets of constraints and unification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4.3. Type inference algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.5. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.5.1. Properties of typechecking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.5.2. Properties of the inference algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.6. Typechecking of imperative constructs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.6.1. Type algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.6.2. Typing rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.6.3. Typing polymorphic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.7. Subtyping and overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.7.1. Subtyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.7.2. Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter 6. Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6.1. Basic types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1.1. Booleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1.2. Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.1.3. Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.1.4. Floating point numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.2. Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.3. Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.4. Type definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.4.1. Type abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.4.2. Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
viii Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1

6.4.3. Enumerated types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

6.4.4. Sum types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.5. Generalized conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.5.1. C style switch/case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.5.2. Pattern matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.6. Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.6.1. Physical equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.6.2. Structural equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.6.3. Equality between functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Chapter 7. Pointers and Memory Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

7.1. Addresses and pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.2. Endianness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.3. Pointers and arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.4. Passing parameters by address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.5.1. References in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.5.2. References in Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.6. Memory management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.6.1. Memory allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.6.2. Freeing memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.6.3. Automatic memory management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Chapter 8. Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

8.1. Errors: notification and propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.1.1. Global variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.1.2. Record definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.1.3. Passing by address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.1.4. Introducing exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.2. A simple formalization: ML-style exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.2.1. Abstract syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.2.2. Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.2.3. Type algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.2.4. Operational semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.2.5. Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.3. Exceptions in other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.3.1. Exceptions in OCaml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.3.2. Exceptions in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.3.3. Exceptions in Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.3.4. Exceptions in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
 Contents ix

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Appendix: Solutions to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

List of Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Index of Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
 Foreword

Computer programs have played an increasingly central role in our lives since the
1940s, and the quality of these programs has thus become a crucial question. Writing
a high-quality program – a program that performs the required task and is efficient,
robust, easy to modify, easy to extend, etc. – is an intellectually challenging task,
requiring the use of rigorous development methods. First and foremost, however, the
creation of such a program is dependent on an in-depth knowledge of the
programming language used, its syntax and, crucially, its semantics, i.e. what
happens when a program is executed.

The description of this semantics puts the most fundamental concepts into light,
including those of value, reference, exception or object. These concepts are the
foundations of programming language theory. Mastering these concepts is what sets
experienced programmers apart from beginners. Certain concepts – like that of value
– are common to all programming languages; others – such as the notion of functions
– operate differently in different languages; finally, other concepts – such as that of
objects – only exist in certain languages. Computer scientists often refer to
“programming paradigms” to consider sets of concepts shared by a family of
languages, which imply a certain programming style: imperative, functional,
object-oriented, logical, concurrent, etc. Nevertheless, an understanding of the
concepts themselves is essential, as several paradigms may be interwoven within the
same language.

Introductory texts on programming in any given language are not difficult to find,
and a number of published books address the fundamental concepts of language
semantics. Much rarer are those, like the present volume, which establish and
examine the links between concepts and their implementation in languages used by
programmers on a daily basis, such as C, C++, Ada, Java, OCaml and Python. The
authors provide a wealth of examples in these languages, illustrating and giving life
to the notions that they present. They propose general models, such as the kit
xii Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1

presented in Volume 2, permitting a unified view of different notions; this makes it

easier for readers to understand the constructs used in popular programming
languages and facilitates comparison. This thorough and detailed work provides
readers with an understanding of these notions and, above all, an understanding of
the ways of using the latter to create high-quality programs, building a safer and
more reliable future in computing.

Gilles D OWEK
Research Director, Inria
Professor at the École normale supérieure, Paris-Saclay

Catherine D UBOIS
Professor at the École nationale supérieure
d’informatique pour l’industrie et l’entreprise
January 2021
 Preface

This two-volume work relates to the field of programming. First and foremost, it
is intended to give readers a solid grounding in the bases of functional or imperative
programming, along with a thorough knowledge of the module and class mechanisms
involved. In our view, the semantics approach is most appropriate when studying
programming, as the impact of interlanguage syntax differences is limited. Practical
considerations, determined by the material characteristics of computers and/or
“smart” devices, will also be addressed. The same approach will be taken in both
volumes, using both mathematical formulas and memory state diagrams. With this
book, we hope to help readers understand the meaning of the constructs described in
the reference manuals of programming languages and to establish solid foundations
for reasoning and assessing the correctness of their own programs through critical
review. In short, our aim is to facilitate the development of safe and reliable
programs.

Volume 1 begins with a presentation of the computer, in Chapter 1, first at the

material level – as an assemblage of components – then as a tool for executing
programs. Chapter 2 is an intuitive, step-by-step introduction to language semantics,
intended to familiarize readers with this approach to programming. In Chapter 3, we
provide a detailed discussion on the subject, with a formal presentation of the
execution semantics of functional features. Chapter 4 continues with the same topic,
looking at the execution semantics of imperative features. In these two chapters, a
clear mathematical framework is used to support our presentation. Also, all of the
notions which we introduce in these chapters are implemented in both Python and
OCaml to assist readers learning about the semantic concepts in question for the first
time. Multiple exercises, with detailed solutions, are provided in both cases. Chapter
5, on the subject of typing, begins by addressing typing rules, which are used to
check programs; we then present the algorithm used to infer polymorphic types,
along with the associated mathematical notions, all implemented in both languages.
Finally, the extension of typing to imperative features is addressed. In Chapter 6, we
xiv Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1

present the main data types and methods of pattern matching, using a range of
examples expressed in different programming languages. Chapter 7 focuses on
low-level programming features: endianness, pointers and memory management;
these notions are mostly presented using C and C++. Volume 1 ends with a
discussion of error processing using exceptions, their semantics is presented in
OCaml, and the exception management mechanisms used in Python, Java and C++
are also described (see Chapter 8).

Thus, Volume 1 is intended to give a broad overview of the functional and

imperative features of programming, from notions that can be modeled
mathematically to notions that are linked to the hardware configuration of computers
themselves. Volume 2 focuses on modular and object programming, building on the
foundations laid down in Volume 1 since modules, classes and objects are, in
essence, the means of organizing functional or imperative constructs. Volume 2 first
analyzes the needs of developers in terms of tools for software architecture. Based on
this study, an original semantic model, called a kit, is drawn up, jointly presenting all
the features of the modules and objects that can meet these needs. The semantics of
these kits are defined in a rather informal way, as research in this field has not yet led
to a mathematical model of this set of features, while remaining relatively simple.
From this model, we consider a set of emerging questions, the objective of which is
to guide the acquisition of a language. This approach is then exemplified by the study
of the module systems of Ada, OCaml and C. Finally, the same approach will be used
to deduce a semantic model of class and object features, which will serve to present
classes in Java, C++, OCaml and Python from a unified perspective.

This work is aimed at a relatively wide audience, from experienced developers –

who will find valuable additional information on language semantics – to beginners
who have only written short programs. For beginners, we recommend working on the
semantic concepts described in Volume 1 using the implementations in OCaml or
Python to ease assimilation. All readers may benefit from studying the reference
manual of a programming language, while comparing the presentations of constructs
given in the manual with those given here, guided by the questions mentioned in
Volume 2.

Note that we do not discuss the algorithmic aspect of data processing here.
However, choosing the algorithm and the data representation that fit the requirements
of the specification is an essential step in program development. Many excellent
works have been published on this subject, and we encourage readers to explore the
subject further. We also recommend using the standard libraries provided by the
chosen programming language. These libraries include tried and tested
implementations for many different algorithms, which may generally be assumed to
be correct.
 1

From Hardware to Software

This first chapter provides a brief overview of the components found in all
computers, from mainframes to the processing chips in tablets, smartphones and
smart objects via desktop or laptop computers. Building on this hardware-centric
presentation, we shall then give a more abstract description of the actions carried out
by computers, leading to a uniform definition of the terms “program” and
“execution”, above and beyond the various characteristics of so-called electronic
devices.

1.1. Computers: a low-level view

Computer science is the science of rational processing of information by

computers. Computers have the capacity to carry out a variety of processes,
depending on the instructions given to them. Each item of information is an element
of knowledge that may be transmitted using a signal and encoded using a sequence of
symbols in conjunction with a set of rules used to decode them, i.e. to reconstruct the
signal from the sequence of symbols. Computers use binary encoding, involving two
symbols; these may be referred to as “true”/“false”, “0”/“1” or “high”/“low”; these
terms are interchangeable, and all represent the two stable states of the electrical
potential of digital electronic circuits.

1.1.1. Information processing

Schematically, a computer is made up of three families of components as follows:

– memories: store data (information) and executable code (the so-called von
Neumann architecture);
– one or more microprocessors, known as CPUs (central processing units), which
process information by applying elementary operations;

Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1:

A Semantical Approach with OCaml and Python, First Edition. Thérèse Hardin,
Mathieu Jaume, François Pessaux and Véronique Viguié Donzeau-Gouge.
© ISTE Ltd 2021. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1

– peripherals: these enable information to be exchanged between the

CPU/memory couple and the outside.

Information processing by a computer – in other terms, the execution of a

program – can be summarized as a sequence of three steps: fetching data, computing
the results and returning them. Each elementary processing operation corresponds to
a configuration of the logical circuits of the CPU, known as a logic function. If the
result of this function is solely dependent on input, and if no notion of “time” is
involved in the computations, then the function is said to be combinatorial;
otherwise, it is said to be sequential.

For example, a binary half-adder, as shown in Figure 1.1, is a circuit that

computes the sum of two binary digits (input), along with the possible carry value. It
thus implements a combinatorial logic function.

Bit 0 Sum
or
Bit 1

and Carry

Figure 1.1. Binary half-adder

The essential character of a combinatorial function is that, for the same input, the
function always produces the same output, no matter what the circumstances. This is
not true of sequential logic functions.

For example, a logic function that counts the number of times its input changes
relies on a notion of “time” (changes take place in time), and a persistent state between
two inputs is required in order to record the previous value of the counter. This state is
saved in a memory. For sequential functions, a same input value can result in different
output values, as every output depends not only on the input, but also on the state of
the memory at the moment of reading the new input.

1.1.2. Memories

Computers use memory to save programs and data. There are several different
technologies used in memory components, and a simplified presentation is as follows:
– RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM memory is both readable and writeable.
RAM components are generally fast, but also volatile: if electric power falls down,
their content is lost;
 From Hardware to Software 3

– ROM (Read Only Memory): information stored in a ROM is written at the time
of manufacturing, and it is read-only. ROM is slower than RAM, but is non-volatile,
like, for example, a burned DVD;
– EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): this memory is
non-volatile, but can be written using a specific device, through exposure to ultra-
violet light, or by modifying the power voltage, etc. It is slower than RAM, for both
reading and writing. EPROM may be considered equivalent to a rewritable DVD.

Computers use the memory components of several technologies. Storage size

diminishes as access speed increases, as fast-access memory is more costly. A
distinction is generally made between four different types of memory:
– mass storage is measured in terabytes and is made either of mechanical disks
(with an access time of ∼ 10 ms) or – increasingly – of solid-state drive (SSD) blocks.
These blocks use an EEPROM variant (electrically erasable) with an access time of
∼ 0.1−0.3 ms, known as flash memory. Mass storage is non-volatile and is principally
used for the file system;
– RAM, which is external to the microprocessor. Recent home computers and
smartphones generally possess large RAM capacities (measured in gigabytes).
Embedded systems or consumer development electronic boards may have a much
lower RAM capacity. The access time is around 40–50 ηs;
– the cache is generally included in the CPU of modern machines. This is a small
RAM memory of a few kilobytes (or megabytes), with an access time of around
5−10 ηs. There are often multiple levels of cache, and access time decreases with size.
The cache is used to save frequently used and/or consecutive data and/or instructions,
reducing the need to access slower RAM by retaining information locally. Cache
management is complex: it is important to ensure consistency between the data in
the main memory and the cache, between different CPUs or different cores (full,
independent processing units within the same CPU) and to decide which data to
discard to free up space, etc.;
– registers are the fastest memory units and are located in the center of the
microprocessor itself. The microprocessor contains a limited number (a few dozen)
of these storage zones, used directly by CPU instructions. Access time is around one
processor cycle, i.e. around 1 ns.

1.1.3. CPUs

The CPU, as its name suggests, is the unit responsible for processing information,
via the execution of elementary instructions, which can be roughly grouped into five
categories:
– data transfer instructions (copy between registers or between memory and
registers);
4 Concepts and Semantics of Programming Languages 1

– arithmetic instructions (addition of two integer values contained in two registers,

multiplication by a constant, etc.);
– logical instructions (bit-wise and/or/not, shift, rotate, etc.);
– branching operations (conditional, non-conditional, to subroutines, etc.);
– other instructions (halt the processor, reset, interrupt requests, test-and-set,
compare-and-swap, etc.).

Instructions are coded by binary words in a format specific to each microprocessor.

A program of a few lines in a high-level programming language is translated into tens
or even hundreds of elementary instructions, which would be difficult, error prone
and time consuming to write out manually. This is illustrated in Figure 1.2, where a
“Hello World!” program written in C is shown alongside its counterpart in x86-64
instructions, generated by the gcc compiler.
. s e c t i o n __TEXT
. g l o b l _main
. a l i g n 4 , 0 x90
_main :
. cfi_startproc
## BB# 0 :
pushq %r b p
Ltmp0 :
. c f i _ d e f _ c f a _ o f f s e t 16
Ltmp1 :
. c f i _ o f f s e t %rbp , −16
movq %r s p , %r b p
# include < s t d i o . h> Ltmp2 :
i n t main () { . c f i _ d e f _ c f a _ r e g i s t e r %r b p
printf ( " Hello world ! \ n " ) ; subq $16 , %r s p
return (0) ; leaq L_ . s t r (% r i p ) , %r d i
} movl $0 , −4(%r b p )
movb $0 , %a l
callq _printf
xorl %ecx , %e c x
movl %eax , −8(%r b p )
movl %ecx , %e a x
addq $16 , %r s p
popq %r b p
retq
. cfi_endproc
. s e c t i o n __TEXT
L_ . s t r :
. a s c i z " Hello world ! \ n "

Figure 1.2. “Hello world!” in C and in x86-64 instructions

Put simply, a microprocessor is split into two parts: a control unit, which decodes
and sequences the instructions to execute, and one or more arithmetic and logic units
(ALUs) , which carry out the operations stipulated by the instructions. The CPU runs
permanently through a three-stage cycle:
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
„Jawel, Raffles!” herhaalde Marholm en keerde zich tot Baxter.

„Hij heeft u hier binnengebracht en u ook weer uit uw weinig

benijdenswaardige positie bevrijd. Zijn bedoeling was het, dat gij door
eigen aanschouwing de misdaden van dr. Braddon zoudt leeren
kennen.”

„En dat was, bij God, meer dan tijd,” sprak de inspecteur van politie
Baxter. „Deze mensch daar”—hij wees op den verpletterden
geneesheer-directeur—„is erger dan de gevreesde Jack the Ripper.”

Hij trad op den in zijn stoel sidderenden dr. Braddon toe, liet zijn hand
zwaar op diens schouder vallen, en sprak:

„In naam van de Engelsche wet neem ik u gevangen, dr. Braddon! en

beschuldig u van moord en zeer veel andere misdaden, waarmede ik het
gerecht in kennis zal stellen.”

Allereerst werd dr. Braddon zwaar geboeid uit de inrichting geleid,

daarop volgde de hoofdverpleger en eindelijk het geheele personeel.

De gevangenwagens boden niet voldoende plaats voor alle

gevangenen.

Spoedig daarop traden doktoren uit de ziekenhuizen het

krankzinnigengesticht binnen, om de verpleging der patiënten over te
nemen.

Afschuwelijke vertrekken werden gevonden, waarin zich de

ongelukkigen jarenlang moesten ophouden.

„Deze misdaden zijn zwaarder en verdienen grootere [31]straf,” sprak de

inspecteur van politie Baxter tot Marholm, „dan die van dieven en
moordenaars.”

Het Londensche publiek geraakte in koortsachtige opgewondenheid,

toen de couranten de eerste berichten brachten over den inval der
detectives in het krankzinnigengesticht en de gevangenneming van den
gekkendokter.

Duizenden vloeken werden uitgebraakt tegen dr. Braddon, maar ook

werd er hartelijk gelachen, toen het publiek uit de nieuwsbladen vernam,
hoe het nieuwste meesterstuk van John Raffles ook nu weer schitterend
was gelukt.

Lord Guildhall was gevlucht en had zijn onrechtmatig verkregen

vermogen, overeenkomstig den wensch van Raffles, aan de stad
Londen vermaakt.

Bijna iedere dag van onderzoek bracht nieuwe misdaden uit het
krankzinnigengesticht aan het licht en steeds weer was het die eene
naam, waarvan de geheele pers met lof gewaagde—de naam van den
genialen meesterdief John Raffles!

[Inhoud]

Het volgende deel (No. 27) zal bevatten:

LETTER R. 100. [32]

[Inhoud]

Verrassend! Boeiend!
 In den Roman-Boekhandel voorheen A.
EICHLER te Amsterdam verschijnt in 14-
daagsche afleveringen:

BUFFALO BILL,
Amerika’s grootste Meester-verkenner.

Elke aflevering bevat een afgerond verhaal.

Buffalo Bill vertelt daarin op eenvoudige, doch pakkende,

aandoenlijke wijze van zijn avonturen met struikroovers,
roodhuiden, bandieten, enz.

SPANNENDE LECTUUR, VOL

SENSATIE-WEKKENDE TOONEELTJES.

ELKE AFLEVERING KOST SLECHTS 10

CENT [33]

[Inhoud]

Belooning: 1000 pond sterling.

Wie kent Wie heeft

 hem? hem
gezien?

Dat vraagt
men in Dat vraagt
Scotland heel Londen!
Yard!

Lord Lister genaamd John C. Raffles, de

geniaalste aller dieven

brengt alle gemoederen in beweging, is de schrik van woekeraars en

geldschieters; ontrooft hun door zijn listen hunne bezittingen, waarmede
hij belaagde onschuld beschermt en behoeftigen ondersteunt.

Man van eer in alle opzichten

spant hij wet en gerecht menigen strik en heeft steeds de voorvechters

van edele levensbeschouwing op zijn hand, nl. allen, die ervan overtuigd
zijn, dat:

Ongestraft veel misstanden, door de wet beschermd,

blijven voortwoekeren.
Men leze, hoe alles in het werk wordt gesteld, Lord Lister, genaamd
John C. Raffles, den geniaalsten aller dieven, te vatten!

[Inhoud]

Vertaling:
WARRANT OF
ARREST. Bevel tot aanhouding.

Be it known unto all men by these Wij verzoeken de aanhouding van

presents that we hereby charge and den man, wiens beschrijving hier
warrant the apprehension of the man volgt:
described as under:

DESCRIPTION: Beschrijving:

Name: Lord Edward Naam: Lord Edward

Lister, alias John Lister, genaamd
C. Raffles. John C. Raffles.
Age: 32 to 35 years. Leeftijd: 32–35 jaar.
Height: 5 feet nine inches. Lengte: ongeveer 1,76
Weight: 176 pounds. meter.
Figure: Tall. Gewicht: 80 kilo.
C o m p l e x i o n : Dark. Gestalte: slank.
Hair: Black. G e l a a t s k l e u r : donker.
Beard: A slight Haar: zwart.
moustache. Baardgroei: kleine snor.
Eyes: Black. Oogen: zwart.
Language: English, French, Spreekt Engelsch,
German, Russian, Fransch,
etc. Duitsch,
Russisch enz.
enz.

S p e c i a l n o t e s : The man poses Bijzondere kenteekenen:

as a gentleman of great distinction. Het optreden van den man kenmerkt
Adopts a new role every other day. zich door bijzonder goede manieren.
Wears an eyeglass. Always Telkens een ander uiterlijk. Draagt
een monocle. Is in gezelschap van
accompanied by a young man— een jongeman, wiens naam
name unknown. onbekend.

Charged with robbery. Moet worden aangehouden als dief.

Voor zijn aanhouding betalen wij een
A reward of 1000 pounds sterling will prijs van 1000 pond sterling.
be paid for the arrest of this man.

Headquarters—Scotland Yard. Het Hoofdbureau van Politie

Scotland Yard.
L o n d o n , 1st October 1908.
L o n d e n , 1. Oktober 1908.
Police Inspector,
H o r n y. Inspecteur van Politie
(get.) H o r n y .

[Inhoud]

Roman-Boekhandel voorheen A. Eichler

Singel 236—Amsterdam.
 Inhoudsopgave

I. HET KRIJGSPLAN VAN RAFFLES. 1

II. RAFFLES BIJ DEN KONING DER GEKKEN. 5
III. TWEE HEEREN DIENEN. 8
IV. IN HET KRANKZINNIGENGESTICHT. 11
V. RAFFLES IN HET GESTICHT. 16
VI. DE INVAL IN HET KRANKZINNIGENGESTICHT. 27
 Colofon
Beschikbaarheid

Dit eBoek is voor kosteloos gebruik door iedereen overal, met vrijwel
geen beperkingen van welke soort dan ook. U mag het kopiëren,
weggeven of hergebruiken onder de voorwaarden van de Project
Gutenberg Licentie in dit eBoek of on-line op www.gutenberg.org ↗️.

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op www.pgdp.net ↗️.

De oorspronkelijke Duitse titel is: Polizeiinspektor Baxter im Irrenhause.

Metadata

Titel: Lord Lister No. 26: Inspecteur Baxter in het

krankzinnigengesticht
Auteur: Theo von Blankensee [Pseudoniem van Info ↗️
Mathias Blank (1881–1928)]
Auteur: Kurt Matull (1872–1930?) Info ↗️
Aanmaakdatum 2023-12-23 13:46:12 UTC
bestand:
Taal: Nederlands (Spelling De Vries-Te Winkel)
Oorspronkelijke [1911]
uitgiftedatum:
Trefwoorden: Detective and mystery stories -- Periodicals
Dime novels -- Periodicals

Codering

Dit boek is weergegeven in oorspronkelijke schrijfwijze. Afgebroken

woorden aan het einde van de regel zijn stilzwijgend hersteld. Kennelijke
zetfouten in het origineel zijn verbeterd. Deze verbeteringen zijn
aangegeven in de colofon aan het einde van dit boek.
Documentgeschiedenis

2023-12-18 Begonnen.

Verbeteringen

De volgende verbeteringen zijn aangebracht in de tekst:

Bladzijde Bron Verbetering Bewerkingsafstand

1, 33 [Niet in bron] . 1
2 , [Verwijderd] 1
2 teruggesturd teruggestuurd 1
2 onder langs onderlangs 1
Passim. [Niet in bron] „ 1
3, 3 millionair millionnair 1
3 milioenen millioenen 1
7 Zij Zijn 1
7, 14 adsistent assistent 1
7, 14, 14,
22 [Niet in bron] ” 1
9 sousterrain souterrain 1
11 KRANKZINNIGEN
GESTICHT KRANKZINNIGENGESTICHT 1
13, 18 ’ ” 1
14, 14 [Niet in bron] „„ 2
16 afschuwd afschuw 1
17 verlpegers verplegers 2
18 Bailay Bailey 1
18 ? . 1
19 toegeeigend toegeëigend 1/0
22 hijde hijgde 1
23 nu nu nu 3
24 overschillige onverschillige 1
24 ” [Verwijderd] 1
27, 27,
27 telephoon telefoon 2
27 telephoneerde telefoneerde 2
28 patient patiënt 1/0
28 telephoonhoorn telefoonhoorn 2
29 [Niet in bron] , 1
30 Jacq Jack 1
33 Sinclair Raffles 7
33 Scotland-Yard Scotland Yard 1
33 Inspekteur Inspecteur 1
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LORD LISTER
NO. 0026: INSPECTEUR BAXTER IN HET
KRANKZINNIGENGESTICHT ***

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