Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS

Materials and Technologies 3rd Edition

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Handbook of Silicon Based MEMS Materials
and Technologies
Handbook of Silicon Based
MEMS Materials
and Technologies

Third Edition

Edited by
Markku Tilli
Okmetic Oy, Vantaa, Finland

Mervi Paulasto-Kröckel
School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland

Matthias Petzold
Fraunhofer Institute for Microstructure of Materials and Systems IMWS, Halle, Germany

Horst Theuss
Infineon Technologies AG, Regensburg, Germany

Teruaki Motooka
Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

Veikko Lindroos
School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Elsevier
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Contents

List of contributors xv 3.5 Radial variation of impurities and

Preface xix resistivity 70
Where is silicon based MEMS heading to? xxi 3.6 Thermal donors 72
3.7 Defects in silicon crystals 75
3.8 Control of vacancies, interstitials,
Part I
and the oxidation-induced stacking
Silicon as MEMS Material fault ring 79
3.9 Oxygen precipitation 82
1 Properties of silicon 3 3.10 Conclusion 88
Markku Tilli and Atte Haapalinna Acknowledgments 89
References 89
1.1 Properties of silicon 3
References 16 4. Silicon wafers preparation
and properties 93
2. Czochralski growth
of silicon crystals 19 Markku Tilli

Olli Anttila 4.1 Silicon wafer manufacturing process 93

4.2 Standard measurements of polished
2.1 The Czochralski crystal-growing wafers 103
furnace 19 4.3 Sample specifications of
2.2 Stages of growth process 23 microelectromechanical systems
2.3 Selected issues of crystal growth 28 wafers 105
2.4 Improved thermal and gas-flow 4.4 Standards of silicon wafers 105
designs 31 References 109
2.5 Heat transfer 32
2.6 Melt convection 33 5. Epi wafers: preparation and
2.7 Magnetic fields 38
2.8 Hot recharging and continuous feed 41
properties 111
2.9 Heavily n-type doped silicon and Doug Meyer
constitutional supercooling 43
5.1 Silicon epitaxy for MEMS 111
2.10 Growth of large diameter crystals 48
5.2 Silicon epitaxy—the basics 111
References 58
5.3 The epi poly process 117
Further reading 60
5.4 Etch stop layers 118
5.5 Epi on silicon on insulator substrates 120
3. Properties of silicon crystals 61 5.6 Selective epitaxy and epitaxial layer
Jari Paloheimo overgrowth 121
5.7 Considerations for chemical
3.1 Dopants and impurities 61
mechanical polishing 122
3.2 Typical impurity concentrations 63
5.8 Metrology 122
3.3 Concentration of dopants and
5.9 Commercially available epitaxy
impurities in axial direction 65
systems 127
3.4 Resistivity 67
5.10 Summary 129
References 130

v
vi Contents

6. Thin films on silicon 133 6.5 Piezoelectric thin film materials for
microelectromechanical systems 174
6.1 Thin films on silicon:
Andreas Vogl, Frode Tyholdt, Hannah Tofteberg,
silicon dioxide 133 Paul Muralt and Elmeri Österlund
Simo Eränen
6.5.1 Introduction 174
6.1.1 Introduction 133 6.5.2 Short introduction to piezoelectric
6.1.2 Growth methods of silicon dioxide 133 theory and important thin-film
6.1.3 Structure and properties of silicon constants 175
dioxides 141 6.7.3 AlN 176
6.1.4 Processing of silicon dioxides 142 6.5.4 PZT 178
References 143 6.5.5 Other (future?) piezoelectric
materials for microelectromechanical
6.2 Thin films on silicon: silicon nitride 144 systems 183
References 183
Pekka Törmä
6.2.1 Introduction 144 6.6 Black silicon 186
6.2.2 Growth of silicon nitride 144
Toni P. Pasanen
6.2.3 Structure and properties of silicon
nitride 147 6.6.1 Introduction 186
6.2.4 Processing of silicon nitride 147 6.6.2 Fabrication methods 186
References 150 6.6.3 Characteristic properties 188
6.6.4 Applications 191
6.3 Thin films on silicon: poly-SiGe for References 194
MEMS-above-CMOS applications 150
6.7 Thin films for antistiction 196
Pilar Gonzalez and Xavier Rottenberg
Yuyuan Lin and Michael Grimes
6.3.1 Introduction 150
6.3.2 Material properties of poly-SiGe 151 6.7.1 Introduction 196
6.3.3 Poly-SiGe microelectromechanical 6.7.2 Typical characterization techniques 198
systems manufacturing 153 6.7.3 Self-assembled monolayers 199
6.3.4 SiGe microelectromechanical systems 6.7.4 Ceramic coatings 205
demonstrators 158 6.7.5 Fluoropolymer coatings 206
6.3.5 Conclusion and future poly-SiGe 6.7.7 Summary 208
research 160 References 209
References 161
7. Thick-film silicon-on-insulator
6.4 Atomic layer deposition of thin wafers preparation and properties 215
films 163 Jari Mäkinen and Tommi Suni
Riikka L. Puurunen, Matti Putkonen and 7.1 Introduction 215
Mikael Broas 7.2 Overview of silicon-on-insulator 215
6.4.1 Introduction 163 7.3 Silicon wafer parameters for direct
6.4.2 Operation principles of atomic layer bonding 220
deposition 164 7.4 Fabrication of thick-film BSOI by
6.4.3 Atomic layer deposition processes and mechanical grinding and
materials 165 polishing 223
6.4.4 Molecular layer deposition 167 7.5 Bonding and etch-back
6.4.5 Characteristics of atomic layer silicon-on-insulator process 236
deposition processes and films 167 7.6 Techniques based on thin-film
6.4.6 Atomic layer deposition reactors 171 silicon-on-insulator and silicon
6.4.7 Summary 172 epitaxy 238
References 173 7.7 Silicon-on-insulator wafers with
Further reading 174 buried cavities 242
 Contents vii

7.8 Silicon-on-insulator wafers with buried 10.13 RF-properties 321

atomic layer deposition thin film 244 Acknowledgments 322
7.9 Conclusion 244 References 323
References 245 Further reading 324

Part II 11. Optical modeling of MEMS 325

Modeling in MEMS Timo Aalto and Juuso Olkkonen
11.1 Introduction 325
8. Multiscale modeling methods 249 11.2 Optical properties of silicon and
Teruaki Motooka and Tsuyoshi Uda related materials 325
11.3 Theoretical background 327
8.1 Macroscopic and microscopic
11.4 Numerical modeling methods for
equations 249
optical MEMS 335
8.2 Computational methods and practical
References 343
examples 250
8.3 First-principles calculation method 254
12. Modeling of silicon etching 345
8.4 Concluding remarks 260
References 260 Miguel A. Gosálvez
12.1 Introduction 345
9. Mechanical properties of silicon 12.2 Requirements for modeling
microstructures 263 micromachining 346
Maria Ganchenkova and Risto M. Nieminen 12.3 Micromachining as a front propagation
problem 347
9.1 Basic structural properties of 12.4 Anisotropic etching: geometrical
crystalline silicon 263 simulators 348
9.2 Dislocations in silicon 271 12.5 Anisotropic etching: atomistic
9.3 Physical mechanisms of fracture in simulators 350
silicon 285 12.6 A survey of etching simulators 360
9.4 Physical mechanisms of fatigue of References 364
silicon 294
References 298 13. Gas damping in vibrating MEMS
structures 367
10. Electrostatic and RF-properties of
MEMS structures 305 Timo Veijola

Ilkka Tittonen and Mika Koskenvuori 13.1 Introduction 367

13.2 Damping dominated by gas
10.1 Introduction 305 viscosity 367
10.2 Model system for a dynamic 13.3 First-order frequency dependencies 378
micromechanical device 305 13.4 Viscoacoustic models 381
10.3 Electrical equivalent circuit 308 13.5 Simulation tools 381
10.4 Electrostatic force 309 References 383
10.5 Electromechanical coupling 311
10.6 Sensing of motion 312 14. Recent progress in large-scale
10.7 Pull-in phenomenon 312
electronic state calculations and
10.8 Parasitic capacitance 313
10.9 Effect of built-in potential on data-driven sciences 387
capacitively coupled MEMS-devices 314 Takeo Hoshi and Satoshi Itoh
10.10 Short-range quantum-mechanical
effects on nano- and micromechanical 14.1 Tutorial of large-scale electronic state
structures 314 calculations 387
10.11 Further effects of electrostatic 14.2 Fracture simulation by large-scale
nonlinearities from applications point electronic state calculation 388
of view 317 14.3 Material simulations based on
10.12 Application example: capacitively data-driven science 392
coupled reference oscillator 318 References 395
viii Contents

Part III 17.13 Converting between different

measures of concentration 475
Micromachining Technologies in References 476
MEMS
18. Porous silicon based MEMS 481
15. MEMS lithography 399
Gerhard Müller, Alois Friedberger and
Sami Franssila and Santeri Tuomikoski Kathrin Knese
15.1 Lithography considerations before wafer 18.1 Porous silicon background 481
processing 399 18.2 Porous silicon sacrificial layer
15.2 Wafers in lithography process 400 technologies 481
15.3 Processing after lithography 406 18.3 Porous silicon fabrication technology 482
15.4 Thick photoresist lithography 407 18.4 Microscopic processes underlying
15.5 Special lithography approaches 411 porous silicon formation 484
References 414 18.5 Formation of silicon microstructures 488
Further reading 416 18.6 Application examples 495
18.7 Summary and conclusion 500
16. Deep reactive ion etching 417 References 500
Franz Laermer, Sami Franssila, Further reading 502
Lauri Sainiemi and Kai Kolari
19. Surface micromachining 503
16.1 Etch chemistries 417
16.2 Equipment 418 Christina Leinenbach, Hannu Kattelus and
16.3 Deep reactive ion etching processes 421 Roy Knechtel
16.4 Deep reactive ion etching advanced 19.1 Polycrystalline silicon based
issues and challenges 429 micromachining 503
16.5 Deep reactive ion etching applications 436 19.2 Integration concepts 506
16.6 Post deep reactive ion etching etch 19.3 Metallic microelectromechanical
treatments 440 systems 507
16.7 Choosing between wet and dry etching 441 19.4 Silicon-on-insulator wafer based
References 442 surface micromachining 510
Further reading 446 References 516

17. Wet etching of silicon 447 20. Vapor-phase etch processes

Miguel A. Gosálvez, I. Zubel and Eeva Viinikka for silicon MEMS 519
17.1 Basic description of anisotropic etching: Paul Hammond
faceting 447
20.1 Vapor-phase etch technologies 519
17.2 Beyond faceting: atomistic phenomena 450
20.2 Vapor HF technology for
17.3 Beyond atomistics: electrochemistry 456
MEMS release 519
17.4 Typical surface morphologies
20.3 XeF2 technology for MEMS release 524
(I. Zubel and Miguel A. Gosálvez) 457
References 528
17.5 Effects from silicon wafer features
(Eeva Viinikka) 461
21. Inkjet printing, laser-based
17.6 Convex corner undercutting 463
17.7 Examples of wet etching 464 micromachining, and micro 3D
17.8 Popular wet etchants 465 printing technologies for MEMS 531
17.9 Temperature dependence of the etch Andreas C. Fischer, Matti Mäntysalo and
rate 470 Frank Niklaus
17.10 Concentration dependence of the etch
rate 472 21.1 Inkjet printing for MEMS fabrication 531
17.11 Other variables affecting the etch-rate 21.2 3D micromachining using laser
values 474 ablation 533
17.12 Experimental determination of etch 21.3 3D micromachining of glass using laser
rates 474 writing and etching 535
 Contents ix

21.4 3D printing using micro-laser sintering 536 24. Anodic bonding 581
21.5 3D printing based on
single-photon polymerization— Adriana Cozma and Henrik Jakobsen
microstereolithography 537 24.1 Introduction 581
21.6 3D printing based on two-photon 24.2 The mechanism of the anodic bonding 581
polymerization—3D direct 24.3 Other material combinations 583
laser writing 538 24.4 Glasses for anodic bonding 583
21.7 3D micromachining by focused 24.5 Bonding parameters 584
ion beam milling 538 24.6 Bond quality, failure modes, and
21.8 3D micromachining by focused ion characterization 585
beam and e-beam assisted deposition 540 24.7 The thermal residual stress 585
21.9 3D micromachining using scanning 24.8 The pressure inside vacuum-sealed
probe lithography 540 cavities 586
21.10 Emerging 3D printing technologies for 24.9 The effect of the anodic bonding
micro- and nanostructures 541 on the flexible micromachined
References 543 structures 587
Further reading 545 24.10 Electrical effects 588
24.11 Bonding with thin films 588
22. Microfluidics and bioMEMS in 24.12 Conclusion 589
silicon 547 References 590
Further reading 592
Sami Franssila, Cristina E. Davis, Michael K.
LeVasseur, Zhen Cao and Levent Yobas
25. Glass frit bonding 593
22.1 Silicon properties and machining 547
Roy Knechtel, Sophia Dempwolf and Marc
22.2 Silicon as a molding master 548
Schikowski
22.3 Needles and nozzles 549
22.4 Microreactors 549 25.1 Bonding principle 593
22.5 Silicon based gas chromatography 552 25.2 Glass frit materials 593
22.6 Electrophoresis of biomolecules in 25.3 Screen printing 595
silicon based sieves 556 25.4 Thermal conditioning 597
22.7 Microfluidics integration with CMOS 559 25.5 Bonding process 598
Acknowledgments 560 25.6 Physics of bonding 601
References 560 25.7 Characteristics 602
25.8 Conductive glass frit bonding 606
25.9 Cost of glass frit bonding 607
Part IV References 607
Encapsulation and Integration of Additional reference 608
MEMS
26. Metallic alloy seal bonding 609
23. Silicon direct bonding 567 Wolfgang Reinert, Amit Kulkarni, Vesa Vuorinen,
Thomas Plach, Kimmo Henttinen, Fabian Lofink and Peter Merz
Tommi Suni and Viorel Dragoi 26.1 Introduction 609
23.1 Hydrophilic high-temperature wafer 26.2 Properties of metallic seal bonds 609
bonding 567 26.3 Metal systems and joint design 610
23.2 Hydrophobic high-temperature 26.4 Soft soldering 611
bonding of silicon 569 26.5 Eutectic bonding 612
23.3 Low-temperature direct bonding of 26.6 Transient liquid-phase bonding 616
silicon 569 26.7 Thermocompression bonding 619
23.4 Direct bonding of chemical 26.8 Ultrathin metal film bonding 621
vapor deposited oxides 575 26.9 Reaction bonding 621
23.5 Direct bonding of chemical 26.10 Metallic seal ring design and process
vapor deposited silicon 578 technology 622
References 579 References 624
x Contents

27. Emerging wafer bonding 31. Dicing of MEMS devices 677

technologies 627 Devin Martin, Scott Sullivan,
Viorel Dragoi, Christoph Flötgen, J. Burggraf, Indranil Ronnie Bose, Christof Landesberger
Laura Oggioni and Tadatomo Suga and Robert Wieland

27.1 Room temperature wafer bonding 627 31.1 Introduction 677

27.2 Permanent adhesive wafer bonding 631 31.2 History of dicing 677
27.3 Temporary wafer bonding 634 31.3 Process flow and methods of dicing 677
References 638 31.4 Stealth dicing 679
31.5 Full-cut dicing 680
28. Bonding of CMOS processed 31.6 Effects of dicing 680
31.7 Conclusions 682
wafers 641
Subchapter: Plasma dicing 682
Roy Knechtel and Sebastian Wicht 31.8 Introduction to plasma dicing 682
31.9 Plasma dicing process overview 683
28.1 General aspects, requirements, and
31.10 Plasma dicing—advantages and
limitations of CMOS-compatible wafer
benefits of the process 683
bonding 642
31.11 Plasma dicing—limitations and
28.2 CMOS-compatible low temperature
challenges 684
wafer direct bonding 643
31.12 Plasma dicing—processing details 684
28.3 Anodic bonding of CMOS-processed
31.13 Plasma dicing—MEMS example 686
wafers 644
31.14 Plasma dicing—methodologies 686
28.4 CMOS wafer glass frit bonding 646
31.15 Plasma dicing—device side versus
28.5 Adhesive bonding of CMOS wafers 648
back side processing 688
28.6 General aspects of bonding CMOS
31.16 Plasma dicing—postprocessing
wafers 649
cleaning 688
28.7 Conclusion 650
31.17 Plasma dicing—quality characterization
References 650
parameters 688
References 688
29. Wafer-bonding equipment 651
Viorel Dragoi and Paul F. Lindner 32. Three-dimensional integration of
29.1 Aligned wafer-bonding requirements MEMS 691
for MEMS applications 653 Horst Theuss and Klaus Pressel
29.2 Wafer-to-wafer aligners 655
29.3 Wafer bonders 658 32.1 Introduction 691
29.4 Aligned wafer bonding: equipment 32.2 The three levels of MEMS packaging 691
solutions for MEMS manufacturing 663 32.3 Cavity formation 693
29.5 The future of wafer-bonding equipment 32.4 From cavities to surface mountable
solutions for MEMS manufacturing 665 devices 696
References 667 32.5 From device packaging to system in
package and three-dimensional 697
30. Encapsulation by film deposition 669 32.6 Low-stress packaging 703
32.7 Conclusion 705
Rob N. Candler, Paul Hagelin and Christopher References 705
Cameron
30.1 Introduction 669 33. Fan-out wafer-level packaging as
30.2 Packaging needs 669 packaging technology for MEMS 707
30.3 Technologies and methods 670
Heikki Kuisma, André Cardoso and Tanja Braun
30.4 Application: encapsulated resonators for
frequency references 674 33.1 Introduction 707
30.5 Summary 674 33.2 Fan-out wafer-level packaging as
References 674 system-in-package technology 709
 Contents xi

33.3 Fan-out wafer-level packaging applied to 37. Measuring oxygen and bulk
MEMS devices 710 microdefects in silicon 775
33.4 Case examples 713
References 719 Hele Savin, Gudrun Kissinger and Veli-Matti
Airaksinen
34. Through-substrate vias based 37.1 Introduction 775
three-dimensional interconnection 37.2 Measuring interstitial and total oxygen
technology 721 concentration 775
37.3 Measuring bulk microdefects 776
Pradeep Dixit, Harindra Kumar Kannojia and References 779
Kimmo Henttinen
34.1 Through-silicon vias 721 38. Optical measurement of static and
34.2 Classification of through-silicon vias 721 dynamic displacement in MEMS 781
34.3 Various processing steps in
through-silicon vias fabrication 723 David Horsley
34.4 Overview of various 38.1 Camera-based measurements 781
through-silicon vias technologies 728 References 786
34.5 Reliability of through-silicon vias 736
34.6 Future outlook of through-silicon vias for 39. MEMS residual stress
micro-electro-mechanical-systems 738 characterization: methodology
References 739
and perspective 787
35. Outgassing and gettering 743 Kuo-Shen Chen and Kuang-Shun Ou
Enea Rizzi, Luca Mauri, Marco Moraja, Andrea 39.1 Introduction 787
Conte, Antonio Bonucci, Giorgio Longoni and 39.2 Microelectromechanical systems
Marco Amiotti residual stress characterization
techniques 789
35.1 Introduction 743
39.3 Perspective and conclusion 796
35.2 Gas sources into microelectromechanical
References 797
systems devices 744
35.3 Residual gas analysis for
microelectromechanical systems 748
40. Microscale deformation analysis 803
35.4 Outgassing analysis 749 Dietmar Vogel, Michael Dost and Juergen
35.5 Getter films for microelectromechanical Auersperg
systems devices 751
40.1 The importance of local deformation
35.6 Lifetime 758
measurements 803
35.7 Conclusion 761
40.2 Software tools applying digital image
References 761
correlation 805
40.3 Examples of deformation
measurement 810
Part V 40.4 Local measurement of
Characterization of MEMS intrinsic stress 811
40.5 Measurement of elastic material
36. Silicon wafer and thin-film properties on devices 818
measurements 765 References 820

Veli-Matti Airaksinen 41. Strength of bonded interfaces 823

36.1 Important measurements 765 Örjan Vallin, Kerstin Jonsson and Roy Knechtel
36.2 Wafer shape 765
36.3 Resistivity 766 41.1 Introduction 823
36.4 Thickness of thin films 770 41.2 Solid and fracture mechanics 823
References 774 41.3 Double cantilever beam test method 824
xii Contents

41.4 Tensile test method 825 Part VI

41.5 Blister test method 826
41.6 Chevron test structures 827
Process integration and case studies
41.7 Bond strength testing of anodic bonded
wafers using patterned step-like
45. Accelerometers 879
structures 827 Jean-Philippe Polizzi, Bruno Fain and Federico
41.8 Reliability and time-dependent Maspero
strength 830
45.1 Introduction 879
41.9 Summary and outlook 831
45.2 Accelerometers operating principles 880
References 831
45.3 Design parameters 890
Further reading 832
45.4 Examples of fabrication technologies 891
45.5 Packaging aspects 894
42. Hermeticity tests 833
References 895
Dirk Kähler, Fabian Lofink and
Wolfgang Reinert 46. Gyroscopes 899
42.1 Introduction 833 Giorgio Allegato, Carlo Valzasina and Luca Zanotti
42.2 Basics of leakage measurement 833
46.1 Introduction 899
42.3 Classification of leak rates 835
46.2 Gyroscopes applications 899
42.4 Leakage test methods 836
46.3 Gyroscope performance requirements 900
42.5 Getter pumps in
46.4 Gyroscope working principles and
microelectromechanical system
architecture design 901
packages 842
46.5 Gyroscope technology architecture: key
References 842
features and integration requirements 904
46.6 System integration example:
43. MEMS testing and calibration 845
STMicroelectronics THELMA technology
Vesa Henttonen platform 908
46.7 Packaging and calibration 911
43.1 Front-end testing 845
46.8 Conclusion 913
43.2 Final testing and calibration 846
References 913
43.3 Future trends and challenges in
MEMS testing 850
47. Pressure sensors 915
44. MEMS reliability 851 Stephan Gerhard Albert, Sebastian Markus Luber
and Bernhard Winkler
Lasse Skogström, Jue Li, Toni T. Mattila and
Vesa Vuorinen 47.1 Sensor requirements 915
47.2 Mechanical transducers 916
44.1 Classification of
47.3 Capacitive pressure sensors 917
microelectromechanical
47.4 Piezoresistive pressure sensors 925
systems devices 851
47.5 Concluding remarks 934
44.2 Failure mechanisms and acceleration
References 934
factors 852
44.3 Reliability of hermetic encapsulation 858
44.4 Reliability testing of
48. Microphones 937
microelectromechanical Marc Fueldner
systems devices 860
48.1 Introduction 937
44.5 Methods of failure analysis 864
48.2 Microphone applications and
44.6 Design for reliability 867
performance parameter 937
44.7 Further reading 869
48.3 Microphone technologies 938
References 871
 Contents xiii

48.4 Capacitive microelectromechanical 49.3 Micro mirror arrays manufactured

systems microphone process flow 940 using surface micromachining 960
48.5 Design and technology of microphone 49.4 Closing remark 967
membranes 941 References 968
48.6 Scaling the membrane size to increase
signal-to-noise ratio 943 50. MEMS-above CMOS and novel
48.7 Differential microelectromechanical optical MEMS sensor concepts 969
systems sensor for low total harmonic
distortion and high AOP 944 H.A.C. Tilmans, V. Rochus, R. Jansen, W.J.
48.8 Sealed dual membrane microphone for Westervelde, M. Mahmud-ul-hasan,
highest performance 946 S. Severi, B. Figeys, K. Lodewijks, S. Seema
48.9 Conclusion 947 and X. Rottenberg
References 947 50.1 Introduction 969
50.2 Monolithic SiGeMEMS-CMOS
49. Micro mirrors 949 integration 969
Harald Schenk and Matthias Schulze 50.3 MEMS sensor with integrated optical
readout 974
49.1 Introduction: micro-opto-mechanical- 50.4 Conclusions 982
systems and their fields of application 949 References 984
49.2 Electrostatically driven micro scanning
mirrors fabricated by bulk Index 985
micromachining 949
List of contributors
Timo Aalto VTT Technical Research Centre of
Finland LTD, Espoo, Finland
Veli-Matti Airaksinen Summa Semiconductor Oy,
Espoo, Finland
Stephan Gerhard Albert Infineon Technologies AG,
Neubiberg, Germany
Giorgio Allegato STMicroelectronics, Agrate Brianza,
Italy
Marco Amiotti SAES Getters S.p.A., Lainate, Italy
Olli Anttila Finsil Ltd., Espoo, Finland
Juergen Auersperg Fraunhofer ENAS, Technologie-
Campus 3, Chemnitz, Germany
Antonio Bonucci SAES Getters S.p.A., Lainate, Italy
Indranil Ronnie Bose Fraunhofer EMFT, Munich,
Germany
Tanja Braun Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and
Microintegration (IZM), Berlin, Germany
Mikael Broas Department of Electrical Engineering and
Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
J. Burggraf EV Group E. Thallner GmbH, Sankt Florian
am Inn, Austria
Christopher Cameron Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA,
United States
Rob N. Candler Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles,
CA, United States; California NanoSystems Institute,
Los Angeles, CA, United States
Zhen Cao Department of Electronic and Computer
Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
André Cardoso Amkor Technologies Portugal, Vila do
Conde, Portugal
Kuo-Shen Chen Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Cheng-Kung University Tainan, Tainan,
Taiwan
Andrea Conte SAES Getters S.p.A., Lainate, Italy
Adriana Cozma Polight ASA, Horten, Norway
Cristina E. Davis Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, University of California,
Davis, CA, United States
Sophia Dempwolf X-FAB MEMS Foundry GmbH
Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
Pradeep Dixit Electrochemical Microfabrication
Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Mumbai, Mumbai,
India
Michael Dost Chemnitzer Werkstoffmechanik GmbH,
Technologie-Campus 1, Chemnitz, Germany
Viorel Dragoi EV Group E. Thallner GmbH, Sankt
Florian am Inn, Austria
Simo Eränen VTT Technical Research Centre of
Finland Ltd, Espoo, Finland
Bruno Fain Silicon Components Department, Grenoble
Alpes University, CEA, LETI, Grenoble, France
B. Figeys Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Andreas C. Fischer Department of Micro and
Nanosystems, KTH Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden
Christoph Flötgen EV Group E. Thallner GmbH, Sankt
Florian am Inn, Austria
Sami Franssila Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science and Micronova Nanofabrication Centre, Aalto
University, Espoo, Finland
Alois Friedberger EADS Innovation Works, München,
Germany
Marc Fueldner Infineon Technologies AG, Neubiberg,
Germany
Maria Ganchenkova Department of Applied Physics,
Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Pilar Gonzalez Interuniversity Microelectronics Centre
(IMEC), Leuven, Belgium
Miguel A. Gosálvez Laboratory of Physics, Aalto
University, Espoo, Finland
Michael Grimes SPTS Technologies, San Jose, CA,
United States
xv
xvi List of contributors
Atte Haapalinna Okmetic Oy, Vantaa, Finland
Paul Hagelin SiTime, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, United
States
Paul Hammond SPTS Technologies, Allentown, PA,
United States
Kimmo Henttinen Okmetic Oy, Vantaa, Finland
Vesa Henttonen Afore Oy, Lieto, Finland
David Horsley Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, University of California,
Davis, CA, United States
Takeo Hoshi Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
Satoshi Itoh National Institute of Materials Science,
Tsukuba, Japan
Henrik Jakobsen University of South-Eastern Norway,
Notodden, Norway
R. Jansen Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Kerstin Jonsson APR AB, Enköping, Sweden
Dirk Kähler Fraunhofer Institute for Silicon Technology
ISIT, Itzehoe, Germany
Harindra Kumar Kannojia Electrochemical
Microfabrication Laboratory, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Mumbai, Mumbai, India
Hannu Kattelus VTT MEMSFAB, Espoo, Finland
Gudrun Kissinger IHP—Leibniz-Institut für innovative
Mikroelektronik, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
Roy Knechtel X-FAB MEMS Foundry GmbH Erfurt,
Erfurt, Germany; Schmalkalden University of
Applied Science, Schmalkalden, Germany
Kathrin Knese Robert Bosch GmbH, Automotive
Electronics, Reutlingen, Germany
Kai Kolari VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
Ltd, Espoo, Finland
Mika Koskenvuori Nanofab, Micronova, Aalto
University, Espoo, Finland
Heikki Kuisma Murata Electronics Oy, Vantaa, Finland
Amit Kulkarni Fraunhofer Institute for Silicon
Technology ISIT, Itzehoe, Germany
Franz Laermer Microsystems Technologies, Robert
Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart, Germany
Christof Landesberger Fraunhofer EMFT, Munich,
Germany
Christina Leinenbach Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart,
Germany
Michael K. LeVasseur Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, University of California,
Davis, CA, United States
Jue Li Department of Electrical Engineering and
Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Yuyuan Lin SPTS Technologies, San Jose, CA, United
States
Paul F. Lindner EV Group E. Thallner GmbH, Sankt
Florian am Inn, Austria
K. Lodewijks Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Fabian Lofink Fraunhofer Institute for Silicon
Technology ISIT, Itzehoe, Germany
Giorgio Longoni SAES Getters S.p.A., Lainate, Italy
Sebastian Markus Luber Infineon Technologies AG,
Neubiberg, Germany
M. Mahmud-ul-hasan Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Jari Mäkinen Okmetic Oy, Vantaa, Finland
Matti Mäntysalo Department of Electronics and
Communications Engineering, Tampere University of
Technology, Tampere, Finland
Devin Martin DISCO HI-TEC America, Inc., Santa
Clara, CA, United States
Federico Maspero Institute for Photonics and
Nanotechnologies, Milano, Italy
Toni T. Mattila Department of Electrical Engineering
and Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Luca Mauri SAES Getters S.p.A., Lainate, Italy
Peter Merz Autech AG, Rupperswil, Switzerland
Doug Meyer Gallia Semiconductor, Portland, OR,
United States
Marco Moraja SAES Getters S.p.A., Lainate, Italy
Teruaki Motooka Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
Gerhard Müller EADS Innovation Works, München,
Germany
Paul Muralt EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
Risto M. Nieminen Department of Applied Physics,
Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Frank Niklaus Department of Micro and Nanosystems,
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden
Laura Oggioni STMicroelectronics, Agrate Brianza,
Italy
Juuso Olkkonen VTT Technical Research Centre of
Finland LTD, Espoo, Finland
Elmeri Österlund Department of Electrical Engineering
and Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Kuang-Shun Ou Department of Mechanical
Engineering, National Cheng-Kung University Tainan,
Tainan, Taiwan

Jari Paloheimo Okmetic Oy, Vantaa, Finland
Toni P. Pasanen Department of Electronics and
Nanoengineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Mervi Paulasto-Kröckel Department of Electrical
Engineering and Automation, Aalto University, Espoo,
Finland
Thomas Plach EV Group E. Thallner GmbH, Sankt
Florian am Inn, Austria
Jean-Philippe Polizzi Silicon Components Department,
Grenoble Alpes University, CEA, LETI, Grenoble,
France
Klaus Pressel Infineon Technologies AG, Regensburg,
Germany
Matti Putkonen Department of Chemistry, University of
Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Riikka L. Puurunen Department of Chemical and
Metallurgical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo,
Finland
Wolfgang Reinert Fraunhofer Institute for Silicon
Technology ISIT, Itzehoe, Germany
Enea Rizzi SAES Getters S.p.A., Lainate, Italy
V. Rochus Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Glenn Ross Department of Electrical Engineering and
Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
X. Rottenberg Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Lauri Sainiemi Department of Chemistry and Materials
Science and Micronova Nanofabrication Centre, Aalto
University, Espoo, Finland
Hele Savin Department of Electronics and
Nanoengineering, School of Electrical Engineering,
Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Harald Schenk Fraunhofer Institute for Photonic
Microsystems (IPMS), Dresden, Germany;
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-
Senftenberg, Cottbus, Germany
Marc Schikowski X-FAB MEMS Foundry Itzehoe
GmbH, Itzehoe, Germany
Matthias Schulze Fraunhofer Institute for Photonic
Microsystems (IPMS), Dresden, Germany
S. Seema Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
S. Severi Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Lasse Skogström Murata Electronics Oy, Vantaa, Finland
Tadatomo Suga Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan
Scott Sullivan DISCO HI-TEC America, Inc., Santa
Clara, CA, United States
Tommi Suni Picosun Oy, Espoo, Finland
List of contributors xvii
Horst Theuss Infineon Technologies AG, Regensburg,
Germany
Markku Tilli Okmetic Oy, Vantaa, Finland
H.A.C. Tilmans Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Ilkka Tittonen Department of Electronics and
Nanoengineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Hannah Tofteberg Forkbeard Technologies AS, Oslo,
Norway
Pekka Törmä HS Foils Ltd, Espoo, Finland
Santeri Tuomikoski Department of Chemistry and
Materials Science and Micronova Nanofabrication
Centre, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland; Murata
Electronics, Vantaa, Finland
Frode Tyholdt SINTEF Digital, Microsystems and
Nanotechnology, Oslo, Norway
Tsuyoshi Uda Atomic Scale Material Simulations Co.,
Ltd, Tokyo, Japan
Örjan Vallin Department of Engineering Sciences,
Ångström Microstructure Laboratory, Uppsala
University, Uppsala, Sweden
Carlo Valzasina STMicroelectronics, Agrate Brianza,
Italy
Timo Veijola Department of Radio Science and
Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Eeva Viinikka Culmination Innovation Oy Ltd, Espoo,
Finland
Dietmar Vogel Fraunhofer ENAS, Technologie-Campus
3, Chemnitz, Germany
Andreas Vogl SINTEF Digital, Microsystems and
Nanotechnology, Oslo, Norway
Vesa Vuorinen Department of Electrical Engineering
and Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
W.J. Westervelde Imec, SSET, Leuven, Belgium
Sebastian Wicht X-FAB MEMS Foundry GmbH, Erfurt,
Germany
Robert Wieland Fraunhofer EMFT, Munich, Germany
Bernhard Winkler Infineon Technologies AG,
Regensburg, Germany
Levent Yobas Department of Electronic and Computer
Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Luca Zanotti STMicroelectronics, Agrate Brianza, Italy
I. Zubel Faculty of Microsystem Electronics and
Photonics, Wrocław University of Technology,
Wrocław, Poland
Preface
The first edition of this book was published in 2010 after
4 years of preparatory work. At that time, the motivation
to publish the handbook was that there was a need for a
book covering starting materials and the most important
process steps of bulk micromachining with supporting
material on modeling, measuring, and encapsulation of
MEMS components to give a broad overview tailored to
MEMS industry. The second edition was published in
2015, which showed the rapid progress in the MEMS
industry adding new material and updating selected origi-
nal chapters while keeping the book structure same.
The third edition appears now 10 years after the first
edition. Moreover, in this edition, the motivation and
focus are same as in the previous editions; the established
technologies are presented, and the prospective new and
emerging technologies are also introduced. However, dur-
ing the course of years, it became evident that we should
add a new part covering the process integration with
selected components as examples of applications. At the
same time, it was decided that the structure and the order
of the chapters should also be changed to be more logical.
Now the book contains the following six parts:
G
I: Silicon as MEMS Material
G
II: Modeling in MEMS
G
III: Micromachining Technologies in MEMS
G
IV: Encapsulation and Integration of MEMS
G
V: Characterization of MEMS
G
VI: Process Integration and Case Studies
The technology development has been fast, and the
development speed has increased during the last years. The
introductory chapter in the third edition gives the under-
standing why and how this has happened: during the early
years of MEMS business, the volume has been small, and
companies involved have been limited in resources. Now,
in this year, it is estimated that the MEMS component-
level business value is roughly 13 B$. The larger business
volume, intense competition, and the larger companies
with appropriate resources pave the way toward develop-
ment. The growing applications in smaller products, like in
wearable devices, demand smaller MEMS components and
call for new packaging concepts, for instance. During the
first edition, the backbone of the industry was still
automotive business, but when the second edition
appeared, the consumer business was growing fast and
passing automotive volume. Now the consumer business is
dominating, requiring faster development cycles, increas-
ing variety of devices, and putting more pressure on costs.
The third edition has 13 new chapters, 6 of them in new
Part VI, where accelerometer, gyroscope, pressure sensor,
microphone, micromirror, and MEMS above CMOS and
optical MEMS devices are presented. The importance of
packaging and reliability of the MEMS devices has been
increasing, which leads to the new chapters and updates in
the old chapters. Furthermore, the old chapters have been
updated wherever possible. Some materials that are relevant
today are diminishing and have been deleted. However, for
the interested readers, this material in the second edition is
still available in electronic format.
This book aims to provide a comprehensive, balanced
overview of the materials and the key technologies to
manufacture modern silicon based MEMS devices. The
book was originally created and is still targeted for a
broad audience (i.e, both beginners and more experienced
engineers and researches in the field), addressing all rele-
vant areas in a consistent manner and depth.
As time has passed from the first and second editions,
the editorial responsibilities have also changed. The editor
team is thankful to the departing editors of the second edi-
tion, Dr. Veli-Matti Airaksinen and Professor Sami
Franssila for their earlier contributions. Professor
Matthias Petzold from Fraunhofer IMWS, Halle,
Germany, and Dr Horst Theuss from Infineon AG,
Munich, Germany, have joined the editor team strength-
ening the third edition with their expertise in material
analysis, packaging, and component know-how.
The editors regret to announce the decease of
Professor emeritus Veikko Lindroos in November 2019,
just when the first proofs of this edition were coming. He
will be remembered incubating many startups in Finland,
including silicon material production.
Finally, the editor team would like to express their
gratitude to all those giving their valuable time and expe-
rience to author this book. Special thanks to Elsevier team
for their encouragement to publish this new edition and
also for their professional management of the process.
xix
Where is silicon based MEMS heading to?
Mervi Paulasto-Kröckel1, Markku Tilli2, Glenn Ross1 and Heikki Kuisma3
1
Department of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland, 2Okmetic Oy, Vantaa, Finland, 3Murata Electronics Oy,
Vantaa, Finland
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) is a technology
requiring interdisciplinary skills, as it combines mechani-
cal (moving) and electrical parts with structures in the
micrometer scale, from around 0.1 µm to several hundreds
of µm. When critical feature sizes are {1 µm, in nanome-
ter range, the technology is called NEMS (nanoelectrome-
chanical systems). MEMS and NEMS devices are able to
sense, control, and actuate on the microscale and generate
effects on the macroscale [1]. MEMS technology is also
called microsystem technology especially in Europe and
as micromachine technology in Japan. In this chapter, and
in the entire handbook, the term MEMS is mainly used.
The foundations of silicon MEMS were laid in the
1950s, when the basic properties and behavior of silicon
was studied, for example, piezoresistivity of silicon was
found by Smith [2]. The first silicon based MEMS was
made in the late 1950s and in the 1960s. For instance, the
first commercially available silicon diaphragm pressure
transducer was developed by Kulite-Bytrex in 1959 [3]
and the resonant gate transistor patent was published in
1968 [4]. Petersen’s seminal paper [5] disseminated key
information on the structural properties of silicon laying
the foundations for silicon based MEMS technology.
Silicon is almost an ideal material for MEMS, it is suffi-
ciently inert, elastic (no plastic deformation at low tem-
peratures MEMS devices normally face), shows no
fatigue or very minimal in device operation, anisotropic
properties can be utilized both in device manufacturing
and in device operation.
There were two main competing technologies to make
MEMS in the 1990s: surface micromachining, where
structures were made on thin films, typically on polysili-
con films, and bulk micromachining, where structures
were etched in silicon wafers. Bulk micromachining, the
older technology, was widely commercialized in the
1980s, first in pressure sensors and later in acceler-
ometers. Seidel et al. contributed greatly to understanding
of the bulk micromachining processes and finally pub-
lished their results in 1990 in two papers on anisotropic
wet etching of silicon using potassium hydroxide solu-
tions [6,7]. Lärmer developed in 1992 the Bosch process
[8], a deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) technology, mak-
ing it possible to combine the best features of surface and
bulk micromachining technology in the same device.
Earlier applications of DRIE technology were in surface
micromachining using thick polysilicon films, but later it
paved also the way for use of silicon on insulator (SOI)
wafers in MEMS.
In 2013 Bogue [9] divided MEMS commercialization
into three waves. Wave 1 began in the 1970s when low-
volume uses of high-cost products started in industry and
aerospace, main products being pressure sensors, strain
gages, and accelerometers. Wave 2 started in the early
1980s with high-volume uses of low-cost pressure sensors
(the early 1980s), accelerometers (the early 1990s), yaw
sensors (the late 1990s), and air flow sensors (the 1990s)
in the automotive industry. Wave 3 began in the early
2000s with very high volume of very low-cost acceler-
ometers, gyroscopes, and microphones in consumer elec-
tronics. Now, in 2019, we could add fourth wave, which
is starting around the 2020s (Fig. 1). Devices are built
with More than Moore concept [10], and key drivers for
development are ubiquitous MEMS for Internet of things
(IoT), autonomous driving, and optical communication.
MEMS development was trailing behind semiconduc-
tor development for several years, and only during the
past 10 1 years, MEMS production has entered into a
real volume scale industry—with rare exceptions such as
xxi
xxii Where is silicon based MEMS heading to?
Consumer-driven
MEMS devices
Automotive-driven
Incubation phase, MEMS devices
first MEMS in
industrial scale
1970 1990–2000
FIGURE 1 Four waves of MEMS commercialization.
silicon wafer based ink jet head manufacturing that were
in production already much earlier. There are many fac-
tors for the slow technological advancement of the
MEMS industry. Sales and volumes have been rather
small compared to semiconductor field (industry volume
of MEMS in 2019 was $13B compared to semiconductor
industry $337B) [11,12]. There were almost no standard
processes until recent years, for individual devices there
were tailored processes varying from manufacturer to
manufacturer. In the industry, this was known as “Yole’s
law,” where each device requires own process. Also,
MEMS processes were usually non-CMOS compatible
(with exception of certain surface MEMS processes using
thin polysilicon films); thus spare capacity of older
CMOS-lines could not be utilized. All in all, the
manufacturing landscape was rather specific, consisting
of small companies with limited capabilities to invest in
development and production and only a few small foun-
dries. Industry drivers, on the other hand, were conserva-
tive automotive and industrial applications requiring long
qualification cycles and second sourcing. This resulted in
a market focusing on too few device types and a slow
introduction of innovative new designs.
For a fabless startup company, turning a concept or even
a device demonstrated in lab environment into production
was prohibitively expensive and time-consuming, as often
also investment into special production tools was required.
It has been estimated a MEMS device to take 27 years to go
from R&D to the start of commercialization [13].
Small production volumes kept also wafer sizes small,
up to 150 mm. An investment into a 200 mm facility
became economical viable around the mid-2000s, about
30 years after semiconductor industry (1986 IBM IC-plant
vs 2006 ST MEMS-plant). Device cost reduction was slow
not only because of the missing wafer size scaling but also
due to conservative packaging concepts and high testing
costs. Also the MEMS devices could not be scaled down
just by decreasing the feature sizes as predicted by
Moore’s law. For accelerometers and gyroscopes, inertial
forces also would scale down drastically and sticking
forces would start to dominate with detrimental effects to
Ubiquitous MEMS
MEMS for autonomous driving
MEMS for optical communication
2005–15 2020–30
performance. Similar situation is found in some optical
devices where the numerical aperture cannot be decreased
beyond a certain size, often in the millimeter range,
without affecting, for example, the signal-to-noise ratio.
Cost and size reduction of devices became a must as
consumer applications, primarily mobile phone, devel-
oped as an innovation driver for MEMS in the mid-
2000s. Quality- and reliability-first mindset of the auto-
motive industry changed to cost-first (also size-first) for
consumer applications. Also new technologies, such as
DRIE, SOI, and wafer-level packaging, were introduced
into market enabling both miniaturization and cost
reduction.
Foundries serving the semiconductor industry have
increasingly entered into MEMS volume business. As
MEMS device manufacturing has developed toward
CMOS compatibility, it is possible to reuse aging semi-
conductor lines with a minimum investment barrier.
DRIE technology has largely replaced wet chemical bulk
micromachining, providing more commonality in the pro-
cessing of different devices, and making it possible to fill
the 200 mm manufacturing lines with reasonable number
of wafer starts. Device cost reduction speed has increased,
with further potential for significant yearly cost reduction
as presented in Fig. 2.
A publication and patent analysis reflects the previ-
ously presented development of the MEMS field (Fig. 3).
The publication volumes have been constantly rising since
the 1990s but have saturated overall since the mid-2000s.
MEMS research has continued to be strong, but the rather
constant yearly publication volumes suggest that there is
not a hype topic within the MEMS field now. It is
notable that although polymer substrates and other alter-
natives to silicon substrates have been proposed fre-
quently [15,16], the number of studies has not developed
substantially. In contrast, optical MEMS represents an
area of large research activities over the last couple of
decades and, in recent years, has had many new applica-
tions emerging based on these devices, as will be dis-
cussed later. The number of MEMS patents has increased
strongly since the beginning of 2000, coinciding with the
 Where is silicon based MEMS heading to? xxiii

FIGURE 2 Average selling price development estimate 2000 2020. Reprinted with permission Status of the MEMS Industry Report, Yole
De´veloppement (Yole), 2016 ed. ,www.i-micronews.com . [14].

Number of publications
Number of patents

FIGURE 3 Bibliometric data and patent analysis generated from the Scopus database. Specific keyword search strings were used in generating the
bibliometric database from 1990 to 2018. The patent data were limited to the US Patent & Trademark Office to reduce the number of multiple results
due to patent families.

commercialization wave of consumer applications. Still
today, more patent applications are submitted yearly. So
overall, the publication and patent situation in MEMS
demonstrates an engineering field that on the one hand
possesses a relatively high maturity and high potential for
new product innovations and on the other hand is still a
strongly developing field.
More than 20 years ago, Sensors and Actuators A,
1996 issue 1 2 focused on papers on the future outlook of
MEMS. When looking at these forecasts today, it can be
stated that authors more or less underestimated the devel-
opment. However, Ko [17] concluded in the issue, “From
sensors and actuators to microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS), to nanofabrication, smart materials and smart
structures, the future of the field is unlimited.” Now, in
2019, this statement is still true, and perspectives are even
more promising that forecasted in the papers in that issue.
Different scenarios have been presented to estimate the
future global need for smart sensors and actuators. Yole
Développement [18] estimates that the semiconductor-
xxiv Where is silicon based MEMS heading to?
based sensors and actuators market to be $100B in 2023
from about $50B market in 2018. Pure MEMS market,
excluding BAW devices, will grow from about $9.8B
(2018) to around $16B in 2023 showing a 9% annual
growth (CAGR). A long-term scenario could turn out to be
more dramatic, if the MEMS research community and
manufacturing industry manage to utilize the strengths of
the technologies and the infrastructures consciously and to
balance the challenges. In the following paragraphs, some
trends and high-volume opportunities are discussed and
reflected with the help of the SWOT analysis (Table 1).
New technology trends and emerging business areas
such as low carbon society, autonomous driving, AI,
AR/VR, and IoT present high demand for current and fur-
ther developed versions of the existing MEMS devices.
The hype around IoT is starting to cease and it is becom-
ing part of our everyday life. Many MEMS technologies
will be on high demand to develop grids of wireless sen-
sor nodes that can sense and report detailed information
among each other and with the end users for concepts
from industrial in situ health monitoring and predictive
maintenance to smart homes and cities. Home automation
offers even a surprisingly virgin platform for high perfor-
mance and highly integrated sensors. As stand-alone
TABLE 1 SWOT analysis of MEMS.
Strengths
G Silicon MEMS devices are scalable in die and wafer
size.costs down
G Business starts to resemble IC business: fabless companies,
IDMs, foundries
G Miniaturization potential still significant
G Versatility and variability of the technology
G New MEMS manufacturing technologies allow CMOS
compatibility
G Strong research infrastructure with fablines in several countries
G R&D funding encouraging to cross-disciplinary cooperation
quite well developed
Opportunities
G New emerging business areas: IoT, autonomous driving, AI,
and AR/VR
G New concepts with RF MEMS, optics, and MEMS combined,
piezoactuation
G New packaging concepts
G Hybrid devices integrating MEMS, IC, energy harvesting and
storage, RF
G Still significant room for cost reduction
G Significant potential for startups, merge, and acquisition
possibilities
G Room for national and multinational R&D funding
G New software business, sensor fusion, and decision-making
G Reuse opportunities for designs with long development times
AI, Artificial intelligence; AR, augmented reality; IDM, Integrated device manufacturer; IoT, Internet of things; VR, virtual reality.
devices such as home appliances, lighting, and heating,
venting, and air conditioning systems will be intelligently
connected, the sensors involved will need to measure
multiple physical quantities with high sensitivity and on a
constant basis. The sensor modules can include human
tactile sensing and specific wake-up features based on
optical detection [19,20]. This will require low power
ubiquitous sensors integrated with MCUs and RF parts.
Another example of new applications for existing MEMS
solutions within IoT is voice and gesture control, which
are expected to take over small touchscreens and other
control panels in future. Here, microphone or better
microphone array [21,22] is a key to achieving optimal
performance. Voice-controlled solutions will be most
likely based on miniaturized, stable performance MEMS
microphones, but also they involve potentially other
MEMS components such as MEMS radar for speaker dia-
rization [22]. To cope with the increasing requirements
and demand for digital MEMS microphones and to reduce
parasitics from the interconnects, high density, even
monolithic integration of the microphone chip and the
control chip, is expected.
Autonomous car will have extensive impact on tech-
nology development pushing the sensor performance
Weaknesses
G Average product development cycles long
G Volume per device/technology remains low, business
prerequisites often not met
G Foundry services need further development
G Standardization still in early stages, for example, few pin-to-pin
compatible devices
G “Yole’s law” still limits in some designs second sourcing
G Infrastructural renewal slow, component testing needs
specialized tools
G Research funding available, but level of challenges low, too few
projects failing
G Force output limited for potential actuator applications
Threats
G Lack of competence with multidisciplinary skills
G Delays of new device introductions because old milk cows are
not killed
G Large companies base technology development too strictly on
business cases
G Companies lacking vision or courage
G No foundries capable of offering manufacturing to small/
medium scale volumes
G Patent trolls
G Architectural changes and end product specification changes
remove the need
G Design time and cost increasing due to functional safety and
other requirements
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other jays to his help. If one of them is killed by the hawk, they all
give loud, wild cries. Then they fly off and, hidden in the wood,
complain of their disaster.
 LESSON XXXVIII.
THE BIRDS IN THE HOUSE.
As so many of you have cage birds, I think you will like to hear a little
about the kinds of birds that most often live in cages. I will tell you of
only the two most common kinds of pet birds,—the canary and the
parrot.
As the parrot is the larger bird and of more ancient fame, we will
speak of him first. Parrots have been favorite cage birds for many
hundred years. They are notable for size, splendor of plumage,
docility, long life, and power of learning to speak.
Like the woodpecker, the parrot belongs to the division of climbing
birds. The feet of climbing birds have two toes turned forward, and
two turned backward.
The parrot family is a group of large and splendid birds. You will
know even the smaller members of it by their bills. The bills are high
and thick, and have the upper part much curved and longer than the
under part. This bill is useful in aiding the birds in climbing, and in
holding fast to the branches of trees. It is just the right kind of bill for
eating fruit, which forms the chief food of the parrot in its wild state.
The tongue of the parrot is short, thick, and fleshy. The wings and tail
are long. The plumage is gay.
To the parrot family belong the parrakeets, cockatoos, macaws, and
lories. These are all birds of hot countries.
Nothing can exceed the splendor of the plumage of these birds. Red,
lemon, green, scarlet, blue, white, and a mixture of these colors, will
be found upon them. Many of them have brilliant crests, and many of
them long gay tail feathers.
The head and bill of the parrot are large. While their bill tells us what
kind of food they live on, and their feet show that they can climb,
their long strong wings show that they are birds of flight.
Parrots are social birds. They live in large flocks. They make their
nests in hollow trees, as woodpeckers do. In their native homes they
are much like woodpeckers in some of their ways. But they eat fruit,
not insects.
The natural voice of the parrot is a loud, harsh call. Parrots can learn
to speak only when they are carefully taught. Not every kind of parrot
can learn even when taught. The common short-tailed, red and
green parrot makes the best talker. Some of them are very amusing.
Parrots are usually of a kind, gentle disposition, easily tamed, and
learn to live very happily in a cage. When captive they eat sugar,
crackers, and almost any little dainty that is offered to them. They
are fond of water, and bathe often.
The very long-tailed parrots called macaws, and parrakeets, are
birds of Central and Southern America. In India there are also very
long-tailed parrots. In old times they were sent as presents to kings
and queens. The parrakeets of Asia and Africa are called ring
parrakeets, because each one has a collar of bright feathers about
the neck. The two parrots called “the gray,” and “the festive,” or “jolly”
parrot, are the most common as pets, are most amusing, and learn
many words and tricks.
What are called “love birds” are very small and beautiful parrots,
from North Africa. They are as small as bluebirds. They are the
smallest of their race, and rather rare.
The cockatoos are kept in cages, not for their speech, as they do not
learn to talk, but for their great beauty. You will know them by their
high crests. They have their name from their note, or call. They are
natives of tropic islands. Most of them have light-colored feathers,
pink, lemon or white, with markings of brighter tints.
If you live where you can visit a large bird-store, you will do well to
go to see some of these birds.
Let us now turn to that other house bird, and common pet, the
canary.
This little bird has its name from some islands on the coast of Africa,
which are its native home. It is about three hundred years since
these birds began to be reared and sold for cage birds.
Canaries are very small birds, of a delicate yellow color, graceful
shape, bright and lively ways, and sweet song.
In their native woods they have not the clear yellow color which they
now wear. They are of an olive green with spots of black and yellow.
The yellow color has become common to the cage birds.
Canaries are intelligent, affectionate little birds. They can be taught
to whistle tunes, if you train them with care and patience. If given
plenty of water, clean cages, plenty of light, and good fresh seed,
they will be healthy and live a long time.
You should give them a lump of sugar for a treat, some chick-weed
for fresh food, a bit of cuttle-fish bone to sharpen their beak upon.
You must also be careful to keep them out of a draught.
These birds of hot lands, reared in cages, would die if we let them fly
out of the cage. So, if we treat them well, it does not seem cruel to
keep them in their little wire palaces.
For my part, I prefer to see birds flying, feeding, and singing in the
woods and fields, which are their natural home.
 LESSON XXXIX.
THE LOST BIRDS.
Hidden in the earth, in peat swamps, or in rocks, we find the bones
of birds of various kinds that lived long ago, and are now lost. Some
of these lost birds were on the earth before men and beasts were.
Others have been well known until a recent time. I shall tell you of a
few that have lived until lately.
First I shall mention the great auk. This was a large handsome bird,
which lived along the shores and islands of northern seas. As auks
were good to eat, large numbers of them were killed.
There should have been a law to protect them while they were
raising their young. As there was no such law, the birds were killed at
any time, and their eggs and young were taken. Thus year by year
they perished, until none are left.
The auk was a very large bird, with black and white feathers. It had
very short legs, broad, webbed feet, and very small wings. When
sitting at rest on a rock, it held itself straight up and was nearly a
yard high.
It was a wonderful swimmer and diver, but could not walk much, and
did not fly except from rock to rock. Its bill was very large and strong.
The auk was a fish-catcher and eater.
As to these very big bills, such as you see on the toucan and hornbill
in museums, where the bill is nearly as large as all the rest of the
bird, let me tell you a secret. Do not they look very heavy? Do you
not wonder how the bird can carry them, or fly with them?
Here is the truth. The horny hard part is very thin, not thicker than a
sheet of paper. Then all the inside of the bill is built up in cells,
something like a fine honey-comb, and these cells are full of air! So
instead of being heavy, these huge bills are very light.
The bill of the auk was large, but not nearly so large as that of the
hornbill or toucan.
A neighbor of the auk was the Labrador duck. This bird often built its
nest close by where the auk laid its great, bright-colored eggs, near
the water’s edge. The Labrador duck and the auk swam in the same
waters, and were both very gentle birds.
This duck, like the auk, is now lost. The last one seems to have been
killed a few years ago. The Labrador duck was a very beautiful bird.
People wanted its eggs, flesh and feathers, and did not spare the old
birds to raise their broods.
This makes me think of the fable of the greedy man, who killed the
goose that laid golden eggs. Then he had neither goose nor eggs. I
think it served him right.
Chief among lost birds is the famous dodo. This dodo was an
immense pigeon. It was a helpless, quiet, kind, clumsy bird. It was
too heavy and too short of wing to fly. It had no weapon of defence;
no sharp, strong bill; no tearing claws.
Such a bird was easily caught and torn to pieces by dogs or cats.
When these animals were taken to the island of Mauritius, where the
dodo lived, they were allowed to run wild in the woods. They soon
became more like wolves and panthers than decent dogs and cats.
The dodo had never before seen any wild animals larger than rats or
squirrels. The dodos lived in peace and friendship with other birds
and small wild beasts. When ships began to visit the islands where
the poor dodos lived, men, dogs, and cats soon put an end to the
gentle birds.
Lost, with the auk and dodo, we may count two kinds of beautiful
parrots, and a starling with a splendid crest, like an unfurled fan; also
a tall, handsome bird, called a rail, has been hunted out of existence.
But some other rails are still plentiful.
The last bird to disappear has been the great vulture of the Alps.
This was a big bird indeed. It was two yards wide across the
outspread wings. It lived on the high peaks of the Alps.
This bird had a large hooked beak and large strong claws. You know
that eagles and vultures are flesh eaters. This big vulture did not
confine its diet to dead flesh. It would pick up and carry off a little
lamb. It has been known, also, to carry off a baby child.
So, as this was a cruel and dangerous bird, I am glad it has gone
from the earth.
The garefowl, often called a penguin, is another lost bird. It was a
great bird, living on the coast. It had such small wings that it could
not fly. Thus you see it could not get away from dogs and wild
animals, except when it could take to the water.
When men joined in the hunt, the garefowl soon perished. Is it not
right, then, to kill birds for food? Yes. But they should never be killed
until the season is over when they are laying eggs and raising the
young brood. If old birds are killed before the young ones are reared,
you can see that the birds must soon die out.
Then, too, while birds may be killed for food, it is not right to kill them
for the mere pleasure of killing. It is wrong to find a pleasure in taking
away life. You should never waste the life of beast, bird, insect, or
plant.
I have seen people nearly destroy a variety of rare wild flower, by
tearing up masses of the plant before seeds had time to form. The
people took much that they did not need and soon threw away. Then
only few and small plants were left for seed.
We should remember that as we are not the first people on the earth,
so we shall not be the last, and we should not rob the future of things
that are pleasing to us. We should all try to make the earth richer
and better, not poorer, for our having been in it.
 LESSON XL.
THE FIN FAMILY.
I remember when I thought that no living thing was of so little interest
as a fish. I used to wonder how it was that the great Agassiz began
his studies in Nature with fish. I did not think that fish were even
pretty.
I suppose that was because I knew nothing about them. When we
are quite ignorant of a subject, we are apt to think it has no interest.
One reason why, in these Nature Readers, I am telling you
something of many things is, that by knowing a little of these
subjects, your interest in them may be aroused. Then you will try to
learn more; and the more you know, the more you will enjoy.

IN THE COOL DEPTHS.

Once, if you had asked me, “What is a fish?” I should have said, “Oh,
a fish is a long thing, with scales and fins; and it lives in the water!”
How many of you can tell me anything more than that? Perhaps you
will add that a fish is good to eat.
Well, one day I went into a house where there was a great glass
tank. It was like a glass room full of water. As I stood looking in
through the glass side of this tank, I saw, gliding through the water, a
large, lovely creature, in silver and rose color. It had big black eyes,
set in a golden ring.
This creature seemed to move without the least effort. It made no
sound. It slid by me like the figures in a beautiful dream. It rose. It
turned. It sank,—and all without seeming to exert itself in the least. I
saw no effort at motion; but now and then a tremor of a forked tail,
and now and then the gentle wave to and fro of a pair of gleaming,
thin, silken things, like fans, half unfurled.
This, then, was a fish at home! Here was a fish living in the water,
and doing as it pleased. The clear water added to its beauty. It shone
like a gem. Other creatures, as beautiful, but different, lived with it.
They crossed and recrossed each other’s course. They left no track.
They had no path. They moved on, far more easily than a bird
moves in the air, or a man on the land.
From that day I loved the fin family. Let us look at this family.
I told you that a bird is built on the plan of a boat to sail in the air. The
fish, also, is built on the boat plan. He is a boat to move not on, but
in, the water.
Perhaps this is not a fair way of speaking; for birds and fish were
made long before men. And no doubt men built their boats on the
plan of the water-birds and the fish.
The fishes vary much in shape and size. We will speak now of the
ordinary fish type. We will take a model or pattern fish, such as the
perch or the mackerel.
The head is sharp and wedge-shaped. It serves as the prow of the
boat, to divide the water. The body is long, narrow, smooth. It has
scales lapping over each other, and are all turned from the head
toward the tail.
The tail is like the rudder of a boat, to direct its course. It serves also
as the paddle, or propeller, to drive it through the water. There is a
long slim fin on each side, just below and behind the head. These
serve as balances, and, also, sometimes as oars.
There is a long fin, sometimes there are two fins, on the ridge of the
back. There are also two fins on the lower line of the body. These
steady the fish in the water. They help to keep it, as you would say,
“right side up.” There are two more fins under the body, near the tail.
What you call the tail is really a fin. The true tail is the narrow end of
the body, just above this final fin.
Let us look at the head. Just on the front is the mouth. It has plenty
of teeth. I shall tell you of these teeth in another lesson, when I tell
you about the scales. Just above and behind the mouth are the
eyes, one on each side of the head. They never have any eyelids.
Below and back of the eyes are the gills and gill-covers. Gills are
wonderful things, which serve the fish for lungs. These gills can take,
or sift, out of the water, the oxygen of the air that is mixed with the
water.
The fish takes the water in at his mouth. Then, by a motion like
swallowing, he drives it out through the gills; and the gills sift out the
oxygen, as the water passes through them. Fish need that part of air
called oxygen to purify their blood, just as you need it.
If fish are kept in a vase where the water is not renewed, they soon
die for lack of oxygen. If they are put into water which has been
boiled, they die, because boiling has driven out the oxygen.
Perhaps you have been told that fish breathe water, as you breathe
air. That is not true. Fish breathe air, but the air must be sifted
through their fine gills. When you pull a fish out of water, he pants
and struggles and cannot get his breath. His fine gills stick together,
and cannot do their work. So the fish chokes to death. His panting
action is an effort to get air.
Fish with the thinnest and finest gills, as herring, choke very soon. A
carp, perch, or other fish that have gill-covers that will hold moisture,
and gills that will keep wet a long time, will live one, two, or more
hours in the air.
Fish have inside the body an air-bladder, or bag of air. This may help
them in breathing, but its chief use is to keep them up in the water.
The bladder lies under the backbone. This backbone runs from the
head to the tail of the fish. It is made of little pieces like cups. Each
piece has two or more long spines, like ribs, on each side of it.
The bony frame of a fish is very curious. You should try to have a fish
skeleton to look at. There are little bones that extend from each
division of the fins. You will see that the skeleton looks somewhat
like the ribs or frame of a boat before the planks are put on.
The bright color and gleam of the fish is in the scales. I will tell you of
these later. The scales are like a rich, flexible suit of armor.
Fish have cold blood, not warm like yours. They have very keen
sight and smell. Probably they have good hearing, and but little
sense of touch or taste. They have small brains, and not very much
intelligence.
 LESSON XLI.
OUTSIDE AND INSIDE.
If I ask you what is the largest of all fish, you will say “a whale.” But
let me tell you that a whale is not a fish. A whale is an animal that
spends all its time in the water, but cannot live constantly under
water. If cast ashore it will die, because it has no means of getting
back into the water, and no food on the land.

QUEER NOSES.
But whales have no gills, and they breathe air as you do. They are
so made that they can, with safety, remain under water for a much
longer time than you can. If a whale is kept under water too long, he
drowns. So we must leave whales, nar-whales, and porpoises out of
our account of fishes.
Among real fish you will find some of great size. Sturgeon have been
caught which weighed five hundred pounds. They were twelve or
fourteen feet long. Yet this size seems small when we compare it
with that of the great shark which has been found thirty feet long.
A queer contrast with such a vast creature is the little minnow, which
you catch in ponds and brooks. It is not much over an inch long.
Little English boys in their first fishing trips go for sticklebacks, a fish
from one to two inches long. I shall tell you in another lesson of this
amusing little fish.
The fish usually chosen as a type, or model, of the fish race, is a
perch. We find fishes[29] differing from the general perch pattern as
much as flower differs from flower.
The perch is a wedge-shaped fish, and is a beautiful creature. Let us
see how others of the fin family differ from the pattern I described to
you in the last lesson.
Instead of having a clear, round, full, bright eye like that of a perch,
some fishes, which live in mud, or in very deep water, have tiny
eyes, like dots. Some fishes which live in streams in dark caves have
really no eyes.
The perch is covered with scales of a rich green-brown and a golden
white. Some fish, as the eel and sword-fish, have no scales. A shark
has no true scales, but his skin has hardened into little bony points.
Some other fish, instead of scales, have large bony plates. The
heads and the fins seldom have any scales upon them.
If you could see a large collection of fish, you would wonder at the
variety of shape. You would see the “perch pattern” changed in
almost every possible way. Perhaps the first odd-shaped family to
notice would be the rays.
The fish of this family are flat. Their bodies are shaped much like a
flat triangle, finished with a long slim tail. The ray’s mouth is on the
under side of his body. The most common members of the ray family
are the skates. They are of a dark color above, and light below. I
shall soon tell you a queer thing about skates’ eggs.
One of the rays is called the sting ray, because its tail extends in a
huge lash, like an immense whip. Another ray is called the eagle,
because his body and fins widen out on each side, like the wings of
a big bird.
Another odd-shaped fin family is that of the flat fish. These, like the
rays, are dark above and light below. These fish are very flat or thin
in the body, and usually have both eyes and mouth on the upper or
dark side. There is one kind where the eyes and mouth are so raised
as to look much like the head of a bird. They swim with a queer
wave-like motion of the whole body. To this family belong the turbot,
flounder, plaice, and sole.
Then, too, there is a family of fish that are nearly as round as balls.
They have wide stripes of light and dark color, and look more like
nice play bells, furnished with tails and fins, than like fish.
A queer contrast to them is the pipe-fish. Pipe-fish have no scales.
Their bodies are long and slender, like very slim canes. They get
their name from the queer shape of their noses. The pipe-fish’s nose
is very slim and hard, and half as long as the fish. People think it
looks like a pipe, or cigar.
Many fish have very odd noses. Instead of the wedge-shaped head,
with the nose and mouth set exactly on the front, the nose may be of
a queer shape, and the mouth above or below.
The bellows-fish gets its name from a nose shaped almost exactly
like a bellows. One kind of sturgeon is called the shovel-fish,
because its head is shaped much like a wide shovel. Another
sturgeon is called the spoon-bill, because its nose runs out in a long,
horny plate, like a spoon, or a paddle. The hammer-headed shark,
has its head broadened on each side like a great hammer, with the
neck for a handle. One eye is set at the end of each projection.
I cannot tell you of all the queer shapes that fish take. If you examine
those which you catch in the ponds and rivers, or see brought to
market, you will observe that no two kinds are alike. What a narrow,
graceful, active fish a trout is! What a queer little fellow is the fish
that from his shape you call “a pumpkin seed.”
I told you just now, that one ray fish has a very long tail. With it he
strikes, and stuns or kills, his prey, or his enemy. Most fish live on
animal food. Some fish eat sea-weeds, but most of them prefer other
fish, crabs, insects, shell-fish, or other live creatures. Very many fish
have some weapon for securing prey, or fighting their enemies.
Some fish, depend on their quickness of motion to secure their food
or escape enemies. But I will now tell you of some of their weapons.
The lower lip of a salmon turns up into a sharp, cutting hook. The
sword-fish has a long, hard, sharp, strong horn, which it can drive
into the side of a ship. With this weapon it will also kill a man. The
sword is formed by some bones of the side of the head, growing out
very long and strong. The sword-fish belongs to the ray order.
Another ray is the saw-fish. This fish carries on its head a long, flat
bone set with great points like the teeth of a coarse saw. With this
weapon the saw-fish charges into a shoal of fishes. He maims and
wounds a number so that they die or cannot swim away. Then he
feasts on them at his leisure.
A very queer fish is the torpedo.[30] He is a very big fellow. He can
give a shock like electricity, that stuns or kills his prey. There is a
large eel which has the same power. They are both much feared by
other fishes.
But no fish is more feared by other fish, or by men, than the shark.
No doubt you have heard of him, with his huge mouth set with great
hooked teeth. He can kill almost any creature which is in the sea.
While much more could be said about weapons, we must now leave
them to take a look at the first pair of fins, or the breast fins.
In the rays the breast fins are broad and long. They are the chief
means of swimming. The flat fish have these breast fins extended all
along the side of the body. By the wave-like motion of these fins and
of the body they swim.
In some fish these breast fins are turned to feet, for walking at the
bottom of the water. There are one or two kinds of fish that can climb
trees. These have the under fins turned to sucker-like plates to help
them climb.
Did you ever hear of the flying fish? That fish has the breast fins long
and wide like wings. The fish can rise from five to twenty feet above
the water, and these fin wings support it, so that it can fly about two
hundred yards. Thus it escapes from its enemies.
You will see some fish with fleshy, finger-like organs near the mouth.
These are called barbels. Fish with barbels are bottom feeders. With
these barbels they hunt for food in the mud.

FOOTNOTES:
[29] Both fish and fishes are correct plural forms, and both are
used to accustom the child to both words.
[30] Also of the ray order.
 LESSON XLII.
WHERE THEY LIVE.
Where does the fin family live? “In the water,” you say. Yes. There is
perhaps no natural body of water in the world without its fish. There
are forty families of fresh-water fish. There are fish that live in water
that is partly salt and partly fresh, as where the sea-tides run back
into rivers. There are fish that live in the salt water of the ocean.

IN FRESH WATER.
The ocean fish are divided into three classes. First there are the
coast fish, that seldom go far from shore. They need a certain kind of
food and a certain warmth of water that they find near land. Then
there are surface, or upper-sea fish, that live far from land, but never
very deep in the water. And there are the fish of the very deep sea.
The surface, or upper-sea fish, are most of them very strong
swimmers. The deep-sea fish live far down where there is little air
and almost no light. It is only about twenty years since people began
to study deep-sea fish, and as yet little is known about them.
Many of the shore, or coast fish, that live in sea-water, enter the
rivers to lay their eggs. They arrive in the rivers in the spring, and
sometimes go up even hundreds of miles from the mouth to find safe
places for their young. Thus these fish are born in fresh water, and
grow up in salt water.
Among fish of this habit, we find the shad and the salmon. So you
see a fish may live part of its time in salt water, part of the time in
fresh, and part of the time in the brackish water at the river’s mouth.
Some fish, that are accustomed to spend all their lives in sea-water,
can be made to live in fresh water, if this is changed gradually.
When fish live in a tank, air must be driven into the water to supply
what the fish use out of it. If air is not driven in, the fish will die. As
the oxygen in the water becomes scarce, the fish seem uneasy.
They come up to the top of the water, and put their mouths out for
air. They give a gasp as if choking.
In such tanks, where fish live, a jet of water is driven with some force
into the water of the tank from above. As it goes down, you see a
stream of shining bubbles. These bubbles are air. They break in the
water, and the air mingles with the water in the tank.
You may see gold-fish in globes coming to the top of the water, and
seeming uneasy and unhappy. Then if you dash in a little fresh
water, or take some of the water from the globe and pour it back
from a little height, the fish seem content.
You know that the driving winds and the tumbling waves that break
in foam will keep plenty of fresh air in ocean water, for all the finny
tribes that live there.
So rivers, as they rush and ripple, toss their waves, and are driven
with winds, get air bubbles mixed in their waters.
Some fish need more air than others, and often come to the surface
to breathe. Some, as the sturgeon, leap above the surface into the
air. Perhaps you have seen cat-fish jumping in this way. Did you ever
see dolphins and porpoises[31] roll themselves quite above the
surface of the water in their play? I have told you of the fish that
make short flights. In all these ways these creatures help themselves
to air in their water home. But what do they do for food?
As I told you, fish eat fish and insects and crabs and such living
things. Some few are feeders on vegetables. Fish will also devour
almost anything that is thrown into the water for them. Did you ever
feed fish in a pond with bread and worms?
Carp will hurry to the top of the water to get food that they have
learned to look for when people come near. Fish of a kind often keep
together and feed together. You know in a stream there may be
some places where you will catch only trout, or only bullheads. And
in some other place you will find pickerel.
In the sea you will find millions of herring together at certain
seasons. This is called a shoal of herring. Fish move from place to
place along many miles of sea-coast or river, as they seek their
especial food, or a certain warmth.
Sometimes a particular fish, or pair of fishes, will live for years in
some certain place. They may find a nice spot under a bank, where
they feel safe, and where plenty of food drifts near them.
I knew of a fish that went into a hole made by the roots of a great
willow-tree. The roots formed a close cage about him. He liked it
well. His enemies could not get at him. Water rippled in and out
about him. Grubs and worms were close to his mouth. He grew fat
and big. He grew so big he could not get out. He began to grow to fit
the shape of his cage. As he had no room to grow long, he grew
broad.
After some years he was a very queer-looking fish. Finally, some
men were making an embankment, and they came upon this fish-
home in the roots of the tree. They took the fish out with care, and
sent him to a pond. I fancy it seemed odd to him to swim at first, after
being so long a prisoner.
There are some kinds of fish that live and thrive in the icy-cold
waters of polar seas. There are other fish that live in hot springs or
ponds, where the water is so hot that you can hardly bear your hand
in it.
Some fish can live only in very clean water. Others live in black and
muddy streams, and their flesh takes the dark hue of their home. In
fact, there seem to be some kinds of fish made to suit every kind of
water. This is very fortunate, as so many birds and beasts and so
many people eat fish.

FOOTNOTES:
[31] The dolphin of the Mediterranean is of the whale family, and
is not a true fish. The dolphin of the Atlantic is a true fish. The
porpoise is of the whale family, not a true fish, but a mammal.