T5_Explosions

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UNIT 5
EXPLOSIONS
© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor
1 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

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CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION – Types of explosions
2. MODELLING THE EFFECTS OF EXPLOSIONS

o The overpressure wave
o Blast scaling
o TNT-equivalency method
o Multi-energy method
o CFD methods
3. DESCRIPTION AND MECHANISM OF A BLEVE

o Definition
o BLEVE effects
4. MODELLING OF BLEVES
o Vessel failure
o Mechanical energy released by the explosion
o Overpressure wave
o Fragments projection
5. MODELLING THE CONSEQUENCES OF EXPLOSIONS


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1. Introduction – Types of explosions


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1. INTRODUCTION
Accidental explosions are

associated with a very fast
release of energy that
produces large quantities of
expanding gas.
The rapid expansion of the

gases give rise to a blast or
overpressure wave that can
have significant effect on the Explosion at BP refinery in Texas City (2005)
surroundings. Source: http://risk.columbia.edu/Energy-and-Environment

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Types of explosions
 Unconfined
• Unconfined vapour cloud explosions (UVCE)
 Confined
• Confined vapour cloud explosions (CVE)
• Dust explosions
 Vessel explosions
• Compressed gases
• BLEVE
• Runaway reactions

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Vapor cloud explosions
 The substance must be flammable

 No immediate ignition is required
 A significant part of the cloud must be between the flammability limits
 The mass in the cloud has to be large enough (a minimum of ≈ 500 – 1000 kg), but it depends
on the degree of confinement.
 Presence of turbulences
Instantaneous increase in volume

Instantaneous release of energy
Overpressure wave
Pemex-Reynosa (Mexico) 18/9/2012 - 31 deaths, 47 injured
BP-Texas City (USA) 23/3/2005 – 15 deaths, 170 injured, 1600 M$


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Dust explosions
Any oxidizable powdered material can

lead to an explosion.
The particles must be small enough for

each to have enough space to burn.
The smaller the particles, the more likely

the ignition and the more virulent the
explosion will be.
Grain, fibers, sugar, plastics, organic pigments,

flour, coal, aluminum, aspirin, ...
Dust explosion pentagon

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Dust explosions
𝐷𝐷 ≤ 0,1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Equipment involved in dust explosions
Equipment %
Particle diameter Minimum ignition energy
(µm) (mJ) Silos 20
Grinding plants 14
710 – 1680 > 5000
Filters, separators 14
355 – 709 250 – 500
Conveying Systems 10
180 – 354 50 -250
Dryers 8
105 – 179 <10
Furnaces 5
53 – 104 <10
Mixers 5
5 <10
Miscellaneous 24
Spark generated in a plug: 25 mJ

Walk on a carpet: 22 mJ
Most common sources of ignition: friction, overheating, flames, welding, static electricity, ...

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2. Modelling the effects of explosions


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In an explosion, the combustion

heat is partly converted into
mechanical energy due to the
expansion of the combustion
products.
Under atmospheric conditions,

the maximum theoretical
efficiency of this conversion for
an hydrocarbon explosion in air
is about 40%, although in
practice it is usually lower. With
conventional explosives the
efficiency is usually much
higher.

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The overpressure wave
The mechanical energy of the explosion P

constitutes an overpressure wave that moves at
a certain velocity through the atmosphere. This +∆P
is the result of two competing phenomena: the
pressure build-up due to combustion and the
pressure decrease due to the expansion of
gases.
The shape of this wave depends on the type of

explosion. In an ideal blast wave –shock wave–
t2
the overpressure increases almost P0
t1 t3 t
instantaneously, then decreases less rapidly to
negative values, reaches a minimum, and finally −∆P
returns to the ambient value. Positive Negative
phase phase
duration duration

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𝑡𝑡2
+
P P 𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑃𝑃0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
peak side-on overpressure 𝑡𝑡1
𝑡𝑡3
+∆P −
𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑃𝑃0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡2
+∆P impulse
t2 t2
P0 (ambient) P0 (ambient)
t1 t3 t t1 t3 t
−∆P −∆P
Positive Negative Positive Negative
phase phase phase phase
duration duration duration duration
DETONATIONS DEFLAGRATIONS

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DETONATIONS DEFLAGRATIONS
 The blast wave propagates through the  The blast wave propagates at subsonic
unreacted mixture at supersonic velocity. velocity.
 Vapour cloud explosions, because the
 The shock wave and the flame front volume of the mixture is large and the rate
propagate together at supersonic velocity. of energy release slow, they will be
 For a given quantity of explosive, they are deflagrations.
more destructive than deflagrations.  In vapor cloud explosions, the negative
 Blast waves from high explosives are close to phase of the wave can be of the same
the ideal wave, i.e. detonations. order of magnitude as the positive phase.
 High values of negative overpressure will
 Unconfined flammable vapor clouds will
cause significant damage to equipment by
hardly result in detonations.
suction.

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Blast scaling
d
There is experimental evidence
that if a spherical explosive charge
of diameter D produces a pick
overpressure ∆P at a distance d +∆P
D
from its centre, as well as a
kd t
positive-phase duration t+ i and an +
impulse i; then a charge of

diameter kD of a similar explosive
in the same atmosphere will
produce an overpressure wave kD
+∆P
with a similar form and the same

kt+
peak overpressure ∆P, as well as a
positive-phase duration kt+ and an
Since the mass of the charge is proportional to its volume,
impulse ki at a distance kd from its i.e the cube of its diameter, a normalized distance can be
centre. This is called the defined as the relationship between the actual distance and
Hopkinson or “cube root” scaling the cubic root of the mass:
law. 𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 = 𝟑𝟑
𝑴𝑴

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TNT-equivalency method
This method is based on estimating the mass of TNT that
would produce the same degree of damage as the flammable
cloud. The equivalent TNT mass is determined:
𝑀𝑀 � ∆𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐
𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝜂𝜂 �
∆𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 = 3
𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
∆𝑃𝑃 1 4 12
= + 2+ 3
𝑃𝑃0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛
𝑀𝑀 Mass of fuel in the cloud, kg

∆𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐 Lower heat of combustion of the fuel, kJ/kg
𝜂𝜂 Explosion yield factor, usually 0.03
∆𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 Blast energy of TNT, 4680 kJ/kg
𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 Scaled distance, m·kg-1/3
𝑑𝑑 Real distance from the centre of the explosion to the point at which
the overpressure must be estimated, m

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The TNT-equivalency method is not accurate for several reasons:
 TNT blasts are detonations, while vapour cloud explosions are deflagrations.
 The shape and speed of their respective overpressure waves are different.
 Errors will be greater in areas near the cloud (distances less than 3 times the diameter of
the cloud).
 Errors will be less at distances far away from the cloud (distances greater than 10 times
the diameter of the cloud).
Despite the errors that the application of the TNT-equivalency method may bring, its simplicity makes
it still a widely used method. It must be borne in mind that all methods are subject to errors and
uncertainties, and you should carefully evaluate if increasing the model complexity offsets the
improvement in the results.

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TNT-equivalency method – Example 1

A propane leak in a storage area generates a flammable cloud. It is estimated that at
the time of ignition the volume of the cloud within the flammability limits is 1750 m3.
Using the equivalent TNT method, determine the overpressure originating 200 m from
the center of the cloud.
Data: Lower flammability limit (LII) = 2.4%; Upper flammability limit (LSI) = 9.5%;
Ambient temperature = 15 ⁰C; Molecular mass of propane = 44 kg/kmol; Propane
combustion heat = 50.4·103 kJ / kg

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Multi-energy method
Analysis of various vapor cloud explosions seems to indicate that overpressure is not only related to the
amount of fuel present in the cloud but rather to the size and shape of the parts of the cloud that are
confined or obstructed.
In the multi-energy method, the volume of the partially confined cloud is transformed into a hemisphere
of equal volume.
• The method considers that this hemispheric cloud contains a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel
under stoichiometric conditions.
• It assumes a concentration of 0.1 kg/m3 in air-hydrocarbon mixtures, which corresponds to about
3.5·106 J/m3
• Parts of the cloud that are not confined will burn but will not make a significant contribution to
overpressure.

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Multi-energy method
Δ𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑
Δ𝑃𝑃 = 𝑅𝑅� =
𝑃𝑃0 𝐸𝐸 ⁄𝑃𝑃0 1⁄3
𝑖𝑖 � 𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 +
𝚤𝚤 ̅ = 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠
2 ⁄3 𝑡𝑡 + =
𝑃𝑃0 � 𝐸𝐸 1⁄3 𝐸𝐸 ⁄𝑃𝑃0 1⁄3
𝛾𝛾 � 𝑅𝑅 � 𝑇𝑇
𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 = = 20,05 � 𝑇𝑇
𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚
∆𝑃𝑃 Dimensionless side-on peak overpressure

𝑅𝑅� Sachs scaled distance Source strength
𝐸𝐸 Energy involved in the explosion, J
𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 Speed of sound in air, m/s
𝑡𝑡 + Sachs scaled positive phase duration
𝑡𝑡 + positive phase duration, s
𝚤𝚤 ̅ Sachs scaled impulse
𝑖𝑖 Incident impulse, Pa·s
𝑇𝑇 Air temperature, K

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Multi-energy method

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Multi-energy method - Procedure
1. Determine the size of the cloud
2. Identify obstructed and congested areas

With process equipment, piles of pallets, parking, tunnels, ...
3. Determine the free volume of each congested area
4. Estimate the energy associated with each area
5. Determine the source strength for each area

Unobstructed areas = 1; unobstructed areas but with turbulence= 3; congested areas= 7
6. Determine the location of the center of each area
7. Calculate the combustion energy-scaled distance
8. Determine from the graphs the value of overpressure and duration of the positive phase

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Multi-energy method
Multi-energy method – Example 2

A propane leak in a storage area generates a flammable cloud. It is estimated that at
the time of ignition the volume of the cloud within the flammability limits is 1750 m3.
The cloud is located in an area containing 12 cylindrical tanks of 36 m3 (diameter = 2 m;
length = 13 m), arranged in two rows. The distance between two adjacent tanks in
parallel is 2 m, the distance between the two rows is 4 m. The minimum height below
the tanks is 1.5 m and above 0.5 m.
Using the multi-energy method, determine the overpressure originated 200 m from
the center of the cloud, and the duration of the positive phase.
Data: Ambient temperature = 15 ºC

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CFD Methods
 High complexity
 Potential for accurate

estimates
 They require a good

representation of the
geometry of the area
Source: DOI-10,3267/HE2008
 Dispersion must also be
included in the calculations
DESC (Dust Exlosion Simulation Code)
 Applicable only to very specific
and well-identified scenarios
 Excessively
believable/beautiful results?
Source: http://www.bakerrisk.com/

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TASK 5.1: Analysis of an explosion
On June 1st, 1974, at a chemical plant in Flixborough (UK) a pipe ruptured, resulting in the
formation of a cloud of cyclohexane of approximately 30,000 kg. The time between the rupture
and the explosion was about 45 s. It was estimated that at the time of the explosion the cloud had
a volume of 400,000 m3, with an average concentration of 2%. With the equivalent TNT method,
determine:
a) The peak of overpressure at 500 m from the center of the cloud
b) If a group of 20 people is located at 500 m from the center of the cloud, what will be the
consequences on these individuals? And on the buildings?
c) The actual overall efficiency of the explosion if at a distance of 1300 m, 50% of the glass was
broken.
Data: Cyclohexane combustion heat = 43,930 kJ / kg.
Upload it to ATENEA as a PDF file and name it as: Task51_Name_Surname.pdf

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3. Description and mechanism of a

BLEVE

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BLEVE – Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion

They can occur with any liquid
inside a closed container, when it is
at a temperature above its boiling
point at atmospheric pressure.
If the container ruptures, the

content will be released. The vapor
will expand and the liquid will
experience an instant vaporization
(flash).
The consequent sudden increase in

volume causes an overpressure
wave.

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Analysis of 170 accidents involving BLEVE (Hemmatian, 2014)

Origin Number of accidents %
Transport 80 47 Substances involved:
Storage 39 23
Transfer 21 12,5 LPG: 65%
Process plant 20 11,8 Water: 4%
Domestic/commercial 11 6,5
Other 5 3
176 103,8
BLEVEs Distribution per decades
Most frequent causes:

Heating due to a fire
Mechanical impacts

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Mechanism of a BLEVE
When a tank containing a pressurized liquid

is heated –for example due to a fire– the
pressure inside the container will increase.
Because the heating is not homogeneous, at

some point a crack may appear due to the
weakening of the material in the warmer
areas (usually at some point at the top
where the tank wall is in contact with the
vapor).
At the time of rupture, the temperature of

the liquid will be higher than that
corresponding to atmospheric pressure,
therefore it will be superheated.

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Vapour
Vapour Vapour Vapour
Líquid Líquid Líquid
Fire R
Pressurized tank Safety valve opens Flash vaporization
Leak Heating Jet-fire Overpressure
Pressure increase Tank wall weakening Fragment projection

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R’
R
Ignition Turbulence
Hemispherical shape Air entrainment
Thermal radiation Rise of the fireball

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Definition
Walls (1979)
“A failure of a major container into two or more pieces occurring at a moment when the
container liquid is at a temperature above its boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure”.
Reid (1979)
“The sudden loss of containment of a liquid that is at a superheated temperature for
atmospheric conditions”.
CCPS (1994)
“An explosion resulting from the failure of a vessel containing a liquid at a temperature
significantly above its boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure”.

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Definition
CP
Method to establish the Pc
minimum superheat
Pressure
limit temperature that is
necessary for the
existence of a BLEVE.
Spinodal line:
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0,895 � 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐

P S R
Tangent line at the critical point:
𝑃𝑃 = tan 𝛼𝛼 � 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑏𝑏 Liquid-vapor Tangent Liquid spinodal

saturation line at CP line
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 � 𝐴𝐴
tan 𝛼𝛼 =
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐2 Po O T H
𝐴𝐴 To Tls
ln 𝑃𝑃 = − + 𝐵𝐵 Equilibrium
𝑇𝑇 (Clausius-Clapeyron) Temperature

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Definition
Superheat limit temperature – Example 3

Obtain the superheat limit temperature of butane by the two methods described in
the previous slide.
Data: Critical point: 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = 38 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏; 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = 425,1 𝐾𝐾
Atmospheric pressure: 𝑃𝑃0 = 1,013 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏; 𝑇𝑇0 = 272,5 𝐾𝐾

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Definition
When an explosion is a BLEVE?
 The overheating temperature limit theory does not explain any of the BLEVEs that have
occurred (such as that of Mexico City in 1984). The definition of CCPS is perhaps the most
flexible and broad.
 Applying rigid or very strict criteria makes it difficult to apply them to real situations (difficult to
take into account phenomena such as stratification in the liquid phase, ...) and can
underestimate the danger associated with certain substances (LNG).
 Existing methods for predicting the effects of such explosions do not depend on the existence
or non-existence of nucleated boiling or whether or not the Tsl is reached.

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BLEVE effects
When a tank explodes, the energy stored in the líquid and gaseous phase is converted into
mechanical energy that is used to:
 Break the tank

 Generating an overpressure wave
 Give kinetic energy to the generated fragments by propelling them, along with part of
the liquid, away from the source of the explosion.
Moments later, if the substance is flammable, ignition will occur giving rise to:
 A fireball that will release thermal energy due to the combustion

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4. Modelling of BLEVEs

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Vessel failure
The pressure at which a vessel or pipe would fail can be estimated from its dimensions, geometry and
material of construction:
Cylindrical tanks and pipes:
𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 � 𝑧𝑧 𝑃𝑃 Internal absolute pressure, Pa
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃0 + 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃0 < 0,385 � 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀
𝑃𝑃0 Atmospheric pressure, Pa
𝑟𝑟 + 0,6 � 𝑧𝑧 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 Tensile strength of the material, Pa
2 𝑟𝑟 Inside radius of the vessel, m
𝑧𝑧
𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 � + 1 − 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 𝑧𝑧 Wall thickness of the vessel, m
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃0 + 𝑟𝑟
2 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃0 ≥ 0,385 � 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀
𝑧𝑧
+1 +1
𝑟𝑟
Spherical tanks:
2 � 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 � 𝑧𝑧
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃0 + 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃0 < 0,665 � 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 The tensile strength of the material
𝑟𝑟 + 0,2 � 𝑧𝑧 depends on the temperature. The
𝑧𝑧 2 values corresponding to the
2 � 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 � + 1 − 2 � 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 temperature at which the rupture
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃0 + 𝑟𝑟 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃0 ≥ 0,665 � 𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀
2 occurs must be used.
𝑧𝑧
+1 +2
𝑟𝑟

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Vessel failure
Strength of materials at ambient temperature

If the vessel is heated by a fire, the
Material Tensile strenght
tensile strength will decrease
(Mpa)
Stainless steel 304 565
Carbon steel C-Mn 415
Cast iron 173
Aluminium 70
Borosilicate glass (Pyrex) 70
Nickel 452
Hastelloy C 500
Titanium 417

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Vessel failure
Pressure required for vessel failure– Example 4

In the Els Alfacs accident (1978), a tank carrying propylene exploded due to overfilling.
The tank was made of AISI-304 stainless steel, its internal diameter was 2.3 m and the
wall thickness of the container was 8.1 mm. At the time of the explosion, the
temperature of the tank wall was around 20 ⁰C. Determine:
a) What was the internal pressure of the container at the time of rupture?
b)If due to a fire the temperature of the container wall had risen to 550 ⁰C, at what
pressure would the container have exploded?

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Mechanical energy released by the explosion
When a tank full of an overheated liquid explodes, the mechanical energy generated is due to two
contributions: one is due to the expansion of the vapour from the pressure existing in the tank at the
time of rupture up to the atmospheric pressure; the other is due to the partial vaporization of the
liquid that occurs suddenly as the pressure decreases.
There is no single way to calculate these contributions as it depends on the thermodynamic assumptions
that are made, so several models have been proposed:
 Increasing energy at constant volume (Brode, 1959)

Simple but overly
 Isothermal expansion (Smith & Van Ness, 1996) conservative
 Thermodynamic availability (Crowl, 1992)
 Ideal gas and isentropic expansion (Prugh, 1991) Historically the most used
 Real gas and isentropic expansion (CCPS, 2010)
 Real gas and irreversible adiabatic expansion (Planas et al., 2004) The more realistic
 Use of liquid superheating energy (Casal et al., 2006)

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Ideal gas and isentropic expansion
𝐸𝐸 Total mechanical energy released in the explosion, J
𝑃𝑃 Pressure in the tank just before explosion, Pa
∗
𝛾𝛾−1 𝑉𝑉 ∗ = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃0 Atmospheric pressure, Pa
𝑃𝑃 � 𝑉𝑉 𝑃𝑃0 𝛾𝛾 𝛾𝛾 ratio of specific heats, --
𝐸𝐸 = � 1− 𝑉𝑉 ∗ volume of vapor in the tank plus volume of vapor generated
𝛾𝛾 − 1 𝑃𝑃 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 during the liquid flash, m3
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿𝐿 � 𝑓𝑓 �
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 𝑓𝑓 Vaporization fraction, --
𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 Liquid density just before explosion, kg/m3
0.38 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 Vapor density just before explosion, kg/m3
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 − 𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉 Vapor volume inside the tank just before explosion, m3
𝑓𝑓 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −2.63 � � 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 − 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 � 1− 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 Volume of vapor generated in the liquid, m3
∆ℎ𝑣𝑣,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 − 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏
𝐿𝐿 Liquid volume inside the tank just before explosion, m3
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 Liquid specific heat at normal boiling temperature, J·kg-1·K-1
Use of liquid superheating energy ∆ℎ𝑣𝑣,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 Vaporization enthalpy at normal boiling temperature, J/kg
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 Critical temperature, K
𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 Normal boiling temperature, K
Isentropic process: 𝐸𝐸 = 0,28 � 𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿 � 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇 Substance temperature just before explosion, K
𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿 Mass of liquid in the tank just before explosion, kg
ℎ𝐿𝐿 Liquid enthalpy just before explosion, J/kg
Adiabatic irreversible process: 𝐸𝐸 = 0,1 � 𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿 � 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ℎ𝐿𝐿0 Liquid enthalpy at normal boiling temperature, J/kg
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 Liquid superheat energy, J/kg
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = ℎ𝐿𝐿 − ℎ𝐿𝐿0


RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
Real gas and irreversible adiabatic expansion
Simplified procedure (Hemmatian et al., 2017)

RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
Overpressure wave
The equivalent TNT method can also be applied, taking the total energy released in the explosion, E.
However, only a part of this energy will be used to generate the overpressure wave, the rest will be
used to break the container and to give kinetic energy to the fragments.
𝛽𝛽 � 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑 ∆𝑃𝑃 1 4 12
𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 = 3 = + 2+ 3
Δ𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸 Total energy released in the BLEVE, kJ

𝛽𝛽 Fraction of the released energy converted into pressure wave, ≈0.5 for ductile breaking
∆𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 Blast energy of TNT, 4680 kJ/kg
𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 Scaled distance, m·kg-1/3
𝑑𝑑 Real distance from the centre of the explosion to the point at which the overpressure must be estimated, m
The fraction of energy that becomes overpressure wave, 𝛽𝛽, is usually in the
order of 40-50% in ductile vessel failures and 80% in fragile failures.

RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
Overpressure wave
Overpressure from a BLEVE explosion – Example 5
Estimate the overpressure generated at 100 m from the explosion of a 250 m3 propane
tank, 80% filled (stored liquefied at pressure and room temperature), which is heated
up to 55 ⁰C (19 bar) and explodes.
a) Considering ideal gas and isentropic expansion

b)Using the liquid superheat energy
c) Considering real gas and irreversible adiabatic expansion with the simplified
method proposed by Hemmatian et al. (2017)
Data: Ambient Temperature= 20 ºC; Latent heat of vaporization= 4,3·105 J/kg; Critical =
369,8 K; Boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure= 231,1K (-41,9 ºC); Liquid
density at 20 ºC = 500 kg/m3; vapor density at 20 ºC = 40 kg/m3; Liquid density at 55 ºC
= 444 kg/m3; vapor density at 55 ªC = 37 kg/m3; Liquid specific heat= 2,4·103J·kg-1·K-1;
liquid enthalpy at 55 ºC = 681,4 kJ/kg; Liquid enthalpy at -41,9 ºC= 419 kJ/kg; 𝛾𝛾= 1,15.

RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
Fragments projection
Cylindrical tanks Spherical tanks
2 N = -3,77 + 0,0096·V
62% 1 45º 45º 1 Variable number of fragments: between

2 and 15, usually less than 5
2 Non aerodinàmic shape, travel
distances lower than for cilyndrical
38% tanks, maximum 600 m

RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
Fragments projection
Cylindrical tanks Fragmentation Number of

Shape of fragments
Frequency of the
pattern fragments pattern (%)
Two tube ends,

2 sometimes one of 52.8
them flattened.
Two tube ends and a

3 22.6
flattened shell
2 3
One tube end and two
10.4
parts of tube end
62% 1 45º 45º 1 Cylindrical shell or

1 or 2 flattened cylindrical 4.7
shell
2
Other >3 Diverse 9.4
38%
Maximum distance reached by fragments:

Tanks with: 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 < 5 m3: 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 90 � 𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿0.33
Tanks with: 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 > 5 m3: 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 465 � 𝑚𝑚𝐿𝐿0.1


RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
5. Modelling de consequences of
explosions

RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
5. MODELLING DE CONSEQUENCES OF EXPLOSIONS
Vulnerability analysis
The damage caused by explosions to human beings can be classified into the following groups:
• Direct consequences due to the blast

• Indirect consequences due to fragments, due to body displacement or caused by
the collapse of buildings.
Direct consequences on people
Pulmonary haemorrhage Eardrum damage
Y = -77.1 + 6.91·ln(∆P) Y = -12.6 + 1.524·ln(∆P) ∆P: overpressure (Pa)
Overpressure (bar) Consequences on people

<0.01 Individuals should be reasonable safe inside a reinforced structure
away from windows or lying on the ground if outdoors.
0.07 Light injuries from fragments can occur
0.14 People injured by flying debris or self-impact against objects
>0.2 Serious injuries are common, fatalities may occur
0.7 Most people are killed
1 Lung damage threshold
1.4 Fatalities approach 100%
© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor (Source: J. Casal. Evaluation of the effects and consequences of major accidents in industrial plants. Elsevier, 2018)

RISC TECNOLÒGIC
Risk & Safety at
the Chemical
UNIT 5
Industry Explosions
5. MODELLING DE CONSEQUENCES OF EXPLOSIONS
Vulnerability analysis
Consequences on buildings and structures
Overpressure (bar) Consequences on buildings and structures

0.0015 Annoying noise
0.002 No structural damage. Occasional breaking of large window panes under strain
0.003 Loud noise. Occasional glass failure
0.007 Breakage of small windows under strain
0.01 Typical threshold for glass breakage
0.02 Some damage to house ceilings. 50% of window glass broken
0.03 Limited minor structural damage
0.05 Minor damage to house structures
0.07 Collapse of roof of tank
0.08 Partial demolition of houses, made uninhabitable
0.1 Steel frame of clad buildings slightly distorted
0.15 Partial collapse of walls and roofs of houses
0.2 Heavy machines in industrial buildings suffer little damage. Large trees fall down
0.35 Breakage of wooden telephone poles. Most buildings destroyed
0.5 Loaded tank cars/train wagons overturned. Brick walls 30 cm thick collapse
0.7 Total destruction of buildings. Heavy machine tools moved and badly damaged
(Source: J. Casal. Evaluation of the effects and consequences of major accidents in industrial plants. Elsevier, 2018)

RISC TECNOLÒGIC

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Risk & Safety at

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1 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

2. MODELLING THE EFFECTS OF EXPLOSIONS

3. DESCRIPTION AND MECHANISM OF A BLEVE

5. MODELLING THE CONSEQUENCES OF EXPLOSIONS

2 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

1. Introduction – Types of explosions

3 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

Accidental explosions are

The rapid expansion of the

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

4 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

5 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

 The substance must be flammable

Instantaneous increase in volume

Pemex-Reynosa (Mexico) 18/9/2012 - 31 deaths, 47 injured

BP-Texas City (USA) 23/3/2005 – 15 deaths, 170 injured, 1600 M$

6 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

Any oxidizable powdered material can

The particles must be small enough for

The smaller the particles, the more likely

Grain, fibers, sugar, plastics, organic pigments,

7 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

Spark generated in a plug: 25 mJ

8 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

2. Modelling the effects of explosions

9 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

In an explosion, the combustion

Under atmospheric conditions,

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

10 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

The mechanical energy of the explosion P

The shape of this wave depends on the type of

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

11 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

12 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

13 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

impulse i; then a charge of

with a similar form and the same

14 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

𝑀𝑀 Mass of fuel in the cloud, kg

15 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

The TNT-equivalency method is not accurate for several reasons:

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

16 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

TNT-equivalency method – Example 1

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

17 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

18 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

∆𝑃𝑃 Dimensionless side-on peak overpressure

19 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

© Eulàlia Planas & Elsa Pastor

20 CENTRE D’ESTUDIS DEL

1. Determine the size of the cloud

2. Identify obstructed and congested areas

3. Determine the free volume of each congested area

4. Estimate the energy associated with each area

5. Determine the source strength for each area

6. Determine the location of the center of each area

7. Calculate the combustion energy-scaled distance