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History of Analytic Philosophy

Series Editor
Michael Beaney
Humboldt University Berlin, King’s College London, Berlin, Germany

Series editor: Michael Beaney, Professor fü r Geschichte der

analytischen Philosophie, Institut fü r Philosophie, Humboldt-
Universitä t zu Berlin, Germany, and Regius Professor of Logic, School of
Divinity, History and Philosophy, University of Aberdeen, Scotland.

Editorial board members

Claudio de Almeida, Pontifical Catholic University at Porto Alegre,
Brazil
Maria Baghramian, University College Dublin, Ireland
Thomas Baldwin, University of York, England
Stewart Candlish, University of Western Australia
Chen Bo, Peking University, China
Jonathan Dancy, University of Reading, England
José Ferreiró s, University of Seville, Spain
Michael Friedman, Stanford University, USA
Gottfried Gabriel, University of Jena, Germany
Juliet Floyd, Boston University, USA
Hanjo Glock, University of Zurich, Switzerland
Nicholas Griffin, McMaster University, Canada
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Peter Hylton, University of Illinois, USA
Jiang Yi, Beijing Normal University, China
Javier Legris, National Academy of Sciences of Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Cheryl Misak, University of Toronto, Canada
 Nenad Miscevic, University of Maribor, Slovenia, and Central
European University, Budapest
Volker Peckhaus, University of Paderborn, Germany
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Thomas Uebel, University of Manchester, England.
More information about this series at https://​link.​springer.​com/​
bookseries/​14867
Andreas Vrahimis

Bergsonism and the History of Analytic

Philosophy
Andreas Vrahimis
Department of Classics & Philosophy, University of Cyprus, Nicosia,
Cyprus

ISSN 2634-5994 e-ISSN 2634-6001

History of Analytic Philosophy
ISBN 978-3-030-80754-2 e-ISBN 978-3-030-80755-9
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80755-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

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To Irini.
Series Editor’s Foreword
During the first half of the twentieth century, analytic philosophy
gradually established itself as the dominant tradition in the English-
speaking world, and over the last few decades, it has taken firm root in
many other parts of the world. There has been increasing debate over
just what ‘analytic philosophy’ means, as the movement has ramified
into the complex tradition that we know today, but the influence of the
concerns, ideas, and methods of early analytic philosophy on
contemporary thought is indisputable. All this has led to greater self-
consciousness among analytic philosophers about the nature and
origins of their tradition, and scholarly interest in its historical
development and philosophical foundations has blossomed in recent
years, with the result that the history of analytic philosophy is now
recognized as a major field of philosophy in its own right.
The main aim of the series in which the present book appears, the
first series of its kind, is to create a venue for work on the history of
analytic philosophy, consolidating the area as a major field of
philosophy and promoting further research and debate. The ‘history of
analytic philosophy’ is understood broadly, as covering the period from
the last three decades of the nineteenth century to the start of the
twenty-first century, beginning with the work of Frege, Russell, Moore,
and Wittgenstein, who are generally regarded as its main founders, and
the influences upon them, and going right up to the most recent
developments. In allowing the ‘history’ to extend to the present, the aim
is to encourage engagement with contemporary debates in philosophy,
for example, in showing how the concerns of early analytic philosophy
relate to current concerns. In focusing on analytic philosophy, the aim is
not to exclude comparisons with other—earlier or contemporary—
traditions, or consideration of figures or themes that some might
regard as marginal to the analytic tradition but which also throw light
on analytic philosophy. Indeed, a further aim of the series is to deepen
our understanding of the broader context in which analytic philosophy
developed, by looking, for example, at the roots of analytic philosophy
in neo-Kantianism or British idealism, or the connections between
analytic philosophy and phenomenology, or discussing the work of
philosophers who were important in the development of analytic
philosophy but who are now often forgotten.
Henri-Louis Bergson (1859–1941) was the most famous
philosopher in France at the time that analytic philosophy developed in
Britain in the first three decades of the twentieth century. This alone
makes him an interesting figure to compare with Russell, Moore, and
other early analytic philosophers, in exploring the different trajectories
that British and French philosophy followed in this period. Both
rejected ‘idealism’, in one form or another, but they did so in different
ways and for different reasons. More importantly, however, Bergson’s
ideas were specifically targeted for critique by British philosophers in
seeking to establish their own rival philosophy, which gradually became
known as ‘analytic philosophy’. Any tradition of philosophy
individuates itself in opposition to other forms of philosophy, and this
must be understood and evaluated just as much as its characteristic
claims and methods.
The role and influence of Bergson’s ideas in the history of analytic
philosophy is the subject of the present book by Andreas Vrahimis. This
story has never been properly told before and, as Vrahimis
demonstrates, is much more interesting and complex than one might
have supposed. The reception of Bergson’s ideas in the English-
speaking world, for example, was mediated by William James (1842–
1910), who saw affinities with his own pragmatist philosophy. This led
some of Bergson’s critics, such as Russell, who also engaged with
pragmatism, to misunderstand and caricature those ideas in attacking
them. Misunderstanding and caricature were also features of the
reception of Bergson’s ideas in the German-speaking world, as Vrahimis
shows, too, in discussing the criticisms that both Moritz Schlick (1882–
1936) and Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970) made of Bergson’s key
conception of ‘intuition’.
Set against these misunderstandings are the contributions of two
women philosophers: Susan Stebbing (1885–1943) and Karin
Costelloe-Stephen (1889–1953). The contribution of Susan Stebbing to
the development of analytic philosophy has now been recognized, and
scholarly work on her philosophy is blossoming. (For an excellent
biography of Stebbing, see Siobhan Chapman’s Susan Stebbing and the
Language of Common Sense, which appeared in this series in 2013.)
Stebbing wrote her MA thesis on ‘Pragmatism and French Voluntarism’,
published in 1914, in which she distinguished American pragmatism
from Bergson’s philosophy and offered an informed critique of both.
Costelloe-Stephen’s contribution to philosophy has been far less
appreciated to date, and Vrahimis does a valuable job in explaining her
work, and in particular, the sophisticated way in which she replied to
Russell’s criticisms of Bergson and defended and reconstructed
Bergsonian ideas.
What Vrahimis offers, however, is not just an insightful account of
the role of Bergsonism, as he calls it, in the history of analytic
philosophy, but also an instructive case study in the etiology of the
antagonism between analytic and ‘continental’ philosophy. Responses
to Bergson in Britain, Germany, and Austria by the early analytic
philosophers provided a model for the criticisms of Heidegger, Husserl,
Sartre, and other ‘continental’ philosophers that were made by later
analytic philosophers such as Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976), A. J. Ayer
(1910–1989), and R. M. Hare (1919–2002). Vrahimis identifies the
roots of this antagonism in the debate between Russell and Costelloe-
Stephen in the early 1920s, when a distinction was indeed drawn
between Russell’s ‘analytic’ philosophy and Bergson’s ‘synthetic’
philosophy, and he diagnoses some of the caricatures, polemics, and
overgeneralisations that occurred in the formation of this unfortunate
antagonism. He concludes on a positive note, however, by suggesting
how Stebbing’s and Costelloe-Stephen’s more careful and informed
treatments of Bergsonism reopen a path to more fruitful dialogue
between the various philosophical traditions.
Michael Beaney
December 2021
Acknowledgements
I owe many thanks to Siobhan Chapman, Mark Sinclair, Jeremy Dunham,
Michael Kremer, Á dá m Tamas Tuboly, and Teresa Kouri Kissel, for
having read and commented on parts of this book. Talks whose content
was eventually transformed into parts of this book were presented at
the annual meeting of the Bertrand Russell Society in 2019, and also in
2021 at Kansas State University (as an invited lecture), at the University
of Cyprus (as part of the Demonactian Lectures series), at the annual
British Society for the History of Philosophy conference held at Durham
University, and at the annual Society for the Study of the History of
Analytical Philosophy held at the University of Vienna. I am grateful to
all those who organised these events and responded to my work on
these occasions, including Russell Wahl, Bernie Linsky, Tim Madigan,
Rosalind Carey, Shay Logan, Emily Thomas, Joel Katzav, Catarina Dutilh
Novaes, Nikolay Milkov, Ioannis Trisokkas, Vassilis Livanios, Christos
Kyriakou, and especially Demetris Portides. I have also greatly
benefitted from conversations with Christian Dambö ck, Paul L. Franco,
and Christos Hadjiyiannis. A Research Fellowship at the University of
Cyprus made it possible for me to complete part of this work. I am
indebted to an anonymous reviewer at Palgrave for their comments on
this monograph. I wish to thank Michael Beaney, as editor of this series,
and also Brendan George at Palgrave, for all their help and support in
realising the publication of this book. I am deeply thankful to Raissa
Angeli, who created the artwork for this book’s cover. Finally, I would
like to thank my parents and my heroic sister for everything.
From start to finish, this book was written during the long durée of
its author’s ‘lockdown’ due to the COVID-19 pandemic. All errors are
my own.
Contents
1 Introduction
Bibliography
2 Prelude:​Bergsonism and Anglophone Analytic Philosophy
2.​1 Before Stardom
2.​2 Bergsonism in Britain and America
2.​3 Stebbing’s Response to Bergson’s 1911 Lectures
2.​4 Russell Meets Bergson
2.​5 Costelloe-Stephen’s Response to Russell
Bibliography
3 Henri Bergson:​A Misunderstood Celebrity
3.​1 Bergson’s Historical Background
Spiritualism in Mid-Nineteenth-Century French Philosophy
‘Spiritualist Positivism’
3.​2 A Biological Epistemology of Perception
3.​3 Memory and Recognition
3.​4 Intellect and Intuition
3.​5 Philosophy of Space and Time
Beyond Spencer’s Evolutionary Epistemology
Number, Quantity, and Space
Durée
3.​6 Science and Metaphysics
3.​7 Language
Bibliography
4 William James and the Anglophone Reception of Bergsonism
4.​1 A Philosophical Friendship
 4.2 The Portrait of a Maître
4.​3 Intellectualism
4.​4 Bergson’s Radical Empiricism?​
4.5 Radical Empiricism Versus Absolute Idealism
4.​6 James’s Influence on Bergson’s Analytic Critics
Bibliography
5 ‘Ants, bees, and Bergson’:​Bertrand Russell’s Polemic
5.1 Contra Anti-intellectualism
5.​2 Number and Space
5.​3 Zeno’s Paradoxes
Zeno’s and Bergson’s Solutions
Russell’s Mathematical Solution
Russell’s Objection to Bergson’s Solution, and the Debate
with Carr
5.​4 Time and Memory
5.​5 Perception and the Subject-Object Distinction
5.​6 Russell’s Later Responses to Bergson
‘Jupiter sometimes nods’
‘Evolutionism’ and Scientific Philosophy
Bergson’s Place in the History of Philosophy
Bibliography
6 ‘Analytic’ and ‘Synthetic’ Philosophy:​Karin Costelloe-Stephen’s
Defences of Bergson
6.​1 Mereology
6.​2 Recognition, Acquaintance, and the Limits of Thought
6.​3 Costelloe-Stephen’s Reply to Russell
Space
 Mathematical Continua and Processes of Change
6.​4 Complexes and Syntheses
6.​5 Russell’s Response to Costelloe-Stephen
6.6 Analytic Versus Continental ‘Synthetic’ Philosophy
Bibliography
7 A Call for Moderation:​L.​Susan Stebbing’s Critique of Bergson
7.​1 How to Avoid Russell’s Errors
7.​2 Bergson’s Historical Context
7.3 Bergson Versus the Pragmatists on Truth
7.​4 ‘Anti-intellectualism’
7.​5 Intuition and Argumentation
7.​6 Stebbing’s Objections to Bergson’s Epistemology and
Theory of Truth
7.​7 Costelloe-Stephen’s Answer to Stebbing’s Objection
Bibliography
8 Entr’acte: Bergson’s Germanophone Reception and the Rise of
Lebensphilosophie
8.​1 The Philosophers’ Great War
8.​2 The Demise of Bergsonism
8.3 The Rise of Lebensphilosophie
8.4 The Vienna Circle’s Opposition to Lebensphilosophie
8.​5 Neurath’s Russellian Critique of Spengler
Bibliography
9 Evolutionary Epistemology:​Moritz Schlick’s Critique of Intuition
9.​1 Anti-biologism
9.​2 Schlick’s Naturalised Epistemology
9.​3 ‘Intuitive Knowledge’:​A Contradiction in Terms
 9.​4 Images and Concepts
9.​5 Judgements and Coordination
9.​6 Philosophy’s ‘Great Error’ Revisited
Bibliography
10 From the Critique of Intuition to Overcoming Metaphysics:​
Schlick’s Dialogue with Carnap
10.​1 Schlick on Intuition and Metaphysics
10.​2 Carnap on Implicit Definitions and Structure Descriptions
10.​3 Carnap’s Critique of Bergson
10.​4 Schlick’s Answer to Carnap
10.​5 Schlick’s Critique of Russellian Acquaintance
Bibliography
11 Different Kinds of Nothing
11.​1 Carnap and Neurath Shift Their Target
11.​2 Carnap on Heidegger’s Pseudo-statements
11.3 Carnap’s Response to Lebensphilosophie
11.​4 Bergson and Carnap on Pseudo-problems About Nothing
11.5 Heidegger’s Angst Versus Bergson’s Disinterested
Intuition
11.​6 Sartre Responds to Bergson and Heidegger
11.​7 Ayer Contra Sartre on Nothing and Negation
Bibliography
12 Doing Without Masters:​Oxford Philosophy and the Analytic-
Continental Divide
12.​1 Ayer Revives Russell
12.​2 Ryle Against the 1953 UNESCO Report
 12.​3 R.​M.​Hare’s Proposal for the Institutional Reform of
Continental Philosophy
12.​4 Ryle Against Continental ‘Fuehrership’
Bibliography
13 Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
About the Author
Andreas Vrahimis
teaches at the Department of Classics and Philosophy of the University
of Cyprus. His research interests include the History of Analytic
Philosophy and its dialogues with other contemporary philosophical
traditions, as well as Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art. Apart from
this book, and several articles, he is author of Encounters Between
Analytic and Continental Philosophy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
A. Vrahimis, Bergsonism and the History of Analytic Philosophy, History of Analytic
Philosophy
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80755-9_1

1. Introduction
Andreas Vrahimis1
(1) Department of Classics & Philosophy, University of Cyprus, Nicosia,
Cyprus

Keywords Bergsonism – Celebrity – Analytic philosophy – Bertrand

Russell – Susan L. Stebbing – Karin Costelloe-Stephen – Moritz Schlick –
Rudolf Carnap – Vienna Circle – William James – Pragmatism – Idealism
– F.H. Bradley – Feminism

During the first quarter of the twentieth century, Henri-Louis Bergson

was probably the most famous living philosopher in the world. His
name was frequently discussed by the popular press, and his public
appearances in France, Britain, and the United States attracted large
crowds. His celebrity would influence diverse aspects of his
contemporary culture, with a host of prominent artists, intellectuals,
scientists, and even politicians embracing different versions of what
they took to be Bergson’s views.1 These remained fashionable for a
period spanning roughly between the publication of Creative Evolution
in 1907 and Bergson’s controversy with Einstein in 1922.2 Bergson’s
work was largely forgotten already before his death in 1941, and would
remain so for the rest of the twentieth century despite various later
attempts to revive it.3 It is only recently that a concerted effort to revisit
his output has begun to take place, for example, with the recent
publication of a multi-volume critical edition of his work edited by
Frédéric Worms.4
 During Bergson’s rise to fame, most of the widely read portrayals of
his philosophical views were not produced by academic philosophers
in dialogue with their peers, but by various non-experts communicating
with a lay public. Such commentaries served to widely circulate
misunderstandings of his writings. Milič Čapek describes this
phenomenon as a
pseudo-Bergsonism, which was nothing but a mere literary
fashion, comparable to existentialism today. […] the content of
this pseudo-Bergsonism consisted in the enthusiastic response
to the emotional color of certain words, like ‘intuition’, ‘création’,
‘élan vital’, without the slightest effort at critical analysis. In this
sense what Julien Benda called ‘le succes du bergsonisme’ was in
truth the greatest damage done to the authentic Bergson's
thought; authentic Bergsonism was misunderstood because it
was wrongly identified with its fashionable and literary
counterfeit. (1971, ix–x)

In this book, I follow Čapek’s terminological distinction between, on the

one hand, what in the book’s title I refer to as ‘Bergsonism’, which
designates the oft-distorting popularisation of Bergson’s views, and, on
the other hand, more scholarly interpretations of Bergson’s own work,
to which I will apply the adjective ‘Bergsonian’. I do not, however,
straightforwardly adopt Čapek’s disparaging attitude towards
Bergsonism. As a cultural phenomenon and as an episode in the history
of philosophy, the rise and fall of Bergsonism is an unprecedented and
unique case of a philosopher attaining such widespread influence while
still alive, without posthumously becoming a canonical figure. In
different ways, Bergson’s work would function as a Rorschach test both
to those who enthusiastically championed some of its popular
renditions and to those who opposed them. The former tended to see in
Bergson what they sought, the latter what they feared or despised.
Bergson was clearly not a Bergsonist. He did little, however, to
discourage the circulation of distortions of his views. He contributed to
the Bergsonist current by responding to interviewers’ requests for his
opinions on diverse then-current affairs, ranging from cubism to
feminism.5 Furthermore, by contrast to the abstruse technical
vocabulary of his contemporary academic philosophers, Bergson’s
writing style seemed deceptively lucid, and thus accessible far beyond
the confines of professional philosophical circles.6 This could easily
mislead both Bergson’s critics and defenders into misidentifying his
views with their distorted popular oversimplifications. As this book
progresses, it will become clear that this is a trap into which many of
Bergson’s analytic critics fell. In some respects, Bergsonism would
become analytic philosophy’s Rorschach test, onto which figures like
Bertrand Russell, Moritz Schlick, and Rudolf Carnap would project
deplorable philosophical errors. By contrast, this book will show how
both Karin Costelloe-Stephen and L. Susan Stebbing endeavoured to
avoid popular misunderstandings of Bergson’s position. Costelloe-
Stephen thus puts on a formidable defence of Bergsonian views, while
Stebbing develops an insightful critique of Bergson which is all the
more incisive because it avoids attacking strawmen.
I have so far discussed ‘Bergsonism’ in the singular. This may be
partly misleading, since it was far from a unified movement, or even
consistent tendency. Based on selective readings of Bergson’s work,
popular forms of Bergsonism invoked the authority of the Maître in
support of multifarious conflicting views and attitudes. It may thus be
preferable, following Susan Guerlac (2006, 1–13), to talk in the plural of
multiple Bergsonisms. These would include, as Donna Jones has
recently noted, cultural tendencies as disparate as
‘anarchosyndicalism,7 mysticism and occultism,8 aesthetic modernism,9
fascism,10 pacifism,11 literary subjectivism,12 environmentalism,13
scientism14 and antiscientism’15 (2010, 78), as well as the Négritude
movement (129–178).16 Some of these multiple manifestations of
Bergsonism are diametrically opposed to others. As this book will show,
analytic responses to Bergson developed in opposition to specific
Bergsonist variants, particularly those associated with fascism,
mysticism, and attitudes critical towards science.
Bergson not only failed to counter popular Bergsonisms as
misinterpretations of his work, but was also unwilling to engage in
debate with some of his academic critics who had inadvertently
accepted such misinterpretations.17 He did not answer any of the
analytic criticisms discussed in this book. It is thus difficult to
determine which positions, if any, defended by Bergson can be salvaged
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