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vi CONTENTS
References 519
Index 521
Preface
This book covers the topic of structures for buildings in a broad scope and from multiple
points of view. The primary purpose is to provide a reference for study for persons with
limited experience in the field and with interest in the general problems of design of
buildings. Presentations in the book are intended to be accessible to persons with limited
backgrounds in mathematics, science, and engineering.
The materials in this book are developed to serve two primary needs of readers. The
first is that of a text for study for courses within a collegiate program in building design.
The second is that of a study reference for preparation to take the exam for architectural
registration (ARE), as currently prepared by the National Conference of Architectural
Registration Boards (NCARB).
Because of the broad scope of the book, it is unlikely that its content can be covered in
a single course of instruction in a typical college-level term of 12–14 weeks. This depends,
however, on the type of course work. Traditional development of courses with example
computations for structural elements and systems requires considerable time if a range of
structural materials and types of structural elements are to be treated. If the purpose of
the study is limited to a general acquisition of understanding of basic concepts, issues,
and design problems—with no involvement in structural computations—more of the book
topics can be covered in a shorter time. The latter form of study may be undertaken in a
collegiate program and is the general case for those preparing for the ARE. A guide for
course instructors with suggestions for course organization and operation is provided on the
publisher’s website.
The first edition of this book was quite large in number of pages. The second edition
was trimmed down a bit and this edition is further reduced in size. Trimming has resulted
in some reduction of materials but has been mostly accomplished by careful elimination of
repetitions and redundancies and by stricter concentration on the specific aims for the book.
Of critical importance for all readers are the study materials at the back of the book.
These may be used as a guide to the reader’s accomplishment of general knowledge.
James Ambrose
Patrick Tripeny
ix
Introduction
This book deals broadly with the topic of structures related to buildings. Emphasis is
placed on the concerns of the working, professional designers who must cope with the
practical problems of figuring out how to make plans for the construction of good,
practical, and sensible buildings. Designers’ concerns range from a basic understanding of
structural behaviors to the determination of the construction details for a specific type of
building.
The materials in this book are arranged to present a logical sequence of study. However,
it is to be expected that few readers will start at page 1 and proceed to the end, as if reading a
novel. The separate book chapters are therefore developed as reasonably freestanding, with
appropriate referencing to other chapters for those readers who need some reinforcement.
Additionally, at any time, the reader can use the Table of Contents, the Index, or the
Glossary to seek help in understanding unfamiliar terms or ideas.
This book is intended for possible use as a course text but is also prepared to be used for
individual self-study. In fact, even in a classroom situation where time is limited, students
may well require considerable time for self-study outside the classroom.
Whether required as homework assignments or not, the exercise problems provided for
individual book sections should be used by readers to test their own comprehension and
problem-solving skills. For this self-study effort, answers to the problems are given, although
readers should first attempt to solve the problems without recourse to the answers. Skill in
performing computational work cannot be achieved by simply following a text example; the
problems must be faced by the unassisted reader.
COMPUTATIONS
Structures for buildings are seldom produced with a high degree of dimensional precision.
Exact dimensions of some parts of the construction—such as window frames and elevator
rails—must be reasonably precise; however, the basic structural framework is ordinarily
achieved with only a very limited dimensional precision. Add this to various considerations
for the lack of precision in predicting loads for any structure, and the significance of highly
precise structural computations becomes moot. This makes a case for not being highly
concerned with any numbers beyond about the second digit (103 or 104; either will do).
While most professional design work these days is likely to be done with computer
support, most of the work illustrated here is quite simple and was actually performed with a
hand calculator (the eight-digit, scientific type is quite adequate).
xi
xii INTRODUCTION
SYMBOLS
Symbol Reading
STANDARD NOTATION
Notation used in this book complies generally with that used in the design and construction
fields and the latest editions of standard specifications. The following list includes the
notation used in this book and is compiled from more extensive lists in the references.
Additional notation is explained in various chapters in this book.
A Area, general
Ag Gross area of a section, defined by the outer dimensions
An Net area (gross area less area removed by holes or notches)
C Compressive force
CD Load duration factor
CF Size factor for sawn lumber
CM Wet (moisture) service factor
CP Column stability factor
CT Buckling stiffness factor for dimension lumber
Cr Repetitive member factor for dimension lumber
D Diameter
E Reference modulus of elasticity
E Adjusted modulus of elasticity
Emin Modulus of elasticity for stability investigation
Fb Reference bending design value
Fb Adjusted bending design value
Fc Reference compressive design value parallel to the grain, due to axial load only
Fc Adjusted compressive design value parallel to the grain, due to axial load only
F cE Design value for critical buckling in compression members
Fc⊥ Reference compression design value perpendicular to the grain
Fc⊥ Adjusted compression design value perpendicular to the grain
Fv Reference shear design value parallel to the grain
Fv Adjusted shear design value parallel to the grain
G Specific gravity
I Moment of inertia, or importance factor (wind and earthquakes)
L Length (usually of a span), or unbraced height of a column
M Bending moment
Mr Reference design moment
Mr Adjusted design moment
INTRODUCTION xiii
Greek Letters
(delta) 1. Deflection, usually maximum vertical deflection of a beam;
2. indication of ‘‘change of ’’ in mathematical expression
(sigma) Sum of
λ (lambda) 1. Time effect factor (LRFD); 2. adjustment factor for building height
(wind)
φ (phi) Resistance factor (LRFD)
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Previous editions of this book have used U.S. units (feet, inches, pounds, etc.) for the basic
presentation. In this edition the basic work is developed with U.S. units with equivalent
metric (SI) unit values in brackets [thus].
Table 1 lists the standard units of measurement in the U.S. system with the abbreviations
used in this work and a description of common usage in structural design work. In similar
form, Table 2 gives the corresponding units in the metric system. Conversion factors to be
used for shifting from one unit system to the other are given in Table 3. Direct use of the
conversion factors will produce what is called a hard conversion of a reasonably precise form.
In the work in this book many of the unit conversions presented are soft conversions,
meaning ones in which the converted value is rounded off to produce an approximate
equivalent value of some slightly more relevant numerical significance to the unit system.
Thus a wood 2 by 4 (actually 1.5 × 3.5 in. in the U.S. system) is precisely 38.1 mm × 88.9 mm
in the metric system. However, the metric equivalent ‘‘2 by 4’’ is more likely to be made
40 × 90 mm—close enough for most purposes in construction work.
xiv INTRODUCTION
Length
Foot ft Large dimensions, building plans, beam spans
Inch in. Small dimensions, size of member cross sections
Area
Square feet ft2 Large areas
Square inches in.2 Small areas, properties of cross sections
Volume
Cubic yards yd3 Large volumes, of soil or concrete (commonly called
simply ‘‘yards’’)
Cubic feet ft3 Quantities of materials
Cubic inches in.3 Small volumes
Force, Mass
Pound lb Specific weight, force, load
Kip kip, k 1000 lb
Ton ton 2000 lb
Pounds per foot lb/ft, plf Linear load (as on a beam)
Kips per foot kips/ft, klf Linear load (as on a beam)
Pounds per square foot lb/ft2 , psf Distributed load on a surface, pressure
Kips per square foot k/ft2 , ksf Distributed load on a surface, pressure
Pounds per cubic foot lb/ft3 Relative density, unit weight
Moment
Foot-pounds ft-lb Rotational or bending moment
Inch-pounds in.-lb Rotational or bending moment
Kip-feet kip-ft Rotational or bending moment
Kip-inches kip-in. Rotational or bending moment
Stress
Pounds per square foot lb/ft2 , psf Soil pressure
Pounds per square inch lb/in.2 , psi Stresses in structures
Kips per square foot kips/ft2 , ksf Soil pressure
Kips per square inch kips/in.2 , ksi Stresses in structures
Temperature
◦
Degree Fahrenheit F Temperature
INTRODUCTION xv
Length
Meter m Large dimensions, building plans, beam spans
Millimeter mm Small dimensions, size of member cross sections
Area
Square meters m2 Large areas
Square millimeters mm2 Small areas, properties of member cross sections
Volume
Cubic meters m3 Large volumes
Cubic millimeters mm3 Small volumes
Mass
Kilogram kg Mass of material (equivalent to weight in U.S. units)
Kilograms per cubic meter kg/m3 Density (unit weight)
Force, Load
Newton N Force or load on structure
Kilonewton kN 1000 N
Stress
Pascal Pa Stress or pressure (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 )
Kilopascal kPa 1000 Pa
Megapascal MPa 1,000,000 Pa
Gigapascal GPa 1,000,000,000 Pa
Temperature
◦
Degree Celcius C Temperature
1
Basic Concepts
his chapter presents basic issues that affect the design Major portions of building code regulations have to do
1
2 BASIC CONCEPTS
pushing the limits of the structure too close to the edge of challenge in the face of the growth of knowledge, the ever-
failure. changing state of technology, and the market competition
There are two basic techniques for assuring the margin among suppliers and builders.
of safety. The method once used most widely is called the Feasibility is not just a matter of present technological
allowable stress design or service load method. With this method possibilities but relates to the overall practicality of a structure.
stress conditions under actual usage (with service loads) are Just because something can be built is no reason that it should
determined and limits for stresses are set at some percentage be built. Consideration must be given to the complexity of
of the predetermined ultimate capacity of the materials. The the design, dollar cost, construction time, acceptability by
margin of safety is inferred from the specific percentage used code-enforcing agencies, and so on.
for the allowable stresses.
A problem encountered with the allowable stress method Economy
is that many materials do not behave in the same manner near Buildings cost a lot of money, and investors are seldom
their ultimate failure limits as they do at service load levels. carefree, especially about the cost of the structure. Except for
Thus prediction of failure from a stress evaluation cannot be the condition of a highly exposed structure that constitutes
made on the basis of only a simple linear proportionality; thus a major design feature, structures are usually appreciated as
using an allowable stress of one-half the ultimate stress limit little as the buried piping, wiring, and other mundane hidden
does not truly guarantee a safety factor of 2. service elements. Expensive structures do not often add value
The other principal method for assuring safety is called the in the way that expensive hardware or carpet may. What is
strength design or load and resistance factor (LRFD) method. usually desired is simple adequacy, and the hard-working,
The basis of this method is simple. The total load capacity of low-cost structure is much appreciated.
the structure at failure is determined and its design resistance However vital, the building structure usually represents a
is established as a percentage (factored) of the ultimate minor part of the total construction cost. When comparing
resistance. This factored resistance is then compared to an alternative structures, the cost of the structure itself may
ultimate design failure loading, determined as a magnified be less important than the effects of the structure on other
(factored) value of the service load. In this case the margin of building costs.
safety is inferred by the selected design factors.
Although life safety is certainly important, the structural Optimization
designer must also deal with many other concerns in Building designers often are motivated by desires for
establishing a satisfactory solution for any building structure. originality and individual expression. However, they are also
usually pressured to produce a practical design in terms
General Concerns of function and feasibility. In many instances this requires
Feasibility making decisions that constitute compromises between
Structures are real and thus must use materials and products conflicting or opposing considerations. The best or optimal
that are available and can be handled by existing craftspeople solution is often elusive. Obvious conflicts are those between
and production organizations. Building designers must have desires for safety, quality of finishes, grandeur of spaces,
a reasonable grasp of the current inventory of available and general sumptuousness on the one hand and practical
materials and products and of the usual processes for building feasibility and economy on the other. All of these attributes
construction. Keeping abreast of this body of knowledge is a may be important, but often changes that tend to improve
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS 3
one factor work to degrade others. Some rank ordering of Shelter and Enclosure
the various attributes is generally necessary, with dollar cost Exterior building surfaces usually form a barrier between
usually ending up high on the list. the building interior and the exterior environment. This
is generally required for security and privacy and often in
Integration
order to protect against various hostile external conditions
Good structural design requires integration of the structure (thermal, acoustic, air quality, precipitation, etc.). Figure 1.2
into the whole physical system of the building. It is necessary shows many potential requirements of the building skin. The
to recognize the potential influences of the structural design
skin is viewed as a selective filter that must block some things
decisions on the general architectural design and on the
while permitting the passage of others.
development of the systems for power, lighting, thermal
In some instances, elements that serve a structural purpose
control, ventilation, water supply, waste handling, vertical
must also fulfill some of the filter functions of the building
transportation, firefighting, and so on. The most popular
skin, and properties other than strictly structural ones must
structural systems have become so in many cases largely
be considered in the choice of the materials and details of the
because of their ability to accommodate the other subsystems
of the building and to facilitate popular architectural forms structure. Basic structural requirements cannot be ignored but
and details. frequently can be relatively minor as final decision criteria.
When need exists for complete enclosure, the structure
must either provide it directly or facilitate the addition of other
1.2 ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS elements to provide it. Solid masonry walls, shell domes, and
tents are examples of structures that provide naturally closed
Primary architectural functions that relate to the structure surfaces. It may be necessary to enhance the bare structure
are: with insulation, waterproofing, and so on, to generate all the
Need for shelter and enclosure required skin functions, but the enclosure function is inherent
Need for spatial definition, subdivision, and separation in the structural system.
Need for unobstructed interior space Frame systems, however, generate open structures that
In addition to its basic force-resistive purpose, the must be provided with separate skin elements to develop the
structure must serve to generate the forms that relate to these enclosure function. In some cases, the skin may interact with
basic usage functions. the frame; in other cases it may add little to the basic structural
Gravity forces
due to clear span
....generates a need for
a spanning structure to Natural path of
divert gravity forces from the gravity forces
their natural paths....
Redistribution of the
resistive forces
Walls
Walls are usually vertical and potentially lend themselves to
the task of supporting roofs and floors. Even when they do not
serve as supports, they often incorporate the columns that do
serve this function. Thus the design development of the span-
ning roof and floor systems must begin with consideration of
the locations of wall systems over which they span. Bearing wall
Provides support for the
Walls may be classified on the basis of their functions, spanning structure
which affects many of the design conditions regarding
materials and details. Some basic categories are:
Multistory bearing wall
Provides support for the
Structural Walls. These serve one or both of two functions spanning structure plus
in the general building structural system. Bearing walls upper walls
support roofs, floors, and other walls. Shear walls brace Shear wall
the building against horizontal forces, utilizing the Horizontal force from the
stiffness of the wall in its own plane, as shown in spanning structure....
Figure 1.5.
....produces forces in
Nonstructural Walls. Actually, there is no such thing as a the plane of the wall....
nonstructural wall, since the least that any wall must
do is hold itself up. However, the term nonstructural ....resulting in shear
and tipping.
is used to describe walls that do not contribute to the
general structural system of the building. When they
occur on the exterior, they are called curtain walls; on
the interior they are called partitions.
Exterior Walls. As part of the building skin, exterior walls Figure 1.5 Structural functions of walls.
have a number of required functions, including the
barrier and filter functions described previously. Wind
produces both inward and outward pressures that the
wall surface must transmit to the bracing system.
Exterior walls are usually permanent, as opposed
to interior walls that can be relocated if they are
nonstructural.
Interior Walls. Although some barrier functions are
required of any wall, interior walls need not separate
interior and exterior environments or resist wind.
They may be permanent, as when they enclose stairs,
elevators, or toilets, but are often essentially only
partitions and can be built as such.
Because of the freedom of geometry and lack of need possible structural systems is considerable, including
for rigidity or solidity, the structural options for roofs are tents, air-inflated bubbles, ice block igloos, and mud
more numerous than those for floors. The largest enclosed, huts, as well as more ordinary construction.
unobstructed spaces are those spanned only by roofs. Thus Medium Scale (15 ft high, 30 ft-span). This includes small
most of the dramatic and exotic spanning structures for stores, classrooms, and commercial or industrial
buildings are roof structures. buildings. The 15-ft wall height is just above the limit
for 2 × 4 wood studs and the 30-ft span is beyond the
Floors limit of solid wood rafters on a horizontal span. Use of
Floor structures may serve as both a floor for upper spaces a truss, gabled frame, or some other efficient spanning
and a ceiling for lower spaces. Floors usually require a flat, system becomes feasible at this scale, although flat
horizontal form, limiting the choice to a flat-spanning system. deck and beam systems are also possible.
Barrier requirements derive from the needs for separation of Large Scale (30 ft high, 100+-ft span). This includes gyms,
the spaces above and below. theaters, and large showrooms. The 30-ft wall height
Most floor structures are relatively short in span, since represents a significant structural problem, usually
flat-spanning systems are relatively inefficient and load requiring braced construction of some form. The
magnitudes for floors are generally higher than those for roofs. 100-ft span is generally beyond the feasible limit
Achieving large open spaces under floors is considerably more for a flat-spanning beam system, and the use of a
difficult than achieving such spaces under roofs. truss, arch, or some other system is usually required.
Because of the size of the spanning elements, they are
Form–Scale Relationships usually widely spaced, requiring a secondary spanning
There is a great variety of types of architectural space and system to fill in between the major spanning elements.
associated structural problems. Figure 1.7 illustrates variables Loads from the major spanning elements place heavy
in terms of interior space division and of scale in terms of concentrated forces on walls, often requiring columns
span and clear height. Other variables include the number of or piers. If the columns or piers are incorporated in the
levels or adjacent spaces. The following discussion deals with wall construction, they may serve the dual function of
some of the structural problems inherent in the situations bracing the tall walls.
represented in Figure 1.7. Super Large Scale (50 ft high, 300+-ft span). This includes
large convention centers and sports arenas. Walls
Single Space become major structural elements, requiring consid-
This ordinarily represents the greatest degree of freedom in erable bracing. The spanning structure itself requires
the choice of the structural system. The building basically considerable height in the form of spacing of
requires only walls and a roof, although a floor structure other truss elements, rise of arches, or sag of cables.
than a paving slab may be required if the building is elevated Use of superefficient spanning systems becomes a
above the ground. Some possible uses for such buildings and necessity.
the potential structural systems follow.
Multiple Horizontal Spaces—Linear Array
Small Scale (10 ft high, 15 ft-span). This includes small
This category includes motels, small shopping centers, and
sheds, cabins, and residential garages. The range of
school classroom wings. Multiplication may be done with
walls that serve the dual function of supporting the roof
and separating interior spaces, or it may be done only
One story Multiple-
with multiples of the roof system with the possibility of
FORM Single Multihorizontal space level no interior supports. The roof system has somewhat less
geometric freedom than that for the single-space building,
Space Linear Two-way space and a modular system of some kind may be indicated. (See
S
C Figure 1.8.)
A Although space utilization and construction simplicity
L
E generally will be obtained with the linear multiplication of
rectangular plan units, there are some other possibilities, as
shown in Figure 1.9. If units are spaced by separate connecting
Small 10 ft high, 15-ft span 2 Stories
links, more freedom can be obtained for the roof geometry of
Medium 15 ft high, 30-ft span 3–6 Stories the individual units.
Structural options remain essentially the same as for
Large 30 ft high, 100-ft span 20+ Stories
the single-space building. If adjacent spaces are significantly
Superlarge 50 ft high, 300+ -ft span 50+ Stories different in height or span, it may be desirable to change the
system of construction using systems appropriate to the scale
Figure 1.7 Form– scale relationships. of the individual spaces.
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS 7
Multilevel Spaces
The jump from single to multiple levels has significant
structural implications.
Vertical Penetration of the Structure. Elevators, stairs, The floor-to-floor height, from finish floor level to finish
ducts, chimneys, piping, and wiring must be carried floor level, is the total construction depth (B) plus the clear
upward through the horizontal structure at each floor-to-ceiling height in each story. Repeated as required, the
level, and spanning systems must accommodate the sum of these dimensions equals the total building height and
penetrations. volume, although only the clear space is of real value to the
Increased Foundation Loads. As building height increases occupants. There is thus an efficiency ratio of clear height to
without an increase in plan size, the total vertical total story height that works to constrain the depth allowed for
gravity load for each unit of the plan area increases, the floor construction. While structural efficiency and reduced
eventually creating a need for a very strong foundation. cost for the structure are generally obtained with increased
structural depth, they are often compromised in favor of
The existence of many levels also creates a problem other cost considerations. Reduction of the building height
involving the depth or thickness of the spanning structure and allowance for the air-handling ducts will probably push
at each floor level. As shown in Figure 1.11, the depth structural efficiency aside. Thus the net dimension allowed
of the structure (A in the figure) is the distance from top for the structure itself—dimension C in Figure 1.11—is a
to bottom of the complete structure, including structural hard-fought one.
decking and fireproofing. In many buildings a ceiling is Sometimes it is possible to avoid placing the largest of
hung below the floor structure, and the space between the the contained elements (usually air ducts) under the largest
ceiling and the underside of the floor contains various items, of the spanning structure’s elements. Some techniques for
such as ducts, wiring, sprinkler piping, and recessed light accomplishing this are shown in Figure 1.12.
fixtures. Architecturally, the critical depth dimension is the An important aspect of the multilevel building is the
total distance from the top of the floor finish to the underside plan of the vertical supporting elements, since these represent
of the ceiling (B in the figure). fixed objects around which interior spaces must be arranged.