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 Thermal Physics
of the Atmosphere
Second Edition
 Developments in Weather and
Climate Science

Thermal Physics
of the Atmosphere
Second Edition

Maarten H. P. Ambaum
Department of Meteorology
University of Reading
Reading, United Kingdom

Series editor
Paul D. Williams
Elsevier
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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
CHAPTER 1 Ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Thermodynamic variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Microscopic viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Ideal gas mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CHAPTER 2 The first and second laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Energy conservation: the first law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Entropy and the second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Thermodynamic heat engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Boltzmann entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Entropy and probability: a macroscopic example . . . . . . . . . . 32
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
CHAPTER 3 General applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1 Thermodynamic potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Heat capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Properties of ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Potential temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5 Open systems: enthalpy flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6 Latent heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7 Turbulent energy fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.8 Van der Waals’ gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
CHAPTER 4 The atmosphere under gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1 Geopotential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Hydrostatic balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3 Adiabatic lapse rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.5 Dry static energy and Bernoulli function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.6 Vertical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.7 Statistical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
CHAPTER 5 Water in the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1 The Clausius–Clapeyron equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2 Calculation of saturated vapour pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

v
vi Contents

5.3 Humidity variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.4 Dewpoint temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.5 Wet-bulb temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.6 Moist static energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.7 The Penman equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
CHAPTER 6 Vertical structure of the moist atmosphere . . . . . . . . 115
6.1 Adiabatic lapse rate for moist air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2 Entropy of moist air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.3 Finite amplitude instabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.4 Vertical structure in thermodynamic diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.5 Convective available potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
CHAPTER 7 Cloud drops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.1 Homogeneous nucleation: the Kelvin effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2 Heterogeneous nucleation: the Raoult effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.3 Köhler theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.4 Charge-enhanced nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.5 Drop growth by diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.6 Drop growth by collision and coalescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
CHAPTER 8 Mixtures and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.1 Chemical potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.2 Ideal gas mixtures and ideal solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.3 Raoult’s law revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.4 Boiling and freezing of solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.5 Affinity and chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
CHAPTER 9 Thermal radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.1 Thermal radiation and Kirchhoff’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.2 The Stefan–Boltzmann and Wien displacement laws . . . . . . . 180
9.3 Global energy budget and the greenhouse effect . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.4 Climate feedbacks and the hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.5 Thermodynamics of a photon gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.6 Derivation of the Planck law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.7 Energy flux, and the Stefan–Boltzmann integral . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
CHAPTER 10 Radiative transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.1 Radiative intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.2 Radiative transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.3 Zenith angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.4 Radiative–convective equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
 Contents vii

10.5 Optically thin layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
CHAPTER 11 Non-equilibrium processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.1 Energetics of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.2 Diabatic effects and the second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.3 Thermodynamics of forced dissipative systems . . . . . . . . . . 232
11.4 Climate thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
APPENDIX A Functions of several variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
APPENDIX B Thermodynamic diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Useful data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Preface

Should we view classical physics as a tool to understand phenomena in atmospheric

science, or should we view atmospheric science as an applied branch of classical
physics? Of course both viewpoints are mostly accurate, relevant, and even overlap-
ping. However, by focussing on the first viewpoint we may miss out on the profound
sense of universality, of organisation that classical physics brings to our understand-
ing of the world. Here we will focus on the second viewpoint. This book is an attempt
to present atmospheric science as one of the great modern applications of classical
physics, in particular of thermodynamics.
The present second edition of Thermal Physics of the Atmosphere has been re-
vised and expanded throughout compared to the first edition. The revision follows
from years of teaching this material to postgraduate students. Many students have
told me of their sense of achievement and satisfaction —and of relief!— on finishing
a masters level physics topic, often their first exposition to advanced physics mate-
rial. I still experience the same sense of wonder, discovering and exploring the myriad
ways in which we can use thermodynamics to understand and predict so many differ-
ent phenomena in the atmosphere. I hope the reader will share this sense of wonder.

Maarten Ambaum
Reading, United Kingdom
October 2020

ix
 CHAPTER

Ideal gases
1
In this chapter we introduce the concept of an ideal gas, a gas of non-interacting
molecules. An ideal gas is an accurate model of dilute gases such as the atmosphere.
We further introduce the notion of macroscopic variables, amongst them such
familiar ones as temperature and pressure. These macroscopic variables must be re-
lated to some property of the microscopic state of the molecules that make up the
substance. For example, for the systems we consider here, temperature is related to
the mean kinetic energy of the molecules. The linking of the macroscopic and mi-
croscopic worlds is the subject of statistical mechanics. In this chapter we give an
elementary application of it to ideal gases.

1.1 Thermodynamic variables

Consider a volume of gas. A useful mental picture is that of a gas in a closed cylinder
with a piston, similar to the driving cylinder of a steam engine, see Fig. 1.1. In this
way we can control certain properties of the gas, such as its volume or temperature,
and perform experiments on it. Such experiments are normally thought experiments,
although in principle they can be performed in the laboratory.
At the macroscopic level, the gas has some familiar properties:
• volume V (units: m3 )
• mass M (units: kg)
• density ρ = M/V (units: kg m−3 )
• temperature T (units: K, Kelvin)
• pressure p (units: Pa = N m−2 , Pascal).
The gas is made up of molecules with individual mass M1 , so the total mass of gas is

M = N M1 , (1.1)

with N the number of molecules. The number of molecules N is often expressed as

a multiple of the Avogadro number NA ,

NA = 6.022 × 1023 . (1.2)

The Avogadro number was until very recently defined as the number of molecules in
12 g of carbon isotope 12C, but is now defined as the exact integer 6.02214076 × 1023 .
Thermal Physics of the Atmosphere. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824498-2.00008-2
Copyright © 2021 Royal Meteorological Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. in cooperation with The Royal Meteorological Society. All rights
1
reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Ideal gases

FIGURE 1.1
Gas in a cylinder with piston.

The number of molecules is then defined as a multiple n of NA

N = n NA , (1.3)

where n is the number of moles. With this definition of the mol, the mass of the gas
can be written as
M = nμ (1.4)
with μ = NA M1 the molar mass. So the molar mass of 12C is 12 g mol−1 . (Although
the ‘mol’ is not strictly speaking a physical unit, it is defined by writing the Avogadro
number as NA = 6.02214076 × 1023 mol−1 .)
The temperature can be defined as ‘that property which can be measured with a
thermometer’. This definition sounds circular but it can be shown to be a perfectly
valid definition. The SI unit1 for temperature is the Kelvin (K). Temperature is often
denoted in degrees Celsius, ◦ C with T /◦ C = T /K − 273.15, or in degrees Fahrenheit,
◦ F with T /◦ F = 1.8 T /◦ C+32, see Fig. 1.2. Temperature can never be lower than 0 K,

or absolute zero; the temperature in Kelvin is also called the absolute temperature.

FIGURE 1.2
Nomogram for Celsius–Fahrenheit conversion.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the typical mean temperatures encountered through the depth
of the Earth’s atmosphere. This figure uses the logarithm of pressure as a vertical co-
ordinate because this is approximately proportional to the altitude in the atmosphere.

1 SI stands for Système International d’Unités, the internationally agreed system of units for physical
quantities.
 1.1 Thermodynamic variables 3

FIGURE 1.3
Temperature, in ◦ C, as a function of height. Tropical annual mean (thick line), extratropical
winter mean (medium solid line) and extratropical summer mean (medium dashed line).
The tropics here correspond to the latitudes between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn;
the extratropics here correspond to the latitudes beyond 45◦ in either hemisphere for the
corresponding season. Based on data from Randel, W. et al. (2004) Journal of Climate 17,
986–1003.
Going up in altitude, the temperature first decreases (troposphere), increases
(stratosphere), and then decreases again (mesosphere). The mesosphere ends at about
90 km altitude, above which the temperature starts to increase again (thermosphere). These
atmospheric layers are separated by the tropopause, stratopause, and mesopause,
respectively.
The temperature increase in the stratosphere is due to the photo-dissociation of ozone, O3 ,
which absorbs the solar energy in the UV part of the spectrum (wavelengths shorter than
about 320 nm). Indeed, the ozone itself is formed by photo-dissociation of molecular
oxygen, O2 , which occurs at wavelengths shorter than 240 nm. The maximum ozone
concentration (‘the ozone-layer’) is at about 25 km altitude.
The temperature in the troposphere has a maximum in the tropics, while in the
stratosphere it has a maximum in the summer hemisphere and a minimum in the winter
hemisphere. This latitudinal temperature gradient is reversed in the mesosphere. Note also
that the tropopause is coldest and highest in the tropics.
The thermosphere (outside this plot) is heated by absorption of UV radiation and
subsequent ionization of the molecular constituents, thus forming the ionosphere. At these
altitudes the density is so low that energy does not get thermalized effectively and local
thermodynamic equilibrium is not fully attained. The thermosphere gives way to space in
the exosphere.
4 CHAPTER 1 Ideal gases

Pressure is the force a gas exerts on its bounding walls per unit area. This does
not mean that gas only has a pressure defined at the bounding walls: the internal pres-
sure of a gas can in principle be measured by inserting some probe and measuring
the force per unit area on the probe. There are several units of pressure in use, each
with its specific area of application. The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa) which
is equivalent to one Newton per square metre. In atmospheric applications we nor-
mally use the hectoPascal (hPa; by definition, 1 hPa = 100 Pa) or millibar (mbar; with
1 mbar = 1 hPa).
A pressure of 1013.25 hPa is also called one atmosphere, the notional mean value
of mean sea level pressure on Earth. So we have 1 atm = 101325 Pa. This pressure
unit is almost exclusively used in high pressure engineering applications and, despite
its name, does not usually find application in atmospheric science. A related pressure
unit is the bar with 1 bar = 105 Pa, from which, of course, the millibar is derived.
Pressure and temperature do not correspond to a property of individual molecules.
They are bulk properties that can only be defined as a statistical property of a large
number of molecules. This will be discussed in the next section.
There are several other macroscopic variables that can be used to describe the
state of a simple gas; these are known as thermodynamic variables. If we know all
the relevant thermodynamic variables, we know the full thermodynamic state of the
gas. All these variables are interrelated and it turns out that for a simple substance (a
substance with a fixed composition, such as dry air) we only need two thermodynamic
variables to describe its thermodynamic state.2
For more complex systems we need more variables. For example, in a mixture of
varying composition we need to know the concentrations of the constituents. Moist
air is such a mixture. The number of water molecules in the air is highly variable
and these variations need to be taken into account. For sea water we need to know
the salinity —the amount of dissolved salts— because it has important consequences
for the density. Finally, for cloud drops we need to know the surface area as well as
the amount of dissolved solute, both of which have profound consequences for the
thermodynamics of the drops.
Thermodynamic variables are either:
• extensive, proportional to the mass of the system, or
• intensive, independent of the mass of the system.
Volume and mass are extensive variables, temperature and density are intensive vari-
ables. For most variables it is obvious whether they are extensive or intensive.

2 The number N of thermodynamic variables required to define the state of any system is given by the
Gibbs’ phase rule,

N = 2 + C − P,

with C the number of independent constituents and P the number of coexisting phases (gas, liquid, solid)
in the system.
 1.1 Thermodynamic variables 5

Extensive variables can be divided by the mass of the system to become intensive;
such new variables are then called specific variables. Specific and extensive variables
will be denoted by the same letter, but with the specific variable written in lower case
and its extensive equivalent in upper. For example, the volume V of a system divided
by the mass M of the system becomes the specific volume v with v = V /M. Note
that

v = 1/ρ, (1.5)

where ρ is the density. Specific volume is often, confusingly, denoted by a Greek

letter α, an apparently arbitrary notation which we will not follow here. Later we
will come across other extensive variables. For example, the entropy S of a system
is an extensive variable, so we can define s = S/M as the specific entropy. Although
temperature T is an intensive variable it is normally denoted by an upper case letter,
a convention we adopt here as well.
We have ignored internal variations in the volume of gas or material under con-
sideration. For example, we assume there is no internal macroscopic motion of the
gas, which would be associated with pressure variations and internal kinetic energy.
Clearly this is not the case for the atmosphere as a whole. The pressure and density
vary enormously through the atmosphere, usually most dramatically in the vertical:
at 10 km height the pressure is about a quarter of its surface value.
We assume that we can define the intensive thermodynamic variables locally and
that they have their usual equilibrium thermodynamic relations. We then say that the
gas is in local thermodynamic equilibrium. Local thermodynamic equilibrium is valid
if there is a large separation between the spatial and temporal scales of macroscopic
variations and those of microscopic variations. The spatial scale of macroscopic vari-
ations needs to be much larger than the mean free path of molecules, the mean
distance a molecule travels between collisions with other molecules. The temporal
scale of macroscopic variations needs to be much larger than the mean time between
molecular collisions. Near the Earth’s surface the mean free path in the atmosphere is
about 0.1 µm (about 30 times the average molecular distance) with typical molecular
velocities of several hundreds of metres per second, so local thermodynamic equilib-
rium is satisfied. It turns out that above about 100 km height, local thermodynamic
equilibrium breaks down: the density and collision rate is so low that thermal equi-
librium cannot be achieved on short enough time scales.
A small volume of gas in the atmosphere, for which the internal motion can be
ignored and which has well-defined density, temperature, and so on, is called an air
parcel. Because an air parcel is, by definition, in local thermodynamic equilibrium,
its thermodynamic variables satisfy all the relationships that are found in equilib-
rium systems. At the level of an air parcel we need not worry about non-equilibrium
effects.
6 CHAPTER 1 Ideal gases

1.2 Microscopic viewpoint

From the microscopic viewpoint, temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy
of the molecules,
     
3 1 1 1
 k B T = M1 U + M1 V + M1 W ,
2 2 2
(1.6)
2 2 2 2
with (U , V , W ) the three-dimensional vector velocity of the molecule. The brackets
. . . denote the average, a time average for a single molecule, the average over all
molecules, or the average over an ensemble of gases in the same macroscopic state.
A key assumption of statistical mechanics is that all these averages lead to the same
result. The constant kB is the Boltzmann constant,

kB = 1.381 × 10−23 J K−1 . (1.7)

In statistical physics as well as macroscopic thermodynamics, energy is the funda-

mental quantity. Temperature is a derived quantity which has been given its own
units because it is measured with a thermometer. The Boltzmann constant is merely a
proportionality constant between energy and absolute temperature. The fundamental
point is that statistical mechanics can be formulated such that the microscopic defini-
tion of temperature in terms of the mean kinetic energy of the molecules corresponds
to the thermodynamic definition of temperature.
Before May 2019 the Kelvin was defined as exactly 1/273.16 of the temperature at
the triple point of water. The standard of temperature was a triple point cell, a closed
vessel of glass which contains only pure water, kept at the temperature where the
water coexists in its three phases. Under that definition, the Boltzmann constant was
determined by measuring how much energy a molecule gains for a given temperature
change. From May 2019 the Boltzmann constant has changed from a measured quan-
tity to a defined fixed constant exactly equal to 1.380649 × 10−23 when expressed in
the unit J K−1 . This definition then ties the value of the Kelvin to the value of the
Joule, which is defined independently in terms of other fundamental physical con-
stants. The temperature of water at its triple point is now a measured quantity. Of
course it is still measured to be 273.16 K but now with an uncertainty of 0.0001 K.
The factor 3/2 in the microscopic definition of temperature reflects a classic result
in the mechanics of systems with many components, namely that each degree of free-
dom contains, on average, the same energy. A degree of freedom is an independent
variable in which the system can vary. A single molecule carries three translational
degrees of freedom: motion in the x, y, and z-directions. There can also be internal
degrees of freedom corresponding to rotations and vibrations of the molecule. The
equipartition theorem states that each accessible degree of freedom3 carries on av-
erage the same energy, and this energy equals kB T /2. Adding the average kinetic

3 Not all available degrees are necessarily accessible. Quantization of energy levels implies that there is a
minimum energy required to excite higher energy levels in any degree of freedom.
 1.2 Microscopic viewpoint 7

FIGURE 1.4
Transfer of momentum by a molecule colliding with the wall. The total momentum transfer
is twice the momentum in the x-direction of the molecule.

energies in the three spatial directions then gives the result of Eq. (1.6). The proof of
the equipartition theorem is given in Section 4.7.
Pressure is the result of many collisions of individual molecules against the walls
of a vessel or a probe. If a molecule approaches the wall with a velocity U and
elastically collides with the wall, then the molecule’s momentum in the direction of
the wall changes by 2M1 U , from M1 U to −M1 U . This momentum is transferred to
the wall. By Newton’s laws, the amount of momentum transferred per unit time is the
force on the wall, see Fig. 1.4. For an interior point we can define the local pressure
as the momentum flux density through some imaginary surface in the interior of the
fluid.
So how many molecules collide with the wall? Let the number density of
molecules, that is the number of molecules per unit volume, be denoted with ñ. We
can now write the number density of molecules with x-velocities between U and
U + dU as ñU , which is related to the total number density ñ by

ñ = ñU dU . (1.8)

Over a time δt, those molecules with positive velocity between U and U + dU that
are located within a distance U δt of the wall will collide with the wall. Therefore,
the number of such molecules that have collided with the wall will be ñU U δt A,
with A the area of the wall. To get the momentum transfer per unit time, simply
multiply this number by the momentum transfer per molecule, 2M1 U , and divide
by the time taken, δt. This is the force FU exerted on the wall by molecules with
positive velocities between U and U + dU ,

FU = 2ñU M1 U 2 A. (1.9)

To find the pressure we need to divide by A and integrate the force over all positive
velocities, U > 0, because molecules with negative velocities will not collide with
8 CHAPTER 1 Ideal gases

the wall and thus will not contribute to the pressure,


p= 2ñU M1 U 2 dU . (1.10)
U >0

By symmetry, there will be an equal number of molecules with positive and negative
U . We can therefore integrate over all velocities U , positive and negative, and divide
the result by two. The expression for the pressure then becomes

p = ñ M1 U 2 , (1.11)

with ñ the total number density. The equipartition theorem states that M1 U 2  = kB T
so that the pressure satisfies

 pV = N kB T , (1.12)

where we have substituted ñ = N/V . This is the ideal gas law.

By writing the total number of molecules N as nNA , the ideal gas law can be
written

 pV = nR  T , (1.13)

where R  is called the universal gas constant,

R  = NA kB = 8.314 J mol−1 K−1 . (1.14)

Before the microscopic definitions of temperature and pressure were known, it was
already hypothesized by Avogadro, and later confirmed to be true, that the constant
R  is the same for all types of gases, and therefore indeed universal.
The ideal gas law implies that for a particular number of molecules nNA held
in some volume V at some temperature T , the pressure is independent of the type
of molecules. This can be understood from the observation that both the kinetic en-
ergy (and therefore temperature) and the momentum (and therefore pressure) of a
molecule scale with the mass of the molecule.
Another form of the ideal gas law follows by dividing by the mass M = nμ of the
gas to find

 pv = RT , or p = ρRT , (1.15)

where R is the so-called specific gas constant,

R = R  /μ. (1.16)

This is the form of the ideal gas law that is normally used in atmospheric science.
Confusingly, the convention is to use a capital R for the specific gas constant even
though it is a specific quantity. Note also that in most physics and chemistry literature
the letter R stands for the universal gas constant; it should be clear from the context
 1.2 Microscopic viewpoint 9

which is meant. This is one of those instances where the convention used in atmo-
spheric science literature is not particularly helpful. Although the ideal gas law in the
form of Eq. (1.13) is more general, the big advantage of the form of Eq. (1.15) is that
it is formulated in terms of specific quantities: we do not need to define the size of
the system we are describing.
The ideal gas law encompasses:
• Boyle’s law: at constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume is con-
stant
• Gay-Lussac’s law: at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is proportional to its
temperature.
Figure 1.5 illustrates these laws in diagrams. These laws were originally determined
experimentally. They are only strictly valid for ideal gases.

FIGURE 1.5
The left panel illustrates Boyle’s law and the middle panel Gay-Lussac’s law. The right panel
illustrates that, for an ideal gas at fixed pressure, the volume of a gas is proportional to its
temperature; this is sometimes known as Charles’s law.

In deriving the ideal gas law, we have not considered subtleties such as inelastic
collisions, where energy transfer between the gas and the wall occurs, or the consid-
eration that the wall is not a mathematical flat plane but made up of molecules. These
complications do not alter the basic result.
We have also not considered interactions between the molecules and interactions
at a distance between the molecules and the wall. This does make a difference and
it defines the difference between real gases and ideal gases. Ideal gases are made up
of non-interacting molecules, vanishingly small molecules that are unaffected by the
presence of any other molecules.
We assume that molecules in an ideal gas do not interact with each other and also
that the molecules are in thermal equilibrium. Strictly speaking these assumptions are
inconsistent, as a gas can only achieve thermal equilibrium through many collisions
between the molecules. The colliding molecules distribute the energy amongst all the
accessible degrees of freedom and thus achieve equipartition. This process of energy
distribution is called thermalization. A gas is in local thermodynamic equilibrium
if all the available energy is thermalized. If collisions are rare, energy cannot be
thermalized effectively and the gas cannot achieve local thermodynamic equilibrium.
10 CHAPTER 1 Ideal gases

This occurs at high altitudes in the atmosphere (higher than about 100 km) where the
energy input from radiation is not thermalized due to the low number of collisions.
The ideal gas law is an example of an equation of state. Real gases are not ideal
and will therefore have a different relationship between pressure, density and temper-
ature. For example, the equation of state for real gases is more accurately described
by van der Waals’ equation,
  n 2 
p+a (V − nb) = nR  T , (1.17)
V

with a and b constants that depend on the particular gas. The term −nb represents
the reduction in available volume due to the finite effective size of the molecules.
The term a(n/V )2 is related to the average interaction energy between molecules
(which is why the term is quadratic in the number density) and it contributes as an
effective pressure; the relation between pressure and energy density will be explained
in Section 2.2, and a derivation of van der Waals’ equation will be presented in Sec-
tion 3.8. Van der Waals’ equation is more accurate for gases at high densities, and
approximately describes such important processes as phase transitions.
Densities of gases in the atmosphere are such that the ideal gas law gives essen-
tially the same results as van der Waals’ equation, so we stick to the much simpler
ideal gas law. Indeed, for low densities van der Waals’ equation reduces to the ideal
gas law,

Eq. (1.17) → pV = nR  T if n/V → 0. (1.18)

Conversely, for large pressures,

Eq. (1.17) → V = nb if p → ∞. (1.19)

So the high pressure, incompressible liquid is also a limiting case of van der Waals’
equation.
In general, an equation of state is some relationship between the variables of the
system,

f (p, N, V , T , a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .) = 0, (1.20)

where a1 , a2 . . . represent any other variables that influence the state of the system,
such as humidity in air, or salinity in water. The equation of state is dependent on
the precise nature of the system and results derived using an equation of state are
therefore only valid for that particular system. We will see that many of the results in
this book are derived without reference to an equation of state and will therefore be
valid for any substance.
 1.3 Ideal gas mixtures 11

1.3 Ideal gas mixtures

Ideal gases are defined as gases where the molecules themselves have negligible vol-
ume and have negligible interactions with each other. So if we mix several ideal gases
at the same temperature in a single volume they do not ‘feel’ each other’s presence.
This means that each constituent gas contributes independently to the pressure. The
contribution of each constituent to the total pressure is called the partial pressure. So
ni mols of constituent i will have a partial pressure pi equal to
ni R  T
pi = . (1.21)
V
The fact that these partial pressures independently make up the total pressure of the
mixture is called Dalton’s law:
p= pi . (1.22)
i
Dalton’s law is only strictly true for ideal gases. For non-ideal gases, partial pressures
cannot be easily defined in general.
Another way of expressing Dalton’s law is
pi = yi p, (1.23)

where the molar fraction yi of constituent i is defined by

yi = ni /n, (1.24)

with n = i ni the total number of moles in the mixture.

From Dalton’s law it follows that
ni R  T M ni μi R 
p= = T = ρRT , (1.25)
i V i V M μi

where
ni μi R 
R= = w i Ri , (1.26)
i M μi i

with Ri the specific gas constant for constituent i and wi the mass fraction of con-
stituent i —that is, the fraction constituent i contributes to the total mass of the
mixture (see also Problem 1.6):
wi = Mi /M. (1.27)

The specific gas constant of the mixture is related to an effective molar mass of the
mixture μ which is defined by
R 1 wi
R= with = . (1.28)
μ μ i μi
Table 1.1 lists the main constituents of air. The dry air constituents are well mixed
and long-lived which means that the bulk composition of dry air is fixed throughout
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
secondly: the value of
the bambu.
First: the bambu is used for
fishing rods; that is one way the
natives here in Hawaii had of
catching fish, by tying a string to
the tip end of the bambu, with a
hook attached on the end of the
string; such a bambu is called a
fishing rod.
Second: as house battens; that
is another use of the bambu. In
the olden times small sized
bambus for battens (or sticks) for
thatching a house; that was one
of its values.
Third: the Hawaiians in the olden
times used the bambu as a
knife. 52 But the time for its use
as such was when it was split
up; that is when it is sharp.
Another value of the bambu is in
its use as a printing stick 53 for
marking kapa made by the
women in the olden times, and
even to the present day. It is split
and shaped up as the skilful
kapa makers desire it. That is
one use of the bambu. [590]
manao alua: na hana a
ka ohe.
Hana mua. He makoi lawaia ia
ka ohe. Oia kekahi mea, e loaa
ai ka ia i na kanaka o Hawaii nei,
ma ka hoopaa ia ana o ke aho,
ma ka welau o ka ohe, me ka
hoopaa i ka makau ma ka piko o
ke kaula, a ua kapa ia o ua ohe
nei, he makoi lawaia ia.
Hana Alua: He aho hale. Oia
kekahi hana a ka ohe, aia i ka
wa kahiko, ua kii ia na ohe liilii
kupono ke hana ia i aho hale, a
oia kekahi hana a ka ohe. [591]
Hana Akolu: He pahi ka ohe na
ko Hawaii nei i ka wa kahiko. Aia
nae ka wa e lilo ai ka ohe i pahi,
aia i ka wa e nahaha ai, oia ka
wa oi o ka ohe. O kekahi hana,
he mea kapala kapa ia na na
wahine kuku kapa i ka wa
kahiko, a hiki no i keia wa, aia i
ka wawahi ia, a apanapana
maikai e like me ka manao o ka
loea kuku kapa, oia kekahi hana
a ka ohe.
Fourth: its joints. The joint
sections are made into water
containers 54 when it becomes
large enough for that purpose.
That is another value of the
bambu.
Fifth: its leaves. The leaves of
the bambu are used for
polishing; it would put a good
polish on rings; also on pipes
and on wooden calabashes;
such are the uses of the bambu.
Another subject of consideration
concerns the famous bambu
groves. At Kuikuilaumania,
Hawaii, is a famous bambu
grove; it is near the sugar mill of
Kaupakuea, at Hilo. The reason
that grove is famous is because
there are found fine large sized
bambus; it is there also that
bambus are gotten which are
used in circumcising the
Hawaiian youths; that is why the
name of the grove is also called
Homaikaohe. 55
There is a second famous
bambu grove, also at Hilo,
Hawaii. This noted grove is
called Halai 56 (calm). The reason
Hana Aha: Ma kona mau puna.
Aia ma kona puna ua hana ia i
huawai, aia nae, o ka ohe nunui
ke kupono ke hana ia, oia kekahi
hana a ka ohe.
Hana Elima: Ma kona lau. Aia
ma kona lau he mea anai komo
ia, i mea e maikai ai ke komo,
pela no hoi ka ipupaka, a me ka
ipulaau, oia iho la na hana a ka
ohe.
Eia kekahi o ka manao; no na
ulu ohe kaulana. Aia ma
Kuikuilaumania, i Hawaii, kekahi
ulu ohe kaulana, e kokoke ana i
ka wili ko o Kaupakuea, ma Hilo.
Ka mea i kaulana ai oia ulu ohe,
aia malaila na ohe maikai, nunui,
a malaila no hoi ka ohe e kii ia ai
i mea oki no ka omaka o na keiki
o Hawaii, nolaila, kapa hou ia
kekahi inoa oia ulu ohe, o
Homaikaohe.
Eia ka lua o na ulu ohe kaulana,
aia no ma Hilo i Hawaii, o Halai
ka inoa oia ulu ohe kaulana. Ka
mea i kaulana ai oia ulu ohe, no
it is so famed is because the
bambus are numerous. It is there
that the rods for fishing the aku
are gotten by the Hawaiians.
These are the celebrated bambu
groves of Hawaii which I have
heard of. There are other notable
bambu groves, but then it is for
you to reveal them.
Here on Maui, at Koolau, East
Maui, Pohakea 57 is the name of
a bambu grove: it is also known
as Hinai. 58 It is a place where the
olona is treated at the present
time. Why this grove became
famous I do not know, but it is
the only noted bambu grove that
I have heard of here on Maui.
Oahu has no famed bambu
grove. Kauai is like Oahu; it has
no noted bambu grove.
Therefore, we know where the
bambu came from, that is,
through Hina; its place of origin
and its uses; and the places of
the notable groves hereinbefore
mentioned. This is all that I have
learned about the bambu.
Timothy Lililea.
ka nui o ka ohe, a malaila e kii ia
ai na ohe hiaku, a na kanaka o
Hawaii; oia iho la na ulu ohe
kaulana o Hawaii a’u i lohe ai; he
mau ulu ohe kaulana hou aku no
paha koe, na oukou nae hoi ia e
hoike ae.
Ko Maui nei hoi, aia ma Koolau, i
Maui Hikina, o Pohakea ka inoa
oia ulu ohe, o Hinai kekahi inoa
ona, he wahi kahi olona ia nae ia
e na kanaka i keia manawa, aka,
o ka moolelo i kaulana ai oia ulu
ohe, aole i maopopo i’au, oia iho
la ko Maui nei ulu ohe kaulana
a’u i lohe ai.
Ma Oahu hoi, aole ulu ohe
kaulana malaila.
Ko Kauai hoi, ua like no me ko
Oahu, aole ulu ohe kaulana
malaila. Nolaila, ua maopopo ae
la ia kakou, kahi i loaa mai ai o
ka ohe, oia hoi, mai a Hina mai,
kahi i loaa ai, ame kana mau
hana, ame na wahi ulu ohe
kaulana i hai ia iho nei, oia iho la
kahi mea i loaa i’au no ka
moolelo o ka ohe.

THE COCONUT.
The coconut 59 is not a tree
indigenous to Hawaii nei,
because no one can show and
no story can verify the idea that
this is an ancient plant from the
time of the origin of these
islands. And because of the lack
of this testimony some people
concluded that the coconut came
from Kahiki.
There are two conjectures as to
how the coconut was introduced
in Hawaii. 1. Brought here by the
sea. 2. Brought here by Apua 60
and his elder brother,
Aukelenuiaiku, and here is the
explanation: When the coconuts
grew in Kahiki they were near
the sea. As they bore fruit and
the fruit matured they dropped
here and there into the sea, and
the ocean current brought some
Timothy Lililea.
NO KA NIU.
O ka niu, aole ia he laau
kamaaina no Hawaii nei mai
kinohi mai, no ka mea, aole he
kanaka nana i hoike mai, aole
hoi he moolelo e hoike ana i ka
oiaio he laau kahiko ia mai ka
hoomaka ana mai o keia mau
mokupuni. A no ka nele ia mau
hoike, nolaila ua manao kekahi
poe no Kahiki mai ka niu.
Elua manao no ke kumu i hiki
mai ai ka niu i Hawaii nei. 1. I
lawe ia mai e ke kai. 2. I laweia
mai e Apua ame kona kaikuaana
me Aukelenuiaiku, a penei ka
wehewehe ana.
I ka wa e ulu ana ka niu i Kahiki
ua hele a kokoke iloko o ke kai; i
ka hua ana a maloo ka hua,
helelei no i loko o ke kai, a na ke
kai no i lawe i na hua i haule iho
ma kela wahi keia wahi, a lawe
and landed them here on Hawaii.
Upon being cast ashore and
entering the sand they took root
and grew and bore fruit. [592]And
when persons ate of the meat of
the coconut they proclaimed 61
[distributed] it from Hawaii to
Kauai, even unto this day. That
is one story concerning the
coconut.
Here is the second: Being
brought here by man. It is
thought that Apua and his
brother went to Kahiki and
brought the coconut here to
Hawaii, because they were sons
of Kahiki who came to Hawaii,
but it is not known where they
first landed on Hawaii. It is
thought that they first landed at
Puna, because there is a place
in Puna called Apua, known so
to this day. That is why it is
thought they first landed there.
From there they came and
landed at Lanai on the eastern
side of the pali of Kaholo. The
name of the place now is
Kaneapua; it is derived from the
name Apua. When they came
that time they did not bring any
loa ia mai kekahi hua i Hawaii
nei. I ka pae ana ma [593]kahakai
a komo iloko o ke one a hiki i ka
wa i ulu ai a hua a ai ia ka io e
kanaka, a na lakou i hoolaha ae
ma na wahi a pau mai Hawaii a
Kauai, a hiki i keia la. Oia
moolelo ia no ka niu.
Eia ka lua. O ka lawe ia ana mai
e ke kanaka. Ua manao na Apua
ma no i kii i ka niu i Kahiki a lawe
mai i Hawaii nei, nokamea, he
mau keiki laua no Kahiki a holo
mai i Hawaii nei, aole nae i
hoomaopopoia ko laua wahi i
pae ai o Hawaii nei i kinohi. Ua
manao ia nae ua pae mua laua i
Puna, no ka loaa ana o kekahi
inoa ma Puna elike me ka inoa o
Apua, oia inoa no a hiki i keia
wa, oia ka mea i manao ia ai ua
pae mua laua ilaila.
Mailaila mai laua a pae i Lanai,
ma ka aoao hikina o ka pali o
Kaholo. O ka inoa i keia wa o
Kaneapua ma ka inoa no o Apua
i kapa ia ai. Ma ia holo ana mai
nae a laua aole laua i lawe mai i
na mea kanu no ka manao ua
plants, because they thought all
the plants of Kahiki grew here.
And because they got in trouble
and were famished, that is why
they went back to Kahiki for
food. When they arrived at
Kahiki, the canoes could not land
on account of the high surf.
In sailing Apua sat on the
manu 62 of the canoe and
directed its course properly. On
their voyage the canoe was filled
with coral rock for the purpose of
deceiving. While they were
floating outside Kaulaku spied
the canoe. He suspected they
were canoes seeking to buy
food. He also thought they did
not, on account of the storm.
Therefore, Kaulaku showed
them a banana. Apua saw that
and he bowed his head and
spoke to his people, “Show them
a coral.” They picked up a large,
coarse, red coral rock and
showed it. It did look like a ripe
banana outside, and Apua again
said, “Tell them that what you
have is banana; it has grown and
sprouted, leaves have shot forth,
and it has borne fruit; the fruit
has been left in Hawaii.” And
ulu na mea apau o Kahiki ianei.
A no ka nui o ko laua pilikia
pololi, nolaila, o ko laua hoi hou
no ia i Kahiki i ka ai. I ko laua
hiki ana i Kahiki, aole i pae na
waa i ka aina, no ka nui o ke kai
koo.
I ka holo ana, o Apua, oia no
mamua maluna o ka manu o ka
waa nana e nana i ka pono o ka
holo ana. I ka holo ana, ua
hoopiha ia na waa i ke akoakoa i
mea e hoopunipuni ai. Ia lakou e
lana ana, ike maila o Kaulaku i
na waa, manao maila he mau
waa kuai ai, nolaila manao maila
ia aole e hiki ke pae iuka no ka
nui o ke kai, nolaila, hoikeike
maila o Kaulaku i ka maia, ike
akula o Apua a kulou ihola ke
poo ilalo, i aku i kanaka: “E
hoikeike aku i ka puna”; hoike
akula lakou he puna wanawana
ulaula e like me he ili maia la o
waho me ka i ana aku o Apua:
“E hai aku oukou he maia ia; ua
ulu, ua kupu, ua lau, ua hua, aia
no i Hawaii na hua.” A lohe aku
la o Kaulaku i aku la oia i
kanaka: “E, ke i maila lakou la
he maia ua loaa no ka ia lakou
when Kaulaku heard this he said
to his people, “Say, they are
saying that that is banana, and
that they have it at Hawaii.” They
therefore threw out the fruit, the
tree, the leaves and the suckers;
the others got them, for they
were sorely beset with hunger.
Taro was also shown them. They
did for that as in the first place;
they indicated that it has grown
and sprouted; it has leaved out
and it has borne fruit and the fruit
was still at Hawaii: the shore
people therefore threw the taro
into the sea, and those on the
canoe gathered them up. They
did this until everything was
gathered by those on the canoe,
the plants and the leaves and
put them in the canoes.
Afterwards the shore people
brought a tall tree which they
stood in the sand, its trunk and
its leaves. That plant in Hawaii
nei is called Halapepe. 63 When
Apua saw this he instructed his
men to erect on a canoe a large
plant with branches resembling
the coconut. They told the shore
people that it was a coconut; that
it had grown and sprouted,
aia no i Hawaii.” Ia manawa kiloi
ia maila o ka hua, o ke kumu, o
ka lau, o keiki; pau maila ia
lakou nei, e ia nae ua pau lakou
nei i ka pololi ia wa.
Hoike hou ia mai no ke kalo;
hana no lakou nei e like me ka
hana mua, ua ulu, ua kupu, ua
lau, ua hua, aia no i Hawaii na
hua, o ka lakou la hana no ke
kiloi iloko o ke kai pau no ia
lakou nei i ka ohi. Pela no ka
hana ana a pau na mea ia lakou
nei i ka ohi ia mai; o kumu, o ka
lau kau iluna o na waa. Mahope,
lawe ia mai ana kekahi kumu
laau loihi a ku ana i ke one, o ke
kumu o ka lau. O ka inoa oia
laau i Hawaii nei he halapepe. A
ike aku la o Apua, kena ae la ia i
kanaka e kukulu i kekahi kumu
laau nui me na lala no e like me
ka niu, iluna o na waa. I aku la
lakou nei he niu ia, ua kupu, ua
ulu, ua lau, ua hua aia no i
Hawaii. No ka lakou nei olelo
ana aku pela, ke kiloi ia maila no
ia a loaa aku la ia lakou nei, kau
mai la iluna o na waa. O ka hua
leaved and had borne fruit in
Hawaii. Because they said this
the halapepe was thrown into the
sea, and they got it and put it
into the canoes. The canoes
were loaded with eatables,
trunks and leaves when they
landed in Hawaii nei.
When they returned they landed
at Puna, and all the plants were
landed there. The coconut was
planted there at Kahaualea 64
and Kalapana; that is where the
first [594]coconuts were first
planted, and after that they were
taken and planted in other parts
of Hawaii nei. Some people think
that is how the coconut was
brought here to Hawaii, either by
the action of the sea or
introduced by Apua and
Aukelenuiaiku.
Next, let us consider the value of
the trunk of the coconut tree, the
fruit, the husk, the shell, the
meat, the leaves and their
midrib. 1. The value of the trunk
of the coconut tree in the olden
time. The trunk of the coconut
tree was made into a dancing
drum 65 in the olden time; it is
o ka lakou nei laau o ka
hoopunipuni ana, he puna; ua
hana ia a me he hua niu ’la. Hele
a piha na waa i na mea ai, o
kumu o ka lau, ku mai i Hawaii
nei.
I ka hoi ana mai pae no i Puna;
ilaila kahi i hoolei ia ai na mea a
pau. A kanu ia ka niu ilaila ma
Kahaualea nae a me Kalapana
kahi i hooulu ia ’i ka niu o Hawaii
[595]nei, a mai laila ae hoolaha ia
ma na wahi apau o Hawaii nei.
Oia na kumu i manao ia ’i pela, i
hiki mai ai ka niu i Hawaii nei.
Oia hoi ka lawe ana mai a ke
kai, a me Apua laua o
Aukelenuiaiku.
Pau ia. E imi kakou i ka waiwai o
ke kumu o ka niu, ka hua, ka
pulu, ka iwi, ka io, ka lau, a me
ka niau.
1. Ka waiwai o ke kino o ka Niu i
ka wa kahiko. Ua hana ia ke kino
o ka niu i pahu hula i ka wa
kahiko, ua olelo ia he keu ia o ka
said that that kind of a drum
excelled in sound. To prepare it,
it was hewn to perfection. 66 The
[upper] end was covered over
with the skin of the kala, or the
shark. It was generally very well
prepared.
Another value: It was used for
house building. It was used for
the houses of chiefs in the olden
times, and often helped in the
construction of large houses of
the people and the chiefs. They
were used for door posts, posts
for the gates of pens confining
animals, hat blocks for the
women, even to this time. They
are also used for a bowl in which
to pound noni, hili, coffee, etc.
This tree is large and tall, though
some are short. Its leaves are
unlike those of other trees
growing here. The leaves grow
in a bunch in one place; their
narrow lanceolate segments
project in parallel lines. The fruit
comes out of the body, sprouting
out amid the hollow of the
leaves. When the fruits first
come out they can not be
detected, for they are [encased]
pahu kani. I ka hana ana, ua
kalai ia no a maikai loa. O ke
pani i hana ia’i ma na poo, he ili
kala, a me ka ili mano; ua hana
ia no a maikai loa.
Eia kekahi. O ka hana ia ana i
laau hale. O ia laau no ka laau
hale o na ’lii i ka wa kahiko, a
paa na hale nui o na kanaka a
me na ’lii, oia no ka pani puka
kikiki, he mea pou puka pa
holoholona, he mea pahu papale
na ka wahine, a hiki mai no i
keia wa, he pahu kui noni, kui
hili, kui kope a pela aku.
O ke ano o keia laau he nunui,
he loloa, he pokopoko no hoi
kekahi. O kona mau lala aole i
like me ko kekahi mau laau e ae
e ulu nei. O ka ulu ana o na lala
he ulu pupupu no i kahi hookahi,
o kona lau he manamana; o kahi
e puka ae ai o ka hua, mai loko
ae no o ke kino a puka ae ma na
poaeae o na lala. O ka hua, aole
i ike ia i ka wa e puka ae ai, ua
paa i ka wahi ia, aia a nahae ae
in wrappers; when the wrappers
are broken through, then [the
cluster of flowers] would be
seen. When the flowers fall off,
then the fruit [in a cluster] would
be noticed hanging down. Its
meat is very palatable.
Characteristic of the fruit: the
fruit is somewhat round, but not
round as is the uliuliu gourd, but
somewhat ovoid with the lower
part flattened. That is its
appearance. Its meat is inside;
when you have peeled off the
husk, and broken the shell, then
you come to the meat. It is as
white as the snow on the
mountain. Inside of the meat is a
pool of water. It [the coconut] has
three eyes, 67 two of which are
blind, and one through which the
water comes out.
2. Let us consider the value of
the husk. The husk was made
into twine in olden time. Two
kinds of twine 68 were made in
those days; a twine plaited flat,
and a twine regularly twisted.
The twine plaited flat was used
for tying parts of canoes, for
pahee cords and various other
ka wahi, alaila, ike ia aku na
pua. A pau na pua i ka helelei,
alaila ike ia aku na hua i ka
oloolo mai. O kona io he ono loa.
Ke ano o ka hua. Ke ano o ka
hua he hua poepoe. Aole nae i
poepoe elike me ke uliuliu ka
poepoe, aka, he kihikihi o waho,
he omuomuo aku o lalo. Oia
kona ano. O ka io aia iloko, aia a
ihi ia ka pulu, a wahi ia ae ka iwi,
alaila loaa ka io ua keokeo me
he hau la no ke kuahiwi. A
maloko o laila he loko wai. Ekolu
ona maka; elua maka ike ole,
hookahi maka e puka ai ka wai.
2. E imi i ka waiwai o ka pulu. Ua
hana ia ka pulu i kaula. Elua ano
o ke kaula i hana ia ia wa; he
kaula hili palaha, he kaula hilo
maoli. O ke kaula hili palaha, ua
hana ia i lanalana waa, i kaula
pahee a me kekahi hana e ae no
e pili ana no ia kaula. Ina e kuai
uses. If it is sold, one can make
money, say five dollars for forty
fathoms. 69
The twine regularly twisted. This
was used for making netting for
calabashes, and for fishing lines.
There were many kinds of
network of strings made in the
olden times for the chiefs, and so
forth; but if the calabash netting
were to be sold for money, one,
two, three or four dollars could
be secured for each calabash
netting. How valuable! Another
thing: door mats for wooden
houses of the white men were
made of husks. That is the value
of the husk. [596]
3. The value of the shell. Here
are the uses of the shell: as
calabashes, fish bowls, awa
cups, hula calabashes, rings,
tobacco containers, spoons,
bowls for pounding bait, and
water cups.
4. The value of the meat. Here
are some of the uses of the
meat: the meat of the coconut is
palatable; when it is scraped
until a large bowl is filled and
ia, ua loaa no ke kala, oia hoi he
kanaha anana, elima kala.
O ke kaula hilo maoli ia. O kona
waiwai he koko, he aho lawaia.
He nui na ano koko e hana ia ai
na na ’lii i ka wa kahiko, a pela
aku, aka, ina e makemake ia ke
koko e kuai i ke kala, ua loaa
elua, ekolu, eha kala no ke koko
aha; waiwai no! O kekahi, ua
hanaia i mea hehi wawae ma ka
puka o na hale laau o na haole i
keia wa. Oia ka waiwai no ka
pulu. [597]
3. Ka waiwai o ka iwi. Eia ka
waiwai o ka iwi. He umeke, he
ipukai, apu awa, puniu hula,
komo lima, poho paka, he puna,
he poho kui palu, he kiaha wai.
4. Ka waiwai o ka io. Eia ka
waiwai o ka io. He mea ono ka io
o ka niu, ke wawahi ia i piha ke
poi nui, kanana a maikai me he
waiu la ke ano; a kalua ka uala a
strained, it looks like milk; cook
the potatoes and, when done,
clean and mash, and mix with
the milk of the coconut; when it
is eaten it is exceedingly
palatable; that is called the poi
palau. It is also mixed with raw
taro and baked in the imu. It
must be tightly bundled so as not
to flow in the imu (oven). When it
is eaten it tastes like pork
cooked under ground. This is
called kulolo.
5. The value of the leaf. In the
olden time here in Hawaii the
leaves of the coconut were used
for making mats, skirts, hats,
fans, and fishing baskets, cover
for lanai of houses, and in
thatching for houses. It is said
that a man once used a coconut
leaf with which to jump from a
coconut tree into the sea.
6. Concerning the oil. Coconut is
valuable for its oil. Here is how it
is prepared. When the coconut is
young, that is the proper time for
extracting oil from it. When
desirous of making some, a man
must carry a tub and leave it by
the tree, right under where the
moa, alaila, lomi pu me ka niu a
wali, i ka ai ana aku, aole o kana
mai o ka ono, a kapa ia kona
inoa, he poi palau. O kekahi, he
hui ia me ke kalo maka, kalua i
ka imu a moa me ka wahi ia a
paa loa i ole e kahe iloko o ka
imu. I ka ai ana aku ua like me
ka puaa hoolua ka ono. Ua kapa
ia kona inoa he kulolo.
5. Ka waiwai o ka lau. I kinohi i
ka wa naaupo o Hawaii nei, ua
hana ia ka lau o ke niu i moena, i
pa-u, i papale, i peahi, i eke
lawaia, i mea lanai hale, a he
mea kukulu hale. Ua olelo ia me
ka lau niu i lele ai kekahi kanaka
mai luna aku o ke kumu niu a
haule iloko o ke kai.
6. No ka aila. He aila kekahi
waiwai o ka niu. Penei ka hana
ana. I ka manawa opiopio o ka
niu oia ka wa kupono e hana ai i
ka aila. I ka hana ana halihali
aku ke kanaka i ka pahu a
kukulu ma ke kumu, malalo pono
o kahi e kau ana o ka hua o ka
fruits are hanging then go for the
young fruit, cut open the bud and
let the water drip into the tub;
when that is finished, repeat the
operation at the next tree, and
continue this until the tub is full,
then pack it to the house and
convert 70 it into oil. When it is
lighted it burns brightly like the
whale oil. It is also used for
dressing the hair.
7. The value of the midrib of the
leaf. In the olden times here in
Hawaii, the midrib of the coconut
segments was separated with
care and was used for stringing
candlenuts; for props 71 for the
feathers of chickens, turkeys and
other fowls when made into
kahilis for the chiefs. It is also
used in making brooms with
which to sweep the decks of
ships, and houses wherein
people sleep. It was also used
as a dancing instrument in the
olden time. It is also used in
catching aama (black flat crab).
Such is the whole story
concerning the coconut which
was sought with much
weariness.
niu, alaila kii aku o ka hua
opiopio, ooki ae i ka muo, alaila
kulu aku ka wai a loko o ka
pahu, a pau ia, lawe hou aku
ana ma ia kumu aku ana, pela
no e hana mau ai a piha ka
pahu, alaila hoihoi i ka hale e
hana ai a lilo i aila. I ka puhi ana
ua like me ka aila o ke kohola ka
aa maikai. He hamo lauoho
kekahi hana.
7. Ka waiwai o ka niau. Ua hana
ia ka niau ma Hawaii nei i ka wa
kahiko a maikai loa, he mea
manai kukui, he mea niau kahili i
haku ia me ka hulu moa, palahu,
a me ka hulu manu e ae no na
’lii. Ua hana ia nohoi i mea kahili
lepo no luna o na moku, a me
loko no hoi o na hale moe o
kanaka. He mea hula puili no ka
wa kahiko. Ua hana ia no hoi i
mea pahele aama.
O ia ka moolelo e pili ana i na
mea a pau o ka niu, i imi ia me
ka luhi.
 [Kauwenaole.]
The coconut is one of the tallest
trees growing down in Lahaina.
This is how the coconut was
obtained: it was brought here by
a man with very long bones,
named Kane. He came from the
border of Kahiki and brought it
with him.
This is how Kane brought the
coconut: formerly it was short,
about one yard. When it was
planted it was attended by much
labor. A man could reach for the
fruit with his hand without
climbing. But here is the strange
thing: when a certain chief
wanted coconut he ordered his
servant to climb for some. When
the servant reached for the
coconut the tree lengthened and
grew taller. He was surprised at
this lengthening of the tree, so
he climbed up. The tree grew
taller until it was one hundred
[598]fathoms high; so he
descended and went to the
house of his master. The master
asked him: “How about the
[Kauwenaole.]
O ka niu, oia no kekahi laau loihi
e ku nei makai o Lahaina. O ke
kumu i loaa mai ai ka niu, ua
lawe ia mai e kekahi kanaka iwi
loihi, o Kane ka inoa. No kukulu
o Kahiki mai oia, a nana no i
lawe mai.
Penei ke ano o ka lawe ana mai
o Kane i ka niu. I ka wa mamua
he pokole ua like me ka iwilei
hookahi. I ka wa i kanu ia’i ua
nui ka hana ana. Ua hiki no i ke
kanaka ke lalau aku me ka lima,
me ka pii ole ae iluna. Eia ka
mea kupanaha, i ka wa i ono ai
kekahi alii i ka niu, kena aku oia i
kona kahu e pii aku i ka niu. I ka
wa i lalau ae ai ka lima, o ka wa
no ia i pii ae ai ka niu a loihi.
Haohao ihola ia i ke kumu o ka
pii ana o ka niu, hookokoke aku
oia. O ka wa noia e pii hou ae ai
a hiki [599]i ka hanele anana, a
hoi ihola oia ilalo hele aku oia a
hiki i ka hale o kona haku. Ninau
mai la oia ia ianei: “Pehea aku
nei ka hoi ka niu?” “Aole i loaa
coconuts?” “I did not get any; to
be sure it is only low, but when I
started to climb it grew very
high.” The chief asked: “Then
you did not meet Kane, the
owner of the coconut?” He said
he had not. The chief answered:
“That is the reason you did not
get any.” It was a famous saying
among the children of that time
that you can not get the
coconuts of Kane. That was the
queer thing about this coconut
tree.
Here are the values of the
coconut: its fruit is very
palatable; it is made into sweet
potato pudding, taro pudding or
starch pudding. That was the
way the old people used it. It
was, however, kapu; only men
could eat it. Coconuts were also
offered in temples so that the
gods might be propitiated.
Another benefit was: its shell
when made into calabashes for
the chiefs, as also awa cups.
These are the principal values of
this tree. I am not proficient on
this subject. There is much
difficulty attending the search for
he uuku wale no hoi, i pii ae ko’u
hana, o ka pakela loihi aku ia.”
Ninau mai ke alii: “Aole ka paha i
halawai oe me Kane, ka mea
nana ka niu?” Hoole aku oia. I
maila oia, “O ia no ke kumu nui o
ko nele ana.” A he mea kaulana
no ia i ka waha o na keiki oia wa,
ua pane ae lakou penei: “Aole e
loaa na niu a Kane ia oe.” A pela
iho la ke ano eepa o keia laau
he niu.
Eia na mea waiwai o keia laau o
ka niu. He ono loa kona hua, ua
hana koele palau ia, a kulolo
paha, a i ole ia he haupia. Pela
ka hana ana o ka poe kahiko, he
kapu nae, na ke kane wale no e
ai. Ua kau ia no kekahi niu
maluna o ka heiau i mea e maliu
mai ai ke ’kua.
O kekahi waiwai ua hana ia kona
iwi i umeke ai na na ’lii, a he
apuawa kekahi. O ia iho la ka
waiwai nui o keia laau. Aole no
wau i makaukau no keia kumu
manao. He nui no ka paakiki o
ka imi ana i ke kumu o ka loaa
its origin, and this is what I have
ascertained. If any person knows
anything further, he had better
reveal it to the public.
Sema.
THE BANANA FIELD OF
KAHUOI AND OTHER
FAMOUS PLACES.
This banana field is a large one;
its length is the same as its
width, square in shape, but if a
person wishes to visit it he
should do so with a resident, 72
else he can not get around it,
because he would go astray.
There is only one way by which
a stranger can walk around that
banana field, by putting up
marks. There must be four
marks; then you who wish to
encircle the field should start
from one end. When walking do
not cast your eyes to this side or
that side; keep walking straight
ana mai, a o ka’u wahi mea no ia
i loaa. Ina ua lohe kekahi poe,
ua pono no ke hai ae imua o ke
akea.
Sema.
NO KA E-A MAIA A
KAHUOI, A ME NA
WAHI PANA.
O ke ano o keia e-a maia, he e-a
maia nui no, o kona loa, ua ano
like no me ka laula, he huinaha
like nae kona ano; aka, ina
makemake ke kanaka e hele e
makaikai, e hele me kekahi
kamaaina. Aole no e puni ana,
no ka mea, he huhewa ka hele
ana, hookahi wale no mea e
puni ai ia oe e ka malihini kela e-
a maia, o ko hoailona i mau
hoailona nau, o ka nui nae o na
hoailona au e makemake ai e
hoailona, i eha hoailona, alaila,
hele oe e ka mea e makemake
ana e makaikai, a ma kekahi
ahead, then you can completely
encompass it; that is the way
with this banana field; he who
does not follow instructions can
not walk all around it.
The owner of this banana field.
The owner of this banana field is
the one mentioned above, that is
Kahuoi. This man came from
Hawaii, and he left there
because he could not agree with
his parents, Kauahua and
Heana. Kauahua was the father
and Heana was the mother. Why
he did not agree with his parents
was because this boy was lazy
and would not do any cultivating.
The father continually urged the
child to go to work, but he would
not heed any instructions the
father gave him; therefore the
father concluded to send his son
away from home. When the son
was sent away he went down to
the beach and saw a canoe
ready for departure. He asked
the man on the canoe: “Where is
the canoe going?” Kilua
answered: “The canoe is going
to Maui.” Kahuoi said: “Please
aoao mai, alaila, hoomaka oe e
hele mai, i kou hele ana, mai
alawa kou maka ma-o a ma-o, e
pono hele no imua, alaila, e puni
ana ia oe, oia iho la ke ano o
keia e-a maia, he puni ole i ka
mea hookuli ke a’oa’o ia.
Ka mea nana keia e-a maia. O
ka mea nana keia e-a maia, na
ka mea no i hai ia ae nei
maluna, oia hoi o Kahuoi. O kahi
i hele mai ai o keia kanaka, mai
Hawaii mai no ia, a no ka nui o
ke paonioni o Kahuoi me kona
mau makua, oia hoi o Kauahua
laua me Heana. O Kauahua ka
makuakane o Heana ka
makuahine; ke kumu o keia
paonioni ona me kona mau
makua no ka molowa o keia
keiki i ka mahiai, ua a’o mau aku
ka makuakane i keiki e hele i ka
mahiai, aole nae he maliu mai o
ke keiki i ka ka makua ao aku,
nolaila, kupu ka manao iloko o
ka makuakane, a kipaku i kana
keiki, a i ka hele ana o keia keiki,
hiki oia ma ka aekai ike oia i
kekahi waa e holo ana. Ninau
aku ia i ke kanaka oluna o ua
waa nei: “He waa e holo ana i
hea?” Hai mai o Kilua: “He waa
allow me to go with you?” The
man consented. They sailed until
they came to the observation
point of land for ulua. Alau is the
name of this point. On their
arrival there, Kahuoi asked Kilua:
“Say, how is the canoe to be
headed?” Kilua answered: “Head
the canoe for Hamoa.” 73 Kahuoi
changed to the [600]bailing
place 74 and Kilua took up the
paddle. 75 While they were
paddling along, a large wave
sprang up behind them, and
Kahuoi called out to Kilua: “Say,
Kilua, keep the canoe on the
crest,” and they raced along until
they arrived in the harbor above
mentioned. Kahuoi then went
and lived at Keakamanu; 76 and
because he could not get
enough to eat he kept wandering
on until he found a favorable
place, right above Waiohonu; 77
while living there it entered his
mind to plant bananas for
himself, because he had noticed
bananas growing about, and that
is the banana field which we are
hearing of.
e holo ana i Maui.” Olelo aku o
Kahuoi: “E aho la hoi owau
kekahi e holo pu me oukou?” Ae
mai no ua kanaka nei; i ko lakou
hoomaka ana mai e holo, a
kaalo ana ka waa o laua nei ma
ka lae kiu ulua, o Alau ka inoa
oia wahi moku, a i ko lakou hiki
ana malaila, ninau aku o Kahuoi
ia Kilua: “E, ihea ka ihu o ka
waa?” Hai mai o Kilua: “I Hamoa
ka ihu o ka waa,” nee aku la o
Kahuoi a ma Kainaliu, lilo aku la
[601]ka hoe ia Kilua. Ia lakou nei
nae e hoe ana, ku ana keia nalu
mahope o lakou; olelo aku la o
Kahuoi ia Kilua: “E Kilua e, i ke
poi ka waa;” o ka pae mai la noia
o ka waa o lakou nei, a kau ana i
kela awa i hai ia ae nei maluna.
O ko Kahuoi hele aku la noia a
noho ma Keakamanu no ka lawa
kupono ole o ka ai ia ia,
hoomaka keia e hele hiki i kona
wahi i makemake ai e noho,
noho keia mauka pono o
Waiohonu, i ko ianei noho ana
malaila, kupu mai la ka manao
iloko ona e kanu i maia nana, no
kona ike ana iho i ka maia e ulu
ana, oia iho la keia e-a mai a
kakou i lohe iho nei.
While he was planting, he heard
the voice of a bird, a paio, 78 and
it said: “That is a favorable place
you have selected for planting;
that banana field of yours will be
famous.” That was perhaps the
time when birds talked. After he
had planted the field, and
noticed that the banana trees
were growing well, he built
himself a house. The house he
built was of banana leaves. He
also planted sugar-cane, taro
and various other things.
when the bananas
came into bearing and
who first ate them.
One day he looked at his
plantation and he noticed that
the bananas were ripe, that other
plants grew well, that the cane
had lain down and come up
again. 79 He walked from one end
of the field to the other. While
going about he noticed a man
plucking his bananas, so he said
to him: “So Kinikuapuu is the one
to eat of the banana field of
Kahuoi!” Kinikuapuu answered:
“True, I am eating of your
I ko ianei kanu ana, lohe oia i ka
leo o kekahi manu, he paio ka
inoa, e i mai ana: “He wahi
maikai kena ke kanu oe, alaila, e
kaulana ana kena e-a maia au.” I
ka wa olelo paha ia o ka manu. I
ko ianei kanu ana a ulu, a ike
keia i ke ano ulu maikai o ka e-a
maia a ia nei, o ko ia nei kukulu
iho la noia i hale nona, he hale
laumaia no ka hale ana i ako ai,
kanu keia i ke ko, ke kalo, ia
mea aku ia mea aku.
ka hua ana o ka maia ka
mea nana i ai e mamua.
I ko ia nei nana i ka e-a maia a
ia nei, ike aku la keia i ka palaku
o ka maia a ianei ame na mea
kanu no a pau, ke ko, ua moe a
ua ala mai, i ko ianei makaikai
ana mao a maanei, ike aku la
keia i kekahi kanaka e uhaki ana
i ka maia a ianei, o ko ianei pane
aku la no ia:
“O Kinikuapuu ka ka mea nana i
ai ka e-a maia a Kahuoi.” Pane
mai o Kinikuapuu: “Na’u la hoi i
banana field; the rising of the
sun warms Ieiea [and] Poopalu,
the fishermen of Makalii.” This
man Kinikuapuu came from
Kauai. He came with these
fishermen and landed at Oahu,
and from Oahu to Maui, landing
at Kaupo. When he came from
Kaupo, he arrived at this place
above mentioned. While they
lived at this place they were
great friends; there was plenty to
eat; bananas, of course.
the famine at the
seashore.
Famine was raging below
Waiohonu, near Hana, Maui. The
children, the men and the
women were in great need. The
famine had even reached as far
as the konohiki’s 80 place of
residence, and the konohiki was
ai kau e-a maia, ka hikina a ka la
pumehana ai o Ieiea o Poopalu
o na lawaia o Makalii.” O ka ai
wale no ka Kinikuapuu i ka maia,
na keia mau kanaka ka maona
ana, no ka mea o keia mau
kanaka, he mau kupua no laua,
oia hoi na lawaia ae nei a
Makalii. O keia kanaka o
Kinikuapuu, no Kauai mai no ia,
ua hele mai oia me keia mau
lawaia a pae ma Oahu, a mai
Oahu mai, a pae ma Maui nei
ma Kaupo nae kona pae ana. I
kona hoomaka ana e hele mai
Kaupo aku, hiki ma keia wahi i
haiia ae nei maluna. I ka wa a
laua nei e noho ana, noho
aikane iho la laua nei me ka
oluolu o ka noho ana, ua nui ka
ai, ka maia no hoi.
no ka wi ana o kai.
Aia makai o Waiohonu, kokoke
ma Hana, ma Maui nei, ua nui
loa ka wi, a ua pilikia na keiki, na
kane, a me na wahine, ua hiki
loa aku keia wi a hiki ma kahi o
ke konohiki e noho ana, a ua nui
ka pilikia o ke konohiki no ka nui