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Psychopharmacology for Mental Health Professionals: An Integrative Approach 2nd Edition, (Ebook PDF) full chapter instant download
Psychopharmacology for Mental Health Professionals: An Integrative Approach 2nd Edition, (Ebook PDF) full chapter instant download
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Contents
PART ONE
An Overview of the New Edition 1
What Is an Integrative Approach? 1
1 Introduction 3
Encouragement to the Reader 3
A Mantra 3
Scientific Truth and the Acceleration of Knowledge 4
Chapter One: Section Two 6
Everybody Is Right (About Something): The Many Faces of Truth 6
The Medical Model Perspective 7
The Psychological Perspective 8
The Cultural Perspective 9
The Social Perspective 9
Psychopharmacology and Magical Thinking 10
Moving On: What We Know, What We Do Not Know 11
The Case of Lawrence 11
The Mind–Brain Problem 12
The Epiphenomenon Hypothesis 13
The Dual-Substance Hypothesis 14
The Layout of This Book 15
Part One 15
Part Two 15
Part Three 15
Study Questions and Exercises 16
The Cerebellum 20
Exploring the Diencephalon 20
Exploring the Limbic System 22
Exploring the Telencephalon 22
Section Three: An Overview of Neurons and Glial Cells 23
The Basic Anatomy of a Neuron 24
Glial Cells 25
The Blood–Brain Barrier 26
Section Four: Types of Neurotransmitters 27
Glutamate (Glu) 28
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) 28
Acetylcholine (Ach) 28
Monoamine Neurotransmitters 29
Dopamine (DA) 29
Norepinephrine (NE) 29
“It’s Greek to Me” 29
Serotonin (5-HT) 29
Reality Is Complex and … 30
Section Five: The Story of Neurotransmission 31
Neurotransmission: The Team Players 31
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 31
Transporters 31
Enzymes 32
Receptors 32
Back to Neurotransmitters 32
Ions 32
Ion Channels 33
A View Within the Cell 33
The Process of Neurotransmission 33
First-Messenger Effects 33
Second-Messenger Effects 35
A Quick Review 35
What Happens When Neurotransmitters Bind to Receptors? 36
What Happens to the Released Neurotransmitter? 36
Section Six: Pharmacodynamics or How Psychotropic Medications Affect
Neurotransmission 36
Agonism and Antagonism 37
Mechanisms of Action with Effects on Production 37
Mechanisms of Action with Effects on Release of Neurotransmitter 38
Mechanisms of Action Targeting Neurotransmitter Deactivation 39
Summary 39
Case of Colleen 40
Class Exercise: The Psychodramatic Neuron 40
Study Questions and Exercises 41
Oral Administration 43
Inhalation 43
Injection 43
Transdermal Administration 44
Rectal Administration 44
Mucus Membrane (transmucosal) Administration 44
Section Two: Getting to the Bloodstream 44
Cell Membrane Permeability 44
Section Three: Drug Distribution 46
Section Four: Drug Binding and Types of Tolerance 47
Types of Tolerance 48
Section Five: Elimination of Drugs 49
The Renal System 50
The Liver and Drug Metabolism 50
Other Factors Affecting Pharmacokinetics 50
Case 51
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Contents ix
Confidentiality Issues 72
Confrontation Issues 72
Transference and Countertransference Issues 72
Section Four: Social Institutions and Their Impact on Psychotropic Medications 72
The Food and Drug Administration 73
Pharmacoeconomics 73
The Power of Pharmaceutical Companies 73
Pharmaceutical Company–Sponsored Research 74
Pharmaceutical Companies and Direct-to-Consumer Advertising 75
The Subculture of the Pharmaceutical Industry 76
The Drug Enforcement Agency 77
Conclusion 78
Summary 79
Study Questions and Exercises 79
PART TWO
Introduction 81
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x Contents
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Contents xi
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xii Contents
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Contents xiii
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xiv Contents
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Contents xv
PART THREE
Newer Issues 223
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xvi Contents
10 Herbaceuticals 260
The Behavior of Herbaceutical Use 261
Section One: Psychological Issues 262
Why Do People Take Herbaceuticals? 262
Mistrust of Traditional Western Medicine 262
Belief That Natural Products Are Safer Than Drugs 263
Acceptance of Anecdotal Testimony About Efficacy 263
Section Two: Issues of Culture 263
Section Three: Issues from the Social Perspective 264
Legal Issues 264
Section Four: Problems in Studying Medicinal Plants 264
Differences Between Herbs and Drugs 266
Section Five: Examining Better Known Herbaceuticals with Application for Psychiatric
Problems 267
St. John’s Wort 267
Mechanism of Action 267
Efficacy of St. John’s Wort 268
Side and Interaction Effects of St. John’s Wort 268
Kava 269
Mechanism of Action 269
Efficacy of Kava as an Anxiolytic 269
Side Effects and Adverse Reactions 270
Ginkgo Biloba 270
Mechanisms of Action 270
Efficacy of Ginkgo 270
Valerian Root 271
Mechanisms of Action 271
Efficacy of Valerian 271
Side and Adverse Effects 271
Ephedrine 271
Mechanisms of Action 272
Adverse Effects 272
Other Herbaceuticals 273
Passion Flower and Hops 273
Melatonin 273
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Contents xvii
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xviii Contents
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Contents xix
Glossary 342
References 350
Name Index 393
Subject Index 406
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Preface
These early years of the 21st century are a time of informed choices. The medications discussed in this
great opportunity for nonmedical mental health pro- book are like any tool. They can be used wisely or
fessionals. For the first time since the inception of the mendaciously misused. We have tried to present
mental health fields we have excellent research on both the benefits and risks of these medications as
how to treat many mental health symptoms like well as their implications for our society. We hope
depression and anxiety. Perhaps more importantly, dear reader that you find what you are seeking in
the lay public is learning what many of us in mental the following pages.
health fields have known for years: we don’t know
what causes mental disorders and when medications
work; we don’t fully understand why medications
work. There is no support for the overused cliché ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
that mental disorders are caused by chemical imbal- I (Ingersoll) want to thank my research assistants
ances in the brain. We know this now. Just because over these years, Kevin Blake, Laura McIntyre
we can intervene chemically (in some but not all and Doreen George Thomas. Thanks to Carlene
cases) in no way means the chemicals affected by the Ortiz for her selfless support when I was losing faith
intervention were “unbalanced” to begin with. The in my ability and my sense of vocation. Finally thanks
truth is we still don’t know what balanced brain to Cleveland State University for giving me sabbatical
chemistry is, let alone unbalanced brain chemistry. time to finish this project. CSU has been an excellent
So why is this a great time of opportunity for place for me to work and I appreciate the support I
nonmedical mental health professionals? Because have gotten there.
the public is learning that there are no psychotropic I (Rak) also wish to thank Drs. Patrick Enders,
medications that act as “magic bullets” that will Zinovi Goubar, Kay McKenzie, and Luis Ramirez.
“cure” mental disorders. Now that that misconcep- They are all careful and thoughtful psychiatrists
tion is dispelled we have a chance to teach laypeople working in the Cleveland area. They always took
which symptoms may respond to talk therapy, time to answer my questions and speak with me
which seem to require medications and which will about the dilemmas of medicating children and
likely respond to a combination of medications and adults. Thank you!
therapy. This sort of education and advocacy is crit- Finally, we both are so grateful to Julie Martinez
ical in all mental health professions to inform clients who believed enough in this project to give us a
and their families about what we know and what much needed extension when our lives were “off
we do not know. An informed client can then make the rails” and we needed more time.
xx
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P A R T O N E
This book is an introductory level text on psycho- allowed us to add sections on psychosocial treat-
pharmacology for students preparing for careers in ments, expand the discussion of medication and chil-
psychology, counseling, and social work. Like other dren, and add chapters on psychotropic medications
texts, we cover pharmacodynamics and pharmaco- and the elderly as well as drug replacement therapy
kinetics for each class of psychotropic medications. for addictions. Rather than simply listing study ques-
We also discuss psychosocial treatments that are tions at the end of each chapter, we have added
recommended concurrent with medications. In learning objectives for each main heading in the
addition, we discuss the psychological, cultural, and chapters and then review questions at the end of
social issues around psychopharmacology. In the each section that should tell the student whether or
United States, the pharmaceutical industry is an not they met the objectives. Our students have said
enormous economic force with at least two that because much of this information is new, this
lobbyists for every Senate and Congressional repre- style helps them “digest material” in “small bites.”
sentative (Petersen, 2009). The industry’s power This makes sense to us as we want the journey to
(like any other) can be used constructively or be nourishing for all readers.
destructively but it forms much of the cultural and
social discourse. Given this, it is unrealistic and irre-
sponsible to omit discussion of the relevant issues, WHAT IS AN INTEGRATIVE
which include influence on diagnosis, the creation of
DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), APPROACH?
and the increasing medicating of children and adoles- Integrative approaches have been around in psychol-
cents despite scant evidence supporting the practice. ogy and psychotherapy for decades and are making
Although this book is a revised edition of Psycho- their way into psychiatry and thinking about psycho-
pharmacology for Helping Professionals: An Integral pharmacology. In the 21st century, with a new diag-
Exploration, it is a different book. Our aim is that nostic manual (DSM-5), the truth is we still do not
this text meets your needs. Having used the first know definitively why people develop mental and
edition for six years, our students have taught us a emotional disorders and, when medications work,
great deal about how we can help them organize and precisely how they work. An integrative approach
learn this material. We have presented the basic is one that takes multiple perspectives on the topic
information (updated) in a more traditional manner being discussed. In this book, we will examine psy-
and deleted much of the historical discussion. This chotropic medications from four perspectives.
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2 PART ONE An Overview of the New Edition
The first perspective is from a biological or phys- laws governing psychotropic medications, power to
iological point of view. Because this model is fre- prescribe medications, and the economic power of
quently called the medical model, we will use that the pharmaceutical industry would all be views from
phrase when writing about this perspective. This the social perspective.
perspective examines what seems to be happening These four perspectives derive from Integral
in the nervous system when people are suffering Theory (Wilber, 2000) and, although the theory is
mental illness and what medications seem to do in far more complex than these four perspectives, it
the nervous system that correlates with a decrease emphasizes that the more perspectives you account
or remission of symptoms. The second perspective for, the more complete your understanding of the
is a psychological one. This is not usually part of topic in question. For example, because this book is
psychopharmacology books but if you are a clini- aimed at nonmedical mental health professionals or
cian you know it is important. What does the client students training to enter those professions, it would
think/feel about taking medication? How might not make sense to omit the psychological perspec-
medications change the subjective, phenomenolog- tive that offers ideas on how to work with clients
ical experience of the client? The psychological around medication issues that are more psychologi-
perspective is more concerned with the client’s cal than physiological. Equally, no discussion of
“mind” than their brain. pharmaceuticals can omit the power of the industry
The other two perspectives are cultural and social. without becoming two-dimensional and unrealistic.
The cultural perspective reflects the subjective shared Given that, as we progress we will be very clear
experience of particular groups. It reflects shared which perspectives we are using at different points
beliefs of groups whether they be groups of people in the book. Although a majority of the material is
identified with an ethnic label (e.g., Orthodox Jews) focused on the biological perspective (that we will
or the shared worldview of a client’s family of origin call the “medical model”) these other points of view
(e.g., “we don’t believe in mental illness or taking will give a fuller picture of psychopharmacology and
medication”). The social perspective reflects that help clinicians advocate for their clients across
more objective aspects of our society. Things like cultures.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
C H A P T E R O N E
Introduction
3
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4 PART ONE An Overview of the New Edition
The primary audience for this book is mental (1973, 1974) prepared a statistical estimate of how
health clinicians who may not have had much train- quickly knowledge has been growing, based on a
ing in biology, neurology, and psychopharmacology. variety of indicators. According to Anderla, if you
This includes counselors, psychologists, clinical social begin in the year 1 C.E. (which stands for Current
workers, marriage and family therapists, and sub- or Common, Era) it took 1500 years for knowledge
stance abuse counselors. We will refer specifically to double. The second doubling took only 250 years
to these different mental health professionals (1750). The third doubling took only 150 years
throughout the book as well as including all of (1900), the fourth 50 years (1950), and the fifth dou-
them in the phrase “mental health professionals.” bling only 10 years (1960). If there is any accuracy in
Although there are significant differences in the Anderla’s model, knowledge began doubling almost
training models of these different professionals, they monthly in the late 20th century (Wilson, 1992).
all draw on the same knowledge base when treating Increase in knowledge about the human brain is
clients in school or clinical settings. We also want to particularly pronounced.
add that there are several labels used to describe the The final decades of the 20th century unearthed
therapeutic relationships clients have with mental more knowledge about the human brain than all
health professionals. These labels include “counsel- prior centuries combined. One of the most exciting
ing,” “therapy,” “talk therapy,” “psychosocial inter- fields benefiting from these developments is
ventions,” and “psychotherapy.” There is great psychopharmacology. Pharmacology is the science
debate across the mental health professions about of the preparation, uses, and effects of drugs. Psycho-
whether and how these labels differ, but in this pharmacology is the branch of pharmacology related
book we use them synonymously for the sake of to the psychological effects of drugs and the use of
simplicity. While reading this book, you will notice drugs to treat symptoms of mental and emotional
technical terms highlighted with bold print the first disorders. These drugs are called psychotropic medica-
time they appear. These terms are defined in the tions. “Psyche” colloquially refers to “mind,” and
Glossary at the end of the book. Although not all “tropic” means “acting on” or “moving toward”
key terms are highlighted, those that nonmedical but many in the field would say these medications
mental health professionals are less likely to have act on the brain and this affects the mind.
been exposed to are defined in the Glossary. We Developing neuroscience technologies have
encourage you to keep a dictionary handy for helped accelerate brain research and change in
other terms that may be new to you. If you come the field of psychopharmacology by letting scien-
across a word you do not understand, stop reading tists peer more deeply into the brain and nervous
and check the definition in the glossary or a dictio- system. The latest technological advances include
nary. Many readers skip over unfamiliar words positron emission tomography (PET) scans,
assuming the meaning will become clear in a later magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Diffusion
sentence. Clarifying unfamiliar words when they Tensor Imaging (DTI), Voxel-Based Morphome-
occur adds to the enjoyment of reading the book try, and magneto-encephalography. PET scans for
and facilitates a better understanding of the topic. brain functions work thus: The technician injects a
radioactive form of oxygen into a person and then
asks the person to perform a particular task under a
SCIENTIFIC TRUTH AND THE PET scanner. Because the brain area most active
during the task requires more oxygen, the PET
ACCELERATION OF KNOWLEDGE scanner can trace the radioactive oxygen to those
It is no secret that knowledge accumulation is accel- sites in the brain used in the task. The computer
erating. We are familiar with the label “information scanner then generates a picture that maps the
explosion” to describe this phenomenon. In the brain activity. MRI scans generate images by mag-
early 1970s, the French economist Georges Anderla netizing hemoglobin (the iron-containing colored
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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VII
Huit jours plus tard, de toutes ces visions, rien n’était resté dans
la tête de la jeune femme.
Le lendemain matin même, la clarté du jour avait dissipé comme
un rêve le souvenir de ces réalités.
Elle disait à l’abbé :
— Est-ce moi, Monsieur l’abbé, qui suis cause de ce grand
malheur ? Voyons, la comtesse écoutait. Comment prévoir cela ?
Que dirait-on si l’on me surprenait faisant une chose pareille ? Et
puis, suis-je allée chercher Paul pour cette discussion ? C’est lui qui
a commencé… Si vous aviez vu et entendu ! Il m’a exaspérée : j’ai
répliqué. Et si ce n’est pas lui qui a frappé au cœur sa malheureuse
mère, mettons-nous que ce soit nous ; mais ce n’est pas moi seule.
Voilà, Monsieur l’abbé, ce qu’il faut bien lui dire.
Ces beaux raisonnements positifs, elle les fit accepter sans peine
à Albert, qu’elle put voir, chez lui, à qui elle put parler un instant en
particulier, dans un coin du salon, tandis que Paul, causant avec
Madame de Barjols, n’osait pas les interrompre, — pour ne pas
inquiéter la vieille dame.
L’abbé, lui, répondait à cette dialectique :
— C’est fort bien raisonné, cela, ma pauvre enfant, mais
beaucoup trop bien ! Ne comprenez-vous pas que Paul s’est fait tous
ces reproches ? Toutes ces choses, il se les est dites à lui-même. Ce
n’est pas à vous de les dire, ni de les penser. La générosité, la
tendresse, le pardon, l’amour, sont plus grands que la justice, ma
pauvre enfant, plus grands par conséquent que la justesse des
meilleurs raisonnements les mieux arrangés par la parole. Il faut
aimer. L’amour éclaire tout d’une autre lumière… Mais il faut
découvrir l’amour soi-même. Cherchez en vous. Résistez au passé.
Cherchez l’éternel.
Alors, l’ancienne Rita renaissait. Elle commençait à le trouver
ennuyeux, l’abbé… « Il me manquait celui-là. Ça n’était déjà pas si
drôle… Et, à présent, me revoilà en deuil… Ah ! non ! ça n’est pas
gai, l’existence… Pas même moyen d’aller au spectacle ! »
Berthe était revenue la voir. C’est à elle qu’elle parlait ainsi.
Elle sentait bien que même son repentir ne lui rendrait pas son
mari. Il y avait entre eux maintenant la mort de la comtesse. Cet
obstacle-là était certainement infranchissable. Alors ? — Alors, n’est-
ce pas, elle ne pouvait pourtant pas renoncer à la vie ?… Elle avait
eu joliment raison de se ménager une issue pour sortir de cet
abîme : Albert, lui seul, devait l’en tirer… Ah ! si Léon donnait de ses
nouvelles !…
— Reviens me voir, ma chère, tu es de si bon conseil !
Elle avait fini par conter à Berthe tout, y compris sa nuit de
noces.
— Non, pas possible !… Quel drôle d’homme !
Et c’était des papotages à perte vue, sur l’un, sur l’autre.
— Et Lérin de La Berne ?
— L’Ecrin de La Perle ? — Flambé, ma chère !… La moelle
épinière.
— Pauvre mignon !
— En voilà un qu’il faudra rayer de ta liste… Mais non, quand j’y
songe ! C’est à pouffer, ta liste !
— Eh bien ! quoi ?
— Eh bien ! ça faisait prévoir un album très gribouillé — et — pas
du tout… la première page est encore blanche !
Elles riaient comme des folles.
— Et ton mari à toi, ma petite Berthe ?
— Je ne le vois plus. Mais il devient urgent que je le revoie.
— Pourquoi ça ?
— Dame, tu ne comprends pas ?
— Non, ma foi.
— Petite sotte !
— Explique-toi.
— Relis Quitte pour la peur, après avoir relu La Chute d’un ange.
— Ah ! bah ?
— Que veux-tu ! On n’est pas parfaite.
Pendant ce temps, Paul disait à l’abbé :
— Croyez-vous qu’elle s’amende, l’abbé ? Je la plains si
profondément.
L’abbé secouait la tête.
— Je crois que tu avais raison. C’est irrémédiable. Ça me coûte à
dire… Il faudra t’en séparer.
— Eh ! l’abbé, ce serait fait si je ne la redoutais pas pour Albert. Il
l’aime toujours, l’abbé, c’est certain. Je l’ai bien vu à la manière
silencieuse dont il a accueilli l’affreux récit que je lui ai fait de la mort
de ma mère !… Il n’a pas osé me contredire, à cause de la gravité
des circonstances, mais je le connais : il est buté. Et puis, elle le
tient. Je sais ce que c’est. Il est ce que j’ai été pendant deux ans
pour elle, — jusqu’à l’épouser… On est aveugle et sourd.
— Alors ?
— Alors, je la garde, et je la garderai jusqu’à ce que j’aie contre
elle une de ces preuves palpables, matérielles, auxquelles doit se
rendre le jury le plus récalcitrant, — l’esprit le plus positif et
l’amoureux le plus ensorcelé… Cette femme, l’abbé, c’est un
malheur. Un malheur, ça se garde pour soi. Ça n’est vraiment pas un
cadeau à faire à un ami ! J’aime bien trop Albert pour ne pas essayer
jusqu’au bout de le sauver malgré lui.
III