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A NOVEL APPROACH TO WAVELET-BASED FAULT CLASSIFICATION AND

DETECTION FOR A TRANSMISSION LINE USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
NETWORKS AND SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINE

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Journal of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering (JEEE)
ISSN(P): 2250-2424; ISSN(E): Applied
Vol. 7, Issue 1, Jun 2017, 1-14
© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

A NOVEL APPROACH TO WAVELET-BASED FAULT CLASSIFICATION AND

DETECTION FOR A TRANSMISSION LINE USING ARTIFICIAL

NEURAL NETWORKS AND SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINE

SRAVAN KUMAR KOTHA & M. APPARAO

Assistant Professor-EEE Department, CVR College of Engineering Telungana, India
ABSTRACT

Transmission line is a major element in power system components. The identification and classification of
different faults that occurs in transmission line is a major task. This improves the power quality and reliability of the
equipment. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), fuzzy-logic based methods, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Wavelet
transform technique are various methods used for fault type identification and classification by use of signal processing
algorithms .These approaches are discussed in detail for fault type identification and classification. Wavelet transform
technique gives information about the fault both in frequency and time scales. 0

KEYWORDS: Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Fault Identification and Classification, Fuzzy-Logic Based Methods,

Original Article
Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Wavelet Transform Technique

Received: Dec 09, 2016; Accepted: Jan 06, 2017; Published: Jan 24, 2017; Paper Id.: JEEEJUN20171

INTRODUCTION

Continuity of transmission line system operation is of prime importance in maintaining the reliability of
power system .It is imperative to detect the faulty phase as early as possible after occurrence of the fault. A fault
occurs when two or more conductors come in contact with each other or ground in three phase systems. Single line
to ground faults, line to line, double line to ground and three -phase are the types of faults that occurs in power
system. Thereby affects the equipment as well as power quality.

Accurate fault classification facilitates quick repair, improves system availability, reduce operating costs,
and saves time. Various approaches are used for fault type identification and classification by use of signal
processing algorithms with Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), fuzzy-logic based methods, and Support Vector
Machine (SVM) as classifiers.

Conventional approach classifies the fault based on fundamental frequency by the use of Fourier
transform which gives a global representation of a frequency of the given signal. Travelling wave methods require
high sampling rate and have problems in distinguishing between reflecting waves from fault and from remote end
of the line. Wavelet transform is used for fault detection. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Support Vector
Machine (SVM) are classifiers. Fourier transforms were used to extract features, when the signal is transformed to
the frequency domain, the time information is lost, which is a serious drawback with Fourier transform. Wavelet
analysis allows the use of long time intervals where more precise low-frequency information or high-frequency
information in shorter regions are required. It is capable of revealing the data like swings, tripping points,

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2 Sravan Kumar Kotha & M. Apparao

disruption in derivatives of higher degree, and self-similarity that other signal analysis techniques (Fourier) miss.

Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)

For the purpose of fault classification ANN and SVM has been used. Artificial Neural networks (ANN’s) has the
ability to map complex and highly non-linear input/output patterns and provides an attractive potential solution to the
long-standing problems of accurate fault classification. We will give norm values of detailed coefficients of three line
currents and residual current as inputs for training of ANN network. The task of ANN is to capture these common
underlying characteristics to select the correct fault type. The Feed-forward back propagation network may be chosen for
classification as it is well suited for pattern classification .It is a three layered network that consists of four inputs in the
input layer, five nodes in the hidden layer and three outputs in the output layer.

But the main disadvantage of an ANN is that it requires a considerable effort on training for good performance,
particularly under a wide variation of operating conditions such as fault resistances, system loading level etc. Another
drawback of neural-network based algorithms is that the training may not converge in some cases, as the starting point is
chosen randomly and can end up in local minima. Thus, the neural-network still remains black box and lacks transparency.

Support Vector Machine (SVM):

Recently, support vector machine (SVMs) in conjunction with wavelet transforms have been used in transmission
lines for fault classification. A Support Vector Machine (SVM) performs classification by constructing an N-dimensional
hyper plane that optimally separates the data into two classes. SVM models are similar to neural networks [12]. In fact,
SVM model using a sigmoid kernel function is equivalent to two-layer perceptron neural networks. [18]

Earlier day’s Single pole auto reclosures (SPAR) [1]-[2] were used in long transmission line for tripping the
faulted phase for single phase to earth faults, but resulted in unnecessary three phase tripping. A method based on super
imposed voltages and currents has been discussed [3] which uses relationship between the incremental phase currents and
it suffers from impairment of system operating conditions such as variation in fault inception angles and fault resistances.
A new algorithm for identifying the faulty phase based on the relation between the magnitude and phase angle of the phase
impedance and load impedance is discussed in [5]. This algorithm does not give good results under varying load
conditions. Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) [4, 9] and Fuzzy-based algorithms [6, 10], have their ability to map
complex and highly non-linear input-output patterns. In [4], the author proposed a new algorithm based on utilising fault
generated high frequency noise to recognize the various patterns generated within the frequency spectra of the fault
generated noise signals. An algorithm is proposed by the use of fuzzy-logic for fault classification in [8] where magnitude
and phase angle of fundamental phasor are employed. The main disadvantage of the scheme is under wide variations of
system conditions the accuracy given is altered.

Several researchers have proposed different fault classification techniques for transmission lines using different
types of neural networks and their combination with different transforms like wavelet transforms [7, 9]. Wavelet
transforms have been extensively used for obtaining the features of measured signals by decomposition of signals. Based
on wavelets a new fault classification technique is proposed in [7]. In [9], the author presented a scheme of fault
classification by the use of both wavelets and neural networks [9]. In [11], new percentage differential protections of
double circuit transmission lines using wavelet transform have been presented. In this technique the author uses
the detailed coefficients of six line currents used for fault classification. In [12], a fault classification technique

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A Novel Approach to Wavelet-Based Fault Classification and Detection for a 3
Transmission Line Using Artificial Neural Networks and Support Vector Machine

for series compensated transmission line using support vector machine is proposed. In this technique the author
utilizes three line current signals for training of three SVM classifiers, one for each phase and one more SVM is
trained for ground detection and unknown signals are tested on the models generated by SVM classifier after
training. In [13], the author presents an algorithm for fault zone detection on advanced series compensated
transmission line using discrete wavelet transform and SVM. The coefficients obtained by decomposition of measured
signals are given as inputs to train SVMs. In this technique, for each fault one SVM is trained. The author in [14] used
wavelet-based fault classification for a transmission line using a support vector machine has been presented. In this
scheme, the detailed coefficients of three measured signals are taken as inputs to SVM training. Ground can be detected by
separate index. The main disadvantage of above three algorithms is that they take more computational time for identifying
correct fault type as unknown fault signal has to be tested over number of SVM models.

Wavelet Transform

[16]The waveforms associated with fast electromagnetic transients are typically non-periodic in nature and
contains both high-frequency oscillations and very short-duration impulses superimposed on the much lower power
frequency signals. Fourier analysis need much longer time period to maintain good resolution in the low-frequency range.
Short-term Fourier analysis overcomes this problem to a certain extent and wavelet analysis is very effective in providing
the requisite frequency.

Wavelet transform (WT) [15-17] is the mathematical theory associated with building a model for non-stationary
signals using the family of wavelets, which are scaled and shifted versions of wavelets. WT is inherently more appropriate
for non-stationary and non-periodic wide-band signals. It helps in achieving the localization in frequency and time, and is
able to focus on short-time intervals for high-frequency components and long intervals for low frequency components,
making it well suited for analyzing high frequency transients in the presence of low frequency components. There are
different transform techniques used in wavelets like discrete wavelet transform, continuous wavelet transform.

Continuous Wavelet Transform

Continuous wavelet transform of a signal can be defined by the equation (1)

1 +∞ t−a
ws ( a, b ) = ∫ s ( t ) .h*   dt (1)
−∞
a  b 

Where h(t) = mother wavelet

S (t) = signal whose wavelet transform is to be calculated.

a= scaling parameter;

b= shift parameter

The basis functions, called the daughter wavelets are derived from mother wavelet by dilation and scaling
operations given by

1  t −b 
hab (t ) = h  (2)
a  a 

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4 Sravan Kumar Kotha & M. Apparao

for 0<a<1 the transform performs compression of the signal.

for a>1 the transform performs dilation of the signal.

Thus, the original one-dimensional time-domain signal s (t) is mapped to a new two-dimensional function space
across scale (a) and translation (b) by the wavelet transform (WT). Some of the most commonly employed mother
wavelets are Haar, Symmlet, Daubechies, Morlet etc.

Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)

To avoid generating unwanted information, the base functions can be developed discretely by selecting a=a0m and
b=nb0a0m; the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is defined as

−m
t − n 2m
DWT (m, n) = 2 2
∑∑ x(n)ψ * (
m n 2m
) (3)

Where, the discretized mother wavelet becomes

t − nb 0a 0
m

ψ
1
m,n
(t ) = ψ( m
) (4)
m
a 0 a 0

a0, b0 are fixed constants with a0 >1, b0>1,m, n Z ; where Z is the set of integers.

The DWT is easier to implement than CWT.CWT is computed by changing the scale of the analysis aperture,
shifting the window in time domain, multiplying the signal and integrating (summing) overall times. In discrete case, filters
of different cut-off frequencies are used to analyse the signal at different scales. The signal is passed through series hi-pass
filters (HPF) to analyze the high frequency components and is passed through series of low-pass filters (LPF) to analyze
the low frequency components. The wavelet decomposition result a signal known as DWT coefficients.

Multi Resolution Analysis (MRA)

MRA allows the decomposition of signal into various resolution levels. The level with appropriate resolution
contains approximation information about low frequency components and retains the main features of the original signal.
The level with finer resolution retains detailed information about the high frequency components.

Multi resolution analysis refers to approximating the signal at various resolutions by computing the approximation
and detail signals. MRA is designed to give good time resolution and poor frequency resolution at high frequencies and
good frequency resolution and poor time resolution at low frequencies. MRA can be implemented using wavelet transform
by decomposing the signal at hand into bands of frequencies given by Eqn. (5)

. ≤ω≤ . m = 1,2,3, … … . . J (5)

Where T is the sampling period and J denotes the total number of resolution levels.

This is an elegant technique in which a signal is decomposed into scales with different time and frequency
resolutions, and can be efficiently implemented by using two filters: one High Pass Filter (HPF) and one Low Pass Filter
(LPF). The results are down sampled by a factor two and thus same two filters are applied to the output of LPF from

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A Novel Approach to Wavelet-Based Fault Classification and Detection for a 5
Transmission Line Using Artificial Neural Networks and Support Vector Machine

previous stage. The HPF is derived from the wavelet function (mother wavelet) and measures the details in a certain input.
The LPF, on other hand, derives a smooth version of input signal and this filter is derived from scaling function,
associated with the mother wavelet.

This is done by implementing a DWT using a bank of high pass and low pass filters as shown in the
figure 1

Figure 1: Wavelet Multi Resolution Analysis OF a Fault Signal F (K)

As the input signal propagates through the filter bank tree of low pass and high pass filters, at each stage the filter
bank decomposes the signal into low pass and high pass components through convolution with filters h and g respectively.
Also, at each stage the band width of both the filters is halved with the high half band width is associated with the high
pass filter g and low half band associated with low pass filter h. The sub-band information extracted from the original
signal with the help of the MRA is used to identify and locate the various types of faults occurring in test systems.

Selection of Mother Wavelet

Selection of mother wavelet is crucial step to enhance the performance of the fault classification techniques. A
variety of different wavelet families have been proposed in the literature such as Daubechies, Biorthogonal, Coiflets and
Symlet. Each family’s feasibility depends on the application requirements. The Daubechies family is one of the most
suitable wavelet families in analyzing power-system transients. The best choice is a wavelet that most strikingly exhibits
the phenomena to be studied. It has been found that db4, with its characteristics, is an excellent choice to detect abrupt
changes and transients in fault signals. Extensive computer simulations have to be carried out to select the best mother
wavelet. It is said that the db4 mother wavelet gives the highest accuracy (98.55%).

Artificial Neural Networks

Earlier fault classification was done by phase selector, but was unable to classify the correct fault type under
different system operating conditions like fault resistances. The advent of Artificial Neural networks (ANN’s) provides an
attractive potential solution to the long-standing problems of accurate fault classification with their ability to map complex
and highly non-linear input/output patterns. Once the training/testing patterns have been generated, appropriate NN
architecture and its associated parameters must be chosen for the particular application. The task of ANN is to capture
these common underlying characteristics to select the correct fault type.

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6 Sravan Kumar Kotha & M. Apparao

Neural Network Models

McCulloch and pits proposed a binary threshold unit as a computational model for an artificial neural network.
Figure 2 shows the McCulloch-pits model of a neuron. This mathematical neuron computes a weighted sum of its n-input
signals, xj, j=1, 2, 3…, n, and generates an output of 1 if this sum is above a certain threshold value u, Otherwise, it
generates an output of zero results.

Figure 2: Mcculloch-Pits Neuron Model

Mathematically it can be represented by the Eqn. (6),

= {∑ − } (6)

Where (.) is a activation function, and w represents the synaptic weight associated with the jth input.

ANN’s can be realised as weighted directed graphs in which artificial neurons are nodes and directed edges
(with weights) are connections between neuron outputs and neuron inputs.

Based on the connection pattern, ANN’s can be grouped into two categories

• Feed-forward networks

• Recurrent or feedback networks.

One of the most common families of feed-forward networks is multi-layer perceptron, neurons which are
organized into layers and have unidirectional connection between them. Different connections yield different network
behaviours. Feed-forward networks produce only one set of output values rather than a sequence of values from a given
input.

Activation Functions

A non linearity g(a) is introduced to add layers rather than just connect up some new weights. A sigmoidal
activation function helps to get rid of mathematical values that are in the middle and force values which are low to be even
lower and values which are high to be even higher.There are two basic commonly used sigmoidal activation functions.

The Logistic Sigmoid which is also called as the logsig.

!≡ (7)
# $ %&

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A Novel Approach to Wavelet-Based Fault Classification and Detection for a 7
Transmission Line Using Artificial Neural Networks and Support Vector Machine

The Tangental Sigmoid which is also called as the tansig which is derived from the hyperbolic tangent with the
advantage over the logsig that is able to deal directly with negative numbers.

$ & + $ %&
! ≡ tanh ! ≡ (8)
$ & # $ %&

(a) (b)
Figure 3: Function Plots of (a)Logsig and (b)Tansig

Learning Rules

Different network architecture require appropriate learning algorithm. In ANNs, appropriate learning will update
the network architecture and connection weights so that a network can efficiently perform a specific task. For learning any
neural network to solve the problem, data sets describing the problem must be provided. These data sets are input vectors
and outputs vector/target vector for each set. A neural network maps from input space to an output space. The network is
trained rather than programmed to perform the required processing. A learning algorithm formulates the input-output
mapping function that it depends upon the input-output data given to it. Learning algorithms are broadly classified into
three categories.

• Supervised Learning

During the training session of a neural network, input vectors are presented to network which results in an output
response. This output response is compared with the desired outputs/targets. Supervised learning output could be a class
label (in classification) or a real number (in regression). The network generates an error signal whenever there is a
difference between obtained output response and desired output/target. This error is used to modify the network weights so
that the actual output equals the desired output/target. Hence the error minimization process is continued until it reaches
the specific range. Multi-layer perceptron (MLP) is an example of supervised learning.

• Unsupervised Learning

In Unsupervised learning the machine simply receives inputs but obtains neither supervised target outputs nor
rewards from its environment. Unsupervised learning refers to the problem of trying to find hidden structure in unlabeled
data. During the training session the network is presented with many different input vectors, and it arbitrarily organizes the
input vectors into clusters. When an input vector is applied later to the machine, the network provides an output indicating
to which the input vector it belongs. If the class is not found, a new class is generated. The self-organizing map (SOM) and
adaptive resonance theory (ART) are commonly used unsupervised learning algorithms.

• Self-Supervised Learning

This is learning that occurs by a student constructing or refining a knowledge component without having a teacher
or training system providing feedback on correctness. There is no requirement of external teacher. Error signal is generated
by the system and fed back to itself. Correct response is produced after a number of iterations.

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8 Sravan Kumar Kotha & M. Apparao

Error-Correction Rules

In supervised learning, for each input pattern the network is given a desired output. The actual output x that is
generated by the network in this process may not be equal to the desired output y. The basic principle of error correction
learning rules is to use the error signal (y-x) to modify the connection weights gradually to reduce the error.

Multi –Layer Perceptron Learning Algorithm

A multilayer perceptron (MLP) has been used for classification. It is a feed forward artificial neural network
model that maps sets of input data onto a set of desired output. In a directed graph the MLP will contain multiple layers of
nodes and with its each layer fully connected to the next one. A supervised back propagation learning technique is used by
MLP for training the network. Input layer units function is to take the input values from the outside. Output layer reports
the final result. A set of hidden layer units are presented which links the inputs to the outputs. The function of the hidden
units is to extract useful features from the input data which are used to predict the values of the output units. The MLP is
the most popular type of network sometimes called a back propagation network (BPN) because training is done by error
back propagation. Figure 4 shows multi-layer feed forward perceptron with typically sigmoid activation function.

y1 y2 y0

Sigmoid S S
S

Weights

S S S S
Sigmoid
Z0 Z2 Zm

m (2)
 d (1)

yk = g '  ∑ Wkj g  ∑ W ji xi  
 j =0  
 i =0  
Weights

Inputs
x0 x1 xd

Figure 4: Multi-Layer Perceptron with Typically Sigmoid Activation Function

Generally for feed-forward networks perceptron learning is adopted.

Weights to be initialised and threshold to small random numbers.

Present a pattern vector (x1, x2, ……, xn) and evaluate the output of the neuron.

Update the weights according to

, + 1! = .! + / 0 − ! (9)

Where o is the desired output, i is the iteration number, and / (0< /<1) is the gain (step size).

The most popular class of multilayer feed-forward networks is multilayer perceptron in which each computational
unit employs either the threshold function or the sigmoid function. The development of back-propagation algorithm for
determining weights in a multilayer perceptron has made these networks popular.

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A Novel Approach to Wavelet-Based Fault Classification and Detection for a 9
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Let {(x(1), d(1)), (x(2), d(2)), …, (x(p), d(p))} be a set of p training patterns (input-output pairs), where x(i) 1 Rn is the
input vector in the n-dimensional pattern space, and d(i) 1 [0,1]m, an m-dimensional hyper cube. For classification purposes,
m is the number of classes. The squared error cost function is most frequently used in the ANN literature is defined as:

6 4!
2 = ∑4 || − 5 4! || (10)

The Back-propagation algorithm is a gradient –descent method to minimise the squared-error cost function which
is given by Eqn. (10)

Feed-Forward Back Propagation Algorithm:

This algorithm is used to calculate the error. Error is the term which gives the measure of how well the network is
learning. So, whenever the error is acceptably small for each of the training vector pairs, training can be stopped.

Support Vector Machine (SVM)

The following block diagram facilitates the information about the process of fault classification by using SVM:

Figure 5: Processing Steps for Fault Classification by SVM Classifier

A Support Vector Machine (SVM) performs classification by constructing an N-dimensional hyperplane that
optimally separates the data into two classes. SVM models are closely similar to neural-networks.

SVM is a useful technique for data classification. A classification process mainly consists of training and testing
of some data instances. Every instance in the training set has one “target value” (class labels) and several “attributes”
(features). The aim of SVM is to produce a model that predicts the target value of data instances in the testing set by using
attributes.

SVM for Separable Case

Let the training data set be {Xi, Yi}, i=1,2,.........,l, Yi {-1,1}, Xi Rd and we have some hyper plane which

separates the positive from the negative examples (a “separating hyper plane”). The points x which lie on the hyper plane
satisfy the condition which is given by Eqn. (11)

w. x+ b=0 (11)

Normal to the hyper plan is w, |b|/||w|| is the perpendicular distance from hyper plane to the origin and
||w|| is the Euclidean norm of w.

For the linearly separable case, the support vector algorithm (SVA) is meant for separating hyper plane with
largest margin. This is given by, suppose if all the given training data satisfies the following constraints given in Eqns.
(12, 13):

Xi. w+ b +1 for Yi= +1 (12)

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10 Sravan Kumar Kotha & M. Apparao

Xi. w+ b -1 for Yi= -1 (13)

These can be combined into one set of inequalities as given in Eqn. (14):

Yi (Xi. w+ b)-1 0 i (14)

Now consider the points for which the equality in Eqn. (12) holds these points lie on the hyper plane H1: Xi. w+ b
+1 with normal w and perpendicular distance from the origin

|1-b|/||w||. Similarly, the points for which the equality in Eqn. (5.3) holds lie on the hyper plane H2: Xi. w+ b -1,

with normal again w and perpendicular distance from origin is |-1-b|/||w||. Note that H1 and H2 are parallel and no training
points fall between them. Thus, we can find pair of hyper planes that gives the maximum margin by minimizing ||w||2,
subjected to constraints (14).

Thus we expect the solution for a typical two dimensional case to have the form shown in figure. Those training
points for which the equality in Eqn. (14) holds true (i.e. those which wind up lying on one of the hyper planes H1, H2), and
the removal of those would change the solution found, are called support vectors and are indicated in figure 6 by the extra
circles.

Figure 6: Linear Separating Hyper Plane for the Separable

Case. (The support vectors are circled).

Now Lagrangian formulation is considered for the problem because of two reasons. The first is that the constraints
in Eqn. (14) will be replaced by constraints on Lagrange multiplier themselves, which can be solved easily. The second is
that in this reformulation of the problem, the training data will appears in the form of dot product between vectors. This is
crucial property which will allows us to generalize the procedure to the nonlinear case.

Thus, introducing positive Lagrange multipliers 7i, i=1, 2......., l, one for each of the inequality constraints in Eqn.
(14). The rule for constraints of the form Ci 0, the constraint equations are multiplied by positive Lagrange multipliers

and subtracted from the objective function, to form the Lagrangian. For equality constraints, the Lagrange multipliers
are unconstrained. This gives Lagrangian given by Eqn. (15)

Lp= 1\2 ||w||2-∑84 7 iYi(Xi .w+b)+∑84 7i (15)

Now minimise Lp with respect to w, b and simultaneously require that the derivatives of Lp with respect to all the

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A Novel Approach to Wavelet-Based Fault Classification and Detection for a 11
Transmission Line Using Artificial Neural Networks and Support Vector Machine

7i vanish, all subjected to constraints 7i 0. Now this is a convex quadratic programming problem, since the objective

problem itself is a convex, and those points which satisfy the constraints also form a convex set.

Requiring that the gradient of Lp with respect to w and b vanish give the conditions:

w= ∑4 7 iYiXi

∑4 7 iYi=0 (16)

Since these are equality constraints in the dual formulation, we can substitute them into Eq. (15) to give

Ld=∑4 7 i− ∑4, 7 i7jYiYjXi .Xj (17)

Lp and Ld arise from same objective function but with different constraints; and the solution is found by
minimising Lp or maximizing Ld.

The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions (KKT)

The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditions play central role in both the theory and practice of constrained
optimization. For the primal problem explained above, the KKT conditions are given by Eqn. (18):

9
<6 = = − ∑4 74 >4 ?@ = 0 B = 1, … … . , 5
9 :;

9
<6 = − ∑4 74 >4 = 0
9C

>4 ?4 ∙ + E! − 1 ≥ 0 , = 1, … . . , G

74 ≥ 0 ∀4

α (Y ( w. X
i i i
+ b ) − 1) = 0∀ i (18)

The KKT conditions are satisfied at the solution of any constrained optimization problem, with any kind of
constraints, provides that the intersection of the set of feasible directions with the set of descent directions coincides with
the intersection of the set of feasible directions for linearised constraints with the set of descent directions.

Non-Separable Case

The above algorithm for separable data, when applied to non-separable data, will give no feasible solution: this is
evident by the objective function (i.e. the dual Lagrangian) growing arbitrarily large. So, the SVM classifier is defined as:

f ( x) = w.ϕ ( x) + b (19)

Where I ! is a mapping function to map the input pattern X into higher dimensional plane . This classifier f(x)

is linear in terms of transformed data, but non-linear in terms of original data Xi Rd, i=1, ........, l.

So, for non-separable data we slack variablesJ4, , = 1, … . , G in the constraints, which then become:

?4 ∙ + E ≥ +1 − J4 K0L >4 = +1

?4 ∙ + E ≤ −1 + J4 K0L >4 = −1

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12 Sravan Kumar Kotha & M. Apparao

ξ i
≥0 (20)

Thus, for an error to occur the corresponding J4 must exceed unity, so ∑4 J4 is an upper bound on the number of
training errors. Hence natural way to assign extra cost for errors is to change the objective function to be minimised from
||w||2/2 to ||w||2/2+|C(∑4 J4 )k, where c is the parameter chosen by the user .a large C corresponding to assigning a higher
penalty to errors. This is a convex programming problem for any positive integer k. For k=1 has further advantage that
neitherJ4 , nor their Lagrangian multiplier, appear in the dual problem which becomes:

Maximize

<M ≡ ∑4 74 − ∑4, 74 7 >4 > I ?4 !IN? O = ∑4 74 7 >4 > P ?4 , ? ! (21)

Where K(x,y), known as kernel, is a non-linear function and is defined as

P , ! = I !. I ! (22)

Subjected to

0 ≤ 74 ≤ Q, ∑4 74 >4 = 0 (23)

R
The solution again is given by = ∑4 S 74 >4 . I ?4 ! (24)

Where Ns is the number of support vectors. Thus the only difference from the optimal hyperplane is that the 74
have an upper bound of C. The situation summerized schematically in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Linear Separating Hyper Plane for the Non-Separable Case

The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker Conditions for Primal Problem are:

<6 = || || + Q ∑4 J4 − ∑4 74 {>4 ?4 . + E! − 1 + J4 − ∑4 T4 J4 (25)

Where the T4 are the Lagrangian multipliers introduced to enforce positivity of the J4 . The KKT conditions for the
primarily problem are therefore:

9UV
= = − ∑4 74 >4 ?@ = 0
9@;

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A Novel Approach to Wavelet-Based Fault Classification and Detection for a 13
Transmission Line Using Artificial Neural Networks and Support Vector Machine
9UV
9C
= − ∑4 74 >4 = 0

9UV
= Q − 74 − T4 = 0
9WX

>4 ?4 . + E! − 1 + J4 ≥ 0

J4 ≥ 0

74 ≥ 0

T4 ≥ 0

74 {>4 ?4 . + E! − 1 + J4 } = 0

T4 J4 = 0 (26)

SVM Kernel Functions

The Kernel function in an SVM plays the central role of implicitly mapping the input vector (through an inner
product) into a high dimensional feature space. The various Kernels are defined as follows:

Polynomial Kernel: P , != . + 1!6 (28)

Gaussian RBF Kernel: P , ! = exp \−]^| − |^ _ , ℎaLa ] = (29)

×c d

Hyperbolic tangent: P( , ) = tanh(e . + f) , K0L g0ha e > 0 j5 f > 0 (30)

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

A Novel approach for Fault detection and classification using wavelet transform, Artificial Neural Networks
(ANN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifiers have been presented in this paper.An implementation can be done
using the algorithm by the use of SVM classifier and ANN classifier and can compare their accuracy to determine the fault
type accurately under wide variations of operating conditions It is quite suitable for integration in digital distance
protection schemes. The same concept can be further extended for fault classification of thyristorized control series
capacitor (TCSC)- based transmission lines as well, which is quite feasible, but a few more features are required for SVMs.

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www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org
 14 Sravan Kumar Kotha & M. Apparao

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