DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA
Lecture Material
Course Title: Building Construction and Materials II
Course Code: BLD 121
Course Unit: 2-units
Course Section: Part II
Course Lecturer: Mr. A.S. Sotunbo
Part II Course Content:
Doors/Windows: types and functions.

1.0 OPENINGS IN WALLS

Building openings are voids in a wall such as windows, doors, or even recesses that provide light,
ventilation and climate control for rooms. At the same time, they are essential functional and design
elements of facades, enabling communication between indoor and outdoor spaces as transparent or
translucent structural components.

Openings can also be referred to as Fenestration. Fenestration refers to the openings in a building’s
envelope, most notably the windows, doors, skylights and curtain walls. In layman’s term, fenestration is
anything that allows for passage from outside to inside. Fenestration is usually viewed as an aesthetic
feature, but it also affects the performance of the building. For example, a strategically placed window
can considerably increase natural lighting, reduce the usage of indoor lighting fixtures, and thus save
electricity. They can also be used for passive solar heating for reducing the workload on space heating
systems.

1.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT OF OPENINGS IN BUILDINGS

General functions of building openings are:
1. Introduction daylight into the building
2. Infiltration of fresh air ventilation
3. Visual contact with the outside from the inside
 4. Passage in and out (in the case of entry doors and other doors with access to private yards, etc.)
5. Solar heating

Doors, windows and the openings that contain them are important architectural features of an elevation.
The design of doors and windows and the materials used can be of significance in establishing the special
character of a structure. The way in which the openings are formed and their architectural treatment is
also important, as are the proportions of the openings themselves and the proportion of opening size to
wall area

2.0 DOORS
A door is a solid barrier that is fixed in doorway or opening in a wall or partition to hinge, pivot or slide
open or close for access to and from buildings and between rooms, compartments, corridors, landings and
stairs.
The main function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts of the building and to deny
the access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size of the door should
be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely to use the doors. In case
of the residential buildings, the size of the door should not be less than 0.9m × 2.1m. Larger doors may
be provided at main entrance to the building to enhance the aesthetic view. Minimum sized doors are used
for bath rooms and water closets. The recommended size of such door is 0.75m × 2.1m. As a thumb rule,
height of door should be at least 1 m more than its width.

The different parts of a door are door frame, door leaf, architrave and threshold (optional)
2.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT OF DOOR
The main functional requirement of door when open is as a means of access into and out of the building.
While when the door is closed, the functional requirements are:
1. Good appearance
2. Good weather exclusion/resistance
3. Good thermal control
4. Control spread of fire
5. Good acoustic insulation
6. Suitable size for access
7. Durable and strong
8. High security/Privacy

2.2 TYPES OF DOORS

Various types of doors are in use which may be classified on the basis of arrangement of shutters, method
of constructions, principles of working operations and materials used.
Types of doors by materials of construction are:
1. Wooden doors
2. Aluminum doors
3. Steel doors
4. Iron doors
5. PVC doors
6. Glass Door, etc

Types of doors by principles of working operations:

1. Swing doors
2. Foldable/collapsible doors
3. Sliding doors
4. Roller doors,
5. Revolving doors, etc

Types of doors by method of construction:

1. Battened Doors
2. Panelled door
3. Flush doors
4. Revolving doors
5. Swing doors
6. Sliding doors
7. Louvered doors

Types of doors by mode of connections:

1. Hinged doors
These are doors that are supported in openings (doorways) on hinges as side hung. They are for
frequent use between rooms and corridors.
 2. Pivoted doors
These are door that are supported in openings on pivot as in double swing doors or single swing
doors. These are often used between rooms, corridors or landing.

3. Tracked doors
These are doors supported on tracks in openings as in sliding doors or foldable doors. Sliding
and folding doors hung on overhead track are for occasional use in openings between rooms to
convert single rooms into layers of double rooms.

2.2.1 FLUSH DOORS

these doors are made of plywood or block boards. They are of uniform thickness. These shutters are
available with different attractive veneer finishes. The time consumed in making such doors at site is quite
less. These doors are suitable for interior portion of a building. Nowadays flush doors are commonly used
in residential and office buildings.

Flush door

2.2.2 BATTENED, LEDGED AND BRACED DOORS

Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm thick wooden boards. Their length is that of door opening.
The battens are connected by horizontal planks, known as ledges of size 100 to 200 mm wide and 30 mm
thick. Usually, three ledges are used one at top, one at bottom and the third one at mid-height. This is the
simplest form of door and the cheapest also. Battens are secured by tongued and grooved joint. If doors
are wide apart from using battens and ledges diagonal members, known as braces, are provided to
strengthen the door.
 Battened door

2.2.3 FRAMED AND PANELLED DOORS

This type of door consists of vertical members, called styles and horizontal members called rails. The
styles and rails are suitably grooved to receive panels. The panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet, glasses
etc. The panels may be flat or of raised type to get good appearance. These are very commonly used doors.
They may be of single shutter or of double shutter. If glass panels are used, they may be called as glazed
doors.
 Paneled door

2.2.4 LOUVERED DOORS

Whenever privacy as well as ventilation is required, such doors can be used. Louvers are the glass, wooden
or A.C. sheet strips fixed in the frame of shutter such that they prevent vision but permit free passage of
air. The doors may be fully or partially louvered.

Louvered door
2.2.5 REVOLVING DOORS
It consists of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating shutters are attached. The central pivot is
supported on ball bearing at the bottom and has a bush bearing at the top. The shutters may be partly or
fully made up of glass. A circular space of entrance is provided within which shutters rotate. As shutters
rotate, they give entrance on one side and exit on other side. These doors are preferred in public buildings
like stores, banks, hotels, theatres where continuous use of doors is necessary. They are very much
required in entrance to air-conditioned public buildings

Revolving or rotating door

2.2.6 SWING DOORS

Swing door has its shutter attached to the frame by means of double action springs. Hence shutter can
move both inward and outward. They may be single shuttered or double shuttered. Such doors are
preferred in offices and banks. Since these doors can open on both sides it is desirable to provide glass
panels or peep holes to enable user to see the persons from other side.
 Swing door (double swing)

2.2.7 SLIDING DOORS

In this type of doors, shutter (door panel) slides on the sides. For this purpose, runners and guide rails are
provided. Sliding shutters may be one, two or even three. Such doors are used in banks, offices etc.

Sliding door
2.2.8 COLLAPSIBLE/FOLDABLE DOORS
Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals. They are placed with 12 to 20 mm gap. Steel flats
16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick are hinged to them. The rollers are provided at their top as well as
at bottom so that shutter can be pulled or pushed sideways with slight force. There may be single or double
shutters. Usually, these doors are used for additional safety. They are commonly used for front doors,
bank locker rooms, school and college entrance doors.

Collapsible/foldable door

2.2.9 ROLLING DOORS

It consists of a frame, a drum and a shutter made of thin steel plates. The width of the door may vary from
2 to 3 m. The shutter moves on steel guides provided on sides and can easily roll up. For this
counterbalancing is made with helical springs on the drum. The shutter can be easily pulled down. This
type of door is commonly used as additional doors to shops, offices, banks, factory, buildings from the
point of safety.
 Rolling door

2.3 IRONMONGERIES
Door ironmongery are items made of steel, aluminum, brass, or other metals, as well as plastics used for
door accessories such as handles, knobs, hinges, knockers, letter plates, push plate and stoppers. Door
ironmongery designs come in different designs and that depends on the material, shape and size of the
door. It also depends on the position of door in home and purpose of the door.
2.4 DOOR FRAMES AND LININGS
A door frame is made of timber of sufficient cross section to support the wood and serves as a surrounding
to the door into which it closes. The door frames is secured in the wall or partition opening to support
external doors and heavier internal doors.
Door lining are thin sections of wood or metal that are fixed securely on a door way or opening as a lining
around the reveal (thickness) on the wall. They are also called the sub-frames.

Wooden door frame Metal Door Frame

 Metallic subframe/lining wooden subframe/lining
3.0 WINDOWS
Windows are wall or roof openings in the building’s façade that allow light and air flow, while providing
the outside view for the occupants, and are usually fitted with glass frames. A window could also be said
to be an opening in a wall, door, roof, or vehicle that allows the passage of light and may also allow the
passage of sound and sometimes air. Windows are generally provided to give light and ventilation. They
are located at a height of 0.75 m to 0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window
area should be 15 to 20% of the floor area. It is preferable to have at least two openings in two different
walls (for cross ventilation). Another thumb rule used to determine the size of the window opening is for
every 30m3 inside volume there should be at least 1 m2 window opening.

3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF WINDOWS

Windows are required to adequately perform the following functions:
1. Must be of good appearance
2. Must be of suitable size and be well positioned
3. Must be strong and secure
4. Must be able to control the spread of fire
5. Must be able to withstand adverse weather condition
 6. Must possess good acoustic control or characteristics
7. Must be of good thermal insulation
8. Must be easy to maintain or clean
9. Must give high level of privacy to the occupants
10. Must be able to allow adequate lighting to the inside space
11. Must allow adequate ventilation in to the inside space.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF WINDOWS

Various windows used may be classified on the basis of materials used, types of shutters, types of openings
of shutters and the position of windows.
Windows can be fixed (closed) or operable (open and close) or a combination of both based on the building
design and the surrounding environment. Fixed windows offer higher resistance to air and water
infiltration. They also require less maintenance, and are used where natural ventilation is not needed.
Fixed windows consist of a frame with and infill sealed together. Operable windows are idea where natural
ventilation is required. They consist of a frame and sash that are sealed together by weather-strips. They
are classified into sliding seal windows and compression seal windows.

Schematic illustration of types of windows

3.2.1 CASEMENT/SIDE HUNG WINDOWS

Side-hung windows, also known as casement windows are outward opening windows that are hinged at
the side. They are elegance and natural thermal efficiency. Casement windows are common type of
windows, provided in the outer walls. They are provided over 50 to 75 mm sill concrete at a height of 750
to 900 mm from floor level.

Casement Window

3.2.2 CORNER WINDOWS

Corner windows are provided in the corner of a room. They need heavy lintels. Corner post of window
should be strong enough to take load due to deflection of lintel and impact load from the shutters. A corner
window is a single unit comprised of two or more sashes that meet at a corner and span both sides of a
building. A corner window requires a special framing method in order to create a rough opening with no
corner support. Eliminating large support structures opens up the entire corner to a wider view with
minimal visual disruptions and captures light from multiple directions. Corner windows create a clean and
modern aesthetic, but do not operate
 Corner windows

3.2.3 PROJECTED/TOP HUNG WINDOWS

A top hung (projected) window is hinged at the top and opens at the bottom. It is a popular choice for,
e.g., a basement window, in which it can be used as a less expensive alternative to a top guided window
with sliding brackets

Top hung (projected) windows

3.2.4 FIXED WINDOWS

Fixed windows (often called a picture window) are standard windows that is non-operational. As such,
these windows do not have a handle, hinges, or any operable hardware. Fixed windows permit light to
enter while remaining closed to the exterior environment (unlike an operable window, which can open
and close). They are windows with a fixed frame that cannot be opened.

Fixed windows

3.2.5 SLIDING WINDOWS

Sliding windows, or gliding windows, have sashes that glide left or right in either direction in a single
frame, which allows for easy use. They are often found in rooms where an unobstructed view of the
outdoors is desired or where maximum ventilation is needed. Since they are easy to open from left and
right, sliding windows are commonly found in spaces that are difficult to reach, such as above the kitchen
sink or behind a soaking tub.

Sliding windows
3.2.6 PIVOTED WINDOWS
Pivoting windows are a type of window with sashes that can rotate 90°-180° around a horizontal or vertical
axis usually located on or near the center of the sash. The rotation of a pivoting window allows for full
ventilation, but cannot be equipped with a screen for filtering. Because of the lack of control and safety
in a fully pivoting panel, this window type is generally reserved for use only in special situations requiring
cleaning, maintenance, service, or emergency ventilation.

Pivoted windows

3.2.7 VENTILATORS
Ventilators are provided close to roof level or over the door frames. They help in pushing out exhaust air.
They may be provided with two split and separated glasses or with hung shutters.

Ventilators
3.2.8 COMPOSITE WINDOWS
These are designed to act like side, top or bottom hung windows for normal ventilation purposes, by
opening on pivots which can be unlocked so that the pivots the slide in grooves in the frame and open on
hinged side which stays to facilitate cleaning. They combined the properties of hinged openings with
pivoted openings or sliding openings.

4.0 SKYLIGHTS WINDOWS

Skylights, also known as sloped glazing systems on a sloping roof, are used for providing daylight through
the roof. They have two basic components; supporting members (frame) and infill panels (glaze).
Several design considerations are taken into account before installing skylights. For instance, skylights
experience a lot of solar heat gain during summers and heat loss during winters. Due to this, thermal
conditions must be considered during HVAC design.

Skylights Windows

Another important aspect is moisture resistance. Since skylights are a part of the roof, they are exposed to
rainwater, which makes them susceptible to water leakage. A drainage system must be incorporated to
collect the leakage. This can also be used for rainwater harvesting.

5.0 MATERIALS FOR WINDOW FRAME

Timber, steel and aluminum are commonly used to make window frames. Timber may get termite
attacks; steel may rust but aluminum do not have any such defects. However, they are costly. Aluminium
frames are most popular as they provide design flexibility. Shutters of windows may be paneled, glazed
or louvered. Louvered windows are generally used for bathrooms and toilets where vision is not to be
allowed but ventilation is required. Lower parts paneled and upper parts glazed windows are commonly
used. Window shutters may be fixed, centrally pivoted, sliding type or double hung. Some other common
window frame materials include fiberglass, vinyl, and PVC. In residential buildings, fiberglass, wood and
PVC and aluminum frames are commonly used.

5.1.1 TIMBER CASEMENT WINDOW FRAME

The materials traditionally used for windows is WOOD, which is easy to work with by hand or machines
and can easily be shaped for rebates, drips, grooves and molding. Most window frames consist of a head,
two posts (or jamb) and a cill/sill joined with mortise and tenon joints. These are joined together with one
or more mullion and transom depending on the number of casement and vent light.

5.1.2 STEEL CASEMENT WINDOW FRAMES

These are made either of standard Z – sections hot rolled steel or universal section. The casement and
frames sections are fixed together, making a reasonable close-fit to exclude rain in all but exposed
position. As an alternative to the standard Z – section, the universal steel section may be used.

5.1.3 ALUMINUM CASEMENT WINDOWS FRAMES

These type of window casements are of sections extruded from aluminum alloy in a wide range of channel
and box sections with grooves for lips for weather-stripping and double glazing. The sections are mitre
cut and mechanically cleated or screwed at joints which are then sealed against the entry of water.

5.1.4 uPVC WINDOW CASEMENT FRAMES

These are windows that are fabricated from extruded high-impact strength white un-plasticated polyvinyl
chloride (uPVC). They are factory made and are referred to as PROPRIETARY windows

6.0 MATERIALS FOR FIXING OF GLAZING TO WINDOW FRAME

Materials for fixing of glazing to window frame include but not limited to the followings:
1. Putties
2. Sealants
3. Gasket or rubber tape, etc
7.0 VARIOUS PARTS OF WINDOW
Windows have various parts which are the transom, the mullion, the fixed light (optional) and the
glazing and the glazing bars as show in below.

• Frame
A window frame is the framework that surrounds and supports the entire window system. It is
comprised of the head, jamb and sill.
• Head
The head is the main horizontal part forming the top of the window frame.
• Jambs
Jambs are the main vertical parts forming the sides of a window frame.
• Sill
A sill is the main horizontal part forming the bottom of the frame of a window.
• Jambliner
A jambliner is a strip which goes on the sides of a window frame that provides a snug fit for the
window sash.
• Sash
The sash is the moveable part of a window made up of the vertical and horizontal frame that holds
the glass.
• Check Rail
On a double-hung window, the check rail is the part where the bottom part of the upper sash and
the upper part of the lower sash come in contact. Also known as the middle of the window.
• Glass
This refers to the framed sheet of glass within a window frame.
• Mullion
The mullion is a major structural piece running either vertical or horizontal that combines two or
more windows together.
• Rail
A rail is the horizontal piece of a window sash – comprised of the lower rail, the check rail and
the upper rail.
• Lower Rail
The lower rail is the lower part of the lower sash.
• Upper Rail
The upper rail is the top part of the upper sash.
• Lift
 Most commonly found on wood windows, a lift is a handle used for raising the lower sash in a
single- or double-hung window.
• Sash Lock
The sash lock is a locking mechanism used on a single- or double-hung window that engages with
the lock strike to reduce rattling.

Parts of a window

Recommended Text for Further Reading:

1. Emmitt, S. and Gorse C. A. (2010). Barry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings (2nd ed),
Wiley – Blackwell, UK.
2. Chudley, R. and Greeno, R. (2004). Building Construction Handbook (5th ed). Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

END OF CLASS