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The Protection of General Interests in

Contemporary International Law: A


Theoretical and Empirical Inquiry
isn:9780192846501 Massimo Iovane
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E U ROPEAN S O C IET Y OF INTE RNATIONAL
L AW SERIE S

The Protection of General Interests


in Contemporary International Law
E U ROPEAN S O C IET Y OF INTE RNATIONAL
L AW SERIE S

The ESIL Book Series publishes high-​quality volumes on the themes of ESIL
Annual Conferences and ESIL joint events primarily. This volume includes
chapters that are based on selected papers presented at ESIL events, revised
to fit the theme and focus of the volume, and complemented by additional
chapters that address topics that were not fully explored at the events, but
that are essential for a full coverage of the theme.
The Protection
of General Interests
in Contemporary
International Law
A Theoretical and Empirical Inquiry
Edited by
M A S SI M O IOVA N E
F U LV IO M . PA L OM B I N O
DA N I E L E A M O R O S O
G IOVA N N I Z A R R A

1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© The Several Contributors 2021
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2021
Impression: 1
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Public sector information reproduced under Open Government Licence v3.0
(http://​www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/​doc/​open-​government-​licence/​open-​government-​licence.htm)
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021933736
ISBN 978–​0–​19–​284650–​1
DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780192846501.001.0001
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Table of Contents

Table o f Cases
Table o f Treaties
List o f Contributors

A. I N T R O D U C T I O N

1. The Protection of General Interests in Contemporary International


Law: Some Introductory Remarks
Massimo Iovane, Fulvio M. Palombino, D aniele Amoroso,
an d Giovanni Zarra

B. G E N E R A L N O T I O N S

2. The Global Commons and Common Interests: Is there


Common Ground?
Nilufer Oral

3. International Fundamental Values and Obligations Erga Omnes


Massimo Iovane and Pierfrancesco Rossi

4. Commons, Global (Economic) Governance, and Democracy:


Which Way Forward for International Law?
Samuel Cogolati and fan Wouters

C. GLOBAL P UBLIC G O OD S

5. A Global Public Good? An Empirical Perspective on International


Investment Law and Arbitration
Daniel Behn, Ole Kristian Fauchald, an d M alcolm Langford

6. Can Multilevel Trade Governance Protect Global Public Goods


without Constitutional Restraints?
Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann

7. Water as an Impure Global Public Good and the Impact


of Procedural Rights on its Protection
Fulvia Staiano
vi T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S

D. GLOBAL COMMONS

8. Protecting the Atmosphere as a ‘Global Common Good’: Challenges


and Constraints in Contemporary International Law 163
Christine B akker

9. The Cyberspace and the Common Heritage of Mankind 191


Antonio Segura Serrano

10. The International Criminal Law Aspects of the Protection


of Global Commons: The Case of Cultural Heritage 211
Francesca Capone

E. F U N D A M E N T A L V A L U E S

11. Enhancing ICJ Procedures in Order to Promote Fundamental


Values: Overcoming the Prevailing Tension between Bilateralism
and Community Interests 241
Paula W ojcikiewicz Alm eida

12. Community Interests in World Trade Law 264


Christian Tietje and Andrej Lang

13. Cultural Heritage and Common Heritage, The Changing Role of


States and International Organizations 293
Ana Filipa Vrdoljak

F. G L O B A L G O V E R N A N C E

14. A ‘New’ Law of Cooperation: Collective Action across Regimes for


the Promotion of Public Goods and Values versus Fragmentation 321
Peter-Tobias Stoll

15. The UN Sustainable Development Goals and the Governance of


Global Public Goods: The Quest for Legitimacy 344
W infried Huck

16. Fences, Fiction, and the Magic Mountain: Responsibility-sharing


for Refugees in Europe 363
D ana Schmalz

17. Disasters: An Additional (Legal) Dimension for the International


Protection of Cultural Heritage 385
Giulio Bartolini

Index 413
Table of Cases

For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52–​53) may, on occasion, appear
on only one of those pages.

DOMESTIC AWARDS AND DECISIONS

Argentina
Camara de Apelaciones en lo Civil y Comercial (Corrientes) A I c/​Aguas de
Corrientes SAS/​medida autosatisfactiva (conocimiento), 13 August 2014,����������������� 156
Camara de Apelaciones en lo Civil y Comercial (Corrientes) Formichelli Maria
Alejandra c/​Aguas de Corrientes SA s/​sumarísimo, 8 May 2013,��������������������������������� 156
Camara de Apelaciones en lo Civil y Comercial (Corrientes) Gallo Nelson Carlos c/​
Aguas de Corrientes SA s/​amparo, 19 June 2013,������������������������������������������������������������� 156
Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación La Pampa, Provincia de c/​Mendoza, Provincia
de s/​uso de aguas, 1 December 2017,�������������������������������������������������������������������������157–​58
Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación, Kersich, Juan Gabriel y otros c/​Aguas
Bonaerenses S.A. y otros s/​amparo, 2 December 2014, �������������������������������������������156–​57

INTERNATIONAL

European Court of Human Rights


Al-​Dulimi and Montana Management Inc. v Switzerland [GC], Application
No 5809/​08, European Court of Human Rights, Judgment, 21 June 2016,��������� 334n.66
Bosphorus Hava Yolları Turi̇zm ve Ti̇caret Anoni̇m Şirketi̇ v Ireland [GC],
Application No 45036/​98, European Court of Human Rights, Judgment,
30 June 2005,������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 335n.69, 373
Demir and Baykara v Turkey [GC], Application No 34503/​97, European Court
of Human Rights, Judgment, 12 November 2008,���������������������������������������������������333–​34
Hirsi Jamaa et al v Italy [GC], Application No 27765/​09, European Court of Human
Rights, Judgment, 23 February 2012),����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 368
K.R.S. v United Kingdom, Application No 32733/​08, European Court of Human
Rights, Decision on Admissibility, 2 December 2008,������������������������������������ 372–​73, 374
M.S.S. et al v Belgium and Greece [GC], Application No 30696/​09, European Court of
Human Rights, Judgment, 21 January 2011),����������������������������������������� 363–​64, 367, 368,
373–​75, 376–​77, 379–​80, 381
Matthews v UK, Application No 24833/​94, European Court of Human Rights,
Judgment, 18 February 1999, ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 335n.69
Otgon v the Republic of Moldova, Application No 22743/​07, European Court of
Human Rights, Judgment, 5 October 2016, �������������������������������������������������������������143–​44
Soering v United Kingdom, Application No 14038/​88, European Court of Human
Rights, Judgment, 7 July 1989, ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 368
T.I. v United Kingdom, Application No 43844/​98, European Court of Human Rights,
Decision as to Admissibility, 7 March 2000,������������������������������������������������������������������� 368
Tarakhel v Switzerland [GC], Application No 29217/​12, European Court of Human
Rights, Judgment, 4 November 2014,�����������������������������������������������������������������������367, 375
viii Table of Cases

Waite and Kennedy v Germany, Application No 26083/​94, European Court


of Human Rights, Judgment, 18 February 1999,���������������������������������������������������� 335n.69

Inter-​American Court of Human Rights


Kawas-​Fernández v Honduras [Judgment, Inter-​American Court of Human Rights
Series C No 196 (3 April 2009)],��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 158
Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v Paraguay [Judgment, Inter-​American
Court of Human Rights Series C No 146 (29 March 2006)],�����������������������������������143–​44
Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v Paraguay [Judgment, Inter-​American
Court of Human Rights Series C No 125 (17 June 2005)],����������������������������� 143–​44, 158

Court of Justice of the European Union


Case C-​104/​16, Front Polisario v Council [2016] ECLI:EU:T:2016:973,��������������������� 140n.42
Case C-​115/​09, Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland,
Landesverband Nordrhein‑Westfalen eV v Bezirksregierung Arnsberg
[2011] ECR I-​03673, ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������153–​54
Case C-​155/​15, George Karim v Migrationsverket [2016] ECLI:EU:C:2016:410,�������380–​81
Case C-​263/​08, Djurgården-​Lilla Värtans Miljöskyddsförening v Stockholms
kommun genom dess marknämnd [2009] ECR I-​09967,���������������������������������������153–​54
Case C-​263/​14, Parliament v Council [2016] ECLI:EU:C:2016,����������������������������������� 128n.21
Case C-​284/​16, Slovak Republic v Achmea BV [2018] ECLI:EU:C:2018:158,�����������133, 138
Case C-​394/​12, Shamso Abdullahi v Bundesasylamt [2013]
ECLI:EU:C:2013:813,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 367, 380–​81
Case C-​399/​11, Stefano Melloni v Ministerio Fiscal [2013]
ECLI:EU:C:2013:107,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 371n.38,
Case C-​4/​11, Bundesrepublik Deutschland v. Kaveh Puid [2013]
ECLI:EU:C:2013:740,��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������380–​81
Case C-​63/​15, Mehrdad Ghezelbash v Staatssecretaris van Veiligheid en Justitie
[2016] ECLI:EU:C:2016:409, ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������380–​81,
Case C-​646/​16, Khadija and Zainab Jafari v Bundesamt für Fremdenwesen
und Asyl [2017] ECLI:EU:C:2017:586,������������������������������������������������������������������� 379n.83
Case C‑670/​16, Tsegezab Mengesteab v Bundesrepublik Deutschland [2017]
ECLI:EU:C:2017:587,�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������378–​79, 380–​81
Joined Cases C-​402/​05 P and C-​415/​05 P, Yassin Abdullah Kadi and Al
Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission [2008]
ECR I-​06351,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128n.20, 130, 334n.66
Joined Cases C-​411/​10 and C-​493/​10, N.S. v SSHD [2011]
ECLI:EU:C:2011:865,������������������������������������������������������������������������� 367, 374–​77, 380, 381
Joined Cases C-​643/​15 and C-​647/​15, Slovak Republic and Hungary v Council of the
European Union [2017] ECLI:EU:C:2017:631, ������������������������������������������������������������� 377
Opinion 1/​2017, Opinion pursuant to Article 218(11) TFEU [2019]
ECLI:EU:C:2019:341,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������129, 132, 134
Opinion 2/​94, Opinion pursuant to Article 228(6) of the EC Treaty [1996]
ECLI:EU:C:1759,��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128

International Court of Justice


Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence
by the Provisional Institutions of Self-​Government of Kosovo (Order)
[2008] ICJ Rep 409, �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������258–​59
Table of Cases ix

Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of


Genocide (Croatia v Serbia) (Merits) [2015] ICJ Rep 3, �����������������227–​28, 243n.16, 259
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) [1996]
(Preliminary Objections: Judgment) ICJ Rep 595,����������������������������������� 54, 243n.16, 259
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro)
(Merits)[2007] ICJ Rep 43,�����������������������������������������������������������������227–​28, 243n.16, 259
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002)
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda) (Jurisdiction and
Admissibility) [2006] ICJ Rep 6,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������54n.46
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company Ltd (Belgium v Spain) (Judgment)
[1970] ICJ Rep 3,����������������������������������������������������������� 38–​39, 46–​47, 54, 170, 241n.1, 265
Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v Malta) (Application to Intervene:
Judgment) [1984] ICJ Rep 3,���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������245–​46
Continental Shelf (Tunisia v Libyan Jamahiriya) (Application to Intervene: Judgment)
[1981] ICJ Rep 3,����������������������������������������������������������������245–​46, 247n.39, 257, 260n.135
Corfu Channel Case (UK v Albania) (Merits) [1949] ICJ Rep 4,�����������������������������������170–​71
East Timor (Portugal v Australia) (Merits) [1995] ICJ Rep 90,����������������39n.165, 54, 242n.15
Fisheries Jurisdiction cases (United Kingdom v Iceland/​Federal Republic
of Germany v Iceland) (Merits) [1974] ICJ Rep 3,�����������������������������������������������������75–​76
Gabcikovo-​Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia) (Merits) [1997]
ICJ Rep 7,���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 257, 259, 261, 347–​48
Haya de La Torre (Colombia v Peru) (Application to Intervene: Judgment)
[1951] ICJ Rep 71, ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 247, 248, 251n.68, 252n.78
International status of South West Africa (Advisory Opinion) [1950]
ICJ Rep 128,�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������258–​59
Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt
(Advisory Opinion) [1980] ICJ Rep 73:������������������������������������������������������������������� 334n.65
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v Italy, Greece Intervening)
(Merits) [2012] ICJ Rep 99,�������������������������������������������51, 54, 242n.15, 245–​46, 263n.159
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v Nigeria)
(Application to Intervene: Order) [1999] ICJ Rep 1029,���������������������������������245–​46n.33
Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador v Honduras)
(Application to Intervene: Judgment) [1990] ICJ Rep 92,�������������������������������245–​46n.33
Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia
(South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council resolution 276 1970
(Advisory Opinion) [1971] ICJ Rep 16,��������������������������������������������������������� 259n.123, 263
Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory (Order) [2003] ICJ Rep 428,������������������������������������������������������������������� 259n.122
Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory (Advisory Opinion) [2004] ICJ Rep 136, �����������������������������39n.165, 54, 60–​61
Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in
1965 (Advisory Opinion) General List No 169 [2019] ICJ,���������������������������������54, 60–​61
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (Advisory Opinion) [1996]
ICJ Rep 226,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39–​40, 170–​71,
256n.101, 259n.122
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v
United States of America) (Declaration of Intervention: Order) [1984]
ICJ Rep 215,���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������247, 248, 251
x Table of Cases

Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United


States of America) (Jurisdiction and Admissibility: Judgment) [1984] ICJ Rep
392 [6],��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 251
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14,����������������������������������������������������������63n.98
Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943 (Italy v France, United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America) (Preliminary
Question: Judgment) [1954] ICJ Rep 19,����������������������������������������������������������������� 242n.15
Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay) (Judgment) [2010]
ICJ Rep 14,������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 170–​71, 348
Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v Senegal)
(Merits) [2012] ICJ Rep 422,������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39n.165
Request for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63 of the
Court’s Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand/​France) Case (Declarations for Intervention by the Governments
of the Solomon Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall
Islands, Samoa Islands and Australia: Order) [1995] ICJ Rep 288, ��������245–​46, 248–​49
South West Africa (Ethiopia v South Africa; Liberia v South Africa) (Judgment)
[1966] ICJ Rep 6,�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242n.13
Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia v Malaysia)
(Application for Permission to Intervene by the Government of the Philippines)
General List No 102 [2001] ICJ,�������������������������������������������������������������������������245–​46n.33
Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v Colombia) (Applications to Intervene:
Judgments) [2011] ICJ Rep 348 and 420,����������������������������������� 245–​46n.33, 247, 247n.39
Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v Japan) (Declaration of Intervention:
Order) [2013] ICJ Rep 3,������������������������������������������������������ 244–​45, 246n.34, 247, 248–​50

Permanent Court of International Justice


Consistency of Certain Danzig Legislative Decrees with the Constitution
of the Free City [1935] PCIJ (ser. A/​B) No. 65,����������������������������������������������������� 260n.130
SS ‘Wimbledon’ (United Kingdom and others v Germany, Poland intervening)
(Declaration for Intervention: Judgment) [1923] PCIJ Series A No. 1,�������������� 247n.39,
248, 252n.79

World Trade Organization –​Dispute Settlement Body


Argentina –​Financial Services, Panel Report, WT/​DS453/​R
(30 September 2015),���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������282–​83
Brazil –​Aircraft –​Recourse to Art. 22(6), Panel Report, WT/​DS46/​R
(28 August 2000),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 286n.152
Brazil –​Measures Affecting Imports of Retreated Tyres, Report of the Appellate Body,
WT/​DS332/​AB/​R (17 December 2007),�������������������������������������������������������������������271–​72
Canada –​ Autos, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS139/​AB/​R, WT/​DS142/​AB/​R
(31 May 2000), ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������275n.89, 277–​78
Canada − Periodicals, Appellate Body Report WT/​DS31/​AB/​R
(30 June 1997), ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 287n.160
EC –​Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-​Containing Products,
Report of the Appellate Body, WT/​DS135/​AB/​R (12 March 2001),�������������������� 272n.61
EC –​Poultry, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS69/​AB/​R (13 July 1998), ������������������� 277n.104
EC − Bananas III –​Second Recourse to Article 21.5 of the DSU by Ecuador, Appellate
Body Report, WT/​DS27/​AB/​RW2/​ECU (11 December 2008),������������������������� 284n.142
EC − Bananas III, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS27/​AB/​R (9 September 1997),������������� 276
Table of Cases xi

EC − Tariff Preferences, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS246/​AB/​R


(20 April 2004),���������������������������������������������������������� 270n.50, 274n.80, 275n.89, 278n.107
European Communities –​Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing
of Biotech Products, Report of the Panel, WT/​DS292/​R
(29 September 2006),�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������325, 333
European Communities − Customs Classification of Certain Computer Equipment,
Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS62/​AB/​R (22 June 1998),��������������������������������������268–​69
Japan − Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages II, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS8/​AB/​R,
WT/​DS10/​AB/​R, WT/​DS11/​AB/​R (4 October 1996), ����������������������������������������� 274n.83
Korea − Alcoholic Beverages, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS75/​AB R, WT/​DS84/​
AB/​R (18 January 1999),����������������������������������������������������������������������� 277n.100, 287n.158
Korea − Alcoholic Beverages, Panel Report, WT/​DS75/​R, WT/​DS84/​R
(17 September 1998),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 287
Korea − Beef, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS161/​AB/​R, WT/​DS169/​AB/​R
(11 December 2000),������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 272n.62
Korea − Dairy, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS98/​AB/​R (12 January 2000),������������� 270n.51
Peru − Agricultural Products, Appellate Body Report, DS/​457/​AB/​R
(20 July 2015),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 280
Turkey − Textiles, Panel Report, WT/​DS34/​R (31 May 1999),����������������������������������� 284n.143
U.S. –​Reformulated Gasoline, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS2/​AB/​R, 28
(29 April 1996),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 277n.101
United States –​Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products,
Report of the Panel, WT/​DS58/​R (15 May 1998), ���������������������������������������������������271–​72
United States –​Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products,
Report of the Appellate Body, WT/​DS58/​AB/​R
(12 October 1998),���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271–​72, 332
United States − Transitional Safeguard Measure on Combed Cotton Yarn from
Pakistan, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS192/​AB/​R (8 October 2001),������������� 274n.80
US –​Sections 301–​310, Panel Report, WT/​DS152/​R (22 December 1999),�����������������287–​88
US − FSC (Article 22.6 Arbitration, Panel Report, WT/​DS108/​ARB
(30 August 2002),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 282
US − Section 211 Appropriations Act, Appellate Body Report, WT/​DS176/​AB/​R
(2 January 2002),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������275–​76
US − Taxes on Petroleum and Certain Imported Substances, Report of the Panel,
L/​6175 –​BISD 34S/​136 (17 June 1987),����������������������������������������������������������������� 284n.143

International Criminal Tribunals


Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi (Judgment and Sentence) [2016]
ICC-​01/​12-​01/​15,������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 212–​38, 314
Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi (Reparations Order) [2017]
ICC-​01/​12-​01/​15,������������������������������������������������������������������� 213–​14, 215, 234–​36, 315–​16
Prosecutor v Al Mahdi (Decision on the confirmation of charges against Ahmad
Al Faqi Al Mahdi) ICC-​01/​12-​01/​15 [2015]: �����������������������������������������������������������233–​34
Prosecutor v Blaškić (Judgment) IT-​95-​14-​T (3 March 2000),����������������������������� 225n.90, 227
Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda (Decision Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the
Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Bosco Ntaganda)
ICC-​01/​04-​02/​06 [2014],����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 230n.127
Prosecutor v Dario Kordić and Mario Cerdez (Appeal Judgment) IT-​95-​14/​2-​A
(17 December 2004),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 224, 313n.127
Prosecutor v Dario Kordić and Mario Čerdez (Trial Judgment) IT-​95-​14/​2-​T
(26 February 2001),������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 313n.127
xii Table of Cases

Prosecutor v Furundžija (Judgment) ICTY-​95-​17/​1


(10 December 1998),��������������������������������������������������������������������������39n.165, 54, 313n.126
Prosecutor v Furundžija (Judgment) IT-​95-​17/​1-​A (21 July 2000),����������������������������� 226n.97
Prosecutor v Hadžihasanović and Kubura (Judgment) IT-​01-​47-​T
(15 March 2006), ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 225n.89, 226, 232
Prosecutor v Jokić (Sentencing Trial Judgment) IT-​01-​42/​1-​S
(18 March 2004), ����������������������������������������������������������������� 224n.85, 225–​26, 228, 231–​32,
238n.183, 313n.127, 313–​14
Prosecutor v Karadžić (Judgment) IT-​95-​5/​18-​T (24 March 2016), �����������������������������227–​28
Prosecutor v Katanga (Order for Reparations pursuant to Article 75 of the
Statute) ICC-​01/​04-​01/​07 [2017], �������������������������������������������������������������������� 234–​35, 236
Prosecutor v Kordić and Čerkez (Judgment) IT-​95-​14/​2-​T,
(26 February 2001),�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223–​24
Prosecutor v Krajišnik (Judgment) IT-​00-​39-​T (27 September 2006), ��������������������� 228n.117
Prosecutor v Krstić (Judgment) IT-​98-​33-​T (2 August 2001), ���������������������������������������227–​28
Prosecutor v Kupreškić et al (Judgment) IT-​95-​16-​T (14 January 2000), ��������������������������� 227
Prosecutor v Lubanga (Judgment on the Appeals Against the ‘Decision Establishing
the Principles and Procedures to Be Applied to Reparations of 7 August 2012)
ICC-​01/​04-​01/​06 A A 2 A 3 [2015],���������������������������������������������������������������������������234–​35
Prosecutor v Milošević (Appeal Judgment) IT-​98-​29/​1-​A (12 November 2009), ������������� 225
Prosecutor v Pavle Strugar (Rule 98bis Motion) IT-​01-​42-​T (21 June 2004),��������������231–​32,
313n.127
Prosecutor v Strugar (Judgment) IT-​01-​42-​T (31 January 2005),����������������������� 224n.85, 225,
228n.117, 231–​32, 313–​14
Prosecutor v Tadić (Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on
Jurisdiction) IT-​94-​1-​AR72 (2 October 1995),������������������������������������������������������� 225n.93

ITLOS
Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-​Regional Fisheries Commission
(Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015), ITLOS Reports 2015,����������������������������������������16n.20
Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with
Respect to Activities in the Area (Advisory Opinion, 1 February 2011),
ITLOS Reports 2011,���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40, 394–​95

International Arbitral Awards and Decisions


Aguas Argentinas, S.A., Suez, Sociedad General de Aguas de Barcelona, S.A. and
Vivendi Universal, S.A. v The Argentine Republic (Order of 19 May 2005 in
Response of a Petition for Transparency and Participation as Amicus Curiae)
ICSID Case No ARB/​03/​19, ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������150–​52
Aguas Provinciales de Santa Fe S.A., Suez, Sociedad General de Aguas de Barcelona
S.A. and InterAguas Servicios Integrales del Agua S.A. v. the Argentine Republic
(Order of 17 March 2006 in Response to a Petition for Participation as Amicus
Curiae) ICSID Case No ARB/​03/​17, ������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
Crystallex v Venezuela, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/​11/​2, Award, 4 April 2016,��������� 110n.59
Hulley Enterprises v Russia, PCA, UNCITRAL, Award, 18 July 2014, ����������������������� 110n.59
Occidental II v Ecuador, ICSID Case No. ARB/​06/​11, Award, 5 October 2012,��������� 110n.59
Salini Costruttori SpA and Italstrade SpA v Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Decision
of the Tribunal on Jurisdiction of 29 November 2004) ICSID Case No ARB/​02/​
13, (2005) 20 ICSID Rev/​FILJ 148,�������������������������������������������������������������������������������108–​9
Southern Bluefin Tuna case (Australia and New Zealand v Japan) (Jurisdiction and
Admissibility), 23 RIAA 1-​57 (4 August 2000), �������������������������������������������������������324–​25
Table of Cases xiii

Suez, Sociedad General de Aguas de Barcelona, S.A., and Vivendi Universal S.A. v.
The Argentine Republic (Order of 12 February 2017 in Response to a Petition
by Five Non-​Governmental Organizations for Permission to Make an Amicus
Curiae Submission) ICSID Case No ARB/​03/​19,����������������������������������������������������������� 151
The South China Sea Arbitration (The Republic of Philippines v The People’s Republic
of China), Award (12 July 2016), PCA 2013-​19 (Final Award), ����������������������� 16–​17n.21
Venezuela Holdings v Venezuela, ICSID Case No. ARB/​07/​27) Award,
9 October 2014,����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110n.59
Veteran Petroleum v Russia, PCA, UNCITRAL, Award, 18 July 2014, ����������������������� 110n.59
Yukos Universal v Russia, PCA, UNCITRAL, Award, 18 July 2014, ��������������������������� 110n.59
Table of Treaties

For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52–​53) may, on
occasion, appear on only one of those pages.

Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating


to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Additional
Protocol I) (1977), ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������217–​22, 224–​25
Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to
the Protection of Victims of Non-​International Armed Conflicts (Additional
Protocol II) (1977),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������217, 218–​22, 224–​25
African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights Rules of Court (2010),������������������������� 149n.29
Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964),��������������22n.56
Agreement between Canada and the United States of America on Air
Quality (1991),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 173n.42
Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
Migratory Fish Stocks (1995),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16n.19
Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling (1937),������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies
(1984) 1363 UNTS 3,����������������������������������������������������������� 20–​22, 23, 24, 25, 44, 167, 168,
Agreement on Agriculture (1995),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 286n.154
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (1994),������������������������������������������������������� 279n.117
Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft (1980),��������������������������������������������������������������� 286n.154
Agreement on Trade-​Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (1995),��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 275n.88, 279n.117, 327, 337
Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 (1994),����������������������������������� 19
Antarctic Treaty (1959),��������������������������������������������� 22–​23, 24–​25, 40, 73n.17, 168–​69, 201–​2
ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency
Response (2005), ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 405n.99
ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement (2009), ���������������������������������������99–​100n.32
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal (1989), ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural
Habitats (1979), ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28–​29n.103
Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals (1979), ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28–​29n.103
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological
Diversity (2000),���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 325, 326–​27, 330, 333
Charter of the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg (1945), ��������������������������� 222n.71
Constitution of the International Labour Organisation (1919),����������������������������������� 337n.76
Constitution of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(1945),������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 305n.72
xvi Table of Treaties

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural


Heritage (1972),���������������������������������������������������������������������29–​30, 167, 171, 225–​26, 310,
312, 385–​87, 388–​89, 390–​98,
399, 403–​4, 406–​7, 411
Convention for Regulation of Whaling (1931), ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972),�������������������������������������������22n.56
Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed
Conflict (1954),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29n.106
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
(ECHR) (1950), ��������������������������������������������123–​24, 149, 255–​56n.100, 363–​64, 367–​69,
372, 373–​74, 375, 376–​77, 379–​80
Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe (1985),����������������403–​4
Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003),����������� 30–​31, 400
Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement of 14 June 1985 (1990),����������� 370n.27
Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (1973),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 347
Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-​Making
and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (1998),�������������������������������� 152–​53, 154
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), ����������������������������������������������14n.7, 26–​27, 28–​29,
33n.135, 36, 41, 43, 73n.21, 146–​47,
169, 181–​82, 326–​27, 336–​37
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High
Seas (1958),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
Convention on Long-​Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979),�������� 31–​32n.123, 173–​74
Convention on Nuclear Safety (1994),������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980), ��������22n.56
Convention on the High Seas (1958),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (1948), ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 227, 306, 307–​8
Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals
of Other States (ICSID Convention) (1965),������������������������������������������ 94, 98–​99, 150–​51
Convention on Transparency in Treaty-​based Investor-​State
Arbitration (2014),���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������94, 98–​99
Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious
Drought and/​or Desertification, particularly in Africa (1994), ���������������������28–​29n.103
Dominican Republic–​Central America Free Trade Agreement
(DR-​CAFTA) (2004),��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99–​100n.32, 101n.35
Energy Charter Treaty (1994), �������������������������������������������������������������������� 99–​100n.32, 136–​37
EU-​Vietnam Free Trade Agreement (2016),������������������������������������������������������������������� 131n.30
First Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property
in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954),���������������������������������������������������������������306–​7, 308
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (1948),�����������������������������127, 132, 134–​35, 136–​37,
140–​41, 271–​72, 275n.88, 276–​78, 279–​80,
281–​82, 283–​84, 287–​88, 290–​92, 333–​34
General Agreement on Trade in Services (1995),���������������������� 275n.88, 279–​80, 282–​84, 290
Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951),����������������������������������������364n.3
Hague Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes (1899),�������252–​53
Hague Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of International Dispute (1907), �������252–​53
Hague II Convention with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on
Land (1899),������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������294n.4
Hague IV Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of War on
Land (1907),�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������224–​25
Table of Treaties xvii

IBRD Articles of Agreement (1945), ������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 337n.76


ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence (2002), �������������������������������������������������������255–​56n.100
ICSID Administrative and Financial Regulation,��������������������������������������������������������������98n.25
ICSID Rules of Procedure for Arbitration Proceedings (Arbitration
Rules) (1984),�������������������������������������������������������������������������98n.25, 150–​51, 255–​56n.100
ICTR Rules of Procedure and Evidence (1995),�����������������������������������������������������255–​56n.100
ICTY Rules of Procedure and Evidence (2015),�����������������������������������������������������255–​56n.100
ILC Draft Articles on Prevention of Transboundary Harm from Hazardous
Activities (2001), ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170–​71
ILC Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful
Acts (2001),����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38–​39, 170, 241n.5, 281n.129
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (1973),�������������176–​77
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946), ����������� 15, 28, 249, 250n.59
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture (2001),���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30–​31, 35
Kyoto Protocol to UNFCCC (1997), ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 178
London Convention on the Regulation of Ocean Fertilization (2008),������������������������������� 181
Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization (1994),��������������� 271n.56
Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013), ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987),�������������� 31n.122, 38,
73–​74, 177–​78, 189
Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (2010),�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41–​42
New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral
Awards (1958),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 94
North American Free Trade Agreement (1994),��������������������������������������� 99–​100n.32, 101n.35
Paris Agreement (2015), �������������������������������������28–​29, 38, 43, 74n.22, 140, 163–​64, 168, 169,
175–​77, 178n.76, 179–​80, 181–​82, 189
Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-​East Atlantic (1992),��������������������������������������������������������������������������������28–​29n.103
Preliminary Draft International Convention for the Protection of Historic Buildings
and Works of Art in Time of War (OIM Draft) (1938),���������������������������������������������300–​1
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991),��������������������������22n.56
Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-​Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the
Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at Least 30
per Cent (1985),���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31–​32n.123
Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-​Range Transboundary Air Pollution
concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their
Transboundary Fluxes (1988),���������������������������������������������������������������������������31–​32n.123
Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-​Range Transboundary Air Pollution
concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or their
Transboundary Fluxes (1991),���������������������������������������������������������������������������31–​32n.123
Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-​Range Transboundary Air Pollution on
Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions (1994),���������������������������������������������31–​32n.123
Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-​Range Transboundary Air Pollution on
Persistent Organic Pollutants (1998),����������������������������������������������������������������31–​32n.123
Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-​Range Transboundary Air Pollution to
Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-​level Ozone (1999),���������31–​32n.123
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment
of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1998),��������������������������������������� 149
Protocol to the Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1967),�������������364n.3,
xviii Table of Treaties

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC Statute) (1998),��������������������212–​13,


230, 312–​13
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998), ������������������������� 330
Rules of Procedure of the Inter-​American Court of Human Rights,��������������������������� 149n.29
Second Protocol to The Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural
Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (2003),��������������������������������306–​7, 308–​10, 311
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Agreement on Rapid Response to
Natural Disasters (2011),������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 405n.99
Statute of the International Court of Justice Statute (1945), ������������������������������������������������� 243
Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia (1993), ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223, 312–​13
Statute of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (1982),�������������������������������255–​56
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001), ��������������������������������������� 330
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and
under Water (1963),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175
Treaty on Principles governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use
of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies (1967),���������������������� 20,
75n.32, 201–​2
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union,��������������������������������������� 128, 129, 133–​34,
138, 140, 154, 337n.76
Treaty on the Protection of Artistic and Scientific Institutions and Historic
Monuments (1935),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 299
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982),�������������������������� 16, 17,
18–​19, 20–​22, 23–​24, 25, 75n.31, 76n.35,
131–​32, 136–​37, 138–​39, 167, 171,
181, 200–​1, 202–​4, 255–​56n.100
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992),���������������� 14n.6, 28–​29,
33n.135, 36, 38, 41, 43, 74n.22, 163–​64,
169, 178, 179, 181–​82, 326–​27, 338
US-​Argentina BIT (1991),����������������������������������������������������������������������������������101n.35, 108n.44
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1982),���������� 31n.122, 177–​78, 189,
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), ��������������������������� 46–​47, 126–​27, 131n.31,
252–​53, 268–​69, 279, 280,
323–​24, 325, 333–​34
Washington Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (1973),������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26n.82
Washington Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource
Activities (1988), ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24n.74
WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures (1994), ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 338–​40, 341
WTO Understanding on Rules and Procedures governing the Settlement
of Disputes (1994),������������������������������������������������������������������������135–​36, 270, 282–​86, 288
List of Contributors

Paula Wojcikiewicz Almeida is a Associate Professor and Coordinator of Jean Monnet


Centre of Excellence on EU-​South America Global Governance, sponsored by the European
Commission at the Getulio Vargas Foundation Law School in Rio de Janeiro.

Daniele Amoroso is a Professor of International Law at the University of Cagliari.

Christine Bakker is a Visiting Lecturer at Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy.

Giulio Bartolini is a Associate Professor of international law at Roma Tre University.

Daniel Behn is Senior Lecturer in International Dispute Resolution in the School of


International Arbitration at the Centre for Commercial Law Studies (CCLS), Queen Mary
University of London, School of Law.

Francesca Capone is a Associate Professor DIRPOLIS at Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna,


Pisa, Italy.

Samuel Cogolati is Member of Parliament at House of Representatives, Brussels, Belgium.

Ole Kristian Fauchald is a Professor of PluriCourts -​Centre for the Study of the Legitimate
Roles of the Judiciary in the Global Order at University of Oslo.

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is UNESCO Chair in International Law and Cultural Heritage and
Professor of Law at University of Technology Sydney.

Winfried Huck is a Professor of Brunswick European Law School at Hochschule


Braunschweig /​Wolfenbuettel (Ostfalia).

Massimo Iovane is a Professor of International Law at Federico II University of Naples.

Andrej Lang is a Emile Noël Global Fellow at NYU School of Law and a senior researcher at
Professor Tietje’s Chair for Public Law, European Law and International Economic Law at
the Martin-​Luther University Halle-​Wittenberg.

Malcolm Langford is a Professor of PluriCourts Centre of Excellence, Department of Public


and International Law at University of Oslo.

Nilufer Oral is a Director of Centre for International Law at National University of


Singapore.

Fulvio M. Palombino is a Professor of International Law at Federico II University of Naples.

Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann is a emeritus professor of Law Department at European University


Institute Florence.
xx List of Contributors

Pierfrancesco Rossi Postdoctoral Fellow in International Law at Luiss University,


Rome, Italy.

Dana Schmalz Senior Research Fellow at Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law
and International Law Heidelberg, Berlin.

Antonio Segura Serrano is a Associate Professor Department of Public International Law


and International Relations at University of Granada.

Fulvia Staiano is a lecturer in International Law and European Union Law at the Giustino
Fortunato University.

Christian Tietje is Professor for Public Law at European Law and International Economic
Law, director of the Institute for Economic Law, and director of the Transnational Economic
Law Research Center (TELC) at the Faculty of Law, Economics and Business at the Martin
Luther University Halle-​Wittenberg, Germany.

Peter-Tobias Stoll is a Director of Institute and Jean-​Monnet-​


Chair at Institute for
International Law and European Law University of Göttingen.

Jan Wouters is Full Professor of International Law and International Organizations, Jean
Monnet Chair ad personam European Union and Global Governance, Director of the
Institute for International Law and of the Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies at
KU Leuven, and President of the University’s Board for International Policy.

Giovanni Zarra is a Adjunct Professor of International Law at Federico II University of


Naples.
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chestnut or brownish-orange, as are the outer webs of the inner
tertiaries; alula, primary coverts, outer secondary coverts and quills
blackish-brown, their inner webs becoming white towards the base; a
broad band of white extends across the wing, including the bases of
the primary quills, excepting the outer four, and the ends of the
secondary coverts; the shafts of the primaries white. Tail white, with
a broad blackish-brown bar towards the end, broader in the middle,
the tips white. A dusky band crosses the rump.
Length to end of tail 9 inches, to end of wings 8 3/8, to end of claws
10; extent of wings 18 3/8; along the ridge 9 1/2/12, along the edge of
lower mandible 11/12; wing from flexure 6 1/12; tail 2 4/12; tarsus 11/12;
hind toe 2 1/2/12, its claw 2/12; middle toe 10/12, its claw 3 1/2/12. Average
weight of three specimens 3 2/3 oz.

Male in winter. Plate CCCIV. Fig. 2.


In winter, the throat, lower parts, middle of the back, upper tail-
coverts, and band across the wing, are white, as in summer; the tail,
and quills, are also similarly coloured, but the inner secondaries are
destitute of red, of which there are no traces on the upper parts, they
being of a dark greyish-brown colour, the feathers tipped or
margined with paler; the outer edges of the outer scapulars, and
some of the smaller wing-coverts, white; on the sides and fore part of
the neck the feathers blackish, with white shafts.
Individuals vary much according to age and sex, as well in size as in
colour, scarcely two in summer plumage being found exactly similar.

In a male bird, the tongue is 6 1/2/12 of an inch in length, sagittate and


papillate at the base, concave above, narrow, and tapering to the
point. The œsophagus is 4 1/4 inches long, inclines to the right, is
rather narrow, and uniform, its diameter 4 1/2/12. Proventriculus
oblong, 8/12 in length, 5/12 in breadth, its glandules cylindrical.
Stomach oblong, 11/12 in length, its cuticular lining very tough and
hard, with broad longitudinal rugæ, its lateral muscles moderately
large. Intestine 17 1/2 inches long, slender, varying in diameter from
2 1/2/ to 1 1/2/12; rectum 1 1/2; cæca 1 8/12, 11/12 in diameter at the
12

commencement, 2/12 toward the end; cloaca globular.

The trachea is 3 1/4 inches long, 2 1/2/12 in breadth, contracts to 1/12;


its lateral muscles very thin; sterno-tracheal slender, a pair of
tracheali-bronchial muscles. The rings are very thin and unossified,
104 in number. Bronchi of moderate length, with about 15 half rings.
In a female, the œsophagus is 4 1/4 inches long, the intestine 18. In
both individuals, the stomach contained fragments of shells, and
claws of very small crabs: which were also found in the intestine,
although there more comminuted.
PURPLE GALLINULE.

Gallinula martinica, Lath.


PLATE CCCV. Male.

Reader, although you may think it strange, I candidly assure you that
I have experienced a thousand times more pleasure while looking at
the Purple Gallinule flirting its tail while gaily moving over the broad
leaves of the water-lily, than I have ever done while silently sitting in
the corner of a crowded apartment, gazing on the flutterings of
gaudy fans and the wavings of flowing plumes. Would that I were
once more extended on some green grassy couch, in my native
Louisiana, or that I lay concealed under some beautiful tree,
overhanging the dark bayou, on whose waters the bird of beauty is
wont to display its graceful movements, and the rich hues of its
glossy plumage! Methinks I now see the charming creature gliding
sylph-like over the leaves that cover the lake, with the aid of her
lengthened toes, so admirably adapted for the purpose, and seeking
the mate, who, devotedly attached as he is, has absented himself,
perhaps in search of some secluded spot in which to place their
nest. Now he comes, gracefully dividing the waters of the tranquil
pool, his frontal crest glowing with the brightest azure. Look at his
wings, how elegantly they are spread and obliquely raised; see how
his expanded tail strikes the water; and mark the movements of his
head, which is alternately thrown backward and forward, as if he
were congratulating his mate on their happy meeting. Now both birds
walk along clinging to the stems and blades, their voices clearly
disclosing their mutual feelings of delight, and they retire to some
concealed place on the nearest shore, where we lose sight of them
for a time.
Now, side by side, they look for the most secure spot among the tall
rushes that border the lake, and there they will soon form a nest,
removed alike from danger to be dreaded from the inhabitants of the
land as of the water. On the thick mass of withered leaves are
deposited the precious eggs, from which in time emerge the dusky
younglings, that presently betake themselves to the water, over
which they wander, guided by their affectionate parent, until it
becomes expedient for the party to disperse.
The Purple Gallinule is a constant resident in the United States,
although peculiar to their southern districts, where I have met with it
at all seasons. It is in the Floridas, the lower parts of Alabama, and
among the broad marshes bordering the Gulf of Mexico, in Lower
Louisiana, that I have observed its habits. Beyond the Carolinas
eastward, it is only met with as an accidental straggler. It never, I
believe, ascends the Mississippi beyond Memphis, where indeed it is
but rarely seen; but between Natchez and the mouths of the great
river, it is abundant on all the retired bayous and small lakes. The
southern portions of Georgia are also furnished with it; but in South
Carolina it is rare. Proceeding southwestward along the Gulf of
Mexico, I have found it as far as Texas, where it breeds, as well as in
Louisiana, where I observed it coming from the south in May 1837.
Having studied the habits of this bird under every advantage in
Louisiana, and especially in the neighbourhood of New Orleans, and
the mouths of the Mississippi, I will now, good Reader, place before
you the results of my observation. In the summer months, the Purple
Gallinules remove with their broods to the prairies or large
savannahs bordering the bayous or lakes on which they have bred,
and remain in those places, which are generally covered with thick
and tall grass, until the beginning of September, when the vegetation
having been dried up by the intense heat and drought, neither food
nor sufficient concealment can be obtained. The young birds usually
abandon these plains first, and while the colour of their plumage is
still green, instead of purplish-blue, which tint, however, is assumed
before the return of spring. During all this while, its notes are as
frequently heard as during the breeding season. They resemble the
delicate whistling sounds of the Blue-winged Teal during its
residence with us. At this season also its flesh is best, although it
never equals that of the Freshwater Marsh-hen, Rallus elegans, or of
the Sora Rail, Rallus carolinus.
On the approach of winter, all the Purple Gallinules leave the
savannahs, and betake themselves to the immediate vicinity of
ponds, bayous, or rivers, where through experience they become
shy, vigilant, and cunning. They seldom remove from one place to
another, or travel at all, unless by night, although in sequestered
parts they feed both on land and on the water by day.
The Purple Gallinule breeds at a remarkably early period of the year.
I have found young birds in their jetty down clothing in February, and
they have been observed in the same month by the keepers of the
lighthouse at the south-west Pass of the Mississippi, at Key West,
and in other places. The parent birds are sometimes so very intent
on saving their young, as to suffer themselves to be caught. At this
period their calls are almost incessantly heard during the whole
night, and are elicited during the day by any musical or remarkable
noise. The nest is generally placed among a kind of rushes that are
green at all seasons, round, very pithy, rarely more than five feet
high, and grow more along the margins of ponds than in the water
itself. The birds gather many of them, and fasten them at the height
of two or three feet, and there the nest is placed. It is composed of
the most delicate rushes, whether green or withered, and is quite as
substantial as that of the Common Gallinule, flattish, having an
internal diameter of eight or ten inches, while the entire breadth is
about fifteen. The eggs, which are from five to seven, rarely more,
are very similar to those of the Common Gallinule, being of a light
greyish-yellow, spotted with blackish-brown. The young are at first
quite black, and covered with down. They are fully fledged by the
first of June, when, as I have said, they and their parents remove to
the wet savannahs in the neighbourhood.
The jerking motions of the tail of this bird, whenever it is disturbed, or
attracted by any remarkable object, are very quick, and so often
repeated as to have a curious appearance. It runs with great speed,
and dives with equal address, often moving off under water with
nothing but the bill above. The lightness and ease with which it walks
on the floating plants are surprising, for in proceeding they scarcely
produce any perceptible disturbance of the water. When swimming in
full security, they move buoyantly and gracefully, throwing the head
forward at every propelling motion of the feet. The flight of this
species is less swift than that of the Common Gallinule, or of the
Rails, unless when it is travelling far, when it flies high, and advances
in a direct course by continued flappings; but when it is in its
breeding or feeding grounds, its flight is slow and short, seldom
exceeding thirty or forty yards, and with the legs hanging down; and
it alights among the herbage with its wings spread upwards in the
manner of the Rails. It often alights on the low branches of trees and
bushes growing over the water, and walks lightly and gracefully over
them.
It is seldom that more than one Purple Gallinule is shot at a time,
unless in the beginning of the love season, when the male and
female are apt to swim or walk close together. The male at this
period is said to be able to inflate the frontal plate while strutting, but
I have never been fortunate enough to observe this.
The Purple Gallinule not unfrequently alights on ships at sea. While
at the Island of Galveston, on the 26th of April, I was offered several
live individuals by the officers of the Boston frigate, which they had
caught on board. My friend John Bachman once received three
specimens that had been caught three hundred miles from land, one
of them having come through the cabin window. He also obtained
from the Hon. Mr Poinset a fine specimen caught on board, on the
Santee River, in South Carolina, in May. It is easily kept alive if fed
with bread soaked in milk; and on this food I have known several that
remained in good health for years. In Louisiana, where it is called
Rale Bleu, its flesh is not held in much estimation, but is used by the
negroes for making gombo.
My friend Bachman considers this species as rather scarce in South
Carolina and Georgia, but states that it breeds there, as he has
occasionally observed pairs on the head waters or preserves of rice
plantations during summer, but never met with any in winter. The
extreme limit of its range eastward is the neighbourhood of Boston,
where a few individuals have been procured.
I think I may safely tell you that the figure of the Purple Gallinule
exhibited in the plate, is the first ever published from a drawing taken
from Nature!

Fulica martinica, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 259.


Gallinula martinica, Lath. Ind Ornith. p. 769.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synops. p.
336.
Gallinula porphyrio, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. ix. p. 67. pl. 73. fig. 2.
Purple Gallinule, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 221.

Adult Male in Spring. Plate CCCV.


Bill as long as the head, nearly straight, stout, deep, compressed,
tapering. Upper mandible with a soft ovate plate at the base
extending over a great part of the head, the dorsal line beyond this
plate straightish and slightly declinate as far as the middle, then
arcuato-declinate, the ridge gradually narrowed until over the
nostrils, afterwards considerably widened, the sides nearly erect, the
edges sharp, the notch obsolete. Nasal groove extending nearly to
the middle of the bill, broad; nostrils sub-medial, lateral, oblong,
direct, pervious. Lower mandible with the angle rather long and
narrow, the sides nearly erect and slightly concave, the dorsal line
beyond the angle ascending, straight, the edges sharp and direct,
the tip narrowed, rather sharp.
Head small, oblong, compressed. Eyes of moderate size. Body
much compressed. Feet large, long; tibia bare a considerable way
above the joint, and reticulated; tarsus long, stout, compressed,
anteriorly covered with very broad scutella, laterally and posteriorly
with two series of broad scutella, between which on the posterior
edge is a series of very minute scales; hind toe comparatively small,
middle toe longest, and much longer than the tarsus, fourth longer
than second; toes free, slender, compressed, with numerous broad
scutella above, obliquely flattened beneath, marginate; claws very
long, slender, slightly arched, much compressed, tapering to a very
acute point.
Plumage blended, firm, glossy, the feathers ovato-oblong, broad at
the end. Wings rather long, broad, rather concave; ovula large:
primaries incurvate, broad, third longest, second a twelfth of an inch
shorter, fourth two-twelfths shorter than second, which exceeds the
first by eleven-twelfths; secondaries broad and grounded. Tail short,
much rounded, of twelve rather weak, rounded feathers, which but
slightly exceed the lower coverts.
Frontal plate ultramarine blue; bill bright carmine, tipped with bright
yellow. Iris bright carmine; margins of eyelids white. Tarsi, toes, and
claws bright yellow. Head, fore part of neck, and breast rich purplish-
blue; abdomen and feathers of legs dusky; sides green; lower wing-
coverts light green; sides of the neck light purplish-blue, shaded into
verdigris and brownish-green above; the fore part of the back
verdigris-green, shaded with olivaceous; the hind part and upper tail-
coverts olivaceous; the coverts and outer webs of the quills
greenish-blue, the inner webs clove-brown; tail-feathers olivaceous.
Length to end of tail 13 1/2 inches, to end of wings 13 1/2, to end of
claws 18; extent of wings 21 1/2; bill along the ridge, including frontal
plate 2; edge of lower mandible 1 1/4; tarsus 2 1/4; hind toe 1, its claw
10/ ; middle toe 2 4/12, its claw 9/12.
12

Weight of one individual 7 1/2 oz., of another 8 1/2, both males; of a


fourth 7 oz.; of a fifth 5 1/2; and of a sixth only 4 1/2.

The female is somewhat smaller, but similar to the male, the frontal
plate is less extended, and the tints of the plumage a little less vivid.
The young are at first covered with black down. When fledged they
are olivaceous on the upper parts, dull purple beneath; the bill dull
green. After the first moult, the bill is light carmine, greenish-yellow at
the end, the head dark purple; the plumage coloured as above
described, but less brilliant, the tarsi and toes greenish-yellow.
In a male bird, the tongue is 10 twelfths of an inch long, sagittate at
the base, with conical papillæ, of which the outer are larger, slightly
concave above, horny towards the end, which is thin, rather obtuse,
and lacerated. On the middle line of the roof of the mouth anteriorly
is a row of large blunt papillæ, behind which are two rows; aperture
of posterior nares linear. Œsophagus 7 inches long, of moderate
width, its greatest diameter, at the lower part of the neck, where it is
a little dilated, 8 twelfths. Proventriculus 1 2/12 long; its glandules
1/
1 /12 long. Stomach a large and powerful gizzard, broadly elliptical,
4

1 1/2 inch long, 1 5/12 broad, its lateral muscles large, the tendons
covering nearly their whole surface, the left muscles 1/4 inch think,
the right 5/12, the cuticular lining moderately rugous. Intestine 21
inches long, from 5/12 to 3/12 in diameter. Rectum 2 3/4 inches; cæca
2, their diameter 3/12 towards the end.

Trachea, moderately extended, 5 1/2 inches long, its greatest breadth


3 1/4/12, its least 1 1/2/12. Its rings 130, very slender, unossified,
collapsed, and owing to their narrowness in the middle line before
and behind, seeming as if broken there; bronchi with 15 half-rings.
The contractor muscles moderate, the sterno-tracheal slender; a pair
of muscles on the lower larynx, from the lower rings of the trachea to
the membrane over the first bronchial ring.
In the mouth was a small frog, in the pharynx two, in the œsophagus
two more, a large piece of root, numerous fragments of insects, and
a leach, the frogs 2 1/2 inches long. In the gizzard were seeds, and
fragments of white fleshy roots.
GREAT NORTHERN DIVER OR LOON.

Colymbus glacialis, Linn.


PLATE CCCVI. Adult Male and Young Male.

The Loon, as this interesting species of Diver is generally called in


the United States, is a strong, active, and vigilant bird. When it has
acquired its perfect plumage, which is not altered in colour at any
successive moult, it is really a beautiful creature; and the student of
Nature who has opportunities of observing its habits, cannot fail to
derive much pleasure from watching it as it pursues its avocations.
View it as it buoyantly swims over the heaving billows of the Atlantic,
or as it glides along deeply immersed, when apprehensive of danger,
on the placid lake, on the grassy islet of which its nest is placed;
calculate, if you can, the speed of its flight, as it shoots across the
sky; mark the many plunges it performs in quest of its finny food, or
in eluding its enemies; list to the loud and plaintive notes which it
issues, either to announce its safety to its mate, or to invite some
traveller of its race to alight, and find repose and food; follow the
anxious and careful mother-bird, as she leads about her precious
charge; and you will not count your labour lost, for you will have
watched the ways of one of the wondrous creations of unlimited
Power and unerring Wisdom. You will find pleasure too in admiring
the glossy tints of its head and neck, and the singular regularity of
the unnumbered spots by which its dusky back and wings are
checkered.
I have met with the Great Diver, in winter, on all the water-courses of
the United States, whence, however, it departs when the cold
becomes extreme, and the surface is converted into an impenetrable
sheet of ice. I have seen it also along the whole of our Atlantic coast,
from Maine to the extremity of Florida, and from thence to the
mouths of the Mississippi, and the shores of Texas, about Galveston
Island, where some individuals in the plumage characteristic of the
second moult, were observed in the course of my late expedition, in
the month of April 1837. Indeed, as is the case with most other
species of migrating birds, the young remove farther south that the
old individuals, which are better able to withstand the cold and
tempests of the wintry season.
The migratory movements of this bird seem to be differently
managed in the spring and autumn. In the latter case, a great
number of young Loons are seen to alight on the head waters of our
great streams, on which, without much exertion, being aided by the
current, they float along, diving at intervals in pursuit of the
numerous fishes, as they proceed toward milder climes. The few old
birds which, at a later date, appear on the same water-courses,
frequently take to wing, and shorten their way by flying at a
considerable elevation directly across the great bends or peninsulas.
These modes of travelling are also adopted by those which advance
along the Atlantic coasts, where, indeed, the birds have the double
advantage of meeting with food and obtaining repose, on the rivers
and on the sea. I think, however, that this maritime course is followed
only by such of the Loons as have bred in the more immediate
vicinity of the coast. But whether you are in the interior, or on the
coast, it is seldom that you see at a time more than one Loon
travelling at this season; whereas, in spring, they proceed in pairs,
the male taking the lead, as is easily ascertained by observing that
the bird in the rear is the smallest.
Although, its wings are rather small, its flight is strong and rapid, so
that it is enabled to traverse a large extent of country on wing. When
travelling, or even when only raised from its nest, it moves through
the air with all the swiftness of the other species of its tribe, generally
passing directly from one point to another, however distant it may be.
Its long transits are at times performed at so great an elevation, that
its form can scarcely be distinguished, and yet, even then, in calm
weather, the noise of its wings striking the air comes distinctly on
your ear. I have seen them thus, on their way towards Labrador,
passing over the head waters of the Bay of Fundy, to cross the Gulf
of St Lawrence. Whenever it chances to alight on the water, in the
course of its long journeys, it almost immediately dives, as if to taste
the water, and judge whether it contains food suited to its appetite.
On emerging, and after having somewhat raised the fore part of its
body, shaken its wings, and by a strong shiver rearranged its
plumage, it emits its loud echoing call-note, to induce, perchance,
some traveller of its tribe to alight for awhile, that they may
communicate to each other their experience of the past, or their
hopes of the future. There is an absurd notion, entertained by
persons unacquainted with the nature of this bird, that its plaintive
cries are a sure indication of violent storms. Sailors, in particular, are
ever apt to consider these call-notes as portentous. In the course of
a voyage from Charleston to the Florida Keys, in May 1832, I several
times saw and heard Loons travelling eastward; but, notwithstanding
all the dire forebodings of the crew, who believed that a hurricane
was at hand, our passage was exceedingly pleasant. Although I
have heard the notes of the Loon in rainy and blowy weather, yet I
never heard them so frequent or so loud, both by day and by night,
as on the Ohio, during that delightful and peculiarly American
autumnal season called the Indian Summer; when, although not so
much as a cloud was seen for weeks, I have frequently observed the
passing birds checking their flight, or heard the murmuring plash
which they produced on alighting upon the placid water, to rest and
refresh themselves.
Another strange notion, not deserving of credit, although you will find
it gravely announced in books, is that, when the Loon is breeding, it
will dart down suddenly from the air, and alight securely in its nest. I
have never witnessed such a procedure, although I have closely
watched, from under cover, at least, twenty pairs. On such occasions
I have seen the incubating bird pass over the dear spot several times
in succession, gradually rounding and descending so as at last to
alight obliquely on the water, which it always did at a considerable
distance from the nest, and did not approach it until after glancing
around and listening attentively, as if to assure itself that it was not
watched, when it would swim to the shore, and resume its office.
The Loon breeds in various parts of the United States, from
Maryland to Maine. I have ascertained that it nestles in the former of
these States, on the Susquehannah river, as well as in the districts
between Kentucky and Canada, and on our great lakes. Dr
Richardson states that it is found breeding as far north as the 70th
degree of latitude. The situation and form of the nest differ according
to circumstances. Some of those which breed in the State of Maine,
place it on the hillocks of weeds and mud prepared by the musk-rat,
on the edges of the lakes, or at some distance from them among the
rushes. Other nests, found on the head-waters of the Wabash River,
were situated on the mud, amid the rank weeds, more than ten yards
from the water. Authors have said that only one pair breed on a lake;
but I have found three pairs, with their nests, on a pond not
exceeding a quarter of a mile in length, in the State of Maine. One
that I saw after the young had left it, on Cayuga Lake, in 1824, was
almost afloat, and rudely attached to the rushes, more than forty
yards from the land, though its base was laid on the bottom, the
water being eight or nine inches deep. Others examined in Labrador
were placed on dry land, several yards from the water, and raised to
the height of nearly a foot above the decayed moss on which they
were laid. But, in cases when the nest was found at any distance
from the water, we discovered a well-beaten path leading to it, and
very much resembling those made by the Beaver, to which the
hunters give the name of “crawls.” The nest, wherever placed, is
bulky, and formed of the vegetable substances found in the
immediate vicinity, such as fresh or withered grasses and
herbaceous plants. The internal part, or the true nest, which is rarely
less than a foot, and is sometimes fifteen inches, in diameter, is
raised upon the external or inferior mass, to the height of seven or
eight inches. Such was one found on the 5th July 1835, in Labrador,
and which was placed within three yards of the edge of a
considerable pond of limpid water, supposed to have been produced
by the melting of the snow, and upwards of a mile distant from the
sea. Of the many nests which I have examined, I have found more
containing three than two eggs, and I am confident that the former
number is that which more frequently occurs, although many
European, and some American writers, who probably never saw a
nest of this bird, allege the contrary. The eggs average three inches
and three quarters in length, by two inches and a quarter in their
greatest breadth, and thus are considerably elongated, being
particularly narrowed from the bulge to the smaller end, which is
rather pointed. They are of a dull greenish-ochry tint, rather
indistinctly marked with spots of dark umber, which are more
numerous toward the larger extremity. The weight of two of these
eggs, containing young nearly ready to emerge, was ten ounces and
a half. In Maine the Loon lays fully a month earlier than in Labrador,
and about the same period as on the Wabash.
On approaching the female while sitting on her eggs, I assured
myself that she incubates with her body laid flat upon them, in the
same way as the Domestic Duck, and that, on perceiving the
intruder, she squats close, and so remains until he is almost over
her, when she springs up with great force, and makes at once for the
water, in a scrambling and sliding manner, pushing herself along the
ground. On gaining the water, she dives at once, emerges at a great
distance, and very rarely suffers herself to be approached within
gunshot. Sometimes they swim so deeply immersed as scarcely to
be perceptible, and keep as much as possible among the rushes and
other water plants. When the eggs are on the eve of being hatched,
the mother, when disturbed, often cries loudly and dismally for some
time, but seldom flies off. At other times, when I found the eggs to
have been recently laid, the bird, on reaching the water, and diving,
swam lightly, flapping its wings, drank once or twice, and moved
about at a respectful distance. On such occasions, should you
persist in watching it, it rises on wing and flies off. Should you not
mark the spot in which the nest is, but leave it to go in pursuit of the
bird, you may search for hours before finding it, for the path leading
from the water to it is generally covered over by the herbage. Once
while approaching a spot in which I knew a Loon to be engaged in
forming her nest, I was disappointed at not finding her at work: her
keen sense of hearing had apprised her of my purpose, and
cunningly must she have slipped away, for, on finding her absent,
although I had not heard any noise, I happened to look toward the
water, and there she was, gliding off in the quiet manner usual on
such occasions.
The young of the Loon are covered at birth with a kind of black stiff
down, and in a day or two after are led to the water by their mother.
They swim and dive extremely well even at this early stage of their
existence, and after being fed by regurgitation for about a fortnight,
receive portions of fish, aquatic insects, and small reptiles, until they
are able to maintain themselves. During this period, grey feathers
appear among the down of the back and belly, and the black quill-
feathers of the wings and tail gradually elongate. They are generally
very fat, and so clumsy as to be easily caught on land, if their retreat
to the water be cut off. But should you miss your opportunity, and the
birds succeed in gaining the liquid element, into which they drop like
so many Terrapins, you will be astonished to see them as it were run
over the water with extreme celerity, leaving behind them a distinct
furrow. This power of traversing the surface of the water is
possessed not only by the young and old of this species, but by all
other kinds of swimmers, including even Gallinules and Coots. When
the young are well able to fly, the mother entices them to remove
from the pond or lake on which they have been bred, and leads them
on wing to the nearest part of the sea, after which she leaves them
to shift for themselves. Now and then, after this period, the end of
August or beginning of September, I have still seen the young of a
brood, two or three in number, continuing together until they were
induced to travel southward, when they generally set out singly.
Having given you a figure of a young bird, taken in October 1819
from a specimen obtained on the Ohio, I will not here trouble you
with its description, but merely state that the young undergo their first
moult in December, when they are seen singularly patched with
portions of new plumage beautifully speckled with white, on a bed of
almost uniform ash-brown. I was told, while in the State of Maine,
that if the young were caught soon after being hatched, and before
they had been in the water, they would, if thrown into it, immediately
follow a paddled canoe anywhere; but, as I have not myself made
the experiment, I cannot speak of this as a fact.
Although it has been generally asserted that Loons cannot walk or
run in an efficient manner, I feel assured that on emergency the case
is very different. An instance which occurred to my youngest son,
John Woodhouse, who accompanied me to Labrador, may here be
related. One day, when he was in pursuit of some King Ducks, a
Loon chanced to fly immediately over him within shooting distance of
his enormous double-barrelled gun. The moment was propitious, and
on firing he was glad to see the bird fall broken-winged on the bare
granitic rocks. As if perfectly aware of its danger, it immediately rose
erect on its feet, and inclining its body slightly forward, ran off,
stumbled, rose again, and getting along in this manner actually
reached the water before my son, who is by no means slow of foot.
The space traversed was fully an hundred yards, and the water to an
equal distance was not more than ankle-deep. The bird and its
pursuer ran swiftly through the water, and just as both reached a
sudden break about four feet in depth, the Loon, which had been
wounded elsewhere than in the wing, expired and floated at the
disposal of its enemy, who brought it on board the Ripley; when I
entered this anecdote in my journal.
These birds are so very strong and hardy that some of the old ones
remain in Maine and Massachusetts until all the fresh waters are
frozen, first leaving the quiet lakes and ponds, then the slow
streams, and lastly the turbulent pools below waterfalls, which latter
they do not quit until they are overhung by icicles and deserted of
fish. On the other hand, this species returns northward at a later
period than most others that breed in high latitudes. I have witnessed
the arrival of some on the coast of Labrador, after they had crossed
the Gulf of St Lawrence, as late as the 20th of June, after which they
had scarcely four months to seek out a breeding place, lay their
eggs, hatch and rear their young, and with them remove southward,
before the rigour of winter commenced.
The Great Northern Diver is a heavy-bodied bird, and generally
swims rather deep in the water, more especially if apprehensive of
immediate danger, when scarcely more than two inches in height of
its back can be seen above the surface. As its body is more flattened
than that of the Cormorant, this circumstance might seem to favour
the action in question; but other species less depressed exhibit the
same peculiarity; and I have thought that in all of these the internal
structure alone can account for this peculiar faculty.
With the exception of that most expert of all divers, the Anhinga, and
the Great Auk, the Loon is perhaps the most accomplished. Whether
it be fishing in deep water amid rolling billows, or engaged in eluding
its foes, it disappears beneath the surface so suddenly, remains so
long in the water, and rises at so extraordinary a distance, often in a
direction quite the reverse of that supposed to be followed by it, that
your eyes become wearied in searching for it, and you renounce the
wish of procuring it out of sheer vexation. At least, this has very
frequently happened to me; nay, I have at times abandoned the
chase when the bird was so severely wounded as to be obliged to
dive immediately beside my boat, and had it not died of exhaustion
and floated near enough to be seized by me, I felt as if I could not
have pulled my oars any longer, and was willing to admit that I was
outdone by a Loon.
In Labrador, where these birds were abundant, my son John one
day shot at one on wing, which fell upon the water to appearance
quite dead, and remained on its back motionless until we had
leisurely rowed to it, when a sailor put out his hand to take it up. The
Loon, however, to our surprise, suddenly sprung up, and dived, and
while we stood amazed, watching its appearance, we saw it come up
at the distance of about an hundred yards, shake its head, and
disgorge a quantity of fish mixed with blood; on which it dived again,
and seemed lost to us. We rowed however to the spot in all haste,
and the moment it rose, sent another shot after it, which terminated
its career. On examining it afterwards, we found it quite riddled by
the heavy shot.
If ever so slightly wounded, the Loon prefers diving to flying off, and
all your endeavours to kill it are almost sure to prove unavailing, You
may shoot at it under such circumstances, but you will lose both your
time and your ammunition. Its keenness of sight defies the best
percussion-locked gun, for it is generally deep in the water before
the shot reaches the spot where it has been. When fatigued with
diving in the ordinary manner, it will sink backwards, like a Grebe or
a Frog, make for some concealed spot among the rushes, and there
lie until your eyes ache with searching, and your stomach
admonishes you of the propriety of retiring.
Loons are now and then caught in fishermen’s nets, and are soon
drowned. I have also caught them with hooks fastened to lines laid
across the Ohio, but on no such occasion have I taken the bird alive.
A method of shooting these birds, which I have often practised, and
which was several times successfully employed by our Labrador
party, may here be related. On seeing a Loon on the water, at
whatever distance, the sportsman immediately places himself under
the nearest cover on the shore, and remains there as carefully
concealed as possible. A few minutes are allowed to pass, to give
the wary and sharp-sighted bird all due confidence; during which
time the gun, charged with large shot, is laid in a convenient position.
The gunner then takes his cap or pocket-handkerchief, which if
brightly coloured is so much the better, and raising it in one hand,
waves it three or four times, and then suddenly conceals it. The bird
commonly detects the signal at once, and, probably imagining the
object thus exhibited to be one of its own species, gradually
advances, emitting its love-notes, which resemble a coarse laugh, as
it proceeds. The sportsman imitates these notes, making them loud
and yet somewhat mellow, waving his cap or kerchief at the same
time, and this he continues to do at intervals. The Loon, in order to
arrive more quickly, dives, perhaps rises within fifty yards of him, and
calling less loudly, advances with considerable caution. He shews
the signal less frequently, imitates the notes of the bird more faintly,
and carefully keeps himself concealed, until the Loon, having
approached within twenty or even ten paces, dives and on emerging
raises itself up to shake its wings, when off goes the shot, and the
deluded bird floats dead on the water. Many species of Ducks are
procured in nearly the same manner. The male Turkey, in the

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