Lecture Notes 2022-2023

MODULE – 3
(Mechanical Transportation Systems in Buildings)

Contents
3.1 Elevators
3.2 Escalators and Travelators

18 ARC 63
Building Services III
Ar. M.S.R.Srinivas,
Asst. Professor,
SOA-DSATM
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3.1 Elevators
3.1.1 Introduction
Elevators play a crucial role in architectural services as they provide vertical transportation within buildings, ensuring
efficient movement of people and goods between different floors. They have become an integral part of modern
buildings, enabling accessibility, convenience, and efficient space utilization. Architects need to consider several
factors related to elevators when designing buildings to ensure optimal functionality and compliance with safety
regulations.

Elevators have a rich history that dates back thousands of years, with their development closely intertwined with the
evolution of architecture. Here is a brief history and introduction to elevators in architecture:

1. Ancient and Medieval Times: The concept of vertical

transportation can be traced back to ancient civilizations.
Various forms of primitive lifts and hoists were used for
lifting heavy objects in construction, mining, and
agriculture. However, these early devices were not
designed for human transportation.

2. Industrial Revolution and Early Passenger Elevators: The

Industrial Revolution in the 19th century brought
significant advancements in technology, including the
development of early passenger elevators. In 1853, Elisha
Otis introduced a safety brake that prevented the elevator
from falling if the lifting cable broke, revolutionizing
elevator safety. This breakthrough laid the foundation for
the commercial use of elevators in buildings. Figure 1: Elevators during industrial era

3. Skyscrapers and Vertical Growth: The emergence of skyscrapers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
further fueled the demand for elevators. Architects realized that elevators were essential for efficiently
transporting people to upper floors, making tall buildings feasible. The invention of steel frameworks and
stronger elevator systems enabled the construction of increasingly taller structures.

Today, elevators are an integral part of architectural services. Architects collaborate closely with elevator
manufacturers, consultants, and experts to design buildings that optimize vertical transportation, comply with safety
regulations, and enhance the overall user experience. Elevators have become icons of modern architecture,
facilitating the efficient and convenient movement of people within buildings, regardless of their height or
complexity.

3.1.2 Types of Elevator Systems

There are several types of elevator systems used in architecture, each designed to meet specific requirements and
building service needs. Here are some commonly used types of elevator systems:

i. Traction Elevators
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ii. Hydraulic Elevators

iii. Pneumatic Elevators
iv. Machine-Room-Less (MRL) Elevators
v. Destination-Controlled Elevators
vi. Shuttle Elevators
vii. Dumbwaiters
viii. Specialized Elevators

Traction Elevators
Traction elevators are a type of elevator system commonly
used in modern buildings. They operate using a system of steel
ropes or belts, known as hoist ropes, which are attached to
the elevator car and run over a motor-driven sheave (a
grooved pulley). The counterweight is also connected to the
hoist ropes on the opposite side of the sheave, creating a
balanced system.

The working mechanism of traction elevators:

i. Hoisting Machine: At the top of the elevator shaft,

there is a hoisting machine that consists of an electric
motor, a gearbox, and a sheave, which is a grooved
pulley. The electric motor drives the sheave through
the gearbox.

ii. Counterweight System: Traction elevators typically

incorporate a counterweight system. A
counterweight, which weighs roughly the same as the
Figure 2: Typical section and plan of a traction elevator
elevator car when it is fully loaded, is connected to the
other end of the hoisting ropes. The counterweight balances the weight of the elevator car, reducing the
overall load on the motor and providing energy efficiency.

iii. Hoisting Ropes: The hoisting ropes are attached to the elevator car and looped over the sheave at the top of
the shaft. One end of the ropes is connected to the car, while the other end is connected to the
counterweight. The ropes move together, guided by the sheave.

iv. Car Guide Rails: The elevator car moves up and down along guide rails that are installed in the elevator shaft.
These guide rails ensure vertical alignment and stability during the elevator's operation.

v. Control System: The control system manages the operation of the elevator. It receives signals from the
elevator call buttons and floor selection buttons inside the car. The control system processes these signals to
determine the appropriate car movement, such as going up, going down, or stopping at a specific floor.

vi. Safety Features: Traction elevators are equipped with various safety features to ensure passenger safety.
These include overspeed governors that activate if the elevator moves too quickly, emergency brakes that
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engage in the event of a power failure or other emergencies, and door interlocks that prevent the car doors
from opening unless the elevator car is present and properly aligned.

When a passenger selects a floor, the control system activates the motor, causing the sheave to rotate. As the sheave
turns, the hoist ropes connected to the car and the counterweight move accordingly, lifting or lowering the car to the
desired floor. Once the car reaches the designated floor, the motor stops, and the doors open for passengers to exit
or enter.

Advantages of Traction Elevators:

i. Speed and Efficiency: Traction elevators can travel at high speeds, making them suitable for tall buildings
with many floors. They offer efficient transportation of passengers and goods within the building.

ii. Smooth Ride: Traction elevators provide a smooth and comfortable ride due to their precise motor control
and suspension system. This enhances passenger experience and reduces discomfort during travel.

iii. Higher Capacity: Traction elevators have a higher weight capacity compared to hydraulic elevators. They can
transport larger groups of people or heavier loads, making them suitable for high-occupancy buildings or
commercial spaces.

iv. Design Flexibility: Traction elevator systems offer design flexibility, allowing customization to meet specific
architectural requirements. They can be adapted to various building sizes, shapes, and design aesthetics.

v. Energy Efficiency: Modern traction elevator systems incorporate energy-efficient technologies, such as
regenerative drives, which can recover and reuse energy generated during braking. This helps reduce energy
consumption and contributes to sustainable building practices.

Disadvantages of Traction Elevators:

i. Space Requirements: Traction elevators require a dedicated machine room to house the motor and other
equipment, which may take up additional space within the building. However, machine-room-less (MRL)
traction elevators are available, which eliminate the need for a separate machine room.

ii. Initial Cost: Traction elevators generally have a higher upfront cost compared to hydraulic elevators. The
installation, equipment, and maintenance costs associated with traction systems can be higher, especially for
high-rise buildings.

iii. Maintenance: Traction elevators require regular maintenance and inspection to ensure proper functioning.
The ropes and sheaves need to be inspected and maintained for optimal safety and performance. However,
advancements in technology have reduced maintenance requirements in modern traction systems.

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Hydraulic Elevators
Hydraulic elevators are a type of elevator system that uses
hydraulic fluid and a piston mechanism to move the elevator
car. They are commonly used in low- to mid-rise buildings
where the travel distance is relatively shorter. Hydraulic
elevators are known for their smooth operation, quiet ride,
and energy efficiency. They require less complex equipment
compared to traction elevators, such as machine rooms, hoist
ropes, and counterweights, which can reduce installation
costs. They also have safety features such as emergency
brakes and over-speed governors to ensure passenger safety.

The working mechanism of hydraulic elevator:

i. Pumping Station: The hydraulic elevator system

consists of a pumping station, which contains an
electric motor and a hydraulic pump. When the
elevator is called, the electric motor activates the
pump.

ii. Pressurizing Hydraulic Fluid: The hydraulic pump

pressurizes hydraulic fluid, usually oil or a synthetic
fluid, and delivers it to the elevator's hydraulic
cylinder through a series of valves and pipes. The fluid
is stored in a reservoir for circulation.
Figure 3: Sketch of a typical hydraulic elevator
iii. Cylinder and Piston: The hydraulic cylinder is a vertical
tube-like structure that contains a piston. The piston is tightly fitted within the cylinder and can move up and
down.

iv. Elevator Car and Platform: The elevator car is attached to the piston. As the hydraulic fluid enters the
cylinder, it pushes against the piston, causing it to rise and lift the elevator car. The car is typically connected
to guide rails for stability during vertical movement.

v. Control Valve System: The flow of hydraulic fluid into and out of the cylinder is regulated by a control valve
system. This system includes control valves, which are electrically or mechanically operated, and are
responsible for directing the fluid flow in the desired direction.

vi. Directional Control: The control valve system determines the direction of the fluid flow and the movement
of the elevator car. When the elevator is called to a specific floor, the control valve opens the passage for the
hydraulic fluid to enter the cylinder, lifting the car towards the desired floor. To descend, the control valve
opens the passage for the fluid to flow out of the cylinder, causing the car to lower.

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vii. Safety Mechanisms: Hydraulic elevators incorporate safety features to ensure passenger safety. These
include emergency brakes, which can halt the elevator's movement in case of power failure or other
emergencies, and over-speed governors, which monitor the speed and prevent the elevator from exceeding
safe limits.

By controlling the flow of hydraulic fluid into and out of the cylinder, the hydraulic elevator system can move the
elevator car vertically. The process is repeated for each floor the elevator needs to travel to.

Advantages of Hydraulic Elevators:

i. Smooth and Quiet Operation: Hydraulic elevators are known for their smooth and quiet operation. The
hydraulic system provides a gentle and cushioned ride, enhancing passenger comfort.

ii. Energy Efficiency: Hydraulic elevators are energy-efficient since the hydraulic system only requires power
when the elevator is in motion. The use of regenerative drives can further improve energy efficiency by
recovering and reusing energy during downward travel.

iii. Lower Installation Costs: Hydraulic elevators generally have lower installation costs compared to traction
elevators. They require less complex equipment, such as machine rooms, hoist ropes, and counterweights,
which can reduce construction and installation expenses.

iv. Safety Features: Hydraulic elevators incorporate several safety features, including emergency braking
systems, safety valves, and over-speed governors. These features ensure passenger safety and prevent
accidents in the event of a power failure or other emergencies.

v. Space Efficiency: Hydraulic elevators do not require a machine room, making them a space-saving option.
The hydraulic system components can be located within a small space adjacent to the elevator shaft,
maximizing usable floor area in the building.

Disadvantages of Hydraulic Elevators:

i. Limited Travel Distance: Hydraulic elevators are suitable for low- to mid-rise buildings, typically up to six
stories. Beyond this height, the cost and size of the hydraulic components increase significantly, making
traction elevators more practical for taller buildings.

ii. Slower Speeds: Hydraulic elevators generally have slower travel speeds compared to traction elevators. The
hydraulic system operates at a slower pace, which may result in longer travel times, especially in taller
buildings.

iii. Potential for Oil Leaks: Hydraulic elevators rely on hydraulic fluid to operate, and there is a possibility of oil
leaks from the system. This requires regular inspection and maintenance to ensure proper functioning and
prevent environmental contamination.

iv. Limited Weight Capacity: Hydraulic elevators have a lower weight capacity compared to traction elevators.
They may not be suitable for buildings with high occupancy or heavy freight transportation requirements.

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v. Maintenance Requirements: Hydraulic elevators require regular maintenance to ensure optimal

performance and safety. The hydraulic system, including the piston, seals, and valves, needs periodic
inspection and servicing to prevent issues such as leaks or hydraulic fluid degradation.

Pneumatic Elevators
Pneumatic elevators, also known as vacuum or air-driven elevators, are a type
of elevator system that uses air pressure differentials to move the elevator car.
Rather than relying on cables or hydraulic systems, pneumatic elevators use
the principles of pneumatic suction and propulsion to transport passengers.

The working mechanism of pneumatic elevator:

i. Elevator Car: The elevator car in a pneumatic elevator is typically made

of transparent materials, such as polycarbonate or glass, to provide a
panoramic view for passengers.

ii. Shaft and Tube: The elevator shaft consists of a vertical tube that
houses the elevator car. The tube is airtight and has an opening at the
bottom and top to allow the movement of air.

iii. Air Pressure Differential: The operation of a pneumatic elevator relies Figure 4: Photo of pneumatic elevator
on creating a pressure difference between the top and bottom of the
tube. The top of the tube is maintained at a lower pressure, while the bottom is at atmospheric pressure.

iv. Air Suction: When a passenger selects a floor from the control panel inside the elevator car, the system
activates. The control system opens a valve at the top of the tube, creating a suction effect.

v. Car Movement: The pressure

difference causes air to rush from the
top of the tube into the elevator car.
As the air rushes in, it creates a
cushion of air beneath the elevator
car, lifting it upwards. The rate of
airflow is regulated to control the
speed of the elevator car.

vi. Braking System: To slow down and

stop the elevator car, a pneumatic
braking system is used. By controlling
the air pressure in the tube, the
braking system reduces the upward
airflow, causing the elevator car to
gradually decelerate and come to a
stop at the desired floor. Figure 5: Sketch of working principle of pneumatic elevator

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vii. Release of Air: When the elevator car reaches the desired floor, the control system opens a valve at the
bottom of the tube, allowing the air to escape. The release of air decreases the pressure differential and
enables the elevator car to descend.

viii. Descent and Safety Mechanisms: As the air is released, the elevator car descends in a controlled manner.
Safety mechanisms, such as emergency brakes and sensors, are in place to ensure passenger safety in case
of power failures or other emergencies.

Pneumatic elevators operate on the principle of air pressure differentials, providing a unique and visually appealing
transportation experience. The design allows for a compact footprint and flexibility in installation. However, it's
important to note that pneumatic elevators are generally suitable for low- to mid-rise buildings with shorter travel
distances and have limitations in terms of weight capacity and customization options.

Advantages of Pneumatic Elevators:

i. Space Efficiency: Pneumatic elevators have a compact design and require minimal space within a building.
They are typically installed as standalone units, eliminating the need for a separate machine room or elevator
shaft. This makes them suitable for retrofitting in existing buildings or locations with limited space.

ii. Energy Efficiency: Pneumatic elevators are energy-efficient since they use air pressure differentials to move
the elevator car. The system requires energy mainly for creating pressure differentials and powering the car's
ascent and descent. During descent, the system can generate energy, which can be reused for subsequent
lifts.

iii. Design Flexibility: Pneumatic elevators offer design flexibility and can be visually appealing. The elevator car
is usually made of transparent materials, providing passengers with a unique and panoramic view as they
travel. The sleek design and modern aesthetics of pneumatic elevators can complement contemporary
architectural styles.

iv. Smooth Ride Experience: Pneumatic elevators provide a smooth and comfortable ride due to the use of air
pressure and a pneumatic brake system. The controlled release of air allows for gentle starts and stops,
reducing discomfort and enhancing passenger experience.

Disadvantages of Pneumatic Elevators:

i. Limited Weight Capacity: Pneumatic elevators have a lower weight capacity compared to other elevator
types. They are primarily designed for transporting a limited number of passengers, typically up to three or
four individuals. These elevators may not be suitable for heavy-duty applications or buildings with high
occupancy.

ii. Limited Travel Distance: Pneumatic elevators are best suited for low-rise or mid-rise buildings with relatively
shorter travel distances. The efficiency of the system decreases with taller buildings due to increased air
pressure requirements and potential limitations in achieving smooth and efficient vertical movement.

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iii. Noise Level: Pneumatic elevators can generate significant noise during operation. The release of air pressure
and the movement of the elevator car can produce audible sounds, which may be a concern in noise-sensitive
environments or residential buildings.

iv. Limited Customization: Pneumatic elevators have limitations in terms of customization and adaptation to
specific architectural requirements. The size and design of the elevator car are typically predetermined by
the manufacturer, allowing limited customization options.

v. Maintenance and Service: Pneumatic elevators may require specialized maintenance and service. The system
includes complex pneumatic components and mechanisms that may need periodic inspection, adjustment,
and repair. Finding qualified technicians and sourcing specific parts can sometimes be challenging.

Machine-Room-Less (MRL) Elevators

Machine-Room-Less (MRL) elevators are a type of elevator system that
eliminates the need for a dedicated machine room, making them a space-
saving solution. In MRL elevators, the elevator equipment, including the
motor, control panel, and other components, are compactly integrated
into the elevator shaft or installed in a small cabinet adjacent to the shaft.

Here are some key features and benefits of Machine-Room-Less

elevators:

i. Space Efficiency: The main advantage of MRL elevators is their

space-saving design. By eliminating the need for a separate
machine room, MRL elevators maximize usable floor space
within the building. This can be particularly beneficial in buildings
where space is limited or needs to be optimized for other
purposes.

ii. Flexible Installation: MRL elevators offer flexibility in terms of

installation. The compact design allows for more flexibility in the
placement of the elevator system within the building structure.
It can be installed in both new construction projects and existing
buildings undergoing renovations.

iii. Energy Efficiency: MRL elevators are designed with energy Figure 6: Machine-Room-Less (MRL) elevator
efficiency in mind. They typically incorporate advanced control
systems and regenerative drives that can recover and reuse energy generated during braking. This helps
reduce energy consumption and contributes to sustainable building practices.

iv. Enhanced Aesthetics: MRL elevators offer improved aesthetics compared to traditional elevators with visible
machine rooms. The compact design allows for a cleaner and more streamlined appearance, offering
architects and designers more flexibility in integrating the elevator system with the overall architectural
vision.

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v. Reduced Construction Costs: By eliminating the need for a separate machine room, MRL elevators can help
reduce construction costs. This is because the elimination of the machine room reduces the need for
additional materials, labor, and construction time.

vi. Quiet Operation: MRL elevators are known for their quiet operation. By integrating the elevator equipment
into the shaft or a nearby cabinet, the noise generated by the elevator system is minimized, providing a
quieter and more pleasant environment for passengers.

It is important to note that while MRL elevators offer various advantages, they also have limitations. They may have
size and weight restrictions compared to larger elevator systems, limiting their use in certain building types or high-
rise applications. Additionally, the integration of components within the elevator shaft or nearby cabinet may require
specialized access for maintenance and servicing.

Destination-Controlled Elevators
Destination-controlled elevators, also known as smart
elevators or destination dispatch systems, are a type of
elevator system that utilizes advanced computerized
control to optimize passenger movement within a building.
Unlike traditional elevators where passengers select their
desired floor from inside the car, destination-controlled
elevators require passengers to input their destination
floor at a centralized panel before entering the elevator.

Destination-controlled elevators offer several

advantages:

i. Reduced Wait Times: By grouping passengers and

assigning elevator cars based on destination floors,
destination dispatch systems can significantly
reduce passenger wait times. This results in
improved efficiency and a more pleasant
experience for building occupants.

ii. Improved Traffic Flow: By optimizing elevator

operation, destination-controlled systems can
minimize overcrowding and congestion within the
elevator lobby and reduce the number of stops Figure 7: Grouping of passengers for Destination-controlled
during each trip. This leads to better traffic flow elevators.

and increased handling capacity of the elevators.

iii. Flexibility and Customization: Destination dispatch systems can be customized to accommodate specific
building requirements and user preferences. They can adapt to different building types, traffic patterns, and
even time-of-day variations, providing greater flexibility in elevator management.

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iv. Enhanced Building Security: Destination-controlled elevators can integrate with access control systems,
allowing authorized individuals to access specific floors. This enhances building security by limiting access to
designated areas and providing controlled vertical movement.

While destination-controlled elevators offer numerous benefits, they may require a higher initial investment
compared to traditional elevator systems. Additionally, passengers may need some time to adjust to the new
operating method. Nonetheless, these systems are increasingly being implemented in buildings with high traffic
volume, such as offices, hotels, and large residential complexes, to optimize elevator performance and improve user
experience.

Shuttle Elevators
Shuttle elevators, also known as group elevators or
double-deck elevators, are a type of elevator system that
consists of two vertically stacked cabins within the same
elevator shaft. Each cabin operates independently,
providing separate transportation within the same
elevator structure.

Shuttle elevators are primarily used in high-rise buildings

or structures with a high volume of traffic, where a single
elevator cabin may not be sufficient to handle the
passenger demand efficiently. Here is a brief description
of shuttle elevators and their usage:

i. Dual Cabin Configuration: Shuttle elevators are

designed with two cabins stacked on top of each
other, connected by a common hoist way. Each
cabin operates independently with its own set of
doors, controls, and safety mechanisms.
Figure 8: Shuttle elevator movement

ii. Separate Passenger Groups: The two cabins in a shuttle elevator system serve different groups of passengers.
For example, one cabin may serve odd-numbered floors while the other serves even-numbered floors. This
arrangement helps distribute passenger traffic and reduces congestion.

iii. Increased Capacity and Efficiency: By having two cabins operating simultaneously, shuttle elevators can
effectively increase the passenger handling capacity of the elevator system. The separate cabins can serve
different floors or designated zones, allowing for more efficient transportation within the building.

iv. Time-Saving and Reduced Wait Times: Shuttle elevators help minimize passenger wait times and travel
durations by providing quicker and more frequent transportation options. With two cabins in operation,
passengers have a higher likelihood of finding an available elevator, resulting in reduced wait times and
improved efficiency.

v. High-Rise Buildings and Busy Environments: Shuttle elevators are commonly used in tall buildings,
skyscrapers, and large commercial complexes where a significant number of people need to access multiple

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floors efficiently. They are especially beneficial in buildings with large floor areas and heavy traffic flow during
peak hours.

vi. Flexibility and Customization: Shuttle elevators can be tailored to meet the specific requirements of a
building. The configuration and operation of the cabins can be customized to suit the traffic patterns and
floor distribution of the building, optimizing the elevator system's performance.

Shuttle elevators offer a practical solution for managing high passenger demand and improving vertical transportation
efficiency in buildings with complex traffic patterns. By providing separate cabins for different passenger groups, they
enhance the capacity, reduce wait times, and enhance the overall transportation experience.

Dumbwaiters
A dumbwaiter is a small freight elevator used
for the vertical transportation of goods, rather
than passengers. It is typically designed to carry
objects such as food trays, documents, laundry,
or other small items between different levels of
a building.

Here is a brief description of dumbwaiters

and their typical usage:

i. Size and Design: Dumbwaiters are

smaller in size compared to passenger
elevators and have limited weight
capacity. They are typically designed as
enclosed compartments or boxes that Figure 9: Photo of dumbwaiter

move vertically within a shaft.

ii. Manual or Electric Operation: Dumbwaiters can be operated manually, where a person pulls or pushes the
dumbwaiter car using a rope or lever, or they can be electrically powered with motorized systems for
automated operation.

iii. Commercial and Residential Applications: Dumbwaiters are commonly used in commercial establishments
such as restaurants, hotels, hospitals, offices, and libraries. They provide a convenient and efficient way to
transport items between different floors, improving workflow and reducing the need for manual carrying.

iv. Residential Use: Dumbwaiters also find applications in residential settings, particularly in multi-story homes
or buildings with accessibility considerations. They can assist in carrying groceries, laundry, or other items
between floors, eliminating the need to manually transport heavy or bulky objects.

v. Safety Features: Dumbwaiters are equipped with safety features to prevent accidents or damage. These can
include interlocks, door sensors, emergency stop buttons, and overload protection to ensure safe and secure
operation.

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vi. Customization: Dumbwaiters can be customized to suit the specific needs of the building or establishment.
They can be designed to fit different shaft sizes, have various load capacities, and be equipped with specific
features like adjustable shelving or temperature control for transporting specialized items.

Dumbwaiters offer the convenience of efficiently moving goods or items between different levels of a building, saving
time and effort. They are commonly found in commercial settings where the efficient transportation of goods is
crucial for daily operations. Additionally, their residential use provides added convenience for homeowners, making
it easier to transport items between floors without the need for stairs or manual lifting.

Specialized Elevators
Specialized elevators refer to elevator systems designed for specific purposes or tailored to meet unique
requirements in various settings. These elevators are customized to serve specific functions beyond standard
passenger transportation.

Examples of specialized elevators:

i. Service Elevators: Service elevators are designed for the transportation of goods, equipment, and personnel
in commercial and industrial settings. They have higher weight capacities, wider doors, and rugged interiors
to accommodate the movement of heavy loads and bulky items.

ii. Vehicle Lifts: Vehicle lifts are specialized elevators used in parking garages or car service centers to transport
vehicles between different levels. They are designed to carry cars, motorcycles, or other vehicles, providing
efficient storage and vertical transportation solutions.

iii. Hospital/Caregiving Elevators: Hospitals and healthcare facilities often utilize specialized elevators for
patient transportation. These elevators are equipped with features such as stretcher accommodations,
additional space for medical equipment, and smooth, gentle rides to ensure the comfort and safety of
patients.

iv. Firefighter/Emergency Evacuation Elevators: Firefighter or emergency evacuation elevators are designed to
be used in emergency situations. They feature enhanced fire resistance, emergency power supply, and
designated access for firefighters or emergency personnel to aid in swift evacuation or response during
critical situations.

v. Scenic Elevators: Scenic elevators are aesthetically designed elevators that offer panoramic views of the
surrounding environment during the ride. They often feature glass walls or panoramic windows, providing
passengers with a visually appealing experience and allowing them to enjoy the scenic views.

vi. Inclined Elevators/Funiculars: Inclined elevators or funiculars are specialized elevator systems that operate
on an inclined track. These elevators are commonly used in hilly or sloped areas to transport passengers or
goods along steep gradients. They are often found in tourist attractions, ski resorts, or transportation systems
in mountainous regions.

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vii. Stage/Performance Lifts: Stage or performance lifts are used in theaters, concert halls, or event venues to
facilitate the vertical movement of performers, equipment, or props during performances or productions.
These lifts can be concealed beneath the stage and are essential for dynamic stage setups and scene changes.

Specialized elevators are designed to cater to specific needs in various industries and settings. They provide tailored
solutions for efficient transportation, accessibility, and functionality beyond the standard vertical movement of
passengers. These elevators play a vital role in enhancing operations, safety, and user experiences in their respective
applications.

3.1.3 Design Considerations for Elevators

Peak Handling Capacity:
The handling capacity of a lift (elevator) is determined by considering several factors that affect its efficiency and
ability to transport passengers within a given time frame. The handling capacity is typically measured in terms of the
number of passengers per unit of time.

How the handling capacity of a lift is determined:

i. Car Capacity: The first step is to determine the maximum number of passengers that the lift car can
accommodate at one time. This is based on the physical dimensions of the lift car, taking into account factors
such as the available floor space, seating arrangements (if any), and compliance with safety regulations
regarding passenger density.

ii. Travel Time: The total travel time required for the lift to move from one floor to another is a critical factor in
determining its handling capacity. This includes the time needed for acceleration, deceleration, door
opening/closing, and the actual travel time between floors. The travel time is affected by the lift's speed and
the distance between floors.

iii. Waiting Time: Waiting time refers to the time passengers spend waiting for the lift to arrive at their floor. It
depends on factors such as the frequency of lift calls, the number of floors, and the average time it takes for
the lift to respond to a call. Minimizing waiting time is crucial for enhancing passenger satisfaction.

iv. Door Dwell Time: Door dwell time is the amount of time the lift doors remain open at each floor to allow
passengers to enter or exit. It includes the time needed for passengers to board or alight and any additional
time required for individuals with reduced mobility or carrying large items. Door dwell time affects the overall
efficiency of the lift system.

v. Traffic Analysis: Conduct a comprehensive analysis of the building's traffic patterns to determine the peak
and average passenger demand during different times of the day. This analysis helps identify the busiest
periods and the expected volume of passengers to be handled by the lift system.

vi. Number of Lifts: If multiple lifts are installed in a building, the handling capacity is influenced by the number
of lifts available. The more lifts there are, the higher the overall capacity as they can distribute the passenger
load more effectively.

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vii. Safety Factors: Safety factors must also be considered to ensure compliance with regulations and provide a
safe transportation experience. These factors include maximum load limits, space requirements, and
emergency evacuation considerations.

3.1.4 Architectural Details of Elevators

Components of an Elevator:

i. Elevator Car/Cabin: The elevator car is the enclosed platform

or cabin that carries passengers or goods. It is equipped with
doors for entry and exit.

ii. Hoist way/Shaft: The hoist way, also called the elevator shaft,
is the vertical passageway in which the elevator car moves. It
provides a secure and enclosed space for the elevator's
operation.

iii. Guides: Guides are an essential component located within the

elevator shaft. Guides serve as vertical tracks or channels that
guide the movement of the elevator car along the shaft. They
ensure the smooth and precise alignment of the elevator car
during its travel between floors.

iv. Control System: The control system consists of various

electrical and mechanical components that govern the
operation of the elevator. It includes the control panel, buttons,
sensors, and the main control unit that manages the elevator's
movements.

v. Machine Room: a machine room is a dedicated space within a

building where the machinery and electrical components
necessary for the operation of the elevator are housed. The
machine room houses the motor, drive system, control
equipment, and other necessary electrical and mechanical
components. It provides a dedicated space for the elevator
machinery, facilitating maintenance and ensuring the proper
functioning of the elevator system. The machine room is
typically located adjacent to the hoist way or on a separate Figure 10: Components of elevators
floor, often at the top of the building.

vi. Counterweight: Counterweights are an integral part of elevator systems, helping to reduce the energy
required for vertical transportation and maintaining the balance and stability of the elevator car. They
contribute to the overall efficiency, safety, and smooth operation of the elevator, providing a reliable means
of vertical transportation within buildings.
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vii. Elevator Pit: The elevator pit is a designated space at the bottom of the elevator shaft that accommodates
various components and provides safe vertical movement of the elevator car. Proper design, construction,
and maintenance of the elevator pit are essential for the smooth and reliable operation of the elevator.

viii. Buffers: Buffers in an elevator pit are safety devices that are installed at the bottom of the elevator shaft.
They serve the important function of absorbing the kinetic energy generated by the elevator car in the event
of an overspeed or uncontrolled descent. By absorbing and dissipating the energy of the descending elevator
car, buffers help prevent damage and ensure the safety and reliability of the elevator.

Automatic Rescue Device for Elevators:

The Automatic Rescue Device (ARD) is a safety feature incorporated into modern elevator systems. It is designed to
activate in the event of a power outage or loss of main power supply to the building. The ARD ensures the safe and
prompt rescue of passengers who may be trapped inside the elevator car during a power failure.

The primary purpose of the ARD is to provide an emergency power supply and control mechanism to safely bring the
elevator car to the nearest floor and open its doors, allowing passengers to exit. The ARD is equipped with a separate
power source, usually in the form of a backup battery or an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). This power source
ensures that the ARD remains functional even when the main power supply is cut off. When a power outage occurs,
the ARD system automatically detects the loss of power and initiates the rescue process. It takes over the control of
the elevator system and activates the necessary components to ensure a safe rescue operation.

i. Control and Communication: The ARD system communicates with the elevator's control panel and motor
control system. It uses pre-programmed algorithms and safety protocols to control the movements of the
elevator car during the rescue process.

ii. Lowering the Car: Once the ARD is activated, it instructs the elevator motor to lower the car to the nearest
floor and bring it to a controlled stop. The ARD ensures that the elevator car remains level and aligned with
the landing, allowing for safe passenger evacuation.

iii. Passenger Communication: The ARD system may include provisions for communication between the
passengers inside the elevator car and the building management or emergency services. This can be in the
form of intercom systems or emergency call buttons to provide updates, reassurance, and instructions to
passengers during the rescue operation.

iv. Safety Considerations: The ARD system is designed with safety as a top priority. It includes various safety
features such as door sensors to prevent the doors from opening if the elevator car is not properly aligned
with the landing. It also ensures that the elevator car remains stable and secure during the rescue operation.

Sky Lobby:
A sky lobby is an intermediate interchange floor in a skyscraper where people can change from an express elevator
that stops only at the sky lobby to a local elevator that stops at a subset of higher floors. This system is used to save
elevator-shaft space in very tall buildings.

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The express elevators from the ground floor travel to the sky lobby, where passengers transfer to local elevators that
serve a specific group of floors. This allows the express elevators to travel faster, since they do not have to stop at
every floor. Sky lobbies are typically located every 20-50 floors in a skyscraper. This is the optimal spacing to balance
the travel time of the express elevators with the number of floors that need to be served by local elevators. Sky
lobbies can also be used for other purposes, such as providing additional amenities for tenants or visitors.

Benefits of using sky lobbies in skyscrapers:

i. They save elevator-shaft space, which can be used for other purposes, such as office space or retail space.

ii. They reduce the travel time of express elevators, since they do not have to stop at every floor.

iii. They provide a more efficient way to distribute passengers throughout a tall building.

iv. They can be used to provide additional amenities for tenants or visitors.

Figure 11: An example of Sky Lobby

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3.1.5 Possible Location and Arrangements of Elevators in a Building

The possible location and arrangements of elevators in a building depend on several factors, such as:

i. Number of floors in the building: The more floors in the building, the more elevators will be needed.

ii. Type of occupancy: The type of occupancy in the building will affect the number and size of elevators needed.
For example, a residential building will need fewer elevators than an office building.

iii. Identify the traffic patterns in the building: This can be done by observing the flow of people in the building
during peak times.

iv. Determine the number and size of elevators needed: This can be done by calculating the number of
passengers that need to be transported in each time period.

v. Choose the location of the elevators: The location of the elevators should be based on the traffic patterns
and the number and size of elevators needed.

vi. Arrange the elevators in a way that minimizes the travel time for passengers: This can be done by grouping
elevators together, using sky lobbies, or using destination control systems.

vii. The width of the corridors: The corridors in the building must be wide enough to accommodate the elevators
and the passengers.

viii. The height of the ceilings: The ceilings in the building must be high enough to accommodate the elevators
and the elevator shafts.

ix. The fire code requirements: The fire code may have specific requirements for the location and number of
elevators in a building.

x. Building code requirements: The building code may have specific requirements for the location and number
of elevators in a building.

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3.2 Escalators and Travelators

3.2.1 Introduction
Escalators and travelators are mechanical devices designed to transport people vertically or horizontally within
buildings, providing convenient and efficient means of transportation.

A brief history of escalators and travelators:

Escalators:

Escalators were invented by Jesse W. Reno in 1891, who called

them "inclined elevators." The first working escalator was
installed in Coney Island, New York, as an amusement ride.
However, it was Charles D. Seeberger who further developed
and commercialized the concept, leading to the widespread use
of escalators in public spaces and buildings.

Over the years, escalator technology evolved with various

improvements and advancements. In 1899, George A. Wheeler
introduced the step-type escalator, which had a continuous loop
of flat steps. In 1900, the Otis Elevator Company purchased the
rights to the escalator and further refined its design and safety
features.

Since then, escalators have become a common feature in many Figure 12: Image of an Escalator
buildings, including shopping malls, airports, train stations, and
commercial complexes. They provide a convenient and efficient way for people to move between different floors.

Travelators:

Travelators, also known as moving walkways, are horizontal

transportation systems that assist people in moving over
relatively long distances without exerting much physical
effort. The concept of travelators evolved from escalators.

In 1893, the first moving walkway was introduced at the

Chicago World's Fair. However, it was not until the 1950s
that the travelator concept gained popularity and became a
significant feature in public transportation systems.
Figure 13: Image of a Travelator

The development of travelators led to different variations,

such as bidirectional walkways, curved walkways, and inclined walkways. They are commonly found in airports, train
stations, convention centers, and large public spaces where people need to cover long distances quickly and
comfortably.

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Today, both escalators and travelators are widely used in architectural designs to enhance the vertical and horizontal
transportation experience for building occupants. They offer convenience, improve accessibility, and contribute to
the overall efficiency of large-scale buildings and public spaces.

3.2.2 Applications
Escalators and travelators have various applications in different architectural settings. Here are some common
applications of escalators and travelators:

Escalators:

i. Retail and Shopping Centers: Escalators are widely used in shopping malls and retail centers to facilitate
the movement of shoppers between different levels. They provide convenient access to different floors
and help distribute the flow of customers throughout the building.

ii. Transportation Hubs: Escalators are commonly found in airports, train stations, and bus terminals. They
help passengers navigate through large terminals, making it easier to reach departure gates, platforms, or
other areas within the transportation hub.

iii. Commercial Buildings: In office buildings and commercial complexes, escalators are used to connect
multiple levels and provide efficient vertical transportation for employees, clients, and visitors.

iv. Public Facilities: Escalators are installed in public facilities like museums, exhibition halls, and stadiums to
handle large crowds during events or peak visitor times. They help manage the flow of people and provide
easy access to different levels or exhibition areas.

v. Subway Stations: Escalators are commonly used in subway systems to enable passengers to move quickly
between street level and the underground platforms. They supplement stairs and elevators, making it
easier for commuters to navigate through the station.

Travelators:

i. Airports: Travelators are extensively used in airports to assist passengers in covering long distances
between terminals, concourses, or gates. They offer a convenient and time-saving alternative to walking.

ii. Train Stations: Travelators are employed in train stations, particularly in large and busy stations, to assist
passengers in reaching different platforms or transfer points. They provide a smooth and effortless way of
moving between platforms.

iii. Convention Centers and Exhibition Halls: Travelators are commonly installed in convention centers and
exhibition halls to aid visitors in navigating through expansive exhibition spaces. They help attendees cover
large distances comfortably while exploring different booths and exhibits.

iv. Pedestrian Walkways: In some urban areas, travelators are installed along pedestrian walkways or bridges
to facilitate the movement of people in high-traffic areas. They enhance connectivity and provide an
efficient means of transportation for pedestrians.
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v. Commercial Complexes: Travelators are sometimes incorporated into large commercial complexes or
shopping centers to connect different sections or zones within the complex. They offer a convenient and
seamless transition between different areas.

Overall, both escalators and travelators are employed in various architectural settings to improve accessibility,
enhance efficiency, and provide a smooth and convenient transportation experience for individuals moving within
buildings or public spaces.

3.2.3 Components of an Escalator and its Working Mechanism

Key components of an escalator are as follows:

Truss Structure: The truss structure forms the

backbone of the escalator system. It consists of metal
beams and supports that provide strength and
stability to the escalator.

Steps: The steps are the movable surfaces on which

passengers stand and move. They are linked together
in a continuous loop and are typically made of sturdy
materials like metal or reinforced rubber. The steps
are designed to be durable and provide a secure
platform for passengers.

Handrails: Handrails run along both sides of the

escalator, providing support and stability for
passengers. The handrails move at the same speed as
the steps and are made of a continuous loop of
rubberized material. They are driven by a motor
located within the escalator truss.

Balustrade: The balustrade refers to the enclosure

surrounding the escalator. It includes panels made of
glass, metal, or other materials, serving as a safety
barrier between the steps and the surrounding area.
The balustrade also incorporates the skirt brushes
that prevent debris from falling into the escalator pit.

Drive System: The drive system consists of an electric

motor, gearboxes, and chains or belts that power the Figure 14: Components of an escalator
movement of the escalator steps and handrails. The
motor drives the main drive shaft, which, in turn, rotates the steps and handrails through a system of gears and
chains.

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Comb Plate: The comb plates are located at the upper and lower ends of the escalator and have teeth-like projections
that interlock with the steps. They ensure a smooth transition between the floor and the moving steps, preventing
trip hazards.

Skirt Panel: The skirt panel is located at the sides of the escalator, near the floor level. It covers the gap between the
steps and the skirt brushes, preventing objects from falling into the pit and reducing the risk of entrapment.

Safety Sensors and Devices: Escalators are equipped with various safety sensors and devices to ensure passenger
safety. These include sensors that detect obstructions or irregularities on the steps, emergency stop buttons, and
safety edges that detect pressure and halt the escalator if an object or body part is trapped.

Control Panel: The control panel houses the control system and electrical components that manage the operation of
the escalator. It includes buttons and displays for maintenance and emergency purposes, as well as the control system
that monitors and regulates the speed and operation of the escalator.

The working mechanism is as follows:

Power and Start-up: The escalator is powered by an

electric motor, typically located in the machine room or
at the top of the escalator. When the escalator is
activated, power is supplied to the motor.

Drive System: The motor drives the main drive shaft,

which is connected to a series of gears and chains or
belts. These components transmit power to the steps
and handrails, causing them to move.

Step Movement: The steps of an escalator are linked

together in a continuous loop. As the main drive shaft
rotates, it drives a chain or belt connected to the steps. Figure 15: Workings of a escalator overview
This movement causes the steps to travel in a closed
loop, with the top set moving upward and the bottom
set moving downward.

Handrail Movement: The handrails of the escalator

move at the same speed as the steps. They are
connected to a separate chain or belt system, driven by
the motor. The continuous loop of the handrails ensures
that there is always a handrail available for passengers
to hold onto as they ride the escalator.

Safety Sensors: Escalators are equipped with various

safety sensors to detect obstructions or irregularities.
These sensors monitor the movement of the steps and Figure 16: Step movement of escalator
can detect if there is an object or person stuck in the
escalator. If an obstruction is detected, the escalator will stop or reverse its direction to prevent accidents.

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Control System: The control system of the escalator

manages its operation and ensures smooth and safe
movement. It regulates the speed of the escalator,
monitors the status of various safety sensors, and
can initiate emergency stop procedures if
necessary.

Emergency Stop and Maintenance: Escalators are

equipped with emergency stop buttons located at
various points along the escalator. In case of
emergencies or maintenance requirements, these
buttons can be pressed to halt the escalator's
operation.
Figure 17: Drive chain and step chain mechanism

3.2.3 Calculation of Traffic

capacity
Calculating the capacity of an escalator involves considering several factors that impact its performance and ability
to transport passengers efficiently. These factors include step width, step length, speed, step configuration, passenger
flow, and safety factors.

i. Step Width: Step width refers to the width of each individual step on the escalator. It plays a crucial role in
determining how many passengers can comfortably stand side by side on each step. Typically, step widths
range from 600mm to 1,000mm, and wider steps allow for greater passenger capacity.

ii. Step Length: Step length is the distance between the front edge of one step and the front edge of the next
step. Longer step lengths provide more space for passengers to comfortably stand. The step length is an
important consideration for calculating the effective width available for passengers.

iii. Speed: The operating speed of the escalator affects its capacity. Faster speeds enable more passengers to be
transported in a given time period. However, higher speeds may also affect passenger safety and comfort.
The typical speed range for escalators is between 0.5 meters per second (m/s) and 1.0 m/s.

iv. Step Configuration: The configuration of escalator steps can vary, including flat steps, inclined steps, or
combinations of both. Flat steps provide a larger standing area for passengers, while inclined steps allow for
a smoother transition between steps. The step configuration influences the overall capacity and passenger
flow on the escalator.

v. Passenger Flow: Passenger flow is a crucial factor in capacity calculations. It refers to the number of
passengers entering or exiting the escalator within a specific time period, usually measured in passengers per
minute (PPM) or passengers per hour (PPH). Estimating passenger flow involves considering factors such as
building occupancy, peak traffic periods, and expected user demand.

vi. Safety Factors: Safety considerations are essential when calculating the capacity of an escalator. Safety
factors account for unexpected variations in passenger flow, the need for emergency evacuation routes, and
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compliance with safety regulations. Including safety factors in capacity calculations ensures that the escalator
can handle potential peak demand while maintaining passenger safety.

vii. Code and Standards: Capacity calculations for escalators also consider local building codes and standards
specific to escalator design and operation. These codes provide guidelines on factors such as step width, step
length, speed, and safety requirements to ensure that the escalator meets industry standards and
regulations.

By considering these factors in capacity calculations, architects, engineers, and designers can determine the
appropriate size, speed, and configuration of escalators to efficiently transport passengers in buildings. This ensures
that the escalators can handle the expected passenger flow, while also meeting safety standards and providing a
comfortable user experience.

3.2.4 Location and arrangement of escalators and travelators

Determining the location and arrangements of escalators and travelators at the architectural planning stage involves
considering factors such as building design, user flow, accessibility, space constraints, and aesthetic integration.

Step-by-step approach to determining their placement is as follows:

i. Analyze User Flow: Study the intended flow of people within the building to identify key areas where vertical
or horizontal transportation is required. Consider factors such as entrances, exits, main circulation routes,
gathering areas, and areas with high user density. Determine the primary paths that users will take and
identify the most efficient locations for escalators or travelators.

ii. Evaluate Space Constraints: Assess the available space within the building to determine the feasibility of
installing escalators or travelators. Consider factors such as floor plans, vertical heights, structural limitations,
and the footprint required for the transportation systems. Take note of any obstructions or architectural
features that may impact the placement of escalators or travelators.

iii. Consider Accessibility Requirements: Ensure compliance with accessibility regulations and guidelines.
Identify areas that require accessibility solutions, such as wheelchair ramps or elevators in addition to or
instead of escalators or travelators. Ensure that the chosen locations for escalators or travelators provide
easy access for all users, including those with disabilities.

iv. Integrate with Architectural Design: Seek a balance between functional requirements and architectural
aesthetics. Collaborate with architects and designers to integrate the escalators or travelators seamlessly into
the building's overall design concept. Consider factors such as materials, finishes, lighting, and spatial
relationships to create a visually appealing and harmonious integration.

v. Optimize Traffic Flow: Design the arrangement of escalators or travelators to optimize user traffic flow and
minimize congestion. Consider factors such as the capacity of the transportation systems, anticipated user
flow, and the desired level of service. Place escalators or travelators at strategic points along primary
circulation routes to facilitate efficient movement between floors or across long distances.

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vi. Enhance Visibility and Wayfinding: Ensure that the escalators or travelators are easily visible and identifiable
to users. Consider sightlines, signage, and visual cues to guide users to the transportation systems.
Incorporate clear wayfinding elements to indicate the locations of escalators or travelators, making it intuitive
for users to find and access them.

vii. Safety Considerations: Prioritize safety in the placement of escalators or travelators. Ensure sufficient space
for users to enter and exit the systems safely. Consider the proximity to other building elements, such as
walls, columns, or staircases, to prevent any hazards or obstructions. Follow safety codes and regulations
specific to escalator and travelator design and installation.

viii. Collaborate with Experts: Engage with specialized consultants or manufacturers who have expertise in
escalator and travelator design. They can provide valuable input on factors such as technical requirements,
spatial constraints, and code compliance. Collaborating with experts ensures that the chosen locations and
arrangements align with industry best practices and safety standards.

By following these steps and considering the unique requirements and constraints of the building, architects and
designers can strategically determine the location and arrangements of escalators and travelators during the
architectural planning stage. This will help create efficient, accessible, and visually appealing transportation systems
that enhance the overall user experience within the building.

END

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