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STANDING UP FOR JUSTICE
STANDING UP
FOR JUSTICE
The Challenges of T ry i n g
A t ro c i t y C r i m e s
THEODOR ME RO N
1
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Theodor Meron 2021
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2021
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Crown copyright material is reproduced under Class Licence
Number C01P0000148 with the permission of OPSI
and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020947158
ISBN 978–0–19–886343–4
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198863434.001.0001
Printed and bound in
the UK by TJ Books Limited
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Contents
Preface xi
Principle of Legality 73
Selective Accountability 91
Due Process 92
V. Trying Violations of Human Rights in International
Criminal Tribunals 103
Post-World War II Changes 104
The Establishment of International Criminal Tribunals 106
Common Article 3 and Crimes Against Humanity 107
Persecution 112
VI. Judicial Independence and Impartiality 116
Why Judicial Independence Matters 118
Ensuring an Independent Judiciary 119
Judicial Selection 121
Should Judges Respond to Outside Criticism? 123
Judicial Assignments and Court Presidents 124
Judicial Bias and Recusal 127
Institutional Design and Management 132
The Presidency and the Prosecution 133
Communicating with the Public 134
Rules and Obstructive Behavior of Defendants 135
The Saga of the Turkish Judge Akay 136
VII. Judicial Decision-Making and Deliberations 143
Decision-Making 143
The uniqueness of the Tribunals 144
Decision-makers 145
Judges and staff—background 146
Judges—processes 148
The Deliberation Process at International Criminal Tribunals 149
Civil Law and Common Law Courts 151
Deliberations at the ICTY/ICTR Appeals Chambers 152
Appeals from Judgements 152
Before the hearing 153
The hearing 154
After the hearing 155
Sentencing deliberations 158
Separate/dissenting opinions 159
C onte nt s vii
EPILOGUE
XIII. The Road Ahead: Does International Justice Work? 311
Invigorate the New Era of Accountability 311
Close the Accountability Gap 312
Comply with Existing Obligations 316
Encourage and Invigorate Prosecutions under the Principle
of Universal Jurisdiction 318
Review and Revise Laws and Practices to Ensure Due Process,
Fair Trials and Judicial Independence 320
Invest in Justice Infrastructure 322
Consider and Support Regional Accountability Initiatives 323
C onte nt s ix
Index 349
Preface
This book is about fairness, justice and due process of proceedings in inter-
national courts and tribunals, principles on which the legitimacy of the
project of international criminal justice rests. Standing up for them is vital,
now more than ever, when principles of international law and accountabil-
ity are challenged.
It is not about definitions of crimes and details of procedures. It is about
the judicial perspective of trying atrocity crimes, that is the crime of geno-
cide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.
In writing I have benefited from my work over two decades as a Judge of
the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the International
Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (Mechanism), and, in partic-
ular, from the experience gained over four terms as President of the ICTY
and three terms as President of the Mechanism.
I am grateful to my friends and colleagues for their suggestions and
comments, and in particular to Isabelle Lambert, Willow Crystal, Julie
Bloch, Professor Jean Galbraith, Professor Miles Jackson, Zoe Flood,
Gabrielle McIntyre, Karen Johnson and to the many law clerks who
have so greatly enriched my understanding of and commitment to
the law.
Many thanks to Merel Alstein for steering the book through the commis-
sioning process and for her insightful comments on early drafts; to Production
Editors Lucía Pérez and Matthew Humphrys for guiding and energizing the
production of the book; to Jack McNichol and all of Oxford University
Press; and to Joy Ruskin-Tompkins for her excellent copy-editing.
I appreciate Dame Hilary Boulding, President of Trinity College, Oxford,
and her predecessor Sir Ivor Roberts for giving me a friendly home in
Oxford and excellent facilities for writing.
xii P re fac e
Standing Up For Justice. Theodor Meron, Oxford University Press (2021). © Theodor Meron.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198863434.003.0001
4 R OOT S: T HE R OA D T O J U D G E S H I P
failure. Striking the right balance between the personal dimension and
saying something that may be of interest to readers is challenging. But
there is no question that what we write and when we write can only be
explained by our own life experiences. I am reminded of a saying attributed
to Talmudic sages: “We don’t see things as they are, we see things as we are.”
The Holocaust
What followed was the ghettos, work camps, most of my family falling
victim to the Holocaust.
The saving of its entire Jewish population by the people of Denmark will
remain forever as a rare epitome of true humanism.
I find it striking that a country which was as anti-Semitic as Poland pro-
duced the highest number of righteous gentiles, non-Jews who saved Jews,
recognized as such by Yad Vashem in Israel.
And yes, there are stories of bravery and righteousness, of individuals
standing up to be counted when the time to do so has come. I think of the
young German soldier who found my maternal grandparents in their hiding
place and, risking his life, decided not to turn them in.They thus survived for
a few more months until caught in the Nazi net.
I think of the Warsaw Catholic baker who sheltered a little girl for all those
years, risking her life and that of her own daughter.
I think of Aristides de Sousa Mendes, the Portuguese consul in Bordeaux
who in defiance of orders saved thousands of Jews by giving them visas and
was, as a result, destroyed by Salazar, or the Pole Jan Karski who infiltrated
the Warsaw Ghetto and an extermination camp and then travelled to the
West to report to the Allies on the unbelievable destruction that was being
inflicted on the Jews. Alas, bombing rail lines to the death camps was not on
the Allies’ priority list.
It is from acts of humanity that seeds of reconciliation and a shared sense of
humanity emerge. Remembrance and acknowledgement of historic crimes,
coming clean with the past, is essential to the process of reconciliation.
…
I pay homage to President Chirac who, breaking with a long taboo,
accepted the responsibility of France for Vichy’s collaboration with the
enforcement of the Holocaust, for committing, in the words of Chirac, “the
irreparable.”
When the war ended I emerged with a hunger for school, for learning, for
normality. That I, a child of the Holocaust, was given by fate the honour of
presiding over UN War Crimes Tribunals, and of judging the Krstić appeal,
the first post-war genocide committed on European soil, the mass killings at
Srebrenica, and doing it justly and fairly, is, to myself, one of the wonders of
my life.1
I ended the speech with the prayer that “neither we nor our children will
be victims, or even worse, perpetrators of genocide,” and, to paraphrase
Sir Michael Howard’s Holocaust speech to the Oxford Chabad Society, that
we will not be “those who simply let this happen: thinking the kind of things,
tolerating the kind of behavior that ultimately makes genocides possible.”
De la Fidélité.
La bravoure.
La vraie bravoure, dans un monde conscient que nous devons
tous travailler à construire, ce sera d’exposer sa vie pour un effet
utile.
Actuellement on trouve brave celui qui expose sa vie, tout court.
On n’examine pas s’il l’expose par ostentation pour éblouir des
témoins, pour leur montrer qu’il n’a pas peur de la mort ni du danger.
On n’examine pas s’il l’expose dans une impulsion pour un effet
futile, qui ne vaut pas son sacrifice.
A la vue de ces actes irréfléchis, s’éveille et applaudit en nous un
très vieil instinct qui nous pousse à admirer le mépris de la mort, le
dédain de la vie.
On dira que ce vieil instinct contient en germe l’altruisme,
puisqu’il nous fait admirer l’homme qui sauve son semblable. J’en
doute. Car on admire aussi l’homme qui risque sa vie pour un tour
de force, pour le plus stupide pari, où nulle existence n’est à sauver.
Ainsi que nos autres sentiments — plus même que beaucoup de
nos sentiments — la bravoure demande à être contrôlée, pour
devenir consciente, cesser d’être parfois un jeu de vanité, pour
s’exercer utilement, noblement, humainement.
La mort.
Religion.
N’est-ce pas une foi, de croire à une justice plus juste, à une
liberté plus libre, à une vie meilleure sur la terre ?
L’altruisme.
Solidarité.
On ne met pas assez les enfants devant cette réalité que, nés
sur un sol, en un temps donné, ils doivent accepter les obligations
de la vie sociale telle qu’elle est régie sur ce sol et en ce temps. De
ce fait, ils ont contracté une sorte d’engagement, touchant les
impôts, les charges, les lois.
C’est là du patriotisme pacifique. C’est aussi un aspect de la
solidarité. Nous devons beaucoup à ceux qui nous ont précédés.
Tout objet dont nous nous servons est le résultat d’une longue suite
d’efforts. Nos vêtements, nos trains, notre téléphone, nous trouvons
tout cela sous notre main, nous jugeons tout naturel de nous en
servir. Mais tout cela nous le devons à ceux qui sont morts. Voilà ce
qui rend les générations solidaires.