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vi Contents
Ex. 4.1-2 Unsteady Laminar Flow between Two Ex. 6.2-2 Flow Rate for a Given Pressure
Parallel Plates 117 Drop 183
Ex. 4.1-3 Unsteady Laminar Flow near an §6.3 Friction Factors for Flow around Spheres 185
Oscillating Plate 120 Ex. 6.3-1 Determination of the Diameter of a Falling
§4.2O Solving Flow Problems Using a Stream Sphere 187
Function 121 §6.4O Friction Factors for Packed Columns 188
Ex. 4.2-1 Creeping Flow around a Sphere 122 Questions for Discussion 192
§4.3O Flow of Inviscid Fluids by Use of the Velocity Problems 193
Potential 126
Ex. 4.3-1 Potential Flow around a Cylinder 128 Chapter 7 Macroscopic Balances for
Ex. 4.3-2 Flow into a Rectangular Channel 130 Isothermal Flow Systems 197
Ex. 4.3-3 Flow near a Corner 131
§4.4O Flow near Solid Surfaces by Boundary-Layer §7.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balance 198
Theory 133 Ex. 7.1-1 Draining of a Spherical Tank 199
Ex. 4.4-1 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate §7.2 The Macroscopic Momentum Balance 200
(Approximate Solution) 136 Ex. 7.2-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part a) 201
Ex. 4.4-2 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate (Exact §7.3 The Macroscopic Angular Momentum
Solution) 137 Balance 202
Ex. 4.4-3 Flow near a Corner 139 Ex. 7.3-1 Torque on a Mixing Vessel 202
Questions for Discussion 140 §7.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Problems 141 Balance 203
Ex. 7.4-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part b) 205
Chapter 5 Velocity Distributions in §7.5 Estimation of the Viscous Loss 205
Turbulent Flow 152 Ex. 7.5-1 Power Requirement for Pipeline
Flow 207
§5.1 Comparisons of Laminar and Turbulent §7.6 Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Steady-State
Flows 154 Problems 209
§5.2 Time-Smoothed Equations of Change for Ex. 7.6-1 Pressure Rise and Friction Loss in a
Incompressible Fluids 156 Sudden Enlargement 209
§5.3 The Time-Smoothed Velocity Profile near a Ex. 7.6-2 Performance of a Liquid–Liquid
Wall 159 Ejector 210
§5.4 Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Ex. 7.6-3 Thrust on a Pipe Bend 212
Momentum Flux 162 Ex. 7.6-4 The Impinging Jet 214
Ex. 5.4-1 Development of the Reynolds Stress Ex. 7.6-5 Isothermal Flow of a Liquid through an
Expression in the Vicinity of the Wall 164 Orifice 215
§5.5 Turbulent Flow in Ducts 165 §7.7O Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Unsteady-
Ex. 5.5-1 Estimation of the Average Velocity in a State Problems 216
Circular Tube 166 Ex. 7.7.1 Acceleration Effects in Unsteady Flow
Ex. 5.5-2 Application of Prandtl’s Mixing Length from a Cylindrical Tank 217
Formula to Turbulent Flow in a Circular Ex. 7.7-2 Manometer Oscillations 219
Tube 167 §7.8• Derivation of the Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Ex. 5.5-3 Relative Magnitude of Viscosity and Eddy Balance 221
Viscosity 167 Questions for Discussion 223
§5.6O Turbulent Flow in Jets 168 Problems 224
Ex. 5.6-1 Time-Smoothed Velocity Distribution in a
Circular Wall Jet 168 Chapter 8 Polymeric Liquids 231
Questions for Discussion 172
Problems 172 §8.1 Examples of the Behavior of Polymeric
Liquids 232
Chapter 6 Interphase Transport in §8.2 Rheometry and Material Functions 236
Isothermal Systems 177 §8.3 Non-Newtonian Viscosity and the Generalized
Newtonian Models 240
§6.1 Definition of Friction Factors 178 Ex. 8.3-1 Laminar Flow of an Incompressible
§6.2 Friction Factors for Flow in Tubes 179 Power-Law Fluid in a Circular Tube 242
Ex. 6.2-1 Pressure Drop Required for a Given Flow Ex. 8.3-2 Flow of a Power-Law Fluid in a Narrow
Rate 183 Slit 243
Contents vii
Ex. 8.3-3 Tangential Annular Flow of a Power- Chapter 10 Shell Energy Balances and
Law Fluid 244 Temperature Distributions in
§8.4O Elasticity and the Linear Viscoelastic Solids and Laminar Flow 290
Models 244
Ex. 8.4-1 Small-Amplitude Oscillatory §10.1 Shell Energy Balances; Boundary
Motion 247 Conditions 291
Ex. 8.4-2 Unsteady Viscoelastic Flow near an §10.2 Heat Conduction with an Electrical Heat
Oscillating Plate 248 Source 292
§8.5• The Corotational Derivatives and the Nonlinear Ex. 10.2-1 Voltage Required for a Given
Viscoelastic Models 249 Temperature Rise in a Wire Heated by an
Ex. 8.5-1 Material Functions for the Oldroyd 6- Electric Current 295
Constant Model 251 Ex. 10.2-2 Heated Wire with Specified Heat
§8.6• Molecular Theories for Polymeric Liquids 253 Transfer Coefficient and Ambient Air
Ex. 8.6-1 Material Functions for the FENE-P Temperature 295
Model 255 §10.3 Heat Conduction with a Nuclear Heat
Questions for Discussion 258 Source 296
Problems 258 §10.4 Heat Conduction with a Viscous Heat
Source 298
§10.5 Heat Conduction with a Chemical Heat
Source 300
Part II Energy Transport §10.6 Heat Conduction through Composite
Walls 303
Ex. 10.6-1 Composite Cylindrical Walls 305
Chapter 9 Thermal Conductivity and §10.7 Heat Conduction in a Cooling Fin 307
the Mechanisms of Energy Ex. 10.7-1 Error in Thermocouple
Transport 265 Measurement 309
§10.8 Forced Convection 310
§9.1 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction (Molecular
§10.9 Free Convection 316
Energy Transport) 266
Questions for Discussion 319
Ex. 9.1-1 Measurement of Thermal
Problems 320
Conductivity 270
§9.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Thermal
Conductivity 272 Chapter 11 The Equations of Change for
Ex. 9.2-1 Effect of Pressure on Thermal Nonisothermal Systems 333
Conductivity 273
§9.3O Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Gases at Low §11.1 The Energy Equation 333
Density 274 §11.2 Special Forms of the Energy Equation 336
Ex. 9.3-1 Computation of the Thermal §11.3 The Boussinesq Equation of Motion for Forced
Conductivity of a Monatomic Gas at Low and Free Convection 338
Density 277 §11.4 Use of the Equations of Change to Solve Steady-
Ex. 9.3-2 Estimation of the Thermal Conductivity State Problems 339
of a Polyatomic Gas at Low Density 278 Ex. 11.4-1 Steady-State Forced-Convection Heat
Ex. 9.3-3 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivity Transfer in Laminar Flow in a Circular
of a Gas Mixture at Low Density 278 Tube 342
§9.4O Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Ex. 11.4-2 Tangential Flow in an Annulus with
Liquids 279 Viscous Heat Generation 342
Ex. 9.4-1 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivity of Ex. 11.4-3 Steady Flow in a Nonisothermal
a Liquid 280 Film 343
§9.5O Thermal Conductivity of Solids 280 Ex. 11.4-4 Transpiration Cooling 344
§9.6O Effective Thermal Conductivity of Composite Ex. 11.4-5 Free Convection Heat Transfer from a
Solids 281 Vertical Plate 346
§9.7 Convective Transport of Energy 283 Ex. 11.4-6 Adiabatic Frictionless Processes in an
§9.8 Work Associated with Molecular Ideal Gas 349
Motions 284 Ex. 11.4-7 One-Dimensional Compressible Flow:
Questions for Discussion 286 Velocity, Temperature, and Pressure Profiles in a
Problems 287 Stationary Shock Wave 350
viii Contents
§11.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Change §13.4O Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow in
for Nonisothermal Systems 353 Tubes 411
Ex. 11.5-1 Temperature Distribution about a Long §13.5O Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow in
Cylinder 356 Jets 415
Ex. 11.5-2 Free Convection in a Horizontal Fluid §13.6• Fourier Analysis of Energy Transport in Tube Flow
Layer; Formation of Bénard Cells 358 at Large Prandtl Numbers 416
Ex. 11.5-3 Surface Temperature of an Electrical Questions for Discussion 421
Heating Coil 360 Problems 421
Questions for Discussion 361
Problems 361
Chapter 14 Interphase Transport in
Chapter 12 Temperature Distributions with More Nonisothermal Systems 422
than One Independent Variable 374 §14.1 Definitions of Heat Transfer Coefficients 423
Ex. 14.1-1 Calculation of Heat Transfer Coefficients
§12.1 Unsteady Heat Conduction in Solids 374
from Experimental Data 426
Ex. 12.1-1 Heating of a Semi-Infinite Slab 375
§14.2 Analytical Calculations of Heat Transfer
Ex. 12.1-2 Heating of a Finite Slab 376
Coefficients for Forced Convection through Tubes
Ex. 12.1-3 Unsteady Heat Conduction near a Wall
and Slits 428
with Sinusoidal Heat Flux 379
§14.3 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection
Ex. 12.1-4 Cooling of a Sphere in Contact with a
in Tubes 433
Well-Stirred Fluid 379
Ex. 14.3-1 Design of a Tubular Heater 437
§12.2O Steady Heat Conduction in Laminar,
§14.4 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection
Incompressible Flow 381
around Submerged Objects 438
Ex. 12.2-1 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant Heat
§14.5 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection
Flux at the Wall 383
through Packed Beds 441
Ex. 12.2-2 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant Heat
§14.6O Heat Transfer Coefficients for Free and Mixed
Flux at the Wall: Asymptotic Solution for the
Convection 442
Entrance Region 384
Ex. 14.6-1 Heat Loss by Free Convection from a
§12.3O Steady Potential Flow of Heat in Solids 385
Horizontal Pipe 445
Ex. 12.3-1 Temperature Distribution in a
§14.7O Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensation of
Wall 386
Pure Vapors on Solid Surfaces 446
§12.4O Boundary Layer Theory for Nonisothermal
Ex. 14.7-1 Condensation of Steam on a Vertical
Flow 387
Surface 449
Ex. 12.4-1 Heat Transfer in Laminar Forced
Questions for Discussion 449
Convection along a Heated Flat Plate (the von
Problems 450
Kármán Integral Method) 388
Ex. 12.4-2 Heat Transfer in Laminar Forced
Convection along a Heated Flat Plate (Asymptotic Chapter 15 Macroscopic Balances for
Solution for Large Prandtl Numbers) 391 Nonisothermal Systems 454
Ex. 12.4-3 Forced Convection in Steady Three-
Dimensional Flow at High Prandtl §15.1 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 455
Numbers 392 §15.2 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Questions for Discussion 394 Balance 456
Problems 395 §15.3 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-
State Problems with Flat Velocity Profiles 458
Chapter 13 Temperature Distributions in Ex. 15.3-1 The Cooling of an Ideal Gas 459
Turbulent Flow 407 Ex. 15.3-2 Mixing of Two Ideal Gas
Streams 460
§13.1 Time-Smoothed Equations of Change for §15.4 The d-Forms of the Macroscopic Balances 461
Incompressible Nonisothermal Flow 407 Ex. 15.4-1 Parallel- or Counter-Flow Heat
§13.2 The Time-Smoothed Temperature Profile near a Exchangers 462
Wall 409 Ex. 15.4-2 Power Requirement for Pumping a
§13.3 Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Heat Compressible Fluid through a Long Pipe 464
Flux 410 §15.5O Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve
Ex. 13.3-1 An Approximate Relation for the Wall Unsteady-State Problems and Problems with
Heat Flux for Turbulent Flow in a Tube 411 Nonflat Velocity Profiles 465
Contents ix
Ex. 15.5-1 Heating of a Liquid in an Agitated Ex. 17.2-3 Estimation of Binary Diffusivity at High
Tank 466 Density 524
Ex. 15.5-2 Operation of a Simple Temperature §17.3O Theory of Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 525
Controller 468 Ex. 17.3-1 Computation of Mass Diffusivity for
Ex. 15.5-3 Flow of Compressible Fluids through Low-Density Monatomic Gases 528
Head Meters 471 §17.4O Theory of Diffusion in Binary Liquids 528
Ex. 15.5-4 Free Batch Expansion of a Compressible Ex. 17.4-1 Estimation of Liquid Diffusivity 530
Fluid 472 §17.5O Theory of Diffusion in Colloidal
Questions for Discussion 474 Suspensions 531
Problems 474 §17.6O Theory of Diffusion in Polymers 532
§17.7 Mass and Molar Transport by Convection 533
Chapter 16 Energy Transport by Radiation 487 §17.8 Summary of Mass and Molar Fluxes 536
§17.9O The Maxwell–Stefan Equations for Multicomponent
§16.1 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation 488 Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 538
§16.2 Absorption and Emission at Solid Surfaces 490 Questions for Discussion 538
§16.3 Planck’s Distribution Law, Wien’s Displacement Problems 539
Law, and the Stefan–Boltzmann Law 493
Ex. 16.3-1 Temperature and Radiation-Energy
Emission of the Sun 496 Chapter 18 Concentration Distributions in
§16.4 Direct Radiation between Black Bodies in Vacuo at Solids and Laminar Flow 543
Different Temperatures 497 §18.1 Shell Mass Balances; Boundary Conditions 545
Ex. 16.4-1 Estimation of the Solar Constant 501 §18.2 Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film 545
Ex. 16.4-2 Radiant Heat Transfer between Ex. 18.2-1 Diffusion with a Moving
Disks 501 Interface 549
§16.5O Radiation between Nonblack Bodies at Different Ex. 18.2-2 Determination of Diffusivity 549
Temperatures 502 Ex. 18.2-3 Diffusion through a Nonisothermal
Ex. 16.5-1 Radiation Shields 503 Spherical Film 550
Ex. 16.5-2 Radiation and Free-Convection Heat §18.3 Diffusion with a Heterogeneous Chemical
Losses from a Horizontal Pipe 504 Reaction 551
Ex. 16.5-3 Combined Radiation and Ex. 18.3-1 Diffusion with a Slow Heterogeneous
Convection 505 Reaction 553
§16.6O Radiant Energy Transport in Absorbing §18.4 Diffusion with a Homogeneous Chemical
Media 506 Reaction 554
Ex. 16.6-1 Absorption of a Monochromatic Radiant Ex. 18.4-1 Gas Absorption with Chemical Reaction
Beam 507 in an Agitated Tank 555
Questions for Discussion 508 §18.5 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (Gas
Problems 508 Absorption) 558
Ex. 18.5-1 Gas Absorption from Rising
Bubbles 560
Part III Mass Transport §18.6 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (Solid
Dissolution) 562
§18.7 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction inside a Porous
Chapter 17 Diffusivity and the Mechanisms of
Catalyst 563
Mass Transport 513
§18.8O Diffusion in a Three-Component Gas
§17.1 Fick’s Law of Binary Diffusion (Molecular Mass System 567
Transport) 514 Questions for Discussion 568
Ex. 17.1-1. Diffusion of Helium through Pyrex Problems 568
Glass 519
Ex. 17.1-2 The Equivalence of AB and BA 520 Chapter 19 Equations of Change for
§17.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Multicomponent Systems 582
Diffusivities 521
Ex. 17.2-1 Estimation of Diffusivity at Low §19.1 The Equations of Continuity for a Multicomponent
Density 523 Mixture 582
Ex. 17.2-2 Estimation of Self-Diffusivity at High Ex. 19.1-1 Diffusion, Convection, and Chemical
Density 523 Reaction 585
x Contents
§19.2 Summary of the Multicomponent Equations of §20.5• “Taylor Dispersion” in Laminar Tube Flow 643
Change 586 Questions for Discussion 647
§19.3 Summary of the Multicomponent Fluxes 590 Problems 648
Ex. 19.3-1 The Partial Molar Enthalpy 591
§19.4 Use of the Equations of Change for Mixtures 592
Chapter 21 Concentration Distributions in
Ex. 19.4-1 Simultaneous Heat and Mass
Transport 592 Turbulent Flow 657
Ex. 19.4-2 Concentration Profile in a Tubular §21.1 Concentration Fluctuations and the Time-
Reactor 595 Smoothed Concentration 657
Ex. 19.4-3 Catalytic Oxidation of Carbon §21.2 Time-Smoothing of the Equation of Continuity
Monoxide 596 of A 658
Ex. 19.4-4 Thermal Conductivity of a Polyatomic §21.3 Semi-Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Mass
Gas 598 Flux 659
§19.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Change §21.4O Enhancement of Mass Transfer by a First-Order
for Nonreacting Binary Mixtures 599 Reaction in Turbulent Flow 659
Ex. 19.5-1 Concentration Distribution about a Long §21.5• Turbulent Mixing and Turbulent Flow with
Cylinder 601 Second-Order Reaction 663
Ex. 19.5-2 Fog Formation during Questions for Discussion 667
Dehumidification 602 Problems 668
Ex. 19.5-3 Blending of Miscible Fluids 604
Questions for Discussion 605
Problems 606 Chapter 22 Interphase Transport in
Nonisothermal Mixtures 671
§22.7O Effects of Interfacial Forces on Heat and Mass Ex. 23.6-2 Unsteady Operation of a Packed
Transfer 699 Column 753
Ex. 22.7-1 Elimination of Circulation in a Rising Ex. 23.6-3 The Utility of Low-Order
Gas Bubble 701 Moments 756
Ex. 22.7-2 Marangoni Instability in a Falling Questions for Discussion 758
Film 702 Problems 759
§22.8O Transfer Coefficients at High Net Mass Transfer
Rates 703 Chapter 24 Other Mechanisms for
Ex. 22.8-1 Rapid Evaporation of a Liquid from a Mass Transport 764
Plane Surface 710
Ex. 22.8-2 Correction Factors in Droplet §24.1• The Equation of Change for Entropy 765
Evaporation 711 §24.2• The Flux Expressions for Heat and Mass 767
Ex. 22.8-3 Wet-Bulb Performance Corrected for Ex. 24.2-1 Thermal Diffusion and the
Mass-Transfer Rate 711 Clusius–Dickel Column 770
Ex. 22.8-4 Comparison of Film and Penetration Ex. 24.2-2 Pressure Diffusion and the Ultra-
Models for Unsteady Evaporation in a Long centrifuge 772
Tube 712 §24.3O Concentration Diffusion and Driving Forces 774
Ex. 22.8-5 Concentration Polarization in §24.4O Applications of the Generalized Maxwell–Stefan
Ultrafiltration 713 Equations 775
§22.9• Matrix Approximations for Multicomponent Mass Ex. 24.4-1 Centrifugation of Proteins 776
Transport 716 Ex. 24.4-2 Proteins as Hydrodynamic
Questions for Discussion 721 Particles 779
Problems 722 Ex. 24.4-3 Diffusion of Salts in an Aqueous
Solution 780
Ex. 24.4-4 Departures from Local Electroneutrality:
Chapter 23 Macroscopic Balances for Electro-Osmosis 782
Multicomponent Systems 726 Ex. 24.4-5 Additional Mass-Transfer Driving
Forces 784
§23.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balances 727
§24.5O Mass Transport across Selectively Permeable
Ex. 23.1-1 Disposal of an Unstable Waste
Membranes 785
Product 728
Ex. 24.5-1 Concentration Diffusion between
Ex. 23.1-2 Binary Splitters 730
Preexisting Bulk Phases 788
Ex. 23.1-3 The Macroscopic Balances and Dirac’s
Ex. 24.5-2 Ultrafiltration and Reverse
“Separative Capacity” and “Value
Osmosis 789
Function” 731
Ex. 24.5-3 Charged Membranes and Donnan
Ex. 23.1-4 Compartmental Analysis 733
Exclusion 791
Ex. 23.1-5 Time Constants and Model
§24.6O Mass Transport in Porous Media 793
Insensitivity 736
Ex. 24.6-1 Knudsen Diffusion 795
§23.2O The Macroscopic Momentum and Angular
Ex. 24.6-2 Transport from a Binary External
Momentum Balances 738
Solution 797
§23.3 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 738
Questions for Discussion 798
§23.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Problems 799
Balance 739
§23.5 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-
State Problems 739 Postface 805
Ex. 23.5-1 Energy Balances for a Sulfur Dioxide
Converter 739
Ex. 23.5-2 Height of a Packed-Tower Appendices
Absorber 742
Ex. 23.5-3 Linear Cascades 746 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation 807
Ex. 23.5-4 Expansion of a Reactive Gas Mixture
through a Frictionless Adiabatic Nozzle 749 §A.1 Vector Operations from a Geometrical
§23.6O Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Viewpoint 808
Unsteady-State Problems 752 §A.2 Vector Operations in Terms of
Ex. 23.6-1 Start-Up of a Chemical Components 810
Reactor 752 Ex. A.2-1 Proof of a Vector Identity 814
xii Contents
The purpose of this introductory chapter is to describe the scope, aims, and methods of
the subject of transport phenomena. It is important to have some idea about the struc-
ture of the field before plunging into the details; without this perspective it is not possi-
ble to appreciate the unifying principles of the subject and the interrelation of the
various individual topics. A good grasp of transport phenomena is essential for under-
standing many processes in engineering, agriculture, meteorology, physiology, biology,
analytical chemistry, materials science, pharmacy, and other areas. Transport phenom-
ena is a well-developed and eminently useful branch of physics that pervades many
areas of applied science.
1
2 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena
motions and interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
diffusion.
The main aim of this book is to give a balanced overview of the field of transport phe-
nomena, present the fundamental equations of the subject, and illustrate how to use
them to solve problems.
There are many excellent treatises on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass trans-
fer. In addition, there are many research and review journals devoted to these individual
subjects and even to specialized subfields. The reader who has mastered the contents of
this book should find it possible to consult the treatises and journals and go more deeply
into other aspects of the theory, experimental techniques, empirical correlations, design
methods, and applications. That is, this book should not be regarded as the complete
presentation of the subject, but rather as a stepping stone to a wealth of knowledge that
lies beyond.
"2"
ecular structure and intermolecular forces. Generally this is the realm of the theoretical
physicist or physical chemist, but occasionally engineers and applied scientists have to
get involved at this level. This is particularly true if the processes being studied involve
complex molecules, extreme ranges of temperature and pressure, or chemically reacting
systems.
It should be evident that these three levels of description involve different “length
scales”: for example, in a typical industrial problem, at the macroscopic level the dimen-
sions of the flow systems may be of the order of centimeters or meters; the microscopic
level involves what is happening in the micron to the centimeter range; and molecular-
level problems involve ranges of about 1 to 1000 nanometers.
This book is divided into three parts dealing with
• Flow of pure fluids at constant temperature (with emphasis on viscous and con-
vective momentum transport)—Chapters 1–8
• Flow of pure fluids with varying temperature (with emphasis on conductive, con-
vective, and radiative energy transport)—Chapters 9–16
• Flow of fluid mixtures with varying composition (with emphasis on diffusive and
convective mass transport)—Chapters 17–24
That is, we build from the simpler to the more difficult problems. Within each of these
parts, we start with an initial chapter dealing with some results of the molecular theory
of the transport properties (viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity). Then we
proceed to the microscopic level and learn how to determine the velocity, temperature,
and concentration profiles in various kinds of systems. The discussion concludes with
the macroscopic level and the description of large systems.
As the discussion unfolds, the reader will appreciate that there are many connec-
tions between the levels of description. The transport properties that are described by
molecular theory are used at the microscopic level. Furthermore, the equations devel-
oped at the microscopic level are needed in order to provide some input into problem
solving at the macroscopic level.
There are also many connections between the three areas of momentum, energy,
and mass transport. By learning how to solve problems in one area, one also learns the
techniques for solving problems in another area. The similarities of the equations in the
three areas mean that in many instances one can solve a problem “by analogy”—that is,
by taking over a solution directly from one area and, by changing the symbols in the
equations, immediately writing down the solution to a problem in another area.
The student will find that these connections—among levels, and among the various
transport phenomena—reinforce the learning process. As one goes from the first part of
the book (momentum transport) to the second part (energy transport) and then on to the
third part (mass transport) the story will be very similar but the “names of the players”
will change.
Table 0.2-1 shows the arrangement of the chapters in the form of a 3 8 “matrix.”
Just a brief glance at the matrix will make it abundantly clear what kinds of interconnec-
tions can be expected in the course of the study of the book. We recommend that the
book be studied by columns, particularly in undergraduate courses. For graduate stu-
dents, on the other hand, studying the topics by rows may provide a chance to reinforce
the connections between the three areas of transport phenomena.
At all three levels of description—molecular, microscopic, and macroscopic—the
conservation laws play a key role. The derivation of the conservation laws for molecu-
lar systems is straightforward and instructive. With elementary physics and a mini-
mum of mathematics we can illustrate the main concepts and review key physical
quantities that will be encountered throughout this book. That is the topic of the next
section.
4 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena
temperatures lower than 50 K, the kinetic theory of gases can be developed quite satis-
factorily by use of classical mechanics.
Several relations must hold between quantities before and after a collision. Both be-
fore and after the collision the molecules are presumed to be sufficiently far apart that
the two molecules cannot “feel” the intermolecular force between them; beyond a dis-
tance of about 5 molecular diameters the intermolecular force is known to be negligible.
Quantities after the collision are indicated with primes.
(a) According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the molecules enter-
ing and leaving the collision must be equal:
mA mB mA mB (0.3-1)
Here mA and mB are the masses of molecules A and B. Since there are no chemical reac-
tions, the masses of the individual species will also be conserved, so that
mA mA and mB mB (0.3-2)
(b) According to the law of conservation of momentum the sum of the momenta of all
the atoms before the collision must equal that after the collision, so that
mA1ṙ A1 mA2ṙ A2 mB1ṙ B1 mB2ṙ B2 mA1ṙA1 mA2ṙA2 mB1ṙB1 mB2ṙB2 (0.3-3)
in which rA1 is the position vector for atom 1 of molecule A, and ṙ A1 is its velocity. We
now write rA1 rA RA1 so that rA1 is written as the sum of the position vector for the
R A2
R A1
Atom A2
Atom A1
rA Center of mass
rA1 of molecule A
rA2
O
Arbitrary origin Fig. 0.3-2 Position vectors for the atoms
fixed in space A1 and A2 in molecule A.
6 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena
center of mass and the position vector of the atom with respect to the center of mass, and
we recognize that RA2 RA1; we also write the same relations for the velocity vectors.
Then we can rewrite Eq. 0.3-3 as
That is, the conservation statement can be written in terms of the molecular masses and
velocities, and the corresponding atomic quantities have been eliminated. In getting
Eq. 0.3-4 we have used Eq. 0.3-2 and the fact that for homonuclear diatomic molecules
mA1 mA2 2 mA.
1
(c) According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of the colliding pair of
molecules must be the same before and after the collision. The energy of an isolated mol-
ecule is the sum of the kinetic energies of the two atoms and the interatomic potential en-
ergy, A, which describes the force of the chemical bond joining the two atoms 1 and 2 of
molecule A, and is a function of the interatomic distance 兩rA2 rA1兩. Therefore, energy
conservation leads to
(12mA1r˙ 2A1 12mA2r˙ 2A2 A) (12mB1r˙ 2B1 12mB2r˙ 2B2 B)
(12mA1ṙA1
2 12mA2ṙA22 A) (12mB1ṙB12 12mB2ṙB2
2 B) (0.3-5)
Note that we use the standard abbreviated notation that ṙ2A1 (ṙ A1 ṙ A1). We now write
the velocity of atom 1 of molecule A as the sum of the velocity of the center of mass of A
and the velocity of 1 with respect to the center of mass; that is, ṙ A1 ṙ A ṘA1. Then Eq.
0.3-5 becomes
in which uA 2mA1Ṙ2A1 2mA2Ṙ2A2 A is the sum of the kinetic energies of the atoms, re-
1 1
ferred to the center of mass of molecule A, and the interatomic potential of molecule A.
That is, we split up the energy of each molecule into its kinetic energy with respect to
fixed coordinates, and the internal energy of the molecule (which includes its vibra-
tional, rotational, and potential energies). Equation 0.3-6 makes it clear that the kinetic
energies of the colliding molecules can be converted into internal energy or vice versa.
This idea of an interchange between kinetic and internal energy will arise again when
we discuss the energy relations at the microscopic and macroscopic levels.
(d) Finally, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be applied to a collision
to give
([rA1 mA1ṙ A1] [rA2 mA2ṙ A2]) ([rB1 mB1ṙ B1] [rB2 mB2ṙ B2])
([rA1 mA1ṙA1] [rA2 mA2ṙA2]) ([rB1 mB1ṙB1] [rB2 mB2ṙB2]) (0.3-7)
in which is used to indicate the cross product of two vectors. Next we introduce the
center-of-mass and relative position vectors and velocity vectors as before and obtain
in which lA [RA1 mA1ṘA1] [RA2 mA2ṘA2] is the sum of the angular momenta of the
atoms referred to an origin of coordinates at the center of mass of the molecule—that is,
the “internal angular momentum.” The important point is that there is the possibility for
interchange between the angular momentum of the molecules (with respect to the origin
of coordinates) and their internal angular momentum (with respect to the center of mass
of the molecule). This will be referred to later in connection with the equation of change
for angular momentum.
§0.4 Concluding Comments 7
Momentum
Transport
9
Chapter 1
The first part of this book deals with the flow of viscous fluids. For fluids of low molecu-
lar weight, the physical property that characterizes the resistance to flow is the viscosity.
Anyone who has bought motor oil is aware of the fact that some oils are more “viscous”
than others and that viscosity is a function of the temperature.
We begin in §1.1 with the simple shear flow between parallel plates and discuss how
momentum is transferred through the fluid by viscous action. This is an elementary ex-
ample of molecular momentum transport and it serves to introduce “Newton’s law of vis-
cosity” along with the definition of viscosity . Next in §1.2 we show how Newton’s law
can be generalized for arbitrary flow patterns. The effects of temperature and pressure
on the viscosities of gases and liquids are summarized in §1.3 by means of a dimension-
less plot. Then §1.4 tells how the viscosities of gases can be calculated from the kinetic
theory of gases, and in §1.5 a similar discussion is given for liquids. In §1.6 we make a
few comments about the viscosity of suspensions and emulsions.
Finally, we show in §1.7 that momentum can also be transferred by the bulk fluid
motion and that such convective momentum transport is proportional to the fluid density .
11
12 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transport
Velocity buildup
vx(y, t) Small t
in unsteady flow
V
vx(y)
Final velocity
Large t distribution in
y steady flow
x V
has been attained, a constant force F is required to maintain the motion of the lower
plate. Common sense suggests that this force may be expressed as follows:
F V
(1.1-1)
A Y
That is, the force should be proportional to the area and to the velocity, and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. The constant of proportionality is a
property of the fluid, defined to be the viscosity.
We now switch to the notation that will be used throughout the book. First we re-
place F/A by the symbol yx, which is the force in the x direction on a unit area perpen-
dicular to the y direction. It is understood that this is the force exerted by the fluid of
lesser y on the fluid of greater y. Furthermore, we replace V/Y by dvx/dy. Then, in
terms of these symbols, Eq. 1.1-1 becomes
dvx
yx (1.1-2)1
dy
This equation, which states that the shearing force per unit area is proportional to the
negative of the velocity gradient, is often called Newton’s law of viscosity.2 Actually we
1
Some authors write Eq. 1.1-2 in the form
dvx
gcyx (1.1-2a)
dy
in which yx [] lbf/ft2, vx [] ft/s, y [] ft, and [] lbm/ft s; the quantity gc is the “gravitational
conversion factor” with the value of 32.174 poundals/lbf. In this book we will always use Eq. 1.1-2 rather
than Eq. 1.1-2a.
2
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), a professor at Cambridge University and later Master of the Mint,
was the founder of classical mechanics and contributed to other fields of physics as well. Actually Eq.
1.1-2 does not appear in Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), but the
germ of the idea is there. For illuminating comments, see D. J. Acheson, Elementary Fluid Dynamics,
Oxford University Press, 1990, §6.1.
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fliessen ihm zahlreiche wasserreiche Bäche zu. Er soll in der
Regenzeit ziemlich weit aufwärts mit Kanus befahrbar sein und keine
Schnellen besitzen.
Unweit Ruwenga soll eine heisse Quelle entspringen. Die
wenigen Tage, die ich am Ta n g a n yika zubrachte, sind nicht im
Stande der ziemlich reichen Litteratur über diesen See Neues
hinzuzufügen. Von früh 10 Uhr bis Sonnenuntergang wehte im
September ein kräftiger Südwind, der in dieser Jahreszeit
regelmässig auftreten soll. Das Wasser war leicht brackisch, aber
geniessbar. Nach Aussage der Eingeborenen fällt der See stark und
breite Sanddünen zeigen die Fläche, die er früher bedeckte. Auch
die von Hore und Livingstone gesehene Insel konnte ich nicht mehr
wahrnehmen.
Was die o r o g r a p h isch e G l ie d e r u n g anbelangt, so trifft man
in Ost-Ussui leicht gewellte Landschaften, die von einzelnen meist
N. N. O. verlaufenden Kämmen durchschnitten werden. Weiter
landeinwärts treten diese näher aneinander und nehmen
Plateaucharakter an. In Urundi ist das allmählich ansteigende Land
durch die Erosion in ein ziemlich regelloses Gewirre von Kuppen
verwandelt, in welchem die meridionale Kammrichtung kaum noch
erkennbar ist. Den Westrand bildet der riesige, fast 3000 m hohe
Wall der Missosi ya Mwesi, der jenseits steil nach dem
Centralafrikanischen Graben abstürzt.
Durch den Tanganyika und das Russisi-Thal, durch den Albert-
Edward- und Albert-See charakterisirt, bildet der
Ce n t r a la f r i ka n isch e G r a b e n, wie schon Dr. Ha n s Me y e r
ausgeführt, eine mehr lokale aber kaum weniger grossartige
Störungslinie als der Ostafrikanische. Die Seen sind sämmtlich
durch leicht brackisches Wasser ausgezeichnet und der Tanganyika
legitimirt sich durch die Fauna deutlich als Relicten-See. Zum
Unterschied vom ostafrikanischen Graben, bei welchem der
Westrand allein durchwegs scharf ausgeprägt ist, scheinen hier
beide Ränder in gleicher Deutlichkeit aufzutreten. Am Tanganyika
sowohl wie am Albert- und Albert-Edward-See tritt der Westrand als
schroffe Mauer auf; ebenso präsentirt sich der Ostrand im Süden als
die Missosi ya Mwesi, im Norden als Ruvensori bis über die
Schneegrenze aufragend.
Die von Suess vermuthete Aufwulstung der Grabenränder, tritt
hier bei den Randgebirgen deutlich auf. Ueberall bildet die Höhe des
Abfalls auch die Wasserscheide, auf der einen Seite die des Kongo,
auf der anderen die des Nil, dessen Ursprung sich in nächster Nähe
des Grabens befindet. Aehnlich wie der Gurui sich in der Sohle des
Ostgrabens erhebt, so ragen hier die Mfumbiro-Vulkane auf, einen
deutlichen Beweis für den Bruchcharakter dieser Senkung liefernd.
Von dem östlichen Randwall des Tanganyika zweigt jener Kamm
ab, welcher die Wasserscheide zwischen Kagera und Mlagarassi
bildet und erst steil und felsig ist, dann immer mehr abflacht. Südlich
davon sind nur niedrige Hügelzüge vorgelagert, aus welchen man in
das Flachland von Unyamwesi tritt.
Der g e o l o g isch e B a u ist durch das Vorherrschen
krystallinischer Gesteine bezeichnet; nur selten und meist an
grossen Flussläufen, wie dem Kagera und Akanyaru, werden die
liegenden plutonischen Gesteine, Granit und Diabas, durch die
Erosion blosgelegt. In Ussui und Urundi bis zum Akanyaru ist
Quarzit vorherrschend mit meist N. N. O. — S. S. W.-Streichen und
steilem W. N. W.-Fallen. Derselbe ist vielfach mergelich verwittert
und oft mit dicken Lateritmassen überlagert. Vereinzelt tritt Gneiss,
Glimmerschiefer und Urthonschiefer in gleicher Lagerung auf,
letzterer am Muhembaberg graphithaltig. In Ruanda tritt Gneiss auf,
während im südlichen Urundi wieder Quarzit vorherrscht. Auch in
Uha steht krystallinisches Gestein an, welches vielfach
eisenschüssig verwittert ist und sich an das Granitgebiet von
Unyamwesi anschliesst. —
Wahrscheinlich paläozoische Sedimente treten an einigen
Punkten Urundi's auf, Kalke fand ich nur in Uha, doch sollen solche
auch bei Ruvenga am Westufer des Tanganyika anstehen.
Das K l i ma ist in ganz auffallender Weise durch die
Wasserscheiden beeinflusst, indem das Gebiet des Kagera fruchtbar
und reicher an Niederschlägen ist als das Tanganyika-Gebiet,
während das Urigi-Gebiet etwa die Mitte zwischen beiden einhält. —
Der Grund liegt wohl hauptsächlich in der verschiedenen Seehöhe,
möglicherweise auch in herrschenden Windrichtungen, deren
Erforschung der Zukunft vorbehalten bleibt.
An das Klima ist die Vegetation gebunden, welche den
L a n d sch a ft sch a r a kt e r bestimmt. Durch einen Steppenstreifen ist
das Nyansa-Ufer von Ussui getrennt, ein vorherrschend offenes,
grasiges Gebiet in dem nur Siedelhaine und vereinzelt hohe
Laubbäume aufragen. Diese verschwinden im centralen Ussui, das
einen sehr dürren Charakter mit rothem, eisenschüssigem Gerölle
und spärlichem Gestrüpp an den Hängen besitzt. West-Ussui und
Urundi sind fast ganz Weideland, mit Wiesen die alljährlich
abbrennen und deren Eintönigkeit nur durch die dunkelgrünen
Papyrus-Sümpfe und Siedelhaine unterbrochen wird. Erst an den
Hängen der Missosi ya Mwesi tritt Bergwald mit zahlreichen Bambus
auf. Das südliche Urundi, welches schon dem Mlagarassi-Gebiet
angehört, ist ziemlich trocken und steinig. Uha ist ein Waldland; auf
ungeheuren Strecken bedeckt mit wasserarmen, lichten
Laubwäldern, in welchen Caesalpiniaceen vorherrschen und welche
als Miombowälder in das östliche Unyamwesi übergreifen. Die
einzige Unterbrechung dieser Wälder bilden in Uha ausgedehnte,
zur Regenzeit versumpfte Savannen. Da das ganze Gebiet mehr
oder weniger dicht besiedelt ist, so ist Wild ziemlich spärlich und
findet sich nur in den Wildnissen von Uha. —
Wenn wir das ganze Gebiet überblicken, so finden wir in
demselben eine uralte Kontinentalmasse, in welcher Sedimente nur
eine untergeordnete Rolle spielen und die durch das Vorherrschen
primärer Gesteine ausgezeichnet ist. Die gebirgsbildenden Motoren,
die in Europa und Asien durch Faltung das Antlitz der Erde
veränderten, übten hier keine wahrnehmbare Wirkung. An ihre Stelle
traten grossartige Störungslinien, welche das Land, in geologisch
jüngster Zeit, in einzelne Schollen zerrissen und es zu einem der
merkwürdigsten und bedeutungsvollsten Gebiete der Erdoberfläche
machten.