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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN MODERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE
Series Editors
Ben Hutchinson
Centre for Modern European Literature
University of Kent
Canterbury, UK
Shane Weller
School of European Culture and Languages
University of Kent
Canterbury, UK
Many of the most significant European writers and literary movements of
the modern period have traversed national, linguistic and disciplinary bor-
ders. The principal aim of the Palgrave Studies in Modern European
Literature book series is to create a forum for work that problematizes
these borders, and that seeks to question, through comparative method-
ologies, the very nature of the modern, the European, and the literary.
Specific areas of research that the series supports include European roman-
ticism, realism, the avant-garde, modernism and postmodernism, literary
theory, the international reception of European writers, the relations
between modern European literature and the other arts, and the impact of
other discourses (philosophical, political, psychoanalytic, and scientific)
upon that literature. In addition to studies of works written in the major
modern European languages (English, French, German, Italian, and
Spanish), the series also includes volumes on the literature of Central and
Eastern Europe, and on the relation between European and other
literatures.
Editorial Board:
Rachel Bowlby (University College London)
Karen Leeder (University of Oxford)
William Marx (Collège de France)
Marjorie Perloff (Stanford University)
Jean-Michel Rabaté (University of Pennsylvania)
Dirk Van Hulle (University of Oxford)
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Ambra, who has had to learn how to embrace the chaos
Series Editors’ Preface
vii
viii SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE
Taking first the question of when the modern may be said to com-
mence within a European context, if one looks to a certain Germanic tra-
dition shaped by Friedrich Nietzsche in The Birth of Tragedy (1872), then
it might be said to commence with the first ‘theoretical man’, namely
Socrates. According to this view, the modern would include everything
that comes after the pre-Socratics and the first two great Attic tragedians,
Aeschylus and Sophocles, with Euripides being the first modern writer. A
rather more limited sense of the modern, also derived from the Germanic
world, sees the Neuzeit as originating in the late fifteenth and early six-
teenth centuries. Jakob Burckhardt, Nietzsche’s colleague at the University
of Basel, identified the states of Renaissance Italy as prototypes for both
modern European politics and modern European cultural production.
However, Italian literary modernity might also be seen as having com-
menced 200 years earlier, with the programmatic adoption of the vernacu-
lar by its foremost representatives, Dante and Petrarch.
In France, the modern might either be seen as beginning at the turn of
the seventeenth to the eighteenth century, with the so-called Querelle des
anciens et des modernes in the 1690s, or later still, with the French
Revolution of 1789, while the Romantic generation of the 1830s might
equally be identified as an origin, given that Chateaubriand is often cred-
ited with having coined the term modernité, in 1833. Across the Channel,
meanwhile, the origins of literary modernity might seem different again.
With the Renaissance being seen as ‘Early Modern’, everything thereafter
might seem to fall within the category of the modern, although in fact the
term ‘modern’ within a literary context is generally reserved for the litera-
ture that comes after mid-nineteenth-century European realism. This lat-
ter sense of the modern is also present in the early work of Roland Barthes,
who in Writing Degree Zero (1953) asserts that modern literature com-
mences in the 1850s, when the literary becomes explicitly self-reflexive,
not only addressing its own status as literature but also concerning itself
with the nature of language and the possibilities of representation.
In adopting a view of the modern as it pertains to literature that is more
or less in line with Barthes’s periodisation, while also acknowledging that
this periodisation is liable to exceptions and limitations, the present series
does not wish to conflate the modern with, nor to limit it to, modernism
and postmodernism. Rather, the aim is to encourage work that highlights
differences in the conception of the modern—differences that emerge out
of distinct linguistic, national, and cultural spheres within Europe—and to
prompt further reflection on why it should be that the very concept of the
SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE ix
Unless specified otherwise, all the translations in this study are by the
author. It would have been impractical to translate into English every quo-
tation in French and Italian due to the comparative nature of the book, so
a decision has been made to provide a translation only for texts that cannot
be found, or are difficult to find, in English. These comprise, for instance,
all the poems of the Scapigliatura discussed in this book, as well as most of
those from the anthology I poeti futuristi. On the contrary, Baudelaire’s
Les Fleurs du Mal are widely available in English translation, including on
the internet. While translations of Baudelaire’s Fleurs are not included, the
commentaries analysing and discussing the poems should help those who
are not fluent in French. For the sake of clarity of analysis and close com-
parative reading, the English translations of longer extracts of poetry,
indented in the text, follow the original structure and division in lines.
xi
Contents
xiii
xiv Contents
Index279
Abbreviations
Charles Baudelaire
Arrigo Boito
Emilio Praga
xvii
xviii ABBREVIATIONS
Giovanni Camerana
CP Poesie, ed. Gilberto Finzi. Turin: Einaudi, 1968
Futurism
PF I poeti futuristi, ed. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Milan: Edizioni
futuriste di ‘Poesia’, 1912
TIF Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Teoria e invenzione futurista, ed.
Luciano De Maria. Milan: Mondadori, ‘I Meridiani’, 1983
CHAPTER 1
[The poet of Les Fleurs du Mal loved what is improperly called the style of
decadence, which is nothing more than art arrived at that point of extreme
maturity determined by the oblique suns of ageing civilisations: an inge-
nious, complicated, savant style, […] listening to translate the subtle confi-
1 INTRODUCING MODERNITY: FRENCH, ITALIAN, AND COMPARATIVE… 3
of the poems included in the first edition of the Fleurs were composed in
the 1840s (see Robb 1993, 18–19, 21), that is, in a period still dominated
by Romantic ideals and by poets of the Romantic school such as Hugo,
Sainte-Beuve, and Gautier, all of whom were Baudelaire’s acquaintances
(as well as early poetic models). In the 1840s, when he dedicates most of
his critical articles to Romantic writers and painters, Baudelaire maintains
an ambivalent relationship with the movement. He collaborates with the
journal Corsaire-Satan directed by Pétrus Borel, who was an exponent of
the ‘Frénétiques’ (or ‘Bousingots’), a Bohemian group of Romantic writ-
ers famous for artistic and aesthetic eccentricities. In some of his poems of
that time, such as ‘L’Irrémédiable’, ‘Le Vampire’, or ‘Les Litanies de
Satan’, Baudelaire strives to revitalise the bizarre and gothic imagery of
‘Frénétisme’ that was relatively popular in the previous decade: vampires,
corpses, Satan, tombs, and so forth. Not only in the 1840s, when the
Romantic inspiration was already fading away, but also in the 1850s
Baudelaire could appear as an outmoded writer to contemporary readers,
for the prevailing literary fashion of the time was not the usage of themes
of ‘Frénétisme’, but the imitation of well-known Romantic poets such as
Hugo, Alphonse de Lamartine, and Alfred de Musset.
Baudelaire outlines his thoughts on Romanticism in the chapter
‘Qu’est-ce que le romantisme?’ of the Salon de 1846:
Qu’on se rappelle les troubles de ces derniers temps, et l’on verra que, s’il est resté
peu de romantiques, c’est que peu d’entre eux ont trouvé le romantisme […].
Quelques-uns ne se sont appliqués qu’au choix des sujets; ils n’avaient pas le
tempérament de leurs sujets.—D’autres, croyant encore à une société catholique,
ont cherché à refléter le catholicisme dans leurs œuvres.—S’appeler romantique
et regarder systématiquement le passé, c’est se contredire. (OC II, 420)
[Let us remember the troubles of recent times, and we will see that, if there
are few Romantics left, it is because few of them have found Romanticism
[…]. Some focused only on the choice of subjects; they did not have the
temperament of their subjects.—Others, still believing in a Catholic society,
sought to reflect Catholicism in their works.—To call yourself Romantic and
to look systematically at the past, is a contradiction.]