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Nanotechnology-Enhanced Food Packaging
Nanotechnology-Enhanced Food Packaging

Edited by

Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai
Radhakrishnan Edayileveettil Krishnankutty
Aswathy Jayakumar
Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa
Suchart Siengchin
Editors All books published by WILEY-VCH are carefully
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689101 Kerala inadvertently be inaccurate.
India

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 v

Contents

Preface xv

1 Introduction to Nanotechnology-Enhanced Food Packaging

Industry 1
Kunal Singha, Baburaj Regubalan, Pintu Pandit, Subhankar Maity, and
Shakeel Ahmed
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Nanotechnology Applications in Food Processing 3
1.2.1 Nanotechnology Applications in Preserving Meat Density, Taste, and
Presentation 3
1.2.2 Nanotechnology Applications for Maintaining the Food Nutrient
Value 4
1.3 Nanotechnology Functions for Preserving or Shelf Life 4
1.4 Nanotechnology in Food Packaging 4
1.4.1 Usages of Nanosensors in Pathogen and Adulterant Detection in the
Food Industry 6
1.4.2 Nanotechnology Applications in Food Safety Issues 7
1.4.3 Bio-Based Nano-packaging in Food Industry 8
1.5 Nanocoating Applications in Food Industry 8
1.6 Nanocoats Used in Food Manufacturing 9
1.7 Importance of Nanolamine in Food Business 10
1.8 Antimicrobial Films Used in Food Industry 10
1.9 Nano-scavenging Oxygen Film Used in Food or Eating Substances 11
1.10 UV-Proof Processing of Foods Using Nanometal Oxides 11
1.11 Nano-intelligent Food Labeling 12
1.12 Nanotechnology-Aided Freshness and Spoilage Indicators 12
1.13 Nanotechnology-Aided Oxygen Indicators in Food Industry 13
1.14 Application of Nanotechnology in Product Identification and
Anti-counterfeiting 13
1.15 Usages of Nanotechnology in Traceability and Active Tags in Food and
Drug Industry 13
1.16 Conclusions 14
References 14
vi Contents

2 An Overview of Biopolymers in Food Packaging Systems 19

Jéssica de Matos Fonseca, Betina L. Koop, Thalles C. Trevisol, Cristiane
Capello, Alcilene R. Monteiro, and Germán A. Valencia
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Main Polymers Isolated from Biomass 20
2.2.1 Casein and Whey 20
2.2.2 Cellulose and Derivatives 22
2.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan 23
2.2.4 Collagen and Gelatin 23
2.2.5 Soybean and Derivatives 29
2.2.5.1 Soy Protein 29
2.2.5.2 Soybean Soluble Polysaccharide 32
2.2.5.3 Soybean Fiber and Derivatives 32
2.2.6 Starch and Derivatives 35
2.3 Main Polymers Obtained by Microbial Production 35
2.4 Main Biodegradable Polymers Chemically Synthesized 40
2.5 Conclusions 41
Conflicts of Interest 42
Acknowledgments 42
References 42

3 Nanostructures Based on Starch, Their Preparation,

Processing, and Application in Packaging 55
Cristian C. Villa
3.1 Introduction 55
3.1.1 Starch Nanoparticles and Nanocrystals 55
3.1.2 Starch Nanomaterials in Food Packaging 57
3.1.3 Starch Nanomaterials as Carriers of Bioactive Molecules 58
3.1.4 Perspectives and Outlook 59
References 60

4 Cellulose Nanostructures and Its Application as Effective Food

Packaging Systems 67
Girilal M and Jyothi K. Nair
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Source of Cellulose 68
4.3 Cellulose Structure 68
4.4 Properties of Cellulose 70
4.5 Nanocellulose 70
4.5.1 Types of Nanocellulose 71
4.5.1.1 Cellulose Nanofibrils 71
4.5.1.2 Cellulose Nanofibers 72
4.5.1.3 Cellulose Nanowhiskers 72
4.5.1.4 Cellulose Nanoballs 72
4.5.1.5 Cellulose Nanocrystals 72
 Contents vii

4.5.2 Properties of Nanocellulose 72

4.5.2.1 Mechanical Properties 73
4.5.2.2 Barrier Properties 73
4.5.2.3 Water Vapor Properties 73
4.5.2.4 Other Properties 73
4.5.3 Synthesis of Nanocellulose 74
4.5.3.1 Electrospinning 74
4.5.3.2 Extrusion 76
4.5.3.3 Casting 76
4.5.3.4 Paper Making Process Using Filtration 76
4.5.3.5 Coating Process 77
4.6 Nanocellulose as Packaging Material 77
4.7 Comparison of Nanocellulose and Cellulose 81
4.8 Disadvantages of Using Nanocellulose in Food Packaging 82
4.9 Conclusions 84
References 84

5 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles and Their Applications in Food

Industry 87
Basant E. Elsaied and Ahmed A. Tayel
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Chitosan 88
5.2.1 Chitosan Precursor: Chitin Origins 88
5.2.1.1 Terrestrial Sources 88
5.2.1.2 Aquatic Sources 89
5.2.1.3 Microbiological Sources 89
5.2.2 Chemical Composition and Properties 90
5.2.2.1 Structural Properties 90
5.2.2.2 Physicochemical Properties 91
5.2.2.3 Diverse Properties 92
5.2.3 Preparation Methods and Manufacturing 92
5.2.4 Chitosan Modifications 93
5.2.5 Overview of Chitosan Applications 94
5.2.5.1 Food and Beverage Industry 94
5.2.5.2 Aquaculture 94
5.2.5.3 Pharmacy and Cosmetics 97
5.2.5.4 Dentistry 97
5.3 Nanoforms of Chitosan 97
5.3.1 Chitosan Nanocomposites 97
5.3.2 Chitosan Nanocarriers 97
5.3.3 Preparation Methods 98
5.3.3.1 Ionic Gelation Method 98
5.3.3.2 Reverse Micellar Method 98
5.3.3.3 Emulsion-Based Solvent Evaporation Method 98
5.3.3.4 Coprecipitation Method 98
viii Contents

5.3.4 Characterization Techniques 98

5.3.4.1 UV–Visible Spectroscopy (Spectroscopic Analysis) 98
5.3.4.2 Electron Microscopy (EM) 99
5.3.4.3 Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) 99
5.3.4.4 Zeta Potential (ZP) 100
5.3.5 Overview of Applications 100
5.3.5.1 Tissue Engineering 100
5.3.5.2 Water Treatment 100
5.3.5.3 Agriculture 100
5.3.5.4 Drug Delivery 100
5.4 Chitosan-Based Nanoforms Applications in Food Industry 101
5.4.1 Opportunities in Food Processing 101
5.4.1.1 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles: Enhancing Food Taste and
Appearance 102
5.4.1.2 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles: Maintaining Nutritional Value 103
5.4.2 Opportunities in Food Packaging 108
5.4.2.1 Chitosan Nanoforms Functionality as Food Packaging Materials 108
5.4.2.2 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles Toxicity and Fate in Human Body 114
5.5 Updated Regulations in Application of Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles in
Food 116
References 117

6 Nutrients-Based Nanocarriers and Its Application in Packaging

Systems 129
Leidy T. Sanchez, N. David Rodriguez-Marin, Magda I. Pinzon, and
Cristian C. Villa
6.1 Lipid-Based Nanocarrier 129
6.1.1 Nanoemulsions 130
6.1.2 Nanoliposomes 130
6.1.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNps) 132
6.1.4 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) 132
6.2 Carbohydrate-Based Nanocarriers 132
6.2.1 Starch Nanoparticles (SNPs) and Nanocrystals (SNCs) 133
6.2.2 Chitosan Nanoparticles 133
6.2.3 Alginate Nanoparticles 133
6.3 Protein-Based Nanocarriers 134
6.4 Applications of Nanocarriers in Active and Bioactive Food
Packaging 134
6.5 Outlooks and Perspectives 135
References 136

7 Active Packaging Systems Based on Metal and Metal Oxide

Nanoparticles 143
Lina F. Ballesteros, Hafsae Lamsaf, Sebastian Calderon V, Miguel A.
Cerqueira, Lorenzo Pastrana, and José A. Teixeira
List of Abbreviations 143
 Contents ix

7.1 Introduction 144

7.2 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Used in Active Food
Packaging 145
7.3 Methods of Production of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 147
7.3.1 Physical Synthesis 147
7.3.2 Chemical Synthesis 148
7.3.3 Biological Synthesis 149
7.4 Incorporation of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles into Food
Packaging Materials 149
7.4.1 Extrusion 150
7.4.2 Casting 150
7.4.3 Physical Vapor Deposition 151
7.4.4 Electrospinning 151
7.5 Effect of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles on Active Packaging
Properties 152
7.5.1 Structure 152
7.5.2 Morphology 153
7.5.3 Mechanical Properties 155
7.5.4 Barrier Properties 156
7.5.5 Antimicrobial Activity 157
7.5.5.1 Silver Nanoparticles 157
7.5.5.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 159
7.5.5.3 Copper and Copper Oxide Nanoparticles 160
7.5.5.4 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles 160
7.5.5.5 Gold Nanoparticles 161
7.5.5.6 Other Nanoparticle Systems 161
7.5.6 Scavenger Properties 161
7.5.7 Photocatalytic Properties 162
7.5.8 Optical Properties 163
7.6 Migration of Nanoparticles 163
7.6.1 Food Safety and Regulations 164
7.6.2 Regulation 165
7.7 Environmental Impact of Active Food Packaging Materials 166
7.7.1 Biodegradability 166
7.7.2 Recyclability 167
7.7.3 Life Cycle Assessment 167
7.8 Conclusions and Future Trends 168
Acknowledgments 168
References 169

8 Fabrication of Intelligent Packaging Systems Using

Nano-Indicators and Sensors 183
Xiuting Hu and Ming Miao
8.1 Introduction of Intelligent Packaging 183
8.2 Nanoparticle-Based Temperature Indicators 185
8.2.1 Silver Nanoparticle-Based TTI 185
x Contents

8.2.2 Gold Nanoparticle-Based TTIs 187

8.2.3 Polydiacetylene/Silica Nanocomposite-Based TTI 188
8.2.4 Nanofiber-Based TTIs 189
8.3 Nanomaterial-Based Humidity Sensors 190
8.3.1 ZnO Nanoparticle-Based Humidity Sensors 190
8.3.2 Other Metallic Nanoparticle-Based Humidity Sensors 191
8.3.3 Polymeric Nanocomposite-Based Humidity Sensors 192
8.4 Nanomaterial-Based pH Indicators and Sensors 193
8.5 Nanoparticle-Based O2 Indicators 195
8.6 Nanomaterial-Based CO2 Sensors 197
8.7 Nanomaterial-Based Freshness Sensors 198
8.7.1 Freshness Sensors Based on Detection of Biogenic Amines 199
8.7.2 Freshness Sensors Based on Detection of Biogenic Sulfides 201
8.7.3 Freshness Sensors Based on Detection of ATP Degradation
Products 202
8.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 205
References 206

9 Nanostructure-Based Edible Coatings as a Function of Food

Preservation 213
Anna Rafaela C. Braga, Josemar G. Oliveira Filho, Ailton C. Lemes, and
Mariana B. Egea
9.1 Nanotechnology in Food Packaging: Principles and Applications 213
9.2 Edible Coatings 215
9.2.1 Chemical Characteristics of Edible Coatings 215
9.2.2 Methods to Apply Edible Coatings 216
9.2.3 Materials Used in the Edible Coatings 217
9.2.4 Incorporation of Nanomaterials in Edible Coatings 218
9.3 Safety of Nanocomposite for Application of Edible Coatings 223
9.4 Nanotechnology Regulation 225
9.5 Final Considerations and Outlook 227
References 227

10 An Overview of Higher Barrier Packaging Using

Nanoadditives 235
Johnsy George, Basheer Aaliya, Kappat V. Sunooj, and Ranganathan Kumar
10.1 Introduction 235
10.2 Gas and Moisture Permeability Through Polymer Packaging
Materials 236
10.2.1 Permeability of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 237
10.2.2 Permeability of Moisture 238
10.3 Nanoadditives for Improving Barrier Properties 238
10.4 Methods to Prepare High Barrier Packaging Materials 239
10.4.1 Polymer Nanocomposites 239
10.4.2 Coating 240
 Contents xi

10.4.3 Layer-by-Layer Assembly 240

10.5 Barrier Improvement by Reinforcement of Polymer Nanocomposites
with Inorganic Nanoadditives 242
10.5.1 Metal and Metal Oxides Nanomaterials 243
10.5.1.1 Zinc 243
10.5.1.2 Magnesium 244
10.5.1.3 Silica 244
10.5.1.4 Titanium 245
10.5.1.5 Copper 246
10.5.1.6 Aluminum Oxide 246
10.5.2 Nanoclays 246
10.5.3 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 248
10.6 Barrier Improvement of Biopolymers by Reinforcement with Organic
Nanoadditives 249
10.6.1 Cellulose 250
10.6.2 Starch 252
10.6.3 Chitosan 253
10.6.4 Zein 253
10.6.5 Gelatin 254
10.6.6 Whey Protein Isolates 254
10.6.7 Soy Protein Isolates 255
10.7 Conclusion 255
References 256

11 Nanostructure-Based Multilayer Food Packaging Films 265

Shiji Mathew
11.1 Introduction 265
11.2 Requirements of Food Packaging Systems 266
11.3 Multilayer Packaging Films 267
11.4 Structure and Functions of Multilayer Film Packaging 268
11.5 Nanotechnology-Based Multilayer Films 269
11.6 Preparation of Nano-Based Multilayer Films 269
11.6.1 Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Nanoassembly 270
11.6.2 Electrohydrodynamic Processing (EHDP) 271
11.6.3 Multilayer Coextrusion Technique 275
11.7 Practical Applications of Multilayer Films/Coatings for Packaging of
Food 276
11.8 Conclusion and Future Outlook 276
References 278

12 Characterization Techniques for Nanostructures in Food

Packaging 285
Ashitha Jose, R. Aswani, and Radhakrishnan E. Krishnankutty
12.1 Introduction 285
12.2 Nanoparticles 286
xii Contents

12.3 Role of Nanoparticles in Packaging Applications 287

12.4 Nanocomposite in Food Packaging 288
12.5 Methods for the Development of Nanocomposites 288
12.6 Various Nanoparticles Employed in Packaging 289
12.6.1 Nanoclay 290
12.6.2 Titanium Dioxide 290
12.6.3 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 291
12.6.4 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials 291
12.6.5 Silver Nanoparticles 292
12.7 Issues Associated with the Nanoparticle Incorporation 292
12.8 Characterization of Nanoparticles in the Packaging Materials 293
12.8.1 FTIR 294
12.8.2 Electron Microscopic Techniques 296
12.8.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 296
12.8.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 297
12.8.3 Thermal Analysis of the Packaging Material Containing
Nanoparticles 299
12.8.4 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 300
12.8.5 XRD 300
12.8.6 ICPMS 301
12.8.7 Raman Spectroscopy 302
12.9 Conclusions 302
References 302

13 Biodegradability Assessment of Biopolymer-Based Films 307

Andrelina Maria Pinheiro Santos, Betty Del Carmen Jarma Arroyo, Luana de
Souza Cavalcante Carnaval, and Enayde de Almeida Melo
13.1 Introduction 307
13.2 Commercial and Renewable Biodegradable Polymers and
Plasticizers 308
13.2.1 Thermoplastic Starch (TPS) 309
13.2.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 310
13.2.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 310
13.2.4 Plasticizers 311
13.3 Biodegradation Mechanism 312
13.4 Biodegradation of Biopolymers with Additives 314
13.5 Considerations 316
References 317

14 Nanobiotechnology in Food Preservation and Molecular

Perspective 327
S. Agriopoulou, E. Stamatelopoulou, V. Skiada, and T. Varzakas
14.1 Introduction 327
14.2 Nanobiotechnology Aspects in Food Preservation and Food
Packaging 328
 Contents xiii

14.3 Classification of Nanomaterials and Molecular Basis of

Application 329
14.3.1 Nanoparticles 330
14.3.1.1 Silver-Based Nanoparticles 330
14.3.1.2 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2 ) Nanoparticles 331
14.3.1.3 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanoparticles 331
14.3.2 Nanocomposites 331
14.3.2.1 Cellulose-Based Nanocomposites 331
14.3.2.2 Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites 332
14.3.2.3 Protein-Derived Bionanocomposites 332
14.3.2.4 Polylactic Acid Nanobiocomposites 333
14.3.3 Nanoclays 334
14.3.4 Nanoemulsions 334
14.3.5 Nanosensors 334
14.3.6 Nanostructures 337
14.4 Nanomaterials and Active and Intelligent Food Packaging
Applications 338
14.4.1 Active Packaging 338
14.4.2 Intelligent (“Smart”) Packaging 339
14.5 Nanomaterials and Postharvest Quality Parameters 341
14.5.1 Edible Coatings and Films in Food Packaging 341
14.5.2 Nanomaterials and the Potential against Postharvest Disease and
Ethylene Production 342
14.6 Regulations and Safety Aspects 345
14.7 Conclusions and Outlook 347
References 347

15 Environmental and Toxicological Aspects of Nanostructures in

Food Packaging 361
Sabarish Radoor, Jasila Karayil, Jyothi M. Shivanna, Aswathy Jayakumar,
Sandhya A. Varghese, Radhakrishnan E. Krishnankutty, Jyotishkumar
Parameswaranpillai, and Suchart Siengchin
15.1 Introduction 361
15.2 Nanoparticles in Food Packaging 362
15.2.1 Nanoclay 362
15.2.2 Nanosilver 362
15.2.3 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) NP 363
15.2.4 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2 ) 363
15.2.5 Silicon Dioxide (SiO2 ) 363
15.3 Toxicity Measurement of Nanoparticles Used in Food Industry 364
15.4 Nanotoxicity 365
15.4.1 Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) 365
15.4.2 Titanium Nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) 366
15.4.3 Silica Nanoparticle 367
15.4.4 Clay Nanoparticle 368
xiv Contents

15.5 Migration Issues of Nanoparticles 369

15.6 Environmental Impacts of Nanoparticles 370
15.7 Conclusion 371
Acknowledgments 371
References 371

Index 379
 xv

Preface

The introduction of nanotechnology in food packaging has led to enormous growth

in the food packaging industry. Studies have shown that nanotechnology in food
packaging can improve the quality and shelf life of food products. The incorporation
of organic and inorganic nanomaterials in traditional packaging material has gained
much interest due to the enhanced thermomechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial
properties. The active packaging and intelligent/smart packaging system offers
enhanced features that can extend the quality and shelf life of food products. The
active system encompasses the incorporation of antimicrobial agents, preservatives,
and gas absorbers, whereas the intelligent/smart system uses chemical sensors,
time–temperature indicators, gas sensors, and freshness indicators. The concerns
regarding the toxicity, risk, and migration aspects of nanoparticles are also rising;
however, these assessments are not still conclusive.
Recently, there is a tremendous increase in the number of research articles and
patents in the field of nanocomposites. However, only a few books have been
published in the area of nanotechnology-enhanced food packaging. Due to this,
we believe it is befitting to judiciously edit a book on Nanotechnology-Enhanced
Food Packaging. This book is a collection of chapters with the recent developments
in nanotechnological innovations in food packaging. The chapters provide a
comprehensive review on types of nanoparticles, their processing, characteriza-
tion, development of nanoparticle-based packaging systems, and applications. In
addition to this, the book discusses the use of nanoparticles in the development of
active, smart, and intelligent packaging. We are confident that the present book will
benefit researchers working in both academia and industry.
The book includes 15 chapters that cover the recent advantages of Nanotechnology-
Enhanced Food Packaging. Chapter 1, “Introduction to Nanotechnology-Enhanced
Food Packaging Industry,” discusses an overview of nanotechnology in food
packaging. Chapter 2, “An Overview of Biopolymers in Food Packaging Sys-
tems,” is designed to give a deep insight into the various biopolymers used in
food packaging. Chapter 3, “Nanostructures Based on Starch, Their Preparation,
Processing, and Application in Packaging,” deals with starch-based nanostructures,
synthesis, and their potential application in food packaging. Chapter 4, “Cellulose
Nanostructures and Its Application as Effective Food Packaging Systems,” gives an
overview of cellulose, its source, structure, properties, synthesis, and application
xvi Preface

as food packaging materials. Chapter 5, “Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles and Their

Applications in Food Industry,” summarizes an update about chitosan-based
nanoparticles and their application in the food industry and packaging. Chapter 6,
“Nutrients-Based Nanocarriers and Its Application in Packaging Systems,” sum-
marizes the recent developments in nanocarriers and their application in active
food packaging. Chapter 7, “Active Packaging Systems Based on Metal and Metal
Oxide Nanoparticles,” emphasizes the recent progress in the application of metal
and metal oxide nanoparticles in packaging application. Chapter 8, “Fabrication
of Intelligent Packaging Systems Using Nano-Indicators and Sensors,” discusses
various nanomaterials-based sensors and their application in intelligent pack-
aging. Chapter 9, “Nanostructure-Based Edible Coatings as a Function of Food
Preservation,” discusses the recent developments in nanotechnology-enabled
edible coatings. Chapter 10, “An Overview of Higher Barrier Packaging Using
Nanoadditives,” highlights the recent developments in higher barrier packaging
films with a special focus on gas and moisture barrier properties. Chapter 11,
“Nanostructure-Based Multilayer Food Packaging Films,” gives an overview of
the various multilayer packaging and their applications in food protection and
preservation. Chapter 12, “Characterization Techniques for Nanostructures in
Food Packaging,” discusses the various methods used for the development of
nanocomposites and techniques used for the characterization of nanostructures in
food packaging. Chapter 13, “Biodegradability Assessment of Biopolymer-Based
Films,” gives an overview of the biodegradation of biopolymers. Chapter 14,
“Nanobiotechnology in Food Preservation and Molecular Perspective,” gives an
overview of the use of nanomaterials on food preservation, postharvest storage, and
regulation and the safety aspects. Chapter 15, “Environmental and Toxicological
Aspects of Nanostructures in Food Packaging,” discusses the various nanoparticles
in food packaging, toxicity measurements, migration issues, and environmental
impact of nanoparticles.
Thanks to the authors for their contribution.

13 April 2021 Dr. Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai (Thailand)

Dr. Radhakrishnan Edayileveettil Krishnankutty (India)
Dr. Aswathy Jayakumar (India)
Dr. Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa (Thailand)
Prof. Dr. -Ing. habil. Suchart Siengchin (Thailand)
 1

Introduction to Nanotechnology-Enhanced Food Packaging

Industry
Kunal Singha 1 , Baburaj Regubalan 2 , Pintu Pandit 1 , Subhankar Maity 3 , and
Shakeel Ahmed 4
1
National Institute of Fashion Technology, Department of Textile Design, Mithapur Farms, Patna 800001,
India
2 Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Department of Food Processing Technology,

Krishnankoil, Tamilnadu 626128, India

3
Uttar Pradesh Textile Technology Institute, Department of Textile Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
208001, India
4 Government Degree College Mendhar, Department of Chemistry, Mendhar, Jammu and Kashmir 185211,

India

1.1 Introduction
Today creating biodegradable and natural materials based on biodegradable food
packaging materials is a major global challenge for the environment. However, the
use of bio-based packaging products such as food grade or biodegradable films from
recycled sources could address the problem of waste in at least some way. The correct
choice of products and packaging technology thus enables consistency and fresh-
ness of products to be maintained over the time required to be promoted and used.
Even though, the availability of bio-based food packaging is limited in the market
due to its low gas barrier and mechanical properties. As a result, these natural poly-
mers were frequently mixed or chemically modified with other synthetic polymers
to expand their packaging applications. Bio-based packaging has many essential
features, including traditional packaging, such as the preservation and securing of
products, ensuring nutritional integrity and health, and providing awareness to the
consumers. Another nanotechnology that may help to minimize waste from the pro-
cessing of packaged food is the use of nanocomposites in the processing. The use of
nanocomposites that seek to facilitate the use of biologically degradable films pro-
tects fresh food and enhances the durability of it.
Nanotechnology involves the manufacturing, manipulating, and characterizing
of nanosized objects, particles, and materials with a dimension of approximately
1–100 nm. Although the size of the material is reduced to the nanoscale range, its
physical and chemical properties are magnified greatly from those of the macroscale
structures made of the same material. Consequently, the nanoscale (1–100 nm) sys-
tems may have some implications, but successful implementations of the same for

Nanotechnology-Enhanced Food Packaging, First Edition. Edited by Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai,

Radhakrishnan Edayileveettil Krishnankutty, Aswathy Jayakumar, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, and
Suchart Siengchin.
© 2022 WILEY-VCH GmbH. Published 2022 by WILEY-VCH GmbH.
2 1 Introduction to Nanotechnology-Enhanced Food Packaging Industry

serving mankind are invaluable. Nanotechnology provides a range of significant

improvements to enhance health, stability, and quality of life and to create assertive
impacts on the environment [1, 2].
The packaging systems are protective shields that secure, manage, transports,
store, retains, and marks any entity in the supply chain from raw materials to end
users. These functions are required to accurately define any type of packaging,
and how a variety of requirements, such as mechanical, thermal, and barrier
characteristics, are preserved depending on the type of products to be packaged.
Nanomaterials are gradually being used in the food packaging industry; therefore a
variety of advanced nanomaterial technology is being researched and developed for
packaging materials. There have been studies of approximately 500 nano-packaging
materials for industrial use, while nanotechnology is expected to manufacture 25%
of all food packings. Nano-packaging can also conceive antimicrobials, minerals,
enzymes, flavors, and nutraceuticals to enhance shelf life and performance. In this
line, antimicrobial films are used as packaging material to improve the shelf life of
perishable foods like fruits and dairy products [3–6].
Nanotechnology’s potential role in the food technology sector is probably the most
exciting in the immediate future, and it is emerging as one of the fastest developing
areas of nano-research of agriculture and food. New developments in food process-
ing, labeling, nutraceutical delivery, quality assurance, and healthy food have also
been seen. Many organizations, scientists, inventors, and industries are developing
new technologies, protocols, and products, which directly apply nanotechnology
to farming and food products. Companies are now designing packaging materials
that prolong food and beverage life and boost consumer safety through the use of
nanotechnology in daily-based consumer packaging [6]. Food processing and con-
trol are the main subjects of food industry-related nanotechnology research and
development. Effective and intelligent packaging is the leading advancement of food
packaging that aims to enhance product quality and consistency as well as to maxi-
mize product longevity. Most businesses and industrial design nano-packaging like
time–temperature indicators (TTIs) can react to undesirable or damaging changes
under the worse effects of climatic pollution. They can self-repair themselves, thus
making this nano-packaging as “active and smart packaging.”
Nanotechnology enhances the delivery of nutraceuticals, vitamins, or fragile
micronutrients to everyday foods by creating small, edible capsules based on
released nanoparticles to targeted locations in the body. Relevant health con-
sequences are reduced frequency of cardiac disease, stroke, neurodegenerative
diseases, and cancer [7, 8]. Nanoparticles are also used to introduce multiple
functionalities such as color and odors as well as to be used as storage tanks for drug
releases or fungicides. Despite considerable development in this area, nanotechnol-
ogy remains a rare topic for food packaging, nanotechnology, and food science and
technology. This chapter explores this knowledge gap by closely analyzing current
developments in nano-package technology for food and drug systems and particular
applications that gain immediate customer adoption and regulatory attention. This
article examines this knowledge gap on the topics covered, which include bio-based
packaging for environmentally safe biodegradable packaging; improved packages to
 1.2 Nanotechnology Applications in Food Processing 3

enhance barrier properties, mechanical durability, and flexibility; active packaging

of antimicrobials, flavor absorbers, and oxygen scavenging; and intelligent package
features like freshness indicator, ripeness indicator, radio-frequency identification
(RFID) , and TTI. This chapter concludes with a concise overview of future
nano-packaging technologies possibilities.

1.2 Nanotechnology Applications in Food Processing

Nanostructured food ingredients are developed to facilitate sensory attributes like
appearance, taste, texture, and flavor. Nanotechnology increases the durability of dif-
ferent foods and reduces food waste caused by microbial infestation. Nanocarriers
are presently used as a supply system without interfering with their basic morphol-
ogy to transport food additives into food products. The particle size can directly
affect the delivery of bioactive compounds to different sites since some cell lines
have noticed that it is efficient to absorb only submicron nanoparticles but not larger
microparticles [9–13].
Nanotechnology provides effective distribution systems with all the functional-
ity mentioned earlier for encapsulation formulation, emulsions, biopolymer matri-
ces, clear solutions, and colloids. Nano-polymers are intended to replace traditional
products for food packaging. Nanosensors may show the existence of pathogenic
microbes, toxins, and adulterants in food [14]. Nanoparticles have greater character-
istics of encapsulation and release performance than traditional embossing meth-
ods. By nanoencapsulation of the masks scent or taste, the interactions between
active ingredients and the food network that govern the release of active agents
can be monitored. This method guarantees the supply of desired food ingredients
at the desired level of production, storage, and usage. This nano-packing method
is consistent with other ingredients in the device against moisture, fire, chemicals,
and biological degradation. Moreover, these nanotechnologies-based food nutrition
delivery systems can reach deep into the tissues and effectively distribute active
agents to the target sites in the body because of their smaller scale [15–18].

1.2.1 Nanotechnology Applications in Preserving Meat Density, Taste,

and Presentation
Nanotechnology offers several options to improve meat quality and taste.
Nano-encapsulation techniques have been widely applied to enhance flavor
release and retention and maintain the balance of food. These bioactive molecules
nanocarriers are popular for their safety and supply-based feature worldwide.
Rutin is a popular dietary flavonoid, but its use is limited in the food industry
[19]. Its low solubility and ferritin nanoencapsulation have improved the solubility
and the thermal and UV stability of the ferritin-trapped routines compared with
the free routine. Thus, nanoemulsions are widely used in producing lipid-soluble
biological compounds that can be generated with easy processing methods uti-
lizing natural foods and can also be engineered to increase water dispersion and
Another random document with
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related to the ox, horse, and stag, and of which the genus is entirely
new. It only lived two months at the Cape; I have likewise given M.
de Buffon an exact drawing of this animal, whose strength and
fleetness equal its beauty. It is not without reason that Africa has
been named the mother of monsters.
Departure from Being provided with good provisions, wines, and
the Cape. refreshments of all sorts, we set sail from the road of
the Cape the 17th in the afternoon. We passed between the isle of
Roben and the coast; at six o’clock in the evening, the middle of that
isle bore S. by E. ½ E. about four leagues distant, from whence I
took my departure in 33° 40′ south latitude, and 15° 48′ east
longitude from Paris. I wanted to join M. Carteret, over whom I had
certainly a great advantage in sailing; but he was still eleven days
before me.
I directed my course so as to get sight of St. Helena, in order to
make sure of putting in at Ascension island, an anchorage which I
intended to make beneficial to my crew. Indeed we Sight of St.
got sight of it the 29th, at two o’clock after noon, and Helena.
the bearings which we set of it gave us no more than eight or ten
leagues difference in our reckoning. In the night 1769.
between the 3d to the 4th of February, being in the February.
latitude of Ascension island, and being about eighteen leagues from
it by my reckoning, I went only under the two top-sails. At day-break
we saw the isle nearly nine leagues distant, and at eleven o’clock we
anchored in the north west creek, or Creek of the Mountain of the
Cross, in twelve fathoms, bottom of sand and coral. According to the
Abbé la Caille’s observations, this anchorage is in 7° 54′ south
latitude, and 16° 19′ west longitude from Paris.
We had hardly cast anchor, when I hoisted out the Stopping at
boats, and sent out three detachments to catch Ascension.
turtle; the first in the N. E. creek, the second in the N. W. creek,
opposite which we were; and the third in the English creek, which is
in the S. W. of the island. Every thing promised a favourable capture;
there was no other ship than ours, the season was advantageous,
and we entered with the new moon. As soon as the detachments,
were set off, I made every thing ready for fishing my two greater
masts under the rigging, viz. the main mast with a fore-top-mast, the
heel upwards; and the fore-mast which was split horizontally
between the cheeks, with an oak fish.
In the afternoon the bottle was brought to me which contains the
paper whereon the ships of every nation generally write their name,
when they touch at Ascension island. This bottle is deposited in a
cavity of the rocks of this bay, where it is equally sheltered from rain
and the spray of the sea. In it I found written the Swallow, that
English ship which captain Carteret commanded, and which I was
desirous of joining. He arrived here the 31st of January, and set sail
again on the first of February; thus we had already gained six days
upon him, after leaving the cape of Good Hope. I inscribed the
Boudeuse, and sent back the bottle.
The 5th was spent in fishing our masts under the rigging, which is
a very nice operation in a road where the sea is rough; in over-
hauling our rigging, and embarking the turtle. The fishery was
abundant; seventy turtle had been turned in the night, but we could
only take on board fifty-six, the others were set at liberty again. We
observed at our anchorage 9° 45′, variation N. W. Departure from
The 6th, at three o’clock in the morning, the turtle Ascension.
being got on board, and the boats hoisted in, we began to weigh our
anchors; at five o’clock we were under sail, happy on account of our
capture, and of the hope that our next anchorage would be in our
own country. Indeed, we had had a great many since our departure
from Brest.
In leaving Ascension isle, I kept my wind in order to range the
Cape Verd isles as close as possible. The 11th in Passing of the
the morning we passed the line for the sixth time on line.
this voyage, in 20° of estimated longitude. Some days after, when,
notwithstanding the fish with which we had strengthened our fore-
mast, it cut a very bad figure, we were obliged to support it by
preventer-shrouds, getting down the fore-top-gallant-mast, and
almost always keeping the fore-top-sail close reefed, and sometimes
handed.
Meeting with The 25th in the evening we perceived a ship to
the Swallow. windward, and a-head of us; we kept sight of her
during the night, and joined her the next morning; it was the Swallow.
I offered captain Carteret all the services that one may render to
another at sea. He wanted nothing, but upon his telling me that they
had given him letters for France at the Cape, I sent on board for
them. He presented me with an arrow which he had got in one of the
isles he had found on his voyage round the world, a voyage that he
was far from suspecting we had likewise made. His ship was very
small, went very ill, and when we took leave of him, he remained as
it were at anchor. How much he must have suffered in so bad a
vessel, may well be conceived. There were eight leagues difference
between his estimated longitude and ours; he reckoned himself so
much more to the westward.
Error in the We expected to pass to the eastward of the
reckoning of Açores, when the 4th of March in the morning we
our course. had sight of the Isle of Tercera, which we doubled in
day-time, ranging very close along it. The sight of 1769. March.
this isle, supposing it well placed on M. Bellin’s great chart, would
give us about sixty-seven leagues of error to the westward, in the
reckoning of our run; which indeed is a considerable error on so
short a track as that from Ascension to the Açores. It is true that the
position of these isles in longitude, is still uncertain. But I believe,
that in the neighbourhood of the Cape Verd islands, there are very
strong currents. However, it was essential to us to determine the
longitude of the Açores by good astronomical observations, and to
settle their distances and bearings among themselves. Nothing of all
this is accurate on the charts of any nation. They only differ by a
greater or lesser degree of error. This important task has just been
executed by M. de Fleurieu, ensign of the king’s ships.
I corrected my longitude in leaving the Isle of Tercera, by that
which M. de Bellin’s great chart assigns to it. We Sight of
had soundings the 13th in the afternoon, and the Ushant.
14th in the morning we had sight of Ushant. As the wind was scant,
and the tide contrary to double this island, we were forced to stand
off, the wind blowing very fresh at west, and a very great sea. About
ten o’clock in the morning, in a violent squall, the Squall which
fore-yard broke between the two jear-blocks, and damaged our
the main-sail at the same instant was blown out of rigging.
the bolt-rope from clue to ear-ring. We immediately brought to under
our main, fore, and mizen-stay-sails, and we set about repairing the
damage; we bent a new main-sail, made a fore-yard with a mizen-
yard, a main-top sail-yard, and a studding-sail-boom, and at four
o’clock we were again enabled to make sail. We had lost sight of
Ushant, and whilst we lay-to, the wind and sea drove us into the
channel.
Arrival at St. Being determined to put into Brest, I resolved to
Maloes. ply with variable winds, from S. W. to N. W. when
the 15th in the morning our people came to inform me, that our fore-
mast was near being carried away under the rigging. The shock it
had received when its yard broke, had made it worse; and though we
had eased its head by lowering the yard, taking in the reefs in the
fore-sail, and keeping, the fore-top-sail upon the cap close reefed,
yet we found, after an attentive examination, that this mast could not
long resist the pitching caused by the great sea, we being close-
hauled; besides this, all our rigging and blocks were rotten, and we
had none to replace them; then how was it possible in such a
condition to combat the bad weather of the equinoxes between two
coasts? I therefore resolved to bear away, and conduct the frigate to
St. Maloes. That was then the nearest port, which could serve us as
an asylum. I entered it on the 16th in the afternoon, having lost only
seven men, during two years and four months, which were expired
since we had left Nantes.

Puppibus & læti Nautæ imposuere Coronas. Virg. Æneid. Lib.

iv.
 VOCABULARY
OF THE LANGUAGE OF
TAI TI ISLAND.

A.

Abobo[136] Tomorrow.
Aibou Come.
Ainé Girl, (fille).
Aiouta There is some.
Aipa The term of negation, there is
none.
Aneania Importune, tedious.
Aouaou Fy; term of contempt, and of
displeasure.
Aouereré Black.
Aouero Egg.
Aouri Iron, gold, silver, every metal, or
instrument of metal.
Aoutti Flying fish.
Aouira Lightning.
Apalari To break or destroy.,
Ari Cocoa-nut.
Arioi Bachelor, and a man without
children.
Ateatea White.
I know of no word that begins with these
consonants of ours, B, C, D.

E.

Ea Root.
Eaï Fire.
Eaia Parroquet.
Eaiabou Vase.
Eaiabou-maa Vase which is used to put their
victuals in.
Eame Drink made of cocoa nuts.
Eani All manner of fighting.
Eao Clouds, also a flower in bud,
before it opens.
Eatoua Divinity. The same word likewise
expresses his ministers, and
also the subordinate good or
evil genii.
Eeva Mourning.
Eie Sail of a periagua.
Eiva-eoura Dance or festival of the Taitians.
Eivi Little.
Eite To understand.
Elao A fly.
Emaa A sling.
Emao A shark; it likewise signifies to
bite.
Emeitai To give.
Emoé To sleep.
Enapo Yesterday.
Enene To discharge.
Enia In, upon.
Enninnito To stretch one’s self yawning.
Enoanoa To smell well.
Enomoi Term to call, come hither.
Enoo-te-papa Sit down.
Enoua The earth and its different parts
(a country).
Enoua-Taiti The country of Taiti.
Enoua-Paris The country of Paris.
Eo To sweat.
Eoe-tea An arrow.
Eoe-pai A paddle or oar.
Emoure-papa The tree from which they get the
cotton, or substance for their
stuffs, the cloth-tree.
Eone Sand, dust.
Eonou Turtle.
Eote To kiss (baiser).
Eouai Rain.
Eonao To steal or rob.
Eououa Pimples in the face.
Eoui To belch or eruct.
Eounoa Daughter-in-law.
Eouramaï Light (not darkness).
Eouri A dancer.
Eouriaye A dancing girl.
Epao Luminous vapour in the
atmosphere, called a
shooting-star. At Taiti they are
looked upon as evil genii.
Epata Exclamation to call one’s wife.
Epepe Butterfly.
Epija Onion.
Epoumaa Whistle; they make use of it to
call the people to their meals.
Epouponi To blow the fire.
Epouré To pray.
Epouta A wound; this word likewise
signifies the scar.
Era The sun.
Era-ouao Rising sun.
Era-ouopo Setting sun.
Era-ouavatea Noon sun.
Eraï Heaven.
Erepo Dirty, unclean.
Ero Ant.
Eri King.
Erie Royal.
Eroï To wash, to cleanse.
Eroleva Slate.
Eroua A hole.
Erouai To vomit.
Eroupe Very large species of blue
pigeon, like those which are in
the possession of marshal
Soubise.
Etai Sea.
Etao To dart, or throw.
Etaye To weep.
Eteina Elder brother or sister.
Etouana Younger brother or sister.
Etere To go.
Etere-maine To come back.
Etio Oyster.
Etipi To cut, cut (particip.)
Etoi A hatchet.
Etoumou A turtle-dove.
Etouna An eel.
Etooua To grate.
Evaï The water.
Evaie Moist.
Evaine A woman.
Evana A bow.
Evare A house.
Evaroua-t- A wish to persons when they
eatoua sneeze, meaning that the evil
genius may not lull thee
asleep, or that the good
genius may awaken thee.
Evero A lance.
Evetou A star.
Evetou-eave A comet.
Evi An acid fruit, like a pear, and
peculiar to Taiti.
Evuvo A flute.

The following words are pronounced with a long e,

like the Greek η.

ηti Wooden figures representing

subordinate genii, and called
ηti-tane, or ηti-aine, according
as they, are of the masculine
or feminine gender. These
figures are employed in
religious ceremonies, and the
people of Taiti have several of
them in their houses.
ηieie Basket.
ηou A fart. They detest it, and burn
every thing in a house where
one has farted.
ηouou A muscle-shell (moule.)
ηreou-tataou Colour for marking the body;
with it they make indelible
impressions on different parts
of the body.
ηriri, and
likewise
ouariri To be vexed, to be angry.

I know of no word beginning with the consonants

F, G.

H.

Horreo A kind of instrument for

sounding, made of the
heaviest shells.

I.

Ióre A rat.
Ioiroi To fatigue.
Iroto In.
Ivera Hot.

I do not know any of their words beginning with the

consonant L.

M.
Maa Eating.
Maea Twin children.
Maeo To scratch one’s self, to itch.
Maï More, is likewise said maine; it is
an adverb of repetition etere,
to go, etere-maï or etere-
maine, to go once more, to go
and come again.
Maglli Cold.
Mala More.
Malama The moon.
Malou Considerable, great.
Mama Light, not heavy.
Mamaï Sick.
Manoa Good-day, your servant;
expression of politeness or
friendship.
Manou A bird, swift (leger.)
Mao Hawk for fishing.
Mataï Wind.
Mataï-malac East or S. E. wind.
Mataï-aoueraï West or S. W. wind.
Matao Fish-hook.
Matapo One-eyed, squinting.
Matari The Pleïades.
Matïe Grass-herbage.
Mato Mountain.
Mate To kill.
Mea A thing (chose.)
Meia Banana-tree, bananas.
Metoua Parents. Metouatane, or eoure,
father; Metouaaine, or erao,
mother.
Mimi To make water, to piss.
Móa Cock, hen.
Moea Mat.
Mona Fine, good.
Moreou A calm.
Motoua Grand-son.

N.

Nate To give.
Nie A sail of a boat.
Niouniou A jonquil.

O.

Oaï Walls and stones.

Oaite To open.
Oorah The piece of cloth which they
wrap themselves in.
Ooróa Generous, he that gives.
Opoupoui To drink.
Oualilo To steal, to rob.
Ouaouara, Aigret of feathers.
Ouaora To cure, or cured.
Ouanao To ly in.
Ouare To spit.
Ouatere The helm’s-man.
Ouera Hot.
Oueneo That does not smell well, it
infects.
Ouetopa To lose, lost.
Ouhi Ho! ah! (hé.)
Ouopé Ripe.
Oupani Window.
Oura Red.
Ouri Dog and quadrupeds.

P.

Pai Periagua.
Paia Enough.
Papa Wood, chair, end every piece of
furniture of wood.
Papanit To shut, to stop up.
Paoro A shell, mother-of-pearl.
Parouai Dress, cloth.
Patara Grandfather.
Patiri Thunder.
Picha Coffer, trunk.
Pirara Fish.
Piropiro Stink of a fart, or of excrements.
Pirioi Lame.
Piripiri A negative, signifying a covetous
man, who gives nothing.
Po Day, (light.)
Póe Pearl, ornament for the ears.
Poi For, to.
Poiri Obscure.
Poria Fat, lusty, of a good stature.
Porotata Dog-kennel.
Pouaa Hog, boar.
Pouerata Flowers.
Poupoui Under sail.
Pouta Wound.
Poto Little, minute.

I know no word that begins with Q.

R.

Rai Great, big, considerable.

Ratira Old, aged.
Roa Big, very fat.
Roea Thread.

No word is come to my knowledge beginning with

S.

T.

Taitai Salted.
Taio Friend.
Tamai Enemy, at war.
Tane Man, husband.
Tao-titi Name of the high priestess, who
is obliged to perpetual
virginity. She has the highest
consideration in the country.
Taoa-tane Married woman.
Taporai To beat, abuse.
Taoua-mai Physician.
Taoumi Gorget of ceremony.
Taoumta Covering of the head.
Taoura Cord.
Tata Man.
Tatoue The act of generation.
Tearea Yellow.
Teouteou Servant, slave.
Tero Black.
Tetouarη Femme barée?
Tiarai White flowers, which they wear
in their ears instead of
ornaments.
Titi A peg, or pin.
Tinatore A serpent.
Twa Strong, malignant, powerful.
Tomaiti Child.
Toni Exclamation to call the girls.
They add Peio lengthened, or
Pijo softly pronounced, like the
Spanish j. If the girl slaps her
hand on the outside of the
knee, it is a refusal, but if she
says enemoi, she thereby
expresses her consent.
Toto Blood.
Toua-pouou Hump-backed.
Touaine Brother or sister, by adding the
word which distinguishes the
sex.
Toubabaou To weep.
Touie Lean.
Toumany Action of fencing; this they do
with a piece of wood, armed
with a point, made of harder
materials than wood. They put
themselves in the same
posture as we do for fencing.
Toura Without.
Toutai To make the natural
 evacuations.
Toutη Excrements.
Toupanoa To open a window or door.
Touroutoto A decrepit old man.
Toutoi-papa Light or fire of the great people;
niao-papa, light of the
common people.

V.

Vereva Flag which is carried before the

king and the principal people.
I know no words beginning with the letters U, X, Y,
Z.

Names of different parts of the body.

Auopo The crown of the head.
Boho The skull.
Eouttou The face.
Mata The eyes.
Taria The ears.
Etaa The jaw.
Eiou The nose.
Lamolou The lips.
Ourou The hairs.
Allelo The tongue.
Eniou Teeth.
Eniaou. Tooth-picks, they make them of
wood.
Oumi The beard.
Papaourou The cheeks.
Arapoa The throat.
Taah Chin.
Eou Teats, nipples.
Asao The heart.
Erima The hand.
Apourima The inside of the hand.
Eaiou The nails.
Etoua The back.
Etapono The shoulders.
Obou The bowels.
Tinai The belly.
Pito The navel.
Toutaba The glands of the groin.
Etoe Buttocks.
Aoua Thighs.
Eanai Legs.
Etapoué The foot.
Eoua Testicles.
Eoure The male parts.
Erao The female parts.
Eomo The clitoris.

Numerals.

Atai One.
Aroua. Two.
Atorou Three.
Aheho Four.
Erima Five.
Aouno Six.
Ahitou Seven.
Awarou Eight.
Ahiva Nine.
 Aourou Ten.

They have no words to express eleven, twelve, &c.

They repeat Atai, Aroua, &c. till to twenty, which
they call ataitao.

Ataitao-mala- Twenty, more one, or twenty-

atai one, &c.
Ataitao-mala- Thirty, i. e. 20 more 10.
aurou
Aroua-tao Forty.
Aroua-tao mala Forty-three, &c.
atorou
Aroua-tao mala Fifty, or 40 more 10.
aourou

I could not make Aotourou count beyond his last

number.

Names of Plants.

Amiami Raisins.
Oporo-maa Pepper.
Pouraou Cayenne-rose.
Toroire Heliotropium, or tournesol.
They have a kind of article answering to our articles of and to (de
& à). This is the word te. Thus they say parouai te Aotourou; the
clothes of or (belonging) to Aotourou; maa-te-eri, the eating of kings.

THE END.
 ERRATA.

Page 2, line last, for main-yards, read lower-yards—p. 9. l. 3, for

one quarter, read by—ib. l. ib. for one quarter, read by—ib. l. 6. for
one quarter, read by—p. 17. l. 16. for the river of Plate, read Rio de
la Plata—p. 33. l. 15. for top-masts handed, and main-yards lowered,
read yards and top-masts struck—ib. l. 19. for main-sails read
courses and top-sails—p. 34. l. 12. for one quarter, read by—p. 245.
note, l. 1. for cooes nutisera, read cocos nucifera—ib. l. 2. for
parasidiaca, read paradisiaca.

Foonotes

1. We have thought proper to omit M. Pereire’s discourse on the

nature of the language of Taiti, as being a very trifling performance,
founded on the imperfect vocabulary, and defective pronunciation of
Aotourou.
2. North Sea signifies here the Atlantic Ocean, and is put in
opposition to South Sea; the former taking in the ocean on this side
the Magellanic straits, the latter that which is west of them. The
appellation, though somewhat improper, by calling the sea about the
south pole the North Sea, is however sometimes employed by some
writers. F.
3. Dom Pernetty, in his Dissertation upon America, speaks of a
voyage round the world, in 1719, by captain Shelvock; I have no
knowledge of this voyage. Note of Mr. de B.
 As M. de Bougainville’s list of circumnavigators is very imperfect,
we will endeavour to give a more compleat one in few words.
1. Fernando Magalhaens, 1519.
2. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth the 15th of November,
1577, but was obliged to put back on account of a storm; after which,
he set sail again the 13th of December, and returned the 16th of
September, 1580.
3. Sir Thomas Cavendish, 1586-88.
4. Simon de Cordes, a Dutchman, sailed in 1598-1600.
5. Oliver Van Noort sailed the 13th of September, 1598, and
returned the 22nd of August, 1601.
6. George Spielbergen, a German in the Dutch service, 1614-
1617.
7. William Cornelius Schouten with Jacob Le Maire, 1615-1617.
8. Jacob l’Hermite with John Hugo Schapenham sailed from
Goeree, in the province of Holland, the 29th of April, 1623, and
arrived in the Texel the 9th of July, 1626.
9. Henry Brouwer, a Dutchman, in 1643.
10. Cowley, in 1683-1686.
11. William Dampier, an Englishman, sailed in 1689, and returned
1691. He has been omitted by M. de Bougainville in the list of
circumnavigators, because he did not go round the world in one and
the same ship.
12. Beauchesne Gouin, in 1699.
13. Edward Cooke, an Englishman, made the voyage in the years
1708 and 1711. 14. Woodes Rogers, an Englishman, sailed from
Bristol, June 15th, 1708, and returned 1711.
15. Clipperton and Shelvocke, two Englishmen, sailed the 13th of
February, 1719, and returned in 1722; the former to Galway in
Ireland, in the beginning of June, the latter to London, on the first of
August.
16. Roggewein, a Mecklenburger, in the Dutch service, sailed the
16th of July, 1721, and returned the 11th of July, 1723.
17. Lord Anson, 1740-1744.
18. Commodore Byron, 1764-1766.
19. The Dolphin and Swallow sloops. The first 1766-1768. The
second 1766-1769.