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Applied Soil Chemistry
 Scrivener Publishing
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Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
 Applied Soil Chemistry

Edited by
Inamuddin
Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, India

Mohd Imran Ahamed

Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India

Rajender Boddula
National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, China

and
Tariq Altalhi
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Taif University,
Taif, Saudi Arabia
This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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 Contents

Preface xiii
1 Potential and Challenges of Carbon Sequestration in Soils 1
Erfan Sadatshojaei, David A. Wood
and Mohammad Reza Rahimpour
List of Abbreviations and Units 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 Soil Decomposition Processes 4
1.1.2 Organic Compounds Present in Soils 6
1.1.3 Cycle Time of Carbon in Soils 7
1.2 Influences Impacting Carbon Stabilization Rates in Soils 8
1.2.1 Weather Conditions and Fluctuations 9
1.2.2 Plant and Natural Biomass Inputs 11
1.2.3 Organic Enrichment Treatments 11
1.2.4 Tilled and Ploughed Agricultural Land 11
1.2.5 Pasture Managed for Livestock Grazing 12
1.2.6 Irrigated Arable Lands and Their Associated Drainage 12
1.2.7 Uncertain Impacts of Soil Erosion and Redistribution
on Its Carbon Store 13
1.2.8 Fire Impacts on Soil Characteristics 13
1.3 Carbon-Sequestration Potential of Specific Vegetation Zones
and Ecosystems 14
1.3.1 Croplands 14
1.3.2 Grasslands 15
1.3.3 Woodlands 16
1.3.4 Temperate Wetlands and Peat Bogs 16
1.3.5 Induced Changes in Vegetation and Land Conditions 16
1.3.6 Warm Temperate and Tropical Vegetated Zones 17
1.4 Estimates of Global Potential for Carbon Sequestration in Soils 17
1.5 Conclusions 18
References 18

v
vi Contents

2 A Brief Insight on Factors Controlling Rate of Chemical

Weathering of Minerals Existing in Soil 23
Tejaswini Sahoo, Rashmirekha Tripathy, Jagannath Panda,
Madhuri Hembram, Saraswati Soren, Deepak Kumar Senapati,
C.K. Rath, Sunil Kumar Sahoo and Rojalin Sahu
2.1 Introduction 23
2.1.1 Weathering Similar to Hydrothermal and Diuretic
Alteration of Minerals 25
2.2 Comparitive Stability of Minerals on the Basis of Their
Sequence of Weathering 26
2.2.1 Heavy Minerals 26
2.2.2 Coarsely Grinded Minerals 27
2.2.3 Clay Size Mineral Particles 27
2.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Weathering 28
2.3.1 Capacity Factors Which Controls the Reaction Rate
of Chemical Weathering 28
2.3.1.1 Specific Surface Role 28
2.3.1.2 Specific Weatherability Role of Mineral 29
2.3.2 Intensity Factors Which Drives the Chemical
Weathering Reaction Rate 29
2.3.2.1 Factor of Temperature 29
2.3.2.2 Leaching and Water Contribution 30
2.3.2.3 Acidity Factor 31
2.3.2.4 Biotic Processes Factor 31
2.3.2.5 Reduction and Oxidation Factor 32
2.3.2.6 Influence of Time on the Rate of Chemical
Weathering 33
2.4 Conclusion 34
References 34
3 Agroecosystems and Bioeconomy 41
Paolo Di Sia
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Problems Related to Agricultural Intensification 43
3.3 Important Themes and Indicators 46
3.4 The Bioeconomy 48
3.5 On Circular Bioeconomy 49
3.6 Bioeconomy, Environment, and Natural Capital 50
3.7 The Bioeconomy in Daily Life 52
3.8 Conclusions 54
References 56
 Contents vii

4 Technological Advances in Analyzing of Soil Chemistry 61

M. Ramesh and L. Rajeshkumar
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Soil Chemistry 62
4.2.1 Advances in Time-Resolved Molecular Scale
Techniques 64
4.2.2 Carbon Speciation in Soils 66
4.2.3 Soil Analysis Using Sensors 68
4.2.4 Soil Analysis Using AI 68
4.2.5 Soil Analysis Using ML 69
4.2.6 Soil Analysis Using IoT 69
4.2.7 Soil Analysis Using Big Data 71
4.2.8 Soil Analysis Using Drone and/or Satellite 73
4.3 Conclusion 74
References 75
5 An Overview of Soil Chemistry and Role of Its Components
in Sorption of Heavy Metals in Soil 79
Shagufta Jabin, Jamal A. Khan and Sapana Jadoun
5.1 Introduction 80
5.2 Composition of Soil 80
5.2.1 Solid Phase 81
5.2.1.1 Soil Inorganic Matters 81
5.2.1.2 Soil Organic Matter 85
5.2.2 Liquid Phase 86
5.2.3 Gaseous Phase 88
5.3 Soil Characterization 89
5.3.1 Structure 89
5.3.2 Color 91
5.3.3 Texture 91
5.3.4 Bulk Density 92
5.3.5 Particle Size Distribution 92
5.4 Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil 92
5.4.1 Soil pH 93
5.4.2 Soil Temperature 93
5.4.3 Electrical Conductivity 93
5.4.4 Cation Exchange Capacity 94
5.5 Sorption Behavior of Soil 94
5.6 Conclusion 97
References 97
viii Contents

6 Soil and Their Contaminants 105

Anupama Rajput
6.1 Introduction 105
6.1.1 Component of Soil 105
6.1.2 Major Types of Soil in India 107
6.1.3 The Various Factors Occurs in Soil Formation 107
6.1.4 Types of Soil Textures 107
6.1.4.1 Clayer Soils 107
6.1.4.2 Sandy Soils 109
6.1.4.3 Slit Soils 109
6.2 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 109
6.2.1 Soil Chemical Reaction 110
6.2.2 Sality and Acidity 110
6.3 Contaminants in Soil 111
6.3.1 Pesticides 112
6.3.2 Some of the Adverse Effects of Pesticides 112
6.4 Pollution of Soil 112
6.4.1 Effects of Modern Agriculture 113
6.4.2 Effects of Chemicals 113
6.5 Chemistry of Saline Soil 115
6.6 The Effect of Salinity in Plant Growth 117
6.7 Conclusion 118
References 118
7 Fertilization and Fertilizer Types 123
İdris Karagöz
7.1 Introduction 124
7.2 The Purpose and Application Methods of Fertilization 125
7.3 Classification of Fertilizers 131
7.4 Fertilizers Containing Organic Matters 132
7.4.1 Herbal and Animal-Based Fertilizers 132
7.4.2 Organomineral Fertilizers 134
7.4.3 Soil Conditioners 135
7.5 Chemical Fertilizers 136
7.5.1 Solid and Liquid Fertilizers With Inorganic
Primary Single and Compound Plant Nutrients 137
7.5.2 Fertilizers With Inorganic Secondary Nutrients 142
7.5.3 Fertilizers With Micro Plant Nutrients 143
 Contents ix

7.6 Conclusion and Evaluation 145

References 145
8 Heavy Metal Chemistry in Soils 149
Sapna Nehra, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar
8.1 Introduction 149
8.2 Outline of the Heavy Metal Chemistry in Soil 151
8.3 Conclusions 158
8.4 Abbreviations 159
Acknowledgment 160
References 160
9 Modeling of Pollutant Mobility in Soil 165
Jülide Hızal
9.1 Introduction 165
9.2 Modeling of Heavy Metal Sorption onto Soil or Soil
Components 166
9.3 Modeling of Sorption of Other Pollutants onto Soil or Soil
Components 177
9.4 Conclusion 178
References 179
10 Soil Chemistry: Composition and Laws 183
Manju Yadav and Dinesh Kumar
10.1 Introduction 183
10.2 The Materials With Which Nutrients React 184
10.2.1 The Clay Minerals 185
10.2.2 Variable-Charge Mineral Surfaces 186
10.2.3 Organic Matter 188
10.3 Soil Chemistry: Laws 189
10.3.1 First Law 189
10.3.2 Second Law 190
10.3.3 Third Rule 192
Acknowledgments 194
References 194
11 Parameters of Soil Chemistry 197
Manju Yadav and Dinesh Kumar
11.1 Introduction 197
11.1.2 Soil Morphology 199
11.1.3 Basic Soil Components 199
x Contents

11.1.3.1 Mineral 200

11.1.3.2 Water 200
11.1.3.3 Organic Matter 201
11.1.3.4 Gases 201
11.1.3.5 Microorganisms 202
11.2 Concepts of Soil Chemistry 202
11.2.1 Soil Aeration 203
11.2.2 Soil Colloid 204
11.2.3 Soil Water 204
11.2.4 Ion Exchange Property 206
11.2.4.1 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 206
11.2.4.2 Anion Exchange Capacity (AEC) 207
11.2.5 Soil pH–Acidity and Alkalinity 208
11.2.5.1 Acid Soil Formation 209
11.2.5.2 Acid Soil Benefits 210
11.2.5.3 Liming-Decreasing Soil Acidity 211
11.2.5.4 Alkaline Soil Formation 211
Acknowledgments 212
References 212
12 Essential Soil Functions for Enhanced Agricultural
Productivity and Food Production 215
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Osayomwanbo Osarenotor
12.1 Introduction 216
12.2 Effect of Pesticides on Soil Function Indicator 216
12.3 Soil Organic Matter 219
12.4 Soil Organic Carbon 220
12.4.1 Relationship Between Global Carbon Cycle and
Soil Carbon as a Typical Example of Soil Function 221
12.4.2 Relationship Between CO2 Levels in the
Atmosphere and Soil Carbon Content 222
12.4.3 Relationship Between Soil Organic Content
and Soil Carbon Sequestration 222
12.4.4 Essential Soil Biological Processes and Their
Relationship With Soil pH 224
12.4.4.1 Microbial Ecophysiological Indicators 224
12.4.5 Soil Enzyme Activities and Their Relationship
With Soil pH 225
12.4.6 Biodegradation of Toxic Substances by Soil
Microorganisms and Their Relationship
With Soil pH 225
 Contents xi

12.4.6.1 Water Holding Capacity 226

12.4.6.2 Soil Erodibility 226
12.4.6.3 Nutrient Cycling 226
12.5 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 227
References 228
13 Role of Pesticide Applications in Sustainable Agriculture 235
Osikemekha Anthony Anani and Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
13.1 Introduction 235
13.2 Various Types of Pesticides and Their Application
in Agriculture 237
13.3 Modes of Action of Pesticides 241
13.3.1 Organochlorine Pesticides 245
13.3.2 Organophosphorus Pesticides 245
13.3.4 Carbamate Pesticides 246
13.3.5 Other Classes of Chemical Pesticides 247
13.4 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 247
References 248
Index 257
 Preface

Soil chemistry refers to the chemical reactions in soils that affect the
growth and nutrition of plants. Applied soil chemistry is an interdisciplin-
ary field covering soil, water, plants and atmosphere, which impacts plant,
animal and human health. Water and nutrients are provided in different
types of soil that are home to microorganisms and many other creatures
and plants. The properties of these soils affect the crop production of agri-
cultural fields; therefore, this discipline provides support to the sustainable
agricultural management of soils.
State-of-the-art information regarding applied soil sciences is explored
in this book. In addition to the fundamentals of soil chemistry, model con-
cepts, principles, chemical reactions, functions, chemical recycling, chem-
ical weathering, acid-base chemistry, carbon sequestration, and nutrient
availability of soils are highlighted. Also included among the topics are the
chemistry of heavy metals in soil environments, ion-exchange processes
on clay, along with relevant analytical tools and applications. This book will
help the reader understand soil characteristics by targeting soil chemical
reactions and interactions and their applications. Since the chapters were
written by noted professionals in the field, it will be an excellent reference
guide for students, faculty, researchers and professionals in the field of
environmental science, earth science, soil chemistry, and agroecology. The
subject matter covered in each chapter is summarized below.
Chapter 1 provides details on the significance of soils as a carbon store.
Retaining and ideally boosting carbon in soils helps to inhibit its buildup
in the atmosphere. It takes some time for soil carbon to become mineral-
ized, whereas soil erosion and tillage continuously release some soil carbon
into the atmosphere.
Chapter 2 provides background information on the chemical weather-
ing of minerals. A discussion of the weathering sequence of minerals from
the soil mainly sheds light on the factors which control the rate of chem-
ical weathering, including temperature and time factors, biotic process,

xiii
xiv Preface

oxidation, reduction, comparative stability of various minerals, water,

leaching, and acidity.
Chapter 3 discusses the effect that agricultural management systems
have on soil health by evaluating reduced processing systems, organic
fertilizers, and biological control of weeds, along with their effect on the
bioeconomy, including agriculture, forestry, fishing, aquaculture, wood-
working, biorefineries, and nanobiotechnology. The data provided is based
on the evaluation of indicators of physical, chemical, biological, microbi-
ological, and biochemical soil health. The benefits of soil resilience and
better adaptation to extreme events are also included.
Chapter 4 discusses the advances in soil chemistry which are based on
the analysis of the soil at an in-situ level and the presence of carbon spe-
ciation in soil. The analysis of the soil using sensors, the internet of things,
machine learning, artificial intelligence, and drones with big data are also
discussed.
Chapter 5 details the various components of soil, including solid, liquid
and gaseous phases. Different soil characteristics like structure, soil color,
texture, bulk density and particle size are discussed in detail. These are
important parameters for understanding soil behavior. Sorption behavior
of soil for removal of heavy metals is also discussed.
Chapter 6 relates to inclusive edaphology and environmental reactions.
Parameters such as composition, textures, soil organic matter, salinity,
acidity and chemical reaction of soil are discussed. The main focus is on
different kinds of contaminants like pesticides, modern agriculture, syn-
thetic chemicals and their effects on plant growth.
Chapter 7 describes fertilization and fertilizer types. The purpose of
fertilization and its application methods are discussed. Fertilizers can be
classified into two types depending on the source from which they are
obtained: organic (natural) fertilizer and chemical fertilizer. The impor-
tance of the use of fertilizers in agricultural lands for sustainable agricul-
ture is explained.
Chapter 8 discusses several approaches which are used to control the
overabundance of heavy metals present in soil. The focus of this chapter
are the techniques utilized in the past few years to estimate heavy metal
content and its mitigation process.
Chapter 9 details the importance and benefits of modeling studies about
the retention and mobilization of pollutants. Recently applied models and
primary outcomes of modeling studies are also discussed. Additionally,
several personal computer programs, which are used for running models,
are exemplified in this study.
 Preface xv

Chapter 10 provides details of the different laws of soil chemistry. The

reaction of ions with the variable charged mineral surfaces, organic mat-
ters and clay minerals are discussed. The role of water movement through
saturated and unsaturated media is also discussed, with a major focus on
gravitational and capillary forces.
Chapter 11 discusses various aspects of assessing the quality of soil
using mechanical and physicochemical parameters. Mechanical parame-
ters, which play an essential role in plant growth, are also discussed. There
is also a discussion of ion-exchange properties, which is the primary focus
of the studies on physicochemical parameters.
Chapter 12 explains the necessary soil functions that could lead to an
increase in agricultural production. Essential soil biological processes and
their relationship with soil pH are also discussed along with microbial eco-
physiological indicators and activities of soil enzymes.
Chapter 13 provides detailed information on the application of pesti-
cides in agriculture. It also elaborates on the numerous types of pesticides,
including neonicotinoids, pyrethroids, organochlorines, organophos-
phates, triazines, carbamates, and pyrethroids. The merits and demer-
its that are associated with chemical pesticides are also highlighted. This
chapter also includes the modes of action and the detrimental effects of
these pesticides.

Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed,

Rajender Boddula and Tariq Altalhi
February 15, 2021
 1
Potential and Challenges of
Carbon Sequestration in Soils
Erfan Sadatshojaei1*, David A. Wood2 and Mohammad Reza Rahimpour3
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
2
DWA Energy Limited, Bassingham, Lincoln, United Kingdom
3
Department of Chemical Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

Abstract
Terrestrial soils, by volume, represent the most significant land-based carbon store
on our planet. Over time, soils absorb carbon from a wide range of organisms as
they respire during life and decompose after their demise. Carbon currently resid-
ing in the upper soil layers constitutes more than the combined quantity of carbon
in land-surface vegetation and the atmosphere. Retaining and ideally boosting
that carbon store in soils and preventing that carbon entering the atmosphere is of
paramount importance in the fight against climate change. Almost 50% of global
soils within about 1 m of the surface have been disturbed by agriculture releasing
at least some of the carbon they store to the atmosphere. Carbon ideally needs to
become mineralized in soils if it is to be stabilized and sequestered in the subsur-
face over the long term. Unfortunately, a significant portion of carbon in soils has
a relative rapid turnover time, or low residence time, and is returned to the atmo-
sphere as carbon dioxide via soil respiration processes. Whereas, it takes much
longer for some of the soil carbon to be converted to stable mineralized forms.
Soil erosion, as well as tillage, plays a significant role in releasing some soil carbon
to the atmosphere. Converting significant areas of croplands and grazing lands to
forests, grassland, and wetlands is the best option currently available for increasing
the soils uptake of carbon from the atmosphere. Additionally, plant large quanti-
ties of perennial deep-rooted, fast growing bioenergy crops, such as switchgrass
and miscanthus, can increment the carbon storage potential of grassland soils.
The aggressive implementation of such actions has the potential to increase global
soil carbon storage by between 0.5 and 2.0 Pg C a−1 for several decades. This could

*Corresponding author: erfan.sadatshojaei@gmail.com

Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula and Tariq Altalhi (eds.) Applied Soil Chemistry,
(1–22) © 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
2 Applied Soil Chemistry

only be achieved in association with large-scale reforestation and robust steps to

mitigate anthropogenic soil disturbance and natural erosion.

Keywords: Soil as a carbon store, carbon turnover time, climate change

mitigation, soil disturbance, organic matter decomposition, humification and
peat formation, carbon mineralization, soil C sequestration potential

List of Abbreviations and Units

1 petagram (Pg) = 1015 grams = 1 gigatonne
1 kilogram (kg) of carbon is equivalent to 44/12 of carbon dioxide
1 hectare (ha) = 107,639 square feet = 10,000 square meters
1 acre = 43,560 square feet = 4047 square meter
10,000 parts per million (ppm) = 1%
CO2 = carbon dioxide
NPP = net primary production

1.1 Introduction
Today, more than ever, the impact of the advancements in a wide range
of technologies and artificial intelligence are influencing progresses and
development of human life across the world. In this regard, we can point
out ultrasonic application [1], carbon dioxide issue [2], medical research
[3–8], and new chemical methods [9] are all advancing rapidly with
their impacts being felt more widely. “Sequestration” of combines both
the capture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and its long-term isolation from the
atmosphere and ocean, storing it safely and securely for thousands of
years.
Carbon sequestration in soils, to absorb some of the unwanted CO2 in
the atmosphere, mainly involves adopting improvements in land manage-
ment. This means adopting practices, on a large scale, that convert more
atmospheric CO2 into carbon stored in soils than current practices achieve.
The main potential to improve carbon management techniques applies to
cropland and grazing lands [10]. These improved land use and carbon man-
agement techniques strive to increase the rate of biomass entering the soils
and/or by reducing the rates of turnover of organic carbon already residing
in the soils and by increasing the quantity of soil carbon that becomes min-
eralized. Through carbon sequestration in soils, CO2 is to a degree stabi-
lized in soils on a semi-permanent basis. However, to achieve this, the CO2
needs to be converted into other materials. These chemical changes are
 Potential and Challenges of Carbon Sequestration in Soils 3

initiated primarily through organic processes. CO2 is involved in a com-

plex cycle which includes a circulation through the soil influenced by a
range of micro-biological activity. Through this circulation, CO2 becomes
available in soils to be dissolved by percolating rainwater. This leads to the
formation of carbonic acid in near surface fluids.
On a global scale, soils store about 1,500 Pg (petagrams, equivalent to
1,500 gigatonnes) of organic carbon to a depth of one meter, increasing
to 2,400 Pg to a depth of 2 m [11]. This means that carbon residing in
upper soil layers amounts to more than the combined quantity of carbon
in land-surface vegetation and the atmosphere. A little less than 50% of
soils globally have been or are in use for agriculture, both cropland and
grazing land. The soils involved in cropland activity have almost all been
disturbed by some form of tillage. Organic matter within soils can vary
between about 1% and 10%.
Subsequently, that carbonic acid reacts with basic cations leading to the
creation of secondary carbonates in the short-term, on the scale of years,
forming mineralization in near-surface rocks, leading to sustained pro-
cesses that persists over geological timescales. The creation of secondary
carbonates comes mainly from sub-surface weathering and diagenesis
reactions with silicate minerals containing calcium and magnesium. Such
reactions generate free positively charged ions (cations). Many of these free
cations go on to combine with CO2 to form carbonate minerals, particularly
calcite and dolomite [12]. However, these pervasive carbonate forming dia-
genetic processes tend to progress too slowly in their natural cycles to be
practically exploited for carbon sequestration purposes. Nevertheless, they
do involve substantial quantities of CO2, particularly in alkaline and saline
soils present in dry and semi-dry zones [13]. Consequently, the inorganic
sub-surface carbon cycle cannot be considered as significant or viable for
rapid carbon sequestration in the soils typically found in the soils of wet
and temperate zones.
On the other hand, organic carbon can cycle through soils, some return-
ing to the atmosphere very rapidly. In the organic dimensions of the carbon
cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is stabilized through the photosynthesis
conducted by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria to form a range of organic
compounds. Although the living organisms initially form glucose during
photosynthesis, they transform it into diverse organic compounds, such
as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin mostly; materials that are useful for
biological growth and tissue formation. However, other complex organic
materials such as protein, lipids, including more intricate compounds
used to provide various benefit to plants and bacteria, are also formed.
Land plants direct a significant portion of photosynthetic products to their
4 Applied Soil Chemistry

Air

Cyanobacteria
Plants

Animal

oxygenic
photosynthesis
(form new organic
material)

Organic materials available in the soil

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram illustrating the biological contributions to the carbon cycle
via terrestrial soils.

roots, some of which are released to the soil as soluble carbon compounds;
products termed as rhizoexudates [14].
When plants and bacteria die, their organic constituents are dispersed
in soils through decomposition by soil micro-organisms. That decom-
position releases much of the CO2 they captured during photosynthesis
making its way out of the soil to return to the atmosphere (Figure 1.1).
This organic matter-soil decomposition cycle contributes CO2 output to
overall soil respiration that includes respiration of plant root and flora and
fauna that live in the soil. In addition to the contributions of plants, algae,
and cyanobacteria to the carbon cycle through soils, there is a substan-
tial sub-cycle that is related to contributions from animals. The animals
consume CO2 in the form of food, with animal excrements and corpses
returning to the soil and being decomposed along with plant, algae, and
cyanobacteria remnants.

1.1.1 Soil Decomposition Processes

Animals that live in the soil vary from clearly visible spineless animals
such as woodlice, centipedes, and earthworms, to smaller, microscopic-
scale animals, the mesofauna, including mites (arthropods), springtails
 Potential and Challenges of Carbon Sequestration in Soils 5

(Collembola a hexapod), and enchytraeidae worm-like (microdrile oligo-

chaete) creatures. Some of the smallest animals in the soil, such as nema-
todes and protozoa, are among the most effective in the soil decomposition
processes [15]. Soil organisms of all sizes and types collectively consume
plant, animal, and bacterial debris in the soil. They do this by communi-
tion, or the reduction of material from one average particle size to a smaller
average particle size, using various physical and biochemical techniques.
Fungi and bacteria play a key role in breaking down the structural fabrics
of plant materials. These groups are able to convert cellulose and lignin
into soluble materials applying complex enzymes to do so. Subsequently,
the soluble materials produced are absorbed by the organisms and further
metabolized.
Initially, dead plant material located above the ground are, for the most
part, decomposed above ground on the soil surface. The soil organisms,
weather, and industrial-scale anthropogenic mechanical process such
as ploughing, play the substantial role in initiating above-ground and
near-surface soil decomposition. In some specific cases, for instance, peat
formed in bogs and swamps, the dead plant substances stay at the sur-
face of the soil without time to progress through the complete decompo-
sition process. Instead, it becomes rapidly inhumed by other dead plant
substances being added from above, isolating it from abundant oxygen
supplies.
A consequence, at completion of the soil decomposition processes, is
that carbon is ultimately conveyed from the decaying matter into fungi
and soil bacteria. This material is known as microbial biomass. Microbes
generate and use this biomass to provide their energy requirements and
to create new microbial biomass for growth. That carbon used for energy
is converted to CO2 and contribute to soil respiration. However, that por-
tion of the carbon transformed into new microbial biomass, ultimately,
is itself consumed or decays upon the demise of the micro-organism and
contributes to the ongoing cycle of decomposition. Each successive step
in the soil decomposition process involves the consumption of dead bio-
mass by soil organisms, mainly fungi and soil bacteria. Thus, specific car-
bon molecules pass through many cycles of decay and ultimately end up,
over time, either re-emitted to the atmosphere (soil respiration) or fixed
by carbon mineralization in the subsurface. On a global scale, the amount
of carbon mineralized by soil decomposition is approximately equal to the
carbon arriving the soil less the amount re-emitted by soil respiration. Soil
respiration returns about 60 Pg a−1 (petagram per year; equivalent to 60
gigatonnes) of carbon to the atmosphere, which is about half of the carbon
entering the soil [14].
Another random document with
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of the thrills, and some fine friendships among the English
aristocracy and the middle-class are depicted.

“The story is full of vigor and coloring befitting the day and scene
in which it is laid.”

+ Boston Transcript p6 Jl 28 ’20 160w

“The book is very badly constructed and the character drawing

amateurish, but the account of Aline’s experiences in Belgium is
interesting and occasionally dramatic.”

+ − N Y Times p22 Ag 8 ’20 450w

“The book has some good episodes, but in the ordinary way it is
difficult to work up much excitement, principally because the heroes
and scoundrels alike ignore probabilities.”

+ − The Times [London] Lit Sup p305 My

13 ’20 130w

[2]
VAN LOON, HENDRIK WILLEM. Ancient
man. il *$3 Boni & Liveright 571

“‘Ancient man’ is to be the first of a series of nine history books in

story form, which ‘will explore the intricate wilderness of the bygone
ages’ and in summing up ‘try to show where the human race has lived
up to its highest possible achievements and wherein it has failed to
rise above the status of the earliest cavemen.’ (Ind) “It begins about
fifty thousand years ago with a broad sketch of prehistoric man,
struggling against elemental nature. It skips to the Nile and comes on
down the ages to the Phoenecians.” (N Y Times)

“The text is terse, up to date, and thoroughly interesting.” A. C.

Moore

+ Bookm 52:260 N ’20 110w

“The famous historian undertook this task for his own boys, eight
and twelve years old, and he has sensed unfailingly the way to
stimulate the interest and satisfy the curiosity of youngsters of about
that age.”

+ Ind 104:379 D 11 ’20 250w

“Absorbingly interesting. This is the way to tell history to children

—and to the rest of us.” Hildegarde Hawthorne

+ N Y Times p9 D 19 ’20 130w

VANSITTART, ROBERT GILBERT. Singing

caravan; a Sufi tale. *$2 Doran 821

(Eng ed 19–14218)

The device of the pilgrimage, with alternating narrative and song,

is put to new uses by this young English poet. For the end of the
matter is not mere entertainment by the way, but philosophical
discussion, in which the views of the watchmen, the merchant, the
scholar, the sheikh, the sceptic, and even the camel, are represented.

“‘The singing caravan’ hammers mysticism into clean, efficient

verse, which in its ease and correctness, displays the immense
technical equipment of the recent English poets; but his subject
matter shows the lack of freshness and homeliness that handicaps
the Georgian poets as a group in comparison with their American
rivals.”

+ − Dial 68:537 Ap ’20 50w

“Eastern mysticism and the imagery of the caravan form the

vehicle by which Mr Vansittart conveys his mind upon final things;
but there is no affectation of the Orient in his thought, and even his
words are straightforward and plain; he has Schubert’s knack of
turning common phrases into bewitching melody.”

+ Spec 123:118 Jl 26 ’19 50w

“The charm of Persian landscape, the wealth of Persian poetry

have been woven into these tales, and they may be read just as
profitably for the pictures they paint as for the lessons they teach.”

+ Springf’d Republican p11a Jl 25 ’20

150w

“‘The singing caravan’ is ‘a tale of Persian mystics,’ and with the

Persian mystics we are few of us on intimate terms. But its rich and
clear colouring, innocent of purple patchwork, though ‘local,’ may
none the less charm the untravelled; and the poem may be enjoyed
either for its landscape and characters, its allegory, its remarkable
craftsmanship, or for the sake of the mind and spirit which are
revealed in it.”

+ − The Times [London] Lit Sup p447 Ag

21 ’19 1000w

VAN VECHTEN, CARL. In the garret. *$2 (3c)

Knopf 780.4

20–926

From the garret of his memory the author produces many things,
scrutinizes them whimsically and chats about them at random. The
things are authors and books and music and people he has met.
Contents: Variations on a theme by Havelock Ellis; A note on Philip
Thicknesse; The folk-songs of Iowa; Isaac Albéniz; The holy jumpers;
On the relative difficulties of depicting heaven and hell in music; Sir
Arthur Sullivan; On the rewriting of masterpieces; Oscar
Hammerstein: an epitaph; La tigresse; In the theatres of the
purlieus: Mimi Aguglia as Salome, Farfariello, The negro theatre, The
Yiddish theatre, The Spanish theatre.

+ Ath p257 F 20 ’20 80w

+ Booklist 16:198 Mr ’20

“He has a magnificent way of being unimportant. His touch is light

and artistic. His culture is Hunekeresque. His scholarship is
musicianly, sometimes jazzy.” Mary Terrill

+ Bookm 51:193 Ap ’20 350w

+ New Repub 22:161 Mr 31 ’20 80w

“The author does himself injustice by opening with the least

attractive essay in the book, though it shows the most erudition.... It
is when he surveys the American scene that we go all the way with
Mr Van Vechten.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p77 F 5

’20 800w

VAN VECHTEN, CARL. Tiger in the house. il

*$5 Knopf 636.8

“I have written, how skilfully I cannot tell, on the manners and

customs of the cat, his graces and calineries, the history of his
subjugation of humankind. Through all the ages, even during the
dark epoch of witchcraft and persecution, puss has maintained his
supremacy, continued to breed and multiply, defying, when
convenient, the laws of God and man, now our friend, now our
enemy, now wild, now tame, the pet of the hearth or the tiger of the
heath, but always free, always independent, always an anarchist who
insists upon his rights, whatever the cost. The cat never forms
soviets; he works alone.” (Apotheosis) The illustrations are many and
beautiful. There is an exhaustive bibliography and an index and the
contents are: By way of correcting a popular prejudice; Treating of
traits; Ailurophobes and other cat-haters; The cat and the occult; The
cat in folklore; The cat and the law; The cat in the theatre; The cat in
music; The cat in art; The cat in fiction; The cat and the poet;
Literary men who have loved cats; Apotheosis.

“The book is a revelation concerning the more or less important

part which cats have played in history and literature.”

+ Bookm 52:367 Ja ’21 160w

“The suggestive ingenuity of its title is matched by the far-reaching

skill with which he has amassed and arrayed his facts so as to make
them into a continuous story that blends both fact and the
imagination.” E. F. Edgett

+ Boston Transcript p2 D 11 ’20 1600w

“Mr Van Vechten is less fortunate in his choice of pictures than in

his text.” J. W. Krutch

+ Nation 112:sup243 F 9 ’21 780w

Reviewed by E. L. Pearson

Review 3:648 D 29 ’20 150w

VAN VORST, MARIE. Fairfax and his pride.

*$1.75 Small

20–4010
 “Miss Van Vorst’s narrative is the story of the struggles of Antony
Fairfax to gain distinction as a sculptor. He is largely self-taught, but
soon after coming to New York in 1880, at the age of twenty-three,
we find him perfecting an epoch-making piece of modeling in the
studio of a famous sculptor. The latter steals the credit for Fairfax’s
work, and starts the young man on the career which threatens to
snuff out his ambition and great talents. It is after this mischance
that Fairfax becomes successively fireman and engineer for the New
York Central. His railroad service ends abruptly with the receipt of a
small inheritance from an admirer. This takes him to Paris, where he
establishes his fame, experiences a brief romance, and finally has the
satisfaction of confounding the man who stole the early fruits of his
genius.”—Springf’d Republican

“Not as interesting as ‘Big Tremaine’ and will not be as popular.”

+ − Booklist 16:284 My ’20

“It is safe to say that no American novel of the season so far

surpasses the quality of ‘Fairfax and his pride.’ It tells a story that
takes you astray and brings you back to the main current of events
with surprising interest. The characters are all well drawn. We close
the book with the consciousness that here is a real American
novelist.” W. S. B.

+ Boston Transcript p6 Mr 24 ’20 1550w

N Y Times 25:170 Ap 11 ’20 320w

Reviewed by H. W. Boynton

Review 2:393 Ap 17 ’20 160w

 “The young sculptor and his difficulties do not produce a very
lively impression. Miss Van Vorst never brings her readers into
intimate touch with him, and the short, jerky chapters are irritating
in their effects.”

− + Springf’d Republican p11a My 30 ’20

550w

VAN WESEP, HENDRIKUS BOEVE. Control

of ideals. *$2 (5c) Knopf 171

20–18312

This “contribution to the study of ethics” (Sub-title) is concerned

primarily with the problem of war prevention. The author holds that
man is more an imaginative than a rational animal and apt to
mistake his imaginative world for the world of reality. By learning to
control our ideals we learn to distinguish between an ideal and a
fixed idea and to live by rather than die for them. The book takes up
in turn the origin, nature, and function of human ideals and the
supreme worth of the individual and of human life. Contents: Variety
of ideals; Attitude toward ideals; Assimilation of ideals; The survival
of ideals; Nations; Development of self-consciousness; Society versus
the individual; Utopianism; Democracy; Tolerance; Harmony;
Symbiosis; Atomism; Functions of ideals; Moral courage; Index.

“Scholarly but written for the layman.”

+ Booklist 17:92 D ’20

 “His optimism seems a little too easy for a disillusioned
civilization, but at least he is intelligible, a great recommendation for
any one educated among the fogs of metaphysics.”

+ − N Y Evening Post p13 O 30 ’20 70w

The Times [London] Lit Sup p670 O 14
’20 90w

VAST, HENRI. Little history of the great war. il

*$2 Holt 940.3

20–20075

A short history of the war, translated from the French by Raymond

Weeks of Columbia university. Contents: The German race—
pangermanism; The environment—William II and Europe (1900–
1914); The critical moment—responsibility for the war; The sudden
attack—battle of the Marne; Eastern front—Serbia and Russia (1914–
1916); Distant theaters of war—in the Orient—on the sea and in the
colonies; The Italian effort—the army of Saloniki; Retrospective
preparation (1915–1916); The ruin of Russia (1916–1918); American
aid; Peace offensives; Victory—capitulation of Germany. There are
twenty-seven maps, but no index.

“A wonderfully compact story of the war, composed with

characteristic French clarity.”

+ R of Rs 62:671 D ’20 60w

 [2]
VAUGHAN, WALTER. Life and work of Sir
William Van Horne. il *$5 Century

20–20625

The life of Sir William Van Horne is something of a romance, he

having made his way from a poor boy in Illinois to an English
peerage. He gained his fame and his fortune as a builder of railroads
of which the Canadian Pacific was his greatest achievement. With his
natural abilities, says his biographer, he would have achieved
greatness in any field; as a military commander, as an engineer or
architect, as a painter or in the natural sciences. The book has several
maps, illustrations and an index.

“The chief merit of the book is its really vivid picture of a striking
personality.” Allan Nevins

+ − N Y Evening Post p8 Ja 29 ’21 1250w

R of Rs 62:670 D ’20 100w

VEBLEN, THORSTEIN B. Place of science in

modern civilization, and other essays. *$3 Huebsch
330.4

20–6953

“The assumptions of the existing economic order are studied in

Thorstein Veblen’s latest book, ‘The place of science in modern
civilization.’ This is a carefully selected series of papers published in
economic journals during the past twenty years, and sums up the
principles of an economic attitude so popular among modern
economists that it has been entitled ‘Veblenism.’”—Springf’d
Republican

“If these old essays are valuable, in the face of all that their author
has since contributed, it is because of their emphasis upon the spirit
of his work; because, as much as anything he has done, they show the
impulse and intention of his scholarship. There are here, as
elsewhere, passages that rouse impatience because of the author’s
very carelessness of pragmatism.” Babette Deutsch

+ − Dial 69:79 Jl ’20 1250w

“There are serious difficulties in the way of a ‘scientific’ treatment

of economics, over which Mr Veblen does not help us, and many of
which he does not see. A keen critic, he is not a close or clear thinker;
destructively valuable, we can hardly follow him as a constructive
leader.” F. H. Knight

+ − J Pol Econ 28:518 Je ’20 1100w

“The book is a rich contribution to economic and social literature,

and is, in a way, Mr Veblen at his scientific best.” H. A. Overstreet

+ Nation 111:250 Ag 28 ’20 500w

“Nowhere in them is there any indication of that subtle wit, the

telling thrust, the finely pointed characterization that rewarded the
hours of toil through his other writings. While our author’s standing
as a humanist is enhanced by the essays, his reputation as an
economist will not be.” N. W. Wilensky
 − + N Y Call p10 My 16 ’20 1050w

“One cannot help wondering whether Mr Veblen himself knows

what an excellent literary quality his writings have, and what a boon
to the jaded reader is the absence in his work of certain conventional
literary virtues—solemnity, geniality, sonority, and the like.”

+ − No Am 211:424 Mr ’20 1350w

“The position of Mr Veblen is so deserving of attention that one

must regard his involved style and ponderous vocabulary as a
misfortune.”

+ − Springf’d Republican p8 Mr 18 ’20

580w

“Several of them are on academically important topics which,

nevertheless, the more general public that has become interested in
the author’s theories can afford to skip. Others deal with
fundamental issues which the layman should try to understand.
Among these we would class the three papers on the preconceptions
of economic science which demonstrate the shifts in the boundaries
of that science, and especially the newer emphasis on its human
aspects.”

+ Survey 44:352 Je 5 ’20 150w

VERNÈDE, ROBERT ERNEST. Port Allington

stories, and others. *$1.90 (2c) Doran
 20–21335

A volume of short stories by an English author who was killed in

the war, issued now as he had prepared them for publication, with a
preface by his wife. Some of them had appeared in Harper’s
Magazine. Contents: “This is Tommy”; The greatness of Mr
Watherstone; The outrage at Port Allington; The offense of Stephen
Danesford; Soaring spirits; The bad Samaritan; The sunk elephant;
The adventure of the Persian prince; The smoke on the stairs; On the
raft; Madame Bluebird; The missing princess; A night’s adventure;
The maze.

“Deftness of phrasing, and a sense of character and of the social

ironies mark a volume of tales whose sarcasm is never bitter and
whose laughter is always good-natured.”

+ N Y Times p26 D 26 ’20 310w

“Nowhere except in Mrs Wharton’s matchless ‘Xingu,’ and possibly

in Mr Benson’s current ‘Queen Lucia,’ have the humors of feminine
club-made culture been more amusingly displayed.” H. W. Boynton

+ Review 3:253 S 22 ’20 300w

VERNÈDE, ROBERT ERNEST. War poems,

and other verses. *$1.50 Doran 821

20–20444
 Edmund Gosse in his introduction gives a biographical sketch of
the author, an Englishman of French descent who, altho past
military age, enlisted at the beginning of the war and was killed in
1917. Among the war poems are England and the sea, The call; The
Indian army; A legend of the fleet; To the United States; Christmas,
1914; To Canada; Before the assault. These are followed by a small
group of “other verses” on such themes as The July garden,
Friendship, To an English sheep-dog. The volume was published in
England in the fall of 1917.

+ Lit D p33 F 16 ’18 100w

Reviewed by E. L. Pearson

Review 3:269 S 29 ’20 250w

“In Lieutenant Vernède’s unhesitating and uncompromising verse

the man sustains the poet, but the poet merits that support.” O. W.
Firkins

+ Review 3:318 O 13 ’20 120w

R of Rs 57:333 Mr ’18 230w

“Some of the finest poems that have come from the trenches. They
are instinct with an exalted patriotism.”

+ Spec 120:14 Ja 5 ’18 320w

 [2]
VERRILL, ALPHEUS HYATT. Islands and
their mysteries. il *$1.75 Duffield 551.42

20–20916

The author offers this volume as a companion to “The ocean and

its mysteries.” It explains in a non-technical manner how islands are
formed, how they resemble or differ from one another, how they
become covered with vegetation, and are inhabited by animal life and
many other puzzling and interesting features of islands and insular
life. Imaginary trips to imaginary islands of various types hold the
young reader’s attention. Contents: The romance of islands; Islands
and islands; Volcanic islands; Coral islands and other islands; Island
life; Island vegetation; A ramble on a lake island; An island in the
sea; Exploring an island in a tropical river; A visit to an island in
tropical seas; The island of salt; The island of pearls; When people
dwell in a volcano; Islands of the frozen seas. There are illustrations.

“The story is an extremely fascinating one and although designed

undoubtedly for the reading of adults, cannot fail to be both
interesting and instructive to boys and girls in their teens, whose
minds are beginning to expand and to reason and inquire into the
causes of things.”

+ Boston Transcript p1 D 11 ’20 330w

“Always he retains a human viewpoint, so that his book reflects the

wonder and mystery of life instead of degenerating into a mere
scientific treatise.”
 + N Y Evening Post p14 Ja 8 ’21 480w
+ R of Rs 63:112 Ja ’21 80w

“Although the style, which smacks somewhat of the elementary

geography, grows a bit monotonous at times, he leaves one wishing
for more.”

+ Springf’d Republican p10 Ja 28 ’21

200w

VESTAL, SAMUEL CURTIS. Maintenance of

peace. *$5 (2c) Putnam 341

20–9987

“The foundations of domestic and international peace as deduced

from a study of the history of nations.” (Sub-title) At the hands of
history, going as far back as ancient Assyria, the author endeavors to
prove that peace can only be secured on a basis of militarism and
preparedness and on a “balance of power” rather than on a world
confederacy or a league of nations. Sea power ought naturally to
belong to the nation weakest in land power, in order that the balance
of power may be maintained and “freedom of the seas” can be little
more than a phrase. Of pacifism he will have none for it teaches “a
spiritless doctrine of cowardice.” Preparedness is as necessary for the
maintenance of domestic peace as of peace between nations. A
partial list of the contents is: The domestic peace of nations; The
integration of nations; World federation; The balance of power; Early
history of the balance of power; The thirty years’ war; Part taken by
England in maintaining the balance of power since the treaty of
Utrecht; Lessons that should be drawn from attempts to overthrow
the balance of power and establish world empires; The Holy alliance;
Arbitration as a panacea for war; Neutralization of small states;
Disarmament; Germany prepares for world conquest; Growth of
pacifism outside of Germany; Index.

“Many new ideas are broached in this thoughtful volume, which is

worthy of the close study of statesman and militarist.”

+ Boston Transcript p6 Je 16 ’20 400w

Ind 103:292 S 4 ’20 20w

VILLARS, MEG. Broken laugh. *$2 (1c) McBride

The heroine, a very simple and trusting little English girl, who
answers to the name of Kissy-Girl, is betrayed at the age of seventeen
and goes to London alone to await the birth of her child. A chance
clue from a newspaper sends her to Paris in search of the man and
she is there decoyed into a house of ill fame. Refusing to become one
of the professional inmates she is allowed to remain as a servant. In
this capacity she meets Jim Crighton, an Englishman who falls in
love with her and takes her to Brussels. He has made up his mind to
marry her when the war breaks out. He enlists and succeeds to a title.
His intention to marry Kissy remains, but a German bomb puts an
end to everything.

“If she had been content to develop her whole story in the milieu
she knows best, she would probably have produced a really effective
narrative.”
 + − Ath p1386 D 19 ’19 60w

“A novel of more than usual literary excellence. The reader’s

sympathy with this story will depend almost entirely upon his
conception of the importance of conventionally fixed morality.”

+ N Y Times p24 N 7 ’20 470w

“Like much latter-day fiction, this work has numerous touches of

interest and reality; but, as a whole, gives an effect of weakness.”

− + Sat R 129:193 F 21 ’20 230w

“Such a tale might be sensational, but, in Miss Villars’s telling, it is

delicate.”

+ Springf’d Republican p9a Ag 29 ’20

420w

“Obviously the war should not have been allowed to intrude; it

spoils everything. But one day she may write a book as good from
cover to cover as the first hundred pages of ‘The broken laugh.’”

+ − The Times [London] Lit Sup p769 D 18

’19 480w

VILLIERS, FREDERIC, il. Days of glory. il *$5

Doran 940.49
 20–4792

“The sketch book of a veteran correspondent at the front.” (Sub-

title) The volume consists of a series of fifty full-page illustrations
showing scenes at the front, each accompanied by brief descriptive
comment. Philip Gibbs contributes an introduction, “A salute to
Frederic Villiers.”

“A well made book.”

+ Booklist 16:277 My ’20

“It is worth whole tomes of verbal description. The pictures are

vivid and accurate.” N. H. D.

+ Boston Transcript p10 Ap 17 ’20 560w

“Villiers represents the type of the old-guard war correspondent at

its best. The sketches in ‘Days of glory’ have no special artistic merit.
They look very old fashioned beside the modern methods of
Nevinson and Nash. In character they are topographical, anecdotal,
documentary. There is no doubt that they possess a certain historical
significance.”

+ Nation 111:785 D 29 ’20 250w

+ Outlook 124:657 Ap 14 ’20 60w

“The artistic merit of Mr Villiers’s work consists not merely in the

personal element wrought into the pictures as contrasted with the
mechanical work of a camera, but also in the fact that here are
pictures at which no camera had a chance in 1914–15, and the other
pictures which no camera could have furnished with all the license in
the world.”

+ Springf’d Republican p6 Ap 26 ’20

360w

VILLIERS, FREDERIC. Villiers, his five decades

of adventure. 2v il *$6 (7½c) Harper

20–20650

Two volumes devoted to the life of a veteran war correspondent

and artist. He was born in 1851, in England, and his first association
with wars came in 1870 when he went over to Paris to pick up
material for a panorama of the Franco-Prussian war. The next
adventure that offered was the war between Serbia and Turkey in
1876, and others followed, taking him to every part of the earth,
down to the great war. The volumes are illustrated.

“These tales of five decades of adventure must be placed among

the greatest of autobiographies.” E. J. C.

+ Boston Transcript p11 D 8 ’20 750w

“Here between covers are the dramatic figures and the stirring
events of two and a half generations presented by a writer trained
throughout a lifetime in the art of bringing out all the high lights and
shades of dramatic contrasts.”