The Birth Of Digital Human Rights:

Digitized Data Governance As A Human

Rights Issue In The EU 1st Edition
Rebekah Dowd
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-birth-of-digital-human-rights-digitized-data-govern
ance-as-a-human-rights-issue-in-the-eu-1st-edition-rebekah-dowd/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

The American Convention on Human Rights: A Commentary

Ludovic Hennebel

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-american-convention-on-human-
rights-a-commentary-ludovic-hennebel/

Human Dignity and Human Rights Pablo Gilabert

https://ebookmass.com/product/human-dignity-and-human-rights-
pablo-gilabert/

The Idea of International Human Rights Law Steven

Wheatley

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-idea-of-international-human-
rights-law-steven-wheatley/

Indigenous Peoples and Climate Justice: A Critical

Analysis of International Human Rights Law and
Governance Giada Giacomini

https://ebookmass.com/product/indigenous-peoples-and-climate-
justice-a-critical-analysis-of-international-human-rights-law-
and-governance-giada-giacomini/
Tax, inequality, and human rights Alston

https://ebookmass.com/product/tax-inequality-and-human-rights-
alston/

The Law of International Human Rights Protection 2nd

Edition Walter Kälin

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-law-of-international-human-
rights-protection-2nd-edition-walter-kalin/

A False Tree of Liberty: Human Rights In Radical

Thought 1st Edition Edition Susan Marks

https://ebookmass.com/product/a-false-tree-of-liberty-human-
rights-in-radical-thought-1st-edition-edition-susan-marks/

The Ambivalence of Good: Human Rights in International

Politics since the 1940s Jan Eckel

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-ambivalence-of-good-human-
rights-in-international-politics-since-the-1940s-jan-eckel/

Children and the European Court of Human Rights Claire

Fenton-Glynn

https://ebookmass.com/product/children-and-the-european-court-of-
human-rights-claire-fenton-glynn/
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

The Birth of
Digital Human Rights
Digitized Data Governance as
a Human Rights Issue in the EU

Rebekah Dowd
Information Technology and Global Governance

Series Editor
Derrick L. Cogburn, American University, Bethesda, MD, USA
Information Technology and Global Governance focuses on the complex
interrelationships between the social, political, and economic processes
of global governance that occur at national, regional, and international
levels. These processes are influenced by the rapid and ongoing devel-
opments in information and communication technologies. At the same
time, they affect numerous areas, create new opportunities and mecha-
nisms for participation in global governance processes, and influence how
governance is studied. Books in this series examine these relationships and
influences.

More information about this series at

https://link.springer.com/bookseries/14855
 Rebekah Dowd

The Birth of Digital

Human Rights
Digitized Data Governance as a Human Rights
Issue in the EU
Rebekah Dowd
Department of Political Science
Midwestern State University
Wichita Falls, TX, USA

Information Technology and Global Governance

ISBN 978-3-030-82968-1 ISBN 978-3-030-82969-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82969-8

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: MR.Cole_Photographer/Moment/Getty Images

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To the one who always remains, is ever faithful, and continually
surprises me.
 Acknowledgments

Books do not write themselves; they are written by people. While this
book was written entirely by me, and therefore any credit or blame for
the content should lay at my door, I would be woefully remiss if I didn’t
acknowledge the people without whom I could not have finished this
project. Each person listed here has my deepest gratitude.

To Those At Home
Jenson, Sydney, Ethan, and Lily-Kat: you are my sources of inspiration
and encouragement. Thanks for the love, laughter, and patience! To my
parents: you’ve always supported me, in places near and far; thanks for
giving your love in this way. To Dr. Adnan Rasool and Jia Rasool: your
individual wisdoms and our friendship make me want to be worthy of your
support. To IM: Your contribution lay in our future, but I’m holding you
to that promise.

To My GSU Family
Dr. Charles Hankla, Professor Jelena Subotic, and Dr. Toby Bolsen: I
could not have chosen a better dissertation committee. You’ve repeatedly
reminded me of how fortunate I have been to enjoy your mentorship. To
Professor Bill Long—thank you for showing me kindness, giving advice,
and teaching me how to follow my own path. To my colleagues—Recha

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Reid, Dr. Alexandra Pauley, and Christopher Jackson—you guys are great
reviewers and even better friends.

To My Oxford Community
Dr. Lynn Robson: you opened my eyes to what scholarship could be for
a non-traditional student. Dr. Ian Finlay: you taught me to be a better
writer, to eat some chocolate along the way, and to keep seeing myself
as an Oxford woman. Dr. Lucas Kello: thank you for giving space to a
visitor, who learned more than you know from being an observer of your
scholarship and leadership at work. Much thanks also to Dr. Viktor Mayer-
Schönberger, for giving time and words of encouragement; many people
publish, but few invest in others.

To My MSU Community
Dr. Linda Veazey: thank you for giving me a chance and for supporting
me time and again. To the amazing Mary Gant: your positive spirit is so
beautiful. Thanks to Dr. Lee Gagum for help with German translations.
To Emily Beaman and Brendon Miller: your outstanding research assis-
tance is but a sign of great things to come for both of you. Zetta Cannedy:
thanks for the attention to detail on even the most tedious of tasks! Caro-
line Gomez: you are one of the rare humans walking the planet, whose
spirit lights a candle for all around her; I will be following your future
successes.

To Those Who Provided a Word,

Or a Space, in Due Season
So much could be said about the research communities created by Dr.
Amanda Bittner and Dr. Mirya Holman; thank you both for crafting
connections literally across the planet, and spaces in which academic
writers can meet, be held accountable, and share some humor. Thanks to
Dr. Leanna Powners, for offering timely publishing advice. To the Collec-
tive and Frank & Joe’s cafes: thank you for providing friendly baristas,
great coffee, and peaceful ambience, without which this caffeinated writer
could not have produced text. Thanks to Rebecca Roberts, Madison
Allum, and Punitha Balasubramaniam at Palgrave Macmillan, who read,
reviewed, emailed, and reminded, so that this book would become reality.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix

A huge word of thanks to Professor Derrick Cogburn, the editor of the

Information and Technology Governance series: you opened the door to
me to become a published book author.
 Contents

Part I The Origin of Digital Human Rights

1 Digitized Data as a Political Object 3
The Multiple Uses of Digitized Data 6
Internet Data as an Economic Commodity 6
Digitized Data Distribution as a Public Good 8
Data as Information Weaponry 10
The Internet and Data Governance 11
Theoretical Foundation 13
Phase I: 1970-Mid 1990s 13
Phase II: Mid-1990s to Present Day 14
Digital Human Rights Research and Policy Coordination 15
Bibliography 19
2 Digitized Data Protection as a Fundamental Human
Right 27
Identification of New Human Rights Norms 27
What Is a Regime? 30
Regime Creation in the European Union 30
Who Creates Regimes, and Who Should Be the Primary
Actors Interested in a Digital Human Rights Regime? 32
The Three Structural Interest Groups 33
Economic Interests 33
Security Interests 35

xi
xii CONTENTS

Digital Human Rights Interests 38

Regime Convergence upon the Human Rights Model 41
The Importance of Structure and Power 42
Institutions, Time, and Efficiency 44
Social Norms and Agency 46
Explanations of Identity-Based Policies and Policy
Congruence 47
Gains vs. Losses: Policy Adaptation Across Time 51
External Policy Pressures upon EU States 51
Internal Policy Pressures upon EU States 54
Theoretical Support and Hypothetical Expectations 55
Methodological Tests 57
National Cases 58
Time Frames 59
The Role of Text Analyses 59
EU Development of DHR Laws 61
Bibliography 62

Part II The Early Years—National Origins of Digital

Human Rights
3 Sweden: A History of Informational Access 81
Tracing Swedish Data Legislation 83
Data Commodification and the Economy 85
Security Concerns and Digitized Data 88
Digital Human Rights 90
Bibliography 96
4 Germany: Digital Human Rights and a History
of Invasive Surveillance 99
Data Commodification and the Economy 107
Security Concerns and Digitized Data 112
Digital Human Rights 120
Bibliography 128
5 The United Kingdom: Business Aligns with Human
Rights Advocacy 133
Data Commodification and the Economy 141
Security Concerns and Digitized Data 144
Digital Human Rights 148
Bibliography 154
 CONTENTS xiii

Part III Regional Policymaking and Digital Human

Rights in the Global Sense
6 EU Policy Convergence—Supranational Data Policies
in the EU (Mid 1990s–2016) 159
The Two-Level Game 160
Making Laws in the European Union 163
Agenda-Power, Hegemonic Preferences, and Technical
Expertise 165
External Pressures—Regime Complexity 166
Level I: International Regime Memberships 167
Creating Policy Convergence and Hegemonic States 172
Level II: The First Institution and the Economic Seeds
for an EU Data Regime 173
The Data Technology Exports Contribution (DTEC) 175
Level II – The Second Institution and the Influence
of Security Risks 176
The Power of Technical Expertise and Human Rights
Advocacy 182
Agenda-Setting Power: The EU Commission 191
The Outcome: EU Legislation and Digital Human Rights 195
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 199
Bibliography 204
7 Digital Human Rights Expansion by Epistemic Actors,
and the Role of Working Party 29 211
Norm Entrepreneurs 212
Epistemic Communities 214
The Article 29 Working Party (WP 29) 216
Last Thoughts 223
Bibliography 225
8 Exporting the Digital Human Rights Norm 227
EU Digital Human Rights Entrepreneurship: An Example
of International Diffusion 228
International Norm Diffusion—The Importance of Identity 228
International Norm Diffusion and Enforcement—Common
Mechanisms 230
The Role of Close International Relationships 231
xiv CONTENTS

EU-US Relations—Exporting Digital Human Rights

Through Socialization 232
Proactive EU Institutions: CJEU and EDPS as Norm
Enforcers 236
Punitive Actions: Case Evidence of Institutional Norm
Enforcement 238
Non-State Targets: EU as Norm Enforcer to the Private
Sector 242
Google Spain SL v APED & Mario Costeja Gonzalez 244
GDPR Fines 244
Last Thoughts 245
Bibliography 246
9 The Future of Digital Human Rights 249
Lessons from the Digital Human Rights in the European
Union 250
Government Obligations to Social Order 251
Human Rights and Normative Policymaking: How Many
Voices Are Heard? 252
Epistemic Advisors and Democratic Deficit 253
Exogenous Shocks—Redefining Security Risks and Human
Rights 254
Outside States’ and Digital Human Rights 256
The United States 256
China 260
Predicting the Future 263
Data Utility and the Digital Human Rights of Social
Media Platforms 264
Final Thoughts 265
Bibliography 266

Index 271
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Digital human rights regime complex 54

Fig. 6.1 Offers a graphic representation of the two-level game 161
Fig. 6.2 Data technology export contribution (DTEC) 175

Chart 6.1 ICT value added, % of GDP, powerful EU states (Data:

World Bank WDI Database, OECD, Eurostat) 174
Chart 7.1 Members’ Career History, Working Party 29 218

xv
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Select Swedish data laws, Phase 1 (1970–1999) 83

Table 3.2 ICT services sector contribution, Sweden, 1970–1999 87
Table 3.3 DIB Directors-General, 1970–1999 94
Table 4.1 Select German data laws, Phase I (1970–1999) 101
Table 4.2 German exports, % of GDP 108
Table 4.3 ICT services sector contribution, Germany, 1970–1999 111
Table 4.4 Security incidents, Germany (West and East),
1970–1999 115
Table 4.5 Commissioners of the national data protection
commission, FRG 124
Table 5.1 UK Data Laws (Phase I: 1970–1999) 134
Table 5.2 ICT services sector contribution, United Kingdom,
1970–1999 143
Table 5.3 Select years of security incidents, United Kingdom,
1970–1999 146
Table 5.4 Data Protection Register/Information Commissioner’s
Office (ICO), UK 149
Table 6.1 EU states international organization memberships,
by year joined 168
Table 6.2 Data technology export contribution (DTEC) composite 176
Table 6.3 Domestic terror casualties, 1970–2014,
France/Germany/UK 178
Table 6.4 Summary of national data law content—France,
Germany, UK, 1970–1999 184
Table 6.5 French data law, Phase I (1970–1999) 185

xvii
xviii LIST OF TABLES

Table 6.6 French National Commission on informatics

and freedoms 186
Table 6.7 Selection of German data protection laws, Phase 1:
1970–1999 188
Table 6.8 German data protection commissioners, federal level 188
Table 6.9 UK data laws, Phase 1: 1970–1999 189
Table 6.10 Data protection register/information commissioner’s
office (ICO) 190
Table 6.11 Efforts by commission presidents to shape EU data laws 195
Table 6.12 Auto-code search terms 201
Table 6.13 Select EU data laws, auto-coded content 202
Table 7.1 Communications content of Article 29 Working Party,
1997–2016 219
 PART I

The Origin of Digital Human Rights

Digital human rights are an extension of human rights protections over

personal, digitized data. Anyone using the internet in the West today is
aware, though they may not realize it, of the presence of digital human
rights. Most of us are much less aware of what these rights entail, how
they originated in Europe, and why. This book offers an explanation for
this outcome.
In the first chapter of the book, I provide an overview of my claims.
Personal, digitized data is important for all of us today, given the internet-
based world in which we live, and making this issue very important to
governments who must decide how to regulate data. However, in addi-
tion to governments, certain interest groups are particularly focused on
data use. These include firms within the digital economy, national secu-
rity actors seeking to ensure social order, and human rights advocates
who highlight the links between personal data and individual identity.
This chapter outlines a two-phase process, whereby these three groups
moved to impact data policy within the European Union. The EU has
since become not only the point of origin for digital human rights in
Europe, but also exports these rights globally.
Chapter 2 digs deeper into the history of digital human rights. Using
the international relations theories of realism, liberal institutionalism, and
constructivism, I map out how digital human rights first emerged within
the European Union. Then, I ask, under what conditions did EU states
create their national policy preferences? To answer this question, it’s neces-
sary to look more carefully at data brokering, security threats, and the
2 PART I: THE ORIGIN OF DIGITAL HUMAN RIGHTS

power of epistemic community norms. Next, using another international

relations (IR) tool, regime theory, I describe how the entire group of
EU countries were able to cooperate and indeed prioritize a convergence
point for high levels of digitized data protection in the EU. By the time
you have finished both chapters in Part I, you will have a clearer under-
standing of the key variables at stake, and therefore be able to interpret
the data presented in Part II.
 CHAPTER 1

Digitized Data as a Political Object

In mid-March 2018, the Cambridge Analytica data scandal broke onto

the international news cycle. Over 50 million social media users in the
United States and Europe had information about their internet behavior
collected, analyzed, and catalogued for political use by candidates during
elections, via the meta-data people generated while online with Face-
book.1 Facebook executive Mark Zuckerberg was reprimanded during
subsequent hearings held by Congress and the European Parliament. In
contrast to the limited or lack of data protections in many regions, when
Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) met with Zuckerberg, they
cited violations of existing data protection laws that had been breached.
Yet, one has to ask, why had Europe, and the European Union (EU) in
particular, established a more aggressive policy stance toward protecting
digitized data than had other regions?2
This book argues that protection of digitized personal data as a funda-
mental human right, or “digital human rights,” emerged as a result
of domestic and international pressures placed on EU policy-makers by

1 Granville (2018).
2 Fuster (2016); EU policies over data began in 1973 with the Community policy on
data processing. US action began with the 1977 US Privacy Protection Study Commission,
resulting in no legally binding legislation. As of this writing, there remains no single
comprehensive U.S. federal law that constrains data collection and use (see Jolly and
Loeb 2017).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 3

Switzerland AG 2022
R. Dowd, The Birth of Digital Human Rights, Information Technology
and Global Governance,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82969-8_1
4 R. DOWD

specific actors promoting data protection as a fundamental human right.

I define digital human rights as the extension fundamental human rights
protections for digital data tied to a person’s identity and behavior in
the physical or virtual realms. Digitized data refers to any data that is
created, stored, used, transferred, and/or manipulated using computer
technology, in this case, data of a personal nature. Digitized data can exist
entirely on internal computer networks, or it can be cloud-based. At the
domestic level, three key structural factors influenced EU member states’
national data laws. At the international level, key international organiza-
tions pressured states to comply with policy recommendations that led to
supranational data protection. In both scenarios, the strategic placement
of legal and human rights scholars contributed to the expanding scope of
digital human rights.3
Digital human rights protections concern data that has been stored in
two ways. First, personal data began as information recorded in manual
forms, such as in traditional paper records. Today, personal data is largely
“cyber data.” Cyber data describes information that is collected about
individuals, including their personal internet preferences and habits, as
well as private financial or personal information collected while they
use devices or computers connected to the internet.4 Second, digitized
cyber data will often include personal information regarding individu-
als’ demography, personal beliefs, political actions, and general behaviors.
Within this book, the term “digital human rights,” or DHR, refers to
human rights surrounding digitized personal data, including cyber data.
National data governance varied among EU states from the 1970s–1990s,
including three main policy preferences: treating data as an economic
commodity, seeing it as a surveillance tool to protect national security, and
tying data to privacy and identity rights. However, after the mid-1990s,
the EU passed supranational data policies resulting in convergence around
a largely protective data regime based on human rights. The resulting
complex institutional environment calls for uniformity of protection in

3 Supranational legislation refers to policy mandates which were passed through a

majority vote, and include a requirement for policy implementation even among states
that did not vote to affirm the policy. It contrasts with intergovernmental policy, which
passes into law via unanimous acceptance.
4 For the remainder of this book, when I refer to “data”, this refers to digitized personal
and/or cyber data.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Social control: changes in, 31;
and vice, 32;
and advertising, 37;
public opinion and, 38;
and city life, 107;
as type-factors, 143
Social distances, 145
Stock exchange, a measure of mobility, 26

Temperament, and city life, 45

Town-planning, 115
Transportation, an ecological factor, 69

Virgin Islands, changing mental habits of natives, 140

Wanderlust, and the romantic temperament, 158

Wishes, defined, 119
 INDEX TO AUTHORS
Adams, 145
Addams, Jane, 188, 198, 212
Agache, Auburtin, 194
Agache, Redont, 194
Allison, Thomas W., 208
Anderson, Nels, 54, 62, 109, 158, 188
Anthony, Joseph, 225
Arndt, Arno, 200
Arner, G. B. L., 204
Aronovici, Carol, 204, 227
Ashby, A. W., 209
Assessor (pseudonym), 198
Aurousseau, M., 165, 181, 208

Bab, Julius, 188

Bader, Emil, 212
Baer, M., 187
Bagehot, Walter, 17
Bahre, Walter, 217
Bailey, W. B., 214
Baillie, J. B., 138, 139
Baily, W. L., 172
Bajla, W. B., 214
Baker, J. E., 216
Ballard, W. J., 206
Ballod, C., 210
Barron, S. B., 214
Barrows, Harlan H., 166
Bartlett, Dana W., 194
Bassett, E. M., 206
Bauer, L., 210
Bax, E. B., 171
Beard, C. A., 172
Below, George von, 168
Benario, Leo, 218
Benson, E., 171
Bercovici, Konrad, 211
Bernhard, Georg, 187
Bernhard, H., 206
Besant, Walter, 11, 26, 191
Beusch, P. 210
Bierman, Charles, 177
Billings, J. S., 214
Bingham, Robert F., 75, 204
Blanchard, Raoul, 166
Blankenburg, R., 167
Bleicher, H., 214
Böckh, R., 210, 216
Bodine, H. E., 182
Bonne, G., 212
Bookwalter, J. W., 222
Booth, Charles, 188, 226
Bowley, A. L., 210, 223
Bowman, LeRoy E., 200
Brown, Junius Henri, 188
Brown, Robert M., 206
Bruere, Henry, 201
Brunhes, Jean, 65, 178
Brunner, Edmund, deS., 223
Bryce, James, 34, 38
Bryce, P. H., 210
Bücher, Karl, 167, 172
Buchner, Eberhard, 191, 200
Burgess, Ernest W., 64, 144
Burke, Thomas, 191, 218
Burns, Allen T., 227
Busbey, L. W., 223
Buschan, G. H., 212
Bushee, F. A., 206, 208

Cacheux, E., 210

Capes, William Parr, 201
Carbaugh, H. C., 198
Carleton, Will, 219
Carroll, Charles E., 199
Chalmers, Thomas, 212
Cheney, C. H., 193
Cheney, Edward Potts, 168
Chisholm, George G., 166, 183
Classen, W. F., 212, 213
Clemens, Samuel, 42
Clements, F. E., 68, 74
Clerget, Pierre, 170
Clerk (pseudonym), 201
Cleveland, Frederick A., 201
Colze, Leo, 202
Consentius, Ernest, 171
Cook, O. F., 223
Cooley, Charles Horton, 23
Cornish, Vaughn, 178
Cottrell, E. A., 180
Coudenhove-Kalergi, H., 225
Coulanges, Fustel de, 170
Coulton, George Gordon, 171
Cruickshank, J. Graham, 123
Cummin, G. C., 201
Cunningham, William, 167
Cushing, C. P., 182

Damaschke, Adolph, 222

Daniels, John, 190, 191
D’Avenel, G. le Vicomte, 197
Davenport, C. B., 215
Davis, W. S., 170
Day, Clive, 168
Denison, John Hopkins, 188
Desmond, S., 186
Deutsch-German, Alfred (pseudonym), 221
Dewey, John, 199
Dickerman, G. S., 210
Dietrich, Richard, 189
Digby, E., 211
Dillen, Johannes Gerard van, 168
Dittmann, P., 210
Donovan, Frances, 218
Douglass, H. Paul, 68, 208
Dreiser, Theodore, 191
Dublin, Louis I., 215
Dunn, Arthur W., 191

Ebeling, Martin, 172

Eberstadt, Rudolph, 193
Edel, Edmund, 184
Eldridge, Seba, 191
Elmer, Manuel C., 227
Ely, Richard T., 182, 201, 204
Ende, A. von, 173, 174

Faris, J. T., 176

Fassett, Charles M., 196
Fawcett, C. B., 206
Feather, W. A., 206
Febvre, Lucien, 180
Fehlinger, Hans, 215
Felton, Ralph E., 190
Fitzpatrick, Edward A., 198
Flagg, James M., 221
Fleure, Herbert John, 175
Follett, Mary P., 220
Fosdick, Raymond, 198
Fowler, W. W., 170
Fraser, E., 175
Freimark, Hans, 221
Friedländer, L., 170

Galpin, C. J., 182, 183, 223

Gamble, Sidney D., 176, 226
Geddes, Patrick, 176, 194
Geisler, Walter, 181
George, M. Dorothy, 173
George, W. L., 204
Gide, Charles, 180
Gilbert, Arthur Benson, 201
Gilbert, Bernard, 180
Gillette, J. M., 70, 224
Goldmark, Pauline, 189
Goodnow, Frank J., 201
Goodrich, E. P., 197
Goodwin, Frank P., 192
Grahn, E., 196
Grant, James, 219
Gras, Norman S. B., 168, 180
Gray, C. H., 215
Green, Alice S. A., 171
Gregory, W. M., 206
Gross, Charles, 184
Groves, E. R., 210, 224
Guilfoy, W. H., 215
Günther, Viktor, 200

Hadley, A. T., 69
Hammer, Wilhelm, 221
Hammond, Barbara, 218
Hammond, J. L., 218
Hammond, L. J., 215
Hanslik, Erwin, 176
Hapgood, Hutchins, 221
Hare, Augustus J. C., 173, 174
Harmon, G. E., 215
Harper, Charles George, 189
Harris, Emerson Pitt, 197
Harrison, Shelby M., 198, 226, 227
Hassert, Kurt, 166
Haurbeck, L., 216
Haverfield, F. J., 195
Hebble, Charles Ray, 192
Hecht, Ben, 221
Hecke, W., 210
Henderson, C. R., 213
Heron, David, 216
Herschmann, Otto, 200
Herzfeld, Elsa G., 211
Hessel, J. F., 173
Hill, Howard C., 201
Hirschfeld, Magnus, 197, 208
Hoaglund, H. E., 210
Höffner, C., 196
Holborn, I. B. S., 203
Holmes, Samuel J., 215
Homburg, F., 176, 179
Hooker, G. E., 208
Howe, Frederic C., 173, 185, 220
Hughes, W. R., 195
Humphrey, Z., 225
Hunter, Robert, 204
Hurd, Richard M., 204
Hyan, Hans, 218

Irwin, Will, 93, 95, 173

Izoulet, Jean, 169

James, Edmund J., 207

Jastrow, J., 224
Jefferson, Mark, 166, 176, 187, 207, 209
Jenks, A. E., 192
Jephson, H. L., 196
Johnson, Clarence Richard, 173, 226
Johnson, James Welden, 8
Johnson, R., 61
Jones, James Jesse, 190

Kales, Albert M., 185

Katcher, Leopold, 192
Kellogg, Paul U., 179, 226, 227
Kenngott, George F., 179, 226
Kern, Robert R., 193
King, C. F., 178
King, Grace, 174
Kingsbury, J. E., 197
Kirk, William, 173
Kirwan, Daniel Joseph, 189
Knowles, L. C. A., 66, 70
Kübler, Wilhelm, 196
Kühner, F., 216

Lambin, Maria Ward, 200

Lasker, Bruno, 180, 218, 226
Lasson, Alfred, 213
Levainville, Jacques, 183
Lévy-Bruhl, 123 ff.
Lewis, C. F., 216
Lewis, H. M., 197
Lewis, J. N., 216
Lewis, Nelson P., 195
Lippmann, Walter, 85, 93, 97
Loeb, Jacques, 30
Loeb, Moritz, 202
Lohman, K. B., 180
Love, A. G., 215
Lucas, Edw. V., 192
Lueken, E., 184

McCombs, C. E., 224

MacDonough, Michael, 87
McDowall, Arthur, 225
Maciver, R. M., 192
MacKenzie, C., 222
McKenzie, R. D., 190, 201
McLean, Francis H., 179
McMichael, Stanley L., 75, 204
Macpherson, J., 215
McVey, Frank L., 181
Maine, Sir H. A., 181
Manschke, R., 217
Marcuse, Max, 213
Markey, Gene, 222
Marpillero, G., 219
Martell, P., 207
Maunier, René, 169
Maurice, Arthur Bartlett, 192
Maxey, C. C., 185
Mayhew, Henry, 218
Mayr, G. von, 210
Meinshausen, 215
Mensch, Ella (pseudonym), 222
Mercier, Marcel, 177
Meuriot, P. M. G., 167, 211
Miller, H. A., 192
Moore, E. C., 199
Morehouse, E. W., 204
Morgan, Anna, 219
Morgan, J. E., 217
Morgan, W. S., 173
Morse, H. N., 224
Mowrer, Ernest R., 62
Mulvihill, F. J., 185
Mumford, Lewis, 203
Munro, W. B., 60, 201
Myers, C. S., 225

Nichols, C. M., 203

Noack, Victor, 218

Ober, Frederick A., 132

Odum, Howard W., 202
Olcott, George C., 205
Olden, Balder, 187
Ormiston, E., 182
Ostwald, Hans O., 189, 200, 213, 226

Palmer, George T., 227

Park, Robert E., 64, 119, 144, 192, 197, 220
Parker, Horatio Nelson, 203
Payne, George Henry, 89
Pearl, Raymond, 120
Peattie, Roderick, 224
Penck, Albrecht, 187
Perry, Clarence A., 190
Petermann, Theodor, 186
Phelan, John J., 200
Pieper, E., 215
Pirenne, Henry, 172
Pollock, H. M., 173
Pratt, Edward Ewing, 205
Preuss, Hugo, 172
Prinzing, F., 210, 211, 217, 224
Purdom, C. B., 195
Püschel, Alfred, 207

Quaife, Milo Milton, 197

Ratzel, Friedrich, 177

Ravenstein, E. G., 211
Reckless, Walter C., 62
Reeve, Sidney A., 205
Reibmayr, A., 222
Reuter, E. B., 167
Rhodes, Harrison, 176, 200
Richmond, Mary E., 198
Ridgley, Douglas C., 177, 207
Riis, Jacob A., 205
Ripley, W. Z., 209
Roberts, Kate L., 195
Roberts, Peter, 179
Roe, Clifford, 218
Röse, C., 216
Ross, E. A., 223
Rostovtzeff, Michael, 171
Roth, Lawrence V., 207
Rowntree, B. Seebohm, 218, 226
Roxby, P. M., 223

Salten, Felix, 209

Sanborn, Frank B., 179
Sanderson, Dwight, 224
Sarker, S. L., 215
Schäfer, D., 167
Scharrelmann, Heinrich, 189
Schmid, Herman, 209
Schrader, F., 166
Schuchard, Ernest, 213
Schumacher, Fritz, 203, 205
Sears, Charles, 192, 213
Sedlaczek, 207
Seiler, C. Linn, 219
Seligman, Edwin R. A., 189
Semple, Ellen C., 178, 179
Sennett, R. A., 195
Sharp, George W., 213
Shideler, E. H., 62, 203
Shine, Mary L., 181
Simkhovitch, Mark K., 218
Simmel, Georg, 219
Sims, Newell Leroy, 72, 181
Slosson, P., 181
Smith, Adam, 13
Smith, Arthur H., 224
Smith, F. Berkley, 189
Smith, Joseph Russell, 69, 166, 178, 223
Smythe, William Ellsworth, 205
Solenberger, Alice W., 218
Sombart, Werner, 168, 220
Spencer, A. G., 211
Spengler, Oswald, 1, 2, 3, 220
Steele, Rufus, 179
Steffens, Lincoln, 202
Steiner, Jesse F., 213
Steinhart, A., 211
Stella, A., 205
Stelze, Charles, 213
Stephany, H., 212
Stote, A., 195
Stow, John, 172
Strong, Josiah, 173, 213
Strunsky, Simeon, 189
Südekum, Albert, 205
Sumner, Charles, 36

Taylor, Graham Romeyn, 185

Tews, Johann, 199
Theilhaber, F. A., 217
Thomas, William I., 19, 27, 99, 108, 119, 128, 213
Thompson, Warren S., 217
Thorndyke, Lynn, 123
Thrasher, F. M., 62, 111
Thurnwald, R., 224
Timbs, John, 189
Todd, Robert E., 179
Toulmin, Harry A., 202
Tout, T. F., 195
Tower, W. S., 179
Traquair, Ramsay, 73
Trawick, Arcadius McSwain, 199
Triggs, H. Inigo, 195
Triton (pseudonym), 221
Tucker, R. S., 224
Turszinsky, Walter, 199

Uhde-Bernays, Herman, 176

Van Cleef, E., 207

Vandervelde, E., 223
Veblen, Thorstein, 219
Veiller, Lawrence, 205
Villchur, Mark, 81
Voss, W., 211
Vuillenmier, J. F., 225

Waentig, H., 168

Walford, C., 216
Wallas, Graham, 82, 104
Waltemath, E., 223
Ward, Edward J., 199
Warming, Eugenius, 145
Weatherly, U. G., 131
Weber, Adna Ferrin, 57, 207
Weber, G. A., 202
Weber, L. W., 216
Weiberg, W., 216
Weidner, Albert, 219
Weisstein, G., 211
Weleminsky, F., 212
Wells, Joseph, 186
Welton, T. A., 224
Werthauer, Johannes, 189, 214, 219
Weyl, Walter E., 202
Whipple, G. C., 197, 216
Whitbeck, R. H., 182
White, Bouck, 190
Wilcox, Delos F., 185, 202
Williams, Fred V., 192
Williams, James M., 190, 209
Wilson, Warren H., 72, 181, 198
Winter, Max, 209, 220
Wood, Arthur Evans, 179
Woods, Robert A., 7, 154, 189, 212
Woolston, Howard, 220
Wright, Henry C., 177, 184
Wright, R., 185
Wuttke, R., 193

Young Erle Fiske, 190

Zahn, F., 208

Zimmern, Alfred E., 171
Zimmern, Helen, 187
Znaniecki, Florian, 128, 213
Zorbaugh, H. W., 62
Zueblin, Charles, 173, 202

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

1. Oswald Spengler, Der Untergang des Abendlandes, IV (München, 1922),

105.
2. Oswald Spengler, Untergang des Abendlandes, IV, 106.
3. Robert A. Woods, “The Neighborhood in Social Reconstruction,” Papers
and Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the American Sociological
Society, 1913.
4. James Welden Johnson, “The Making of Harlem,” Survey Graphic, March
1, 1925.
5. “Wenn wir daher das Wort [Natur] als einen logischen Terminus in der
Wissenschaftslehre gebrauchen wollen, so werden wir sagen dürfen, dass Natur die
Wirklichkeit ist mit Rücksicht auf ihren gesetzmässigen Zusammenhang. Diese
Bedeutung finden wir z. B. in dem Worte Naturgesetz. Dann aber können wir die
Natur der Dinge auch das nennen was in die Begriffe eingeht, oder am kürzesten
uns dahin ausdrücken: die Natur ist die Wirklichkeit mit Rücksicht auf das
Allgemeine. So gewinnt dann das Wort erst eine logische Bedeutung” (H. Rickert,
Die Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung, p. 212).
6. Walter Besant, East London, pp. 7–9.
7. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, pp. 28–29.
8. Walter Bagehot, The Postulates of Political Economy (London, 1885), pp.
7–8.
9. Cf. W. I. Thomas, Source Book of Social Origins, p. 169.
10. Charles Horton Cooley, Social Organization, p. 15.
11. Walter Besant, East London, p. 13.
12. William I. Thomas, “Race Psychology: Standpoint and Questionnaire with
Particular Reference to the Immigrant and Negro,” American Journal of
Sociology, XVII (May, 1912), 736.
13. Reports of the United States Immigration Commission, VI, 14–16.
14. Jacques Loeb, Comparative Physiology of the Brain, pp. 220–21.
15. Ibid., p. 221.
16. James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, I, 566.
 17. Sumner, Folkways, p. 12.
18. Cf. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, p. 267.
19. “British Conurbations in 1921,” Sociological Review, XIV (April, 1922),
111–12.
20. See E. H. Shideler, The Retail Business Organization as an Index of
Community Organization (in preparation).
21. For a study of this cultural area of city life see Nels Anderson, The Hobo,
Chicago, 1923.
22. Weber, The Growth of Cities, p. 442.
23. Adapted from W. B. Munro, Municipal Government and Administration,
II, 377.
24. Report of the Chicago Subway and Traction Commission, p. 81, and the
Report on a Physical Plan for a Unified Transportation System, p. 391.
25. Data compiled by automobile industries.
26. Statistics of mailing division, Chicago Post-office.
27. Determined from Census Estimates for Intercensal Years.
28. From statistics furnished by Mr. R. Johnson, traffic supervisor, Illinois
Bell Telephone Company.
29. From 1912–23, land values per front foot increased in Bridgeport from
$600 to $1,250; in Division-Ashland-Milwaukee district, from $2,000 to $4,500;
in “Back of the Yards,” from $1,000 to $3,000; in Englewood, from $2,500 to
$8,000; in Wilson Avenue, from $1,000 to $6,000; but decreased in the Loop
from $20,000 to $16,500.
30. Nels Anderson, The Slum: An Area of Deterioration in the Growth of the
City; Ernest R. Mowrer, Family Disorganization in Chicago; Walter C. Reckless,
The Natural History of Vice Areas in Chicago; E. H. Shideler, The Retail Business
Organization as an Index of Business Organization; F. M. Thrasher, One
Thousand Boys’ Gangs in Chicago; a Study of Their Organization and Habitat; H.
W. Zorbaugh, The Lower North Side; a Study in Community Organization.
31. Encyclopedia Americana, New York (1923), p. 555.
32. As indicated later on in this paper, ecological formations tend to develop in
cyclic fashion. A period of time within which a given ecological formation develops
and culminates is the time period for that particular formation. The length of these
time periods may be ultimately measured and predicted, hence the inclusion of the
temporal element in the definition.
33. The word “position” is used to describe the place relation of a given
community to other communities, also the location of the individual or institution
within the community itself.