Lean Six Sigma Measure Phase

86
Lean Six Sigma

Black Belt Training
Measure Phase
Welcome to Measure
Now that we have completed the Define Phase we are going to jump into the Measure Phase.
Here you enter

H t ththe world
ld off measurement,
t where
h you can didiscover th
the ultimate
lti t source off
problem-solving power: data. Process improvement is all about narrowing down to the vital few
factors that influence the behavior of a system or a process. The only way to do this is to
measure and observe your process characteristics and your critical-to-quality characteristics.
Measurement is generally the most difficult and time-consuming phase in the DMAIC
methodology. But if you do it well, and right the first time, you will save your self a lot of trouble
later and maximize your chance of improvement.
Welcome to the Measure Phase - will give you a brief look at the topics we are going to cover.
Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

87
Welcome to Measure
Overview
These are the modules

we will cover in the Welcome
Welcome to
to Measure
Measure
Measure Phase.
Process
Process Discovery
Discovery
Six
Six Sigma
Sigma Statistics
Statistics
Measurement
Measurement System
System Analysis
Analysis
Process
Process Capability
Capability
Wrap
Wrap Up
Up &
& Action
Action Items
Items
DMAIC Roadmap
Process Owner
Champion/
Identify Problem Area
D t
Determine
i Appropriate
A i t Project
P j t Focus
F
Define
Estimate COPQ
Establish Team
Measure
Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems
Identify and Prioritize All X’s

alyze
Prove/ Disprove Impact X’s

X s Have On Problem
Ana
Improve
Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems
Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems

Control
Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return
Verify
y Financial Impact
p
Here is the overview of the DMAIC process. Within Measure we are going to start getting into details about
process performance, measurement systems and variable prioritization.

88
Welcome to Measure
Measure Phase Deployment
Detailed Problem Statement Determined
Detailed Process Mapping
Identify All Process X’s Causing Problems (Fishbone, Process Map)
Select the Vital Few X’s Causing Problems (X-Y Matrix, FMEA)
Assess Measurement System
Y
Repeatable &
Reproducible?
N
Implement Changes to Make System Acceptable
Assess Stability (Statistical Control)
Assess Capability (Problem with Centering/Spread)
Estimate Process Sigma Level
Review Progress with Champion
Ready for Analyze
This provides a process look at putting “Measure” to work. By the time we complete this phase you
will have a thorough understanding of the various Measure Phase concepts
concepts.

89
Lean Six Sigma

Black Belt Training
Measure Phase
Process Discovery
Now we will continue in the Measure Phase with “Process Discovery”.

90
Process Discovery
Overview
Welcome
Welcome to
to Measure
Measure
Process
Process Discovery
Discovery
Cause
Cause &
& Effect
Effect Diagram
Diagram
Detailed
Detailed Process
Process Mapping
Mapping
Cause
Cause and
and Effect
Effect Diagrams
Diagrams
FMEA
FMEA
Six
Six Sigma
Sigma Statistics
Statistics
Measurement
Measurement System
System Analysis
Analysis
Process
Process Capability
Capability
Wrap
Wrap Up
Up &
& Action
Action Items
Items
The purpose of this module is highlighted above. We will review tools to help facilitate Process
Discovery.
This will be a lengthy step as it requires a full characterization of your selected process
process.
There are four key deliverables from the Measure Phase:

(1) A robust description of the process and its workflow
(2) A quantitative assessment of how well the process is actually working
(3) An assessment of any measurement systems used to gather data for making decisions or to
describe the performance of the process
(4) A “short” list of the potential causes of our problem, these are the X’s that are most likely
related to the problem
problem.
On the next lesson page we will help you develop a visual and mental model that will give you
leverage in finding the causes to any problem..

91
Process Discovery
Overview of Brainstorming Techniques
Cause and Effect Diagram

People Machine Method
The Y
The or
Problem
The X’s Problem
Condition
(Causes)
l
Material Measurement Environment Categories
You will need to use brainstorming techniques to identify all possible problems and their causes.
Brainstorming techniques work because the knowledge and ideas of two or more persons is
always greater than that of any one individual.
Brainstorming will generate a large number of ideas or possibilities in a relatively short time.
Brainstorming tools are meant for teams
teams, but can be used at the individual level also
also.
Brainstorming will be a primary input for other improvement and analytical tools that you will use.
You will learn two excellent brainstorming techniques, cause and effect diagrams and affinity
diagrams. Cause and effect diagrams are also called Fishbone Diagrams because of their
appearance and sometimes called Ishikawa diagrams after their inventor.
In a brainstorming session, ideas are expressed by the individuals in the session and written down
without debate or challenge
challenge. The general steps of a brainstorming sessions are:
1. Agree on the category or condition to be considered.

2. Encourage each team member to contribute.
3. Discourage debates or criticism, the intent is to generate ideas and
not to qualify them, that will come later.
4. Contribute in rotation (take turns), or free flow, ensure every member
has an equal opportunity.
5. Listen to and respect the ideas of others.
6. Record all ideas generated about the subject.
7. Continue until no more ideas are offered.
8. Edit the list for clarity and duplicates.

92
Process Discovery
Cause and Effect Diagram A commonly used tool

People Machine Method
to solicit ideas by
using categories to
The Y stimulate cause and
The X’s
The or
Problem
Problem
Condition
effect relationship with
(Causes) a problem. It uses
verbal inputs in a team
l
Material Measurement Environment Categories environment.
Products Categories for the legs of the Transactional

– Measurement diagram can use templates – People
– People for products or transactional – Policy
– Method symptoms Or you can select
symptoms. – Procedure
– Materials the categories by process – Place
– Equipment step or what you deem – Measurement
– Environment appropriate for the situation. – Environment
A cause and effect diagram is a composition of lines and words representing a meaningful
relationship between an effect,
effect or condition
condition, and its causes
causes. To focus the effort and facilitate thought
thought,
the legs of the diagram are given categorical headings. Two common templates for the headings are
for product related and transactional related efforts. Transactional is meant for processes where
there is no traditional or physical product; rather it is more like an administrative process.
Transactional processes are characterized as processes dealing with forms, ideas, people,
decisions and services. You would most likely use the product template for determining the cause of
burnt pizza and use the transactional template if you were trying to reduce order defects from the
order taking process
process. A third approach is to identify all categories as you best perceive them
them.
When performing a cause and effect diagram, keep drilling down, always asking why, until you find
the root causes of the problem. Start with one category and stay with it until you have exhausted all
possible inputs and then move to the next category. The next step is to rank each potential cause by
its likelihood of being the root cause. Rank it by the most likely as a 1, second most likely as a 2 and
so on. This make take some time, you may even have to create sub-sections like 2a, 2b, 2c, etc.
Then come back to reorder the sub-section in to the larger ranking. This is your first attempt at really
finding the Y=f(X); remember the funnel? The top X’s have the potential to be the Critical X’s, those
X’s which exert the most influence on the output Y.
Finally you will need to determine if each cause is a control or a Noise factor. This as you know is a
requirement for the characterization of the process. Next we will explain the meaning and methods
of using some of the common categories.
There may be several interpretations of some of the Process Mapping symbols; however, just about
everyone uses these primary symbols to document processes. As you become more practiced you
will find additional symbols useful, i.e. reports, data storage etc. For now we will start with just these
symbols.

93
Process Discovery
The Measurement category groups causes related to the measurement and

measuring of a process activity or output:
Examples of questions to ask:
• Is there a metric issue? Measurement
• Is there a valid measurement
system? Is the data good
enough?h?
Y
• Is data readily available?
The People category groups root causes related to people, staffing, and
organizations:
Examples
p of q
questions to ask: People
p
• Are people trained, do they
have the right skills?
• Is there person to person
Y
variation?
• Are people over - worked?
The Method category groups root causes related to how the work is done, the
way the process is actually conducted:
Examples
p of q
questions to ask: Method
• How is this performed?
• Are procedures correct?
• What might unusual? Y
The Materials category groups root causes related to parts, supplies, forms or
information needed to execute a process:

• Are bills of material current? Y
• Are parts or supplies obsolete?
• Are there defects in the materials
Materials

94
Process Discovery
The Equipment category groups root causes related to tools used in the process:
• Have machines been serviced recently,
what is the uptime?
• Have tools been properly maintained? Y
• Is there variation?
Equipment
The Environment (a.k.a. Mother Nature) category groups root causes related to
our work environment, market conditions, and regulatory issues.
• Is the workplace safe and
comfortable? Y
• Are outside regulations impacting the
business?
• Does the company culture aid the
process? Environment
Classifying the X’s
The Cause & Effect Diagram is simply a tool to generate opinions

about possible causes for defects.
For each of the X’s identified in the Fishbone diagram classify them
as follows:
– Controllable – C (Knowledge)
– Procedural – P (People, Systems)
– Noise – N (External or Uncontrollable)
Think of procedural as a subset of controllable. Unfortunately, many

procedures within a company are not well controlled and can cause
the defect level to go up. The classification methodology is used to
separate the X’s so they can be used in the X-Y Diagram and the
FMEA taught later in this module.
WHICH X
X’s
s CAUSE DEFECTS?
The Cause and Effect Diagram is an organized way to approach brainstorming. This approach allows
us to further organize ourselves by classifying the X’s into controllable, procedural or noise types.

95
Process Discovery
Chemical Purity Example
Measurement Manpower Materials
Incoming QC (P) Training on method (P) Raw Materials (C)
Measurement Insufficient staff (C)

Method (P) Skill Level (P) Multiple Vendors (C)
Measurement
Capability (C) Adherence to procedure (P) S
Specifications
ifi ti (C)
Work order variability (N)
Chemical
Startup inspection (P) Room Humidity (N) Column Capability (C) Purity
Handling (P) RM Supply in Market (N) Nozzle type (C)
Purification Method (P) Shipping Methods (C) Temp controller (C)
Data collection/feedback
(P)
Methods Mother Nature Equipment
This example of the Cause and Effect Diagram is of chemical purity. Notice how the input variables for
each branch are classified as Controllable, Procedural and Noise.
Cause & Effect Diagram - MINITAB™
Below is a Cause & Effect Diagram for surface flaws. The next few
slides will demonstrate how to create it in MINITAB™.
The Fishbone Diagram shown here for surface flaws was generated in MINITAB™. We will now
review the various steps for creating a Cause and Effect Diagram using the MINITAB™
statistical software package.

96
Process Discovery
Cause & Effect Diagram - MINITAB™
Open the MINITAB™ Project “Measure Data Sets.mpj” and select the worksheet
Surfaceflaws.mtw.
Open the MINITAB™ worksheet “Surfaceflaws.mtw”.
Take a few moments to study the worksheet. Notice the first 6 columns are the classic bones for a
Fishbone. Each subsequent column is labeled for one of the X’s listed in one of the first six columns
and are the secondary bones
bones.
After you have entered the Labels, click on the first field under the “Causes” column to bring up the
list of branches on the left hand side. Next double-click the first branch name on the left hand side to
move “C1 Man” underneath “Causes”.

97
Process Discovery
Cause & Effect Diagram - MINITAB™ (cont.)
To continue identifying
the secondary
branches, select the
button, “Sub…” to the
right of the “Label”
column.
Click on the third field

under “Causes” to
bring up the list of
branches on the left
hand side.
Next double-click the

seventh branch name
on the left hand side to
move “C7 Training”
underneath “Causes”
then select “OK” and
repeat for each
remaining sub branch.
In order to adjust the Fishbone Diagram so the main causes titles are
not rolled grab the line with your mouse and move the entire bone.

98
Process Discovery
Cause & Effect Diagram Exercise
Exercise objective: Create a Fishbone Diagram.
1. Retrieve the high level Process Map for your project

and use it to complete a Fishbone, if possible include
your project team.
Don ’t let the

big one get
away!

99
Process Discovery
Overview of Process Mapping
In order to correctly m a na ge a process,

process you
m ust be a ble to describe it in a w a y tha t ca n be
ea sily understood.
– The preferred method for describing a process is
to identify it with a generic name, show the
workflow with a Process Map and describe its
purpose with an operational description.
– The
Th fifirstt activity
ti it off th
the Measure
M Phase
Ph is
i to
t
adequately describe the process under
investigation.
ct
Sta rt Step A Step B Step C St
Step D Fi i h
Finish
e
sp
In
Process Mapping, also called flowcharting, is a technique to visualize the tasks, activities and steps
necessary to produce a product or a service. The preferred method for describing a process is to
identify it with a generic name, show the workflow with a Process Map and describe its purpose with
an operational description
description.
Remember that a process is a blending of inputs to produce some desired output. The intent of each
task, activity and step is to add value, as perceived by the customer, to the product or service we are
producing. You cannot discover if this is the case until you have adequately mapped the process.
There are many reasons for creating a Process Map:

- It helps all process members understand their part in the process and how their process fits into the
bigger picture
picture.
- It describes how activities are performed and how the work effort flows, it is a visual way of standing
above the process and watching how work is done. In fact, process maps can be easily uploaded into
model and simulation software where computers allow you to simulate the process and visually see
how it works.
- It can be used as an aid in training new people.
- It will show you where you can take measurements that will help you to run the process better.
- It will help
p yyou understand where problems
p occur and what some of the causes may y be.
- It leverages other analytical tools by providing a source of data and inputs into these tools.
- It identifies and leads you to many important characteristics you will need as you strive to make
improvements.
Individual maps developed by Process Members form the basis of Process Management. The
individual processes are linked together to see the total effort and flow for meeting business and
customer needs.
In order to improve or to correctly manage a process, you must be able to describe it in a way that
can be easily understood, that is why the first activity of the Measure Phase is to adequately describe
the process under investigation. Process Mapping is the most important and powerful tool you will
use to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of a process.

100
Process Discovery
Information from Process Mapping

These are more reasons
why Process Mapping is By mapping processes we can identify many important
the most important and characteristics and develop information for other analytical tools:
powerful tool you will
need to solve a problem. 1. Process inputs (X’s)
It has been said that Six 2. Supplier requirements
Sigma is the most 3. Process outputs (Y’s)
efficient problem solving 4. Actual customer needs
methodology
h d l available.
il bl 5
5. All value-added
l dd d andd non-value
l added
dd d process tasks
t k and
d steps
t
This is because work 6. Data collection points
done with one tool sets •Cycle times
up another tool, very little •Defects
information and work is •Inventory levels
wasted. Later you will •Cost of poor quality, etc.
learn to how to further 7. Decision points
use the information and 8. Problems that have immediate fixes
knowledge you gather 9. Process control needs
from Process Mapping.
Process Mapping
There are usually three views

Th
There are usually
ll three
th views
i off a process:
of a process: The first view is
“what you think the process
is” in terms of its size, how
1 2 3 work flows and how well the
process works. In virtually all
What you THINK it is.. What it ACTUALLY is.. What it SHOULD be..
cases the extent and difficulty
of performing the process is
understated.
d t t d
It is not until someone

Process Maps the process
that the full extent and
difficulty is known, and it
virtually is always larger than
what we thought, is more
difficult and it cost more to operate than we realize. It is here that we discover the hidden operations
also. This is the second view: “what the process actually is”.
Then there is the third view: “what it should be”. This is the result of process improvement activities. It
is precisely what you will be doing to the key process you have selected during the weeks between
classes. As a result of your project you will either have created the “what it should be” or will be well
on your way to getting there. In order to find the “what it should be” process, you have to learn
process mapping and literally “walk”
walk the process via a team method to document how it works. This is
a much easier task then you might suspect, as you will learn over the next several lessons.
We will start by reviewing the standard Process Mapping symbols.

101
Process Discovery
Standard Process Mapping Symbols
Standard symbols for process mapping (available in Microsoft

Office™, Visio™, iGrafx™ , SigmaFlow™ and other products):
A RECTANGLE indicates an A PARALLELAGRAM shows

activity. Statements within that there are data
the rectangle should begin
with a verb
A DIAMOND signifies a decision An ELLIPSE shows the start

point.
i t OOnly
l two
t pathsth emerge from
f and end of the process
a decision point: No and Yes
An ARROW shows the A CIRCLE WITH A LETTER OR

1 NUMBER INSIDE symbolizes
connection and direction
th continuation
the ti ti off a
of flow
flowchart to another page
There may be several interpretations of some of the Process Mapping symbols; however, just
about everyone uses these primary symbols to document processes. As you become more
practiced you will find additional symbols useful, i.e. reports, data storage etc. For now we will
start with just these symbols.

102
Process Discovery
Process Mapping Levels
Levell 1 – The
L Th Macro
M Process
P Map,
M sometimes
ti called
ll d a
Management level or viewpoint.
Calls
Customer Take Make Cook Pizza Box Deliver Customer
for
Hungry Order Pizza Pizza Correct Pizza Pizza Eats
Order
Level 2 – The Process Map, sometimes called the Worker level or

viewpoint This example is from the perspective of the pizza chef
viewpoint.
Pizza
Dough
No
Take Order Add Place in Observe Check Yes Remove
from Cashier Ingredients Oven Frequently if Done from Oven 1
Start New
Pizza
Scrap
No
Tape
Pizza Place in Put on
1 Correct Box
Order on Delivery Rack
Yes Box
Level 3 – The Micro Process Map, sometimes called the Improvement

level or viewpoint. Similar to a level 2, it will show more steps and tasks
and on it will be various performance data; yields, cycle time, value and
non value added time, defects, etc.
Before Process Mapping starts, you have to learn about the different level of detail on a Process
Map and the different types of Process Maps. Fortunately these have been well categorized and
are easy to understand.
There are three different levels of Process Maps. You will need to use all three levels and you most
likely will use them in order from the macro map to the micro map. The macro map contains the
least level of detail, with increasing detail as you get to the micro map. You should think of and use
the level of Process Maps in a way similar to the way you would use road maps. For example, if
you want to find a country, you look at the world map. If you want to find a city in that country, you
look at the country map. If you want to find a street address in the city, you use a city map. This is
the general rule or approach for using Process Maps.
Thee Macro
ac o Process
ocess Map,ap, what
at is
s called
ca ed tthe
e Level
e e 1 Map,
ap, sshows
o s tthee big
b g picture,
p ctu e, you will use tthis
s to
orient yourself to the way a product or service is created. It will also help you to better see which
major step of the process is most likely related to the problem you have and it will put the various
processes that you are associated with in the context of the larger whole. A Level 1 PFM,
sometimes called the “management” level, is a high-level process map having the following
characteristics:
Combines related activities into one major processing step

Illustrates where/how the process fits into the big picture
Has minimal detail
Illustrates only major process steps
Can be completed with an understanding of general process steps and the
purpose/objective of the process

103
Process Discovery
Process Mapping Levels (cont.)
The next level is generically called the Process Map

Map. You will refer to it as a Level 2 Map and it
identifies the major process steps from the workers point of view. In the pizza example above,
these are the steps the pizza chef takes to make, cook and box the pizza for delivery. It gives you
a good idea of what is going on in this process, but could can you fully understand why the
process performs the way it does in terms of efficiency and effectiveness, could you improve the
process with the level of knowledge from this map?
Probably not, you are going to need a Level 3 Map called the Micro Process Map. It is also known
as the improvement view off a process. There is however a lot off value in the Level 2 Map,
because it is helping you to “see” and understand how work gets done, who does it, etc. It is a
necessary stepping stone to arriving at improved performance.
Next we will introduce the four different types of Process Maps. You will want to use different
types of Process Maps, to better help see, understand and communicate the way processes
behave.
Types of Process Maps
The Linear-Flow Process Map There are four

Calls
Customer
Hungry
for
Order
Take
Order
Make
Pizza
Cook
Pizza
Pizza
Correct
Box
Pizza
Deliver
Pizza
Customer
Eats types of Process
M
Maps that
th t you will
ill
As the name states, this diagram shows the process steps in a sequential flow, generally ordered
from an upper left corner of the map towards the right side. use. They are the
The Deployment-Flow or Swim Lane Process Map Linear Flow Map,
the deployment or
Customer
Customer Calls for Customer

Hungry Order Eats
Swim Lane Flow
Map, the S-I-P-0-C
Cashier
Take
Map (pronounced
Order
Pizza Box sipoc) and the

Cook
M k
Make C
Cookk
Pizza Pizza Correct Pizza
Value Stream
Map.
Deliverer
Deliver
Pizza
The value of the Swim Lane map is that is shows you who or which department is responsible for
While they all
the steps in a process. This can provide powerful insights in the way a process performs. A
timeline can be added to show how long it takes each group to perform their work. Also each
show how work
time work moves across a swim lane, there is a “Supplier – Customer” interaction. This is usually
where bottlenecks and queues form.
gets done, they
emphasize
different aspects of process flow and provide you with alternative ways to understand the
behavior of the process so you can do something about it. The Linear Flow Map is the most
traditional and is usually where most start the mapping effort.
The Swim Lane Map adds another dimension of knowledge to the picture of the process: Now
you can see which department area or person is responsible. You can use the various types of
maps in the form of any of the three levels of a Process Map.

104
Process Discovery
Process Maps – Examples for Different Processes
L in e a r P r o c e s s M a p fo r D o o r M a n u fa c tu r in g
B e g in P r e p d o o r s In s p e c t P r e -c le a n in g A
R e tu r n
fo r
r e w o r k
M a r k f o r d o o r
In s ta ll in to In s p e c t
A w o r k jig
L ig h t s a n d in g
f in is h
h a n d le B
d r illin g
R e w o r k
D e - b u r r a n d A p p ly p a r t M o v e t o
B D r ill h o le s
s m o o th h o le n u m b e r fin is h in g
C
S c r a t c h F in a l A p p ly s t a in
C In s p e c t In s p e c t E n d
r e p a ir c le a n in g a n d d r y
S c r a p
S w im L a n e P r o c e s s M a p fo r C a p ita l E q u ip
P r e p a r e
Business
D e fin e p a p e r w o r k R e v ie w &
R e c e iv e &
Unit
( C A A R & a p p r o v e
N e e d s in s t a lla tio n C A A R
u s e
r e q u e s t )
R e v ie w &
C o n f ig u r e
I.T.
a p p r o v e
& in s t a ll
s t a n d a r d
Finance
R e v ie w &
Is s u e
a p p r o v e
p a y m e n t
C A A R
Corporate
Top Mgt/
R e v ie w &
a p p r o v e
C A A R
Procurement
A c q u ir e
e q u ip m e n t
S u p p lie r S u p p lie r
Supplier
S h ip s P a id
2 1 d a y s 6 d a y s 1 5 d a y s 5 d a y s 1 7 d a y s 7 d a y s 7 1 d a y s 5 0 d a y s

The SIPOC diagram is The SIPOC “Supplier – Input – Process – Output – Customer”
especially useful after Process Map
you have been able to Suppliers Inputs Process O utputs Custom ers Requirem ents
construct either a Level 1 r ATT Phones

Ph r Pi
Pizza type r See Below r Pi
Price r C k
Cook r C
Complete
l callll < 3 min
i
r r r r Accounting r
or Level 2 Map because
Office Depot Size Order confirmation Order to Cook < 1 minute
r TI Calculators r Quantity r Bake order r Complete bake order
it facilitates your r N EC Cash Register r

r
Extra Toppings
Special orders
r
r
Data on cycle time
Order rate data
r
r
Correct bake order
Correct address
gathering of other r Drink types & quantities r Order transaction r Correct Price
r Other products r Delivery info
pertinent data that is r Phone number
affecting the process in a r

r
Address
N ame
systematic way. It will r Time, day and date
r
help you to better see
Volume
and understand all of the Level 1 Process M a p for Custom er O rder Process
influences affecting the
Call for Answer W rite Confirm Sets Address Order to
behavior and an Order Phone Order Order Price & Phone Cook
performance of the
process. The SIPOC diagram is especially useful after you have been able to construct
either a Level 1 or Level 2 Map because it facilitates your gathering of other
You may also add a pertinent data that is affecting the process in a systematic way.
requirements section
to both the supplier side and the customer side to capture the expectations for the inputs and
the outputs of the process. Doing a SIPOC is a great building block to creating the Level 3
Micro Process Map. The two really compliment each other and give you the power to make
improvements to the process.

105
Process Discovery

The Value Stream Map p is a The Value Stream Map
specialized map that helps Process Steps
Log Route Disposition Cut Check Mail Delivery
you to understand -Computer
-1 Person
-Department
Assignments
-Guidelines
-1 Person
-Computer
-Printer
-Envelops
-Postage
Size of work queue or I I I I I
numerous performance inventory
-1 Person -1 Person -1 Person
metrics associated primarily Process Step

4,300 C/T = 15 sec
Uptime = 0.90
7,000 C/T = 75 sec
Uptime = 0.95
1,700 C/T = 255 sec
Uptime = 0.95
2,450 C/T = 15 sec
Uptime = 0.85
1,840 C/T = 100 sec
Uptime = 0.90
Hours = 8 Hours = 8 Hours = 8 Hours = 8 Hours = 8
with the speed of the Time Parameters Breaks = 0.5
Hours
Breaks = 0.5
Hours
Breaks = 0.5
Hours
Breaks = 0.5
Hours
Breaks = 0.5
Hours
process, but has many

Available =6.75 Available =7.13 Available =7.13 Available =6.38 Available =6.75
Sec. Sec. Sec. Sec. Sec.
Avail. = 24,300 Avail. = 25,650 Avail. = 25,650 Avail. = 22,950 Avail. = 24,300
other important data. While Step Processing Time

Days of Work in 15 sec 75 sec 255 sec 15 sec 100 sec
thi P
this Process M Map level
l l is
i att queue 2.65 days 20.47 days 16.9 days 1.60 days 7.57 days
the macro level, the Value Process Performance

Metrics IPY = 0.92 IPY = .94 IPY = .59 IPY = .96 IPY = .96
Stream Map provides you a Defects = 0.08
RTY = .92
Defects = .06
RTY = .86
Defects = .41
RTY = .51
Defects = .04
RTY = .49
Defects = .04
RTY = .47
lot of detailed performance

Rework = 4.0% Rework = 0.0 Rework = 10% Rework = 0.0 Rework = 0.0
Material Yield = .96 Material Yield = .94 Material Yield = .69 Material Yield = .96 Material Yield = .96
Scrap = 0.0% Scrap = 0.0% Scrap = 0.0% Scrap = 0.0% Scrap = 4.0%
data for the major steps of Aggregate Performance
Metrics
the process. It is great for Cum Material Yield = .96 X .94 X .69 X .96 X .96 = .57 RTY = .92 X .94 X .59 X .96 X .96 = .47
finding bottlenecks in the The Value Stream Map is a very powerful technique to understand the
process.
p velocity of process transactions, queue levels and value added ratios in
both manufacturing and non-manufacturing processes.
Process Mapping Exercise – Going to Work
The purpose of this exercise is to develop a Level 1 Macro, Linear

Process Flow Map and then convert this map to a Swim Lane Map.
Read the following background for the exercise: You have been concerned
about your ability to arrive at work on time and also the amount of time it takes
from the time your alarm goes off until you arrive at work. To help you better
understand both the variation in arrival times and the total time,, you
y decide to
create a Level 1 Macro Process Map. For purposes of this exercise, the start is
when your alarm goes off the first time and the end is when you arrive at your
work station.
Task 1 – Mentally think about the various tasks and activities that you routinely
do from the defined start to the end points of the exercise.
Task 2 – Using a pencil and paper create a linear process map at the macro
level but with enough detail that you can see all the major steps of your
level,
process.
Task 3 – From the Linear Process Map, create a swim lane style Process Map.
For the lanes you may use the different phases of your process, such as the
wake up phase, getting prepared, driving, etc.

106
Process Discovery
A Process Map of Process Mapping
Process Mapping
follows a general Select the process
Create the Level 2 Create a Level 3
PFM PFM
order, but sometimes
you may find it
necessary, even Determine Add Performance
approach to map Perform SIPOC
advisable to deviate the process data
somewhat. However,
you will find this a
good path to follow Complete Level 1
PFM worksheet
Identify all X’s and Identify VA/NVA
Y’s steps
as it has proven itself
to generate
significant results. Identify customer
Create Level 1 PFM
requirements
On the lessons
ahead we will always
show you where you Define the scope Identify supplier
for the Level 2 PFM requirements
are at in this
sequence of tasks
for Process Mapping. Before we begin our Process Mapping we will first start you off with how to
determine the approach to mapping the process.
Basically there are two approaches: the individual and the team approach.
Process Mapping Approach
Select the Using the Individual Approach

process 1. Start with the Level 1 Macro Process Map.
2. Meet with process owner(s) / manager(s). Create a
Level 1 Map and obtain approval to interview
Determine
approach to process members.
map the 3 Starting with the beginning of the process
3. process, pretend
process
you are the product or service flowing through the
process, interview to gather information.
Complete
Level 1 4. As the interview progress, assemble the data into a
PFM Level 2 PFM.
worksheet
5. Verify the accuracy of the Level 2 PFM with the
individuals who provided input.
Create
Level 1
6. Update the Level 2 PFM as needed.
PFM
Using the Team Approach

Define the
scope for 1. Follow the Team Approach to Process Mapping
the Level 2
PFM
If you decide to do the individual approach, here are a few key factors: You must pretend that you are the
product or service flowing through the process and you are trying to “experience” all of the tasks that
h
happen th
through
h the
th various
i steps.
t
You must start by talking to the manager of the area and/or the process owner. This is where you will
develop the Level 1 Macro Process Map. While you are talking to him, you will need to receive permission
to talk to the various members of the process in order to get the detailed information you need.

107
Process Discovery
Process Mapping Approach
Process Mapping
P M i
works best with a Select the Using the Team Approach
team approach. The process 1. Start with the Level 1 Macro Process Map.
2. Meet with process owner(s) / manager(s). Create a
logistics of Level 1 Map and obtain approval to call a process
Determine
performing the approach to mapping meeting with process members (See team
mapping a map the workshop instructions for details on running the
process meeting).
somewhat different, 3. Bring key members of the process into the process
Complete
but it overall it takes Level 1 flow workshop. If the process is large in scope, hold
less time, the quality PFM individual workshops for each subsection of the
worksheet total process. Start with the beginning steps.
of the output is Organize meeting to use the “post-it note approach
higher and you will Create to gather individual tasks and activities, based on
Level 1 the macro map, that comprise the process.
have more “buy-in” PFM 4. Immediately assemble the information that has
into the results. Input been provided into a Process Map.
should come from Define the 5. Verify the PFM by discussing it with process owners
individuals familiar scope for and by observing the actual process from beginning
the Level 2
PFM to end.
with
ith allll stages
t off
process.
Where appropriate the team should include line individuals, supervisors, design engineers, process
engineers, process technicians, maintenance, etc. The team process mapping workshop is where it
all comes together.
Select the The Team Process Mapping Workshop

process 1. Add to and agree on Macro Process Map.
2. Using 8.5 X 11 paper for each macro process step,
Determine tape the process to the wall in a linear style.
approach to 3. Process Members then list all known process tasks
map the that they do on a Post-it note, one process task per
process
note.
• Include the actual time spent to perform each
Complete
Level 1 activity, do not include any wait time or queue
PFM time.
worksheet • List any known performance data that describe
the quality of the task.
Create 4. Place the post-it notes on the wall under the
Level 1 appropriate macro step in the order of the work flow.
PFM 5. Review process with whole group, add additional
information and close meeting.
Define the 6. Immediately consolidate information into a Level 2
scope for Process Map.
the Level 2 7. You will still have to verify the map by walking the
PFM
process
process.
In summary, after adding to and agreeing to the Macro Process Map, the team process mapping
approach is performed using multiple post-it notes where each person writes one task per note and,
when finished, place them onto a wall which contains a large scale Macro Process Map.
This is a very fast way to get a lot of information including how long it takes to do a particular task.
Using the Value Stream Analysis techniques which you will study laterlater, you will use this data to
improve the process. We will now discuss the development of the various levels of Process Mapping.

108
Process Discovery
Steps in Generating a Level 1 PFM

You may y recall that the
preferred method for
describing a process is to Select the Creating a Level 1 PFM
process
identify it with a generic 1. Identify a generic name for the process:
For instance: “Customer order process”
name, describe its purpose 2. Identify the beginning and ending steps of the process:
Determine
with an operational approach to Beginning - customer calls in. Ending – baked pizza given to
map the operations
description and show the process
3. Describe the primary purpose and objective of the process
workflow with a process (operational definition):
Complete
p
map. When
Wh developing
d l i a Level 1 Th purpose off th
The the process is
i to
t obtain
bt i telephone
t l h orders
d for
f
PFM pizzas, sell additional products if possible, let the customer
Macro Process Map, always worksheet know the price and approximate delivery time, provide an
add one process step in front accurate cook order, log the time and immediately give it to the
pizza cooker.
Create
of and behind the area you Level 1 4. Mentally “walk” through the major steps of the process and
believe contains your PFM write them down:
Receive the order via phone call from the customer, calculate
problem as a minimum. To the price, create a build order and provide the order to
Define the
aid you in your start, we have scope for
operations
the Level 2 5. Use standard flowcharting symbols to order and to illustrate
provided yyou with a checklist
p PFM the flow of the major process steps.
steps
or worksheet. You may
acquire this data from
your own knowledge and/or with the interviews you do with the managers / process owners. Once you
have this data, and you should do this before drawing maps, you will be well positioned to
communicate with others and you will be much more confident as you proceed.
A Macro Process Map can be useful when reporting project status to management. A macro-map can
show the scope of the project
project, so management can adjust their expectations accordingly.
accordingly Remember
Remember,
only major process steps are included. For example, a step listed as “Plating” in a manufacturing
Macro Process Map, might actually consists of many steps: pre-clean, anodic cleaning, cathodic
activation, pre-plate, electro-deposition, reverse-plate, rinse and spin-dry, etc. The plating step in the
macro-map will then be detailed in the Level 2 Process Map.
Exercise – Generate a Level 1 PFM
Th purpose off thi

The this exercise
i iis to
t ddevelop
l aL
Levell 1 Li
Linear
Select the Process Flow Map for the key process you have selected as your
process workplace assignment.
Read the following background for the exercise: You will use
Determine your selected key process for this exercise (if more than one
approach to person in the class is part of the same process you may do it as a
map the
process small group). You may not have all the pertinent detail to correctly
put together the Process Map, that is ok, do the best you can.
Complete This will give you a starting template when you go back to do your
Level 1 workplace assignment. In this exercise you may use the Level 1
PFM
worksheet PFM worksheet on the next page as an example.
Create Task 1 – Identify a generic name for the process.

Level 1 Task 2 - Identify the beginning and ending steps of the process.
PFM Task 3 - Describe the primary purpose and objective of the
process ((operational
p p definition).
)
Define the Task 4 - Mentally “walk” through the major steps of the process
scope for and write them down.
the Level 2
PFM Task 5 - Use standard flowcharting symbols to order and to
illustrate the flow of the major process steps.

109
Process Discovery
Exercise – Generate a Level 1 PFM (cont.)
If necessary,
necessary you may look
at the example for the Pizza 1. Identify a generic name for the process:
order entry process.
2. Identify the beginning and ending steps of the process:
3. Describe the primary purpose and objective of the process

(operational definition):
4. Mentally “walk” through the major steps of the process and write
them down:
5. Use standard flowcharting symbols to order and to illustrate the flow

off the
h major
j process steps on a separate sheet
h off paper.
Exercise – Generate a Level 1 PFM Solution
1
1. Identify a generic name for the process:
(I.E. customer order process).
• Identify the beginning and ending steps of the process:

(beginning - customer calls in, ending – pizza order given to the chef).
• Describe the primary purpose and objective of the process (operational

definition):
) ((The p
purpose
p of the p
process is to obtain telephone
p orders for
Pizzas, sell additional products if possible, let the customer know the
price and approximate delivery time, provide an accurate cook order, log
the time and immediately give it to the pizza cooker).
• Mentally “walk” through the major steps of the process and write them
down:
(Receive the order via phone call from the customer, calculate the price,
create a build order and provide the order to the chef).
• Use standard flowcharting symbols to order and to illustrate the flow of

the major process steps on a separate sheet of paper.

110
Process Discovery
Defining the Scope of Level 2 PFM

With a completed Level 1
PFM, you can now “see” Customer Order Process Customer Order Process
where you have to go to get Select the Customer Calls for Take Make Cook Box Deliver Customer
more detailed information. process Hungry Order Order Pizza Pizza Pizza Pizza Eats
You will have the basis for

a Level 2 Process Map.
Determine Pizza
The improvements are in approach to Dough
th details.
the d t il If th
the efficiency
ffi i map the No
process Take Order Add Place in Observe Check Yes Remove
or effectiveness of the from Cashier Ingredients Oven Frequently if Done from Oven 1
process could be
significantly improved by a Complete Start New
Pizza
Level 1
broad summary analysis, PFM Scrap
the improvement would be worksheet No
done already. If you map 1 Pizza Place in
Tape
Order on
Put on
Delivery Rack
the process at an Correct
Yes
Box
Box
Create
actionable level, you can
Level 1
identify the source of PFM The rules for determining the Level 2 Process Map scope:
inefficiencies and defects.
But you need to be careful • From your Macro Process Map, select the area which represents your
about mapping too little an problem.
Define the
area and missing your scope for • Map this area at a Level 2.
problem cause, or mapping the Level 2
PFM • Start and end at natural startingg and stopping
pp g ppoints for a pprocess, in
t large
to l an area in
i detail,
d t il other words you have the complete associated process.
thereby wasting your
valuable time.
The rules for determining the

scope of the Level 2 Process Crea te the
Map: Level 2 PFM Pizza
Dough
a)) Look at your
y Macro Process No
Map, select the area which Take Order Add Place in Observe Check Yes Remove
Perform 1
represents your problem. SIPO C
from Cashier Ingredients Oven Frequently if Done from Oven
b) Map this area at a Level 2.

Start New
c) Start and end at natural Pizza
Identify a ll
starting and stopping points for X ’s a nd Y’s Scrap
a process, in other words you No
have the complete associated Identify

1 Pizza
Correct
Place in
Box
Tape
Order on
Put on
Delivery Rack
Yes Box
process
process. customer
t
requirements
When you perform the process

mapping workshop or do the Identify
supplier
individual interviews, you will requirements
determine how the various tasks

and activities form a complete step. Do not worry about precisely defining the steps, it is not an exact
science, common sense will prevail. If you have done a process mapping workshop, which you will
remember we highly recommended, you will actually have a lot of the data for the Level 3 Micro
Process Map. You will now perform a SIPOC and, with the other data you already have, it will
position you for about 70 percent to 80 percent of the details you will need for the Level 3 Process
Map.

111
Process Discovery
Building a SIPOC
SIPOC diagram for customer-order process:

Create the Suppliers Inputs Process Outputs Customers Requirements
Level 2 PFM r ATT Phones r Pizza type r See Below r Price r Cook r Complete call < 3 min
r Office Depot r Size r Order confirmation r Accounting r Order to Cook < 1 minute
r TI Calculators r Quantity r Bake order r Complete bake order
r NEC Cash Register r Extra Toppings r Data on cycle time r Correct bake order
r Special orders r Order rate data r Correct address
r Drink types & quantities r Order transaction r Correct Price
Perform
r Other products r Delivery info
SIPOC r Phone number
r Address
r Name
r Time da
Time, day and date
r Volume
Identify all X’s
and Y’s
Identify Customer Order:

customer
requirements
Level 1 process flow diagram
Call for Answer Write Confirm Sets Address Order to
an Order Phone Order Order Price & Phone Cook
Identify
y
supplier
requirements
The tool name prompts the team to consider the suppliers (the 'S' in SIPOC) of your process, the
inputs (the 'I') to the process, the process (the 'P') your team is improving, the outputs (the 'O') of
the process and the customers (the 'C') that receive the process outputs.
Requirements of the customers can be appended to the end of the SIPOC for further detail and
requirements are easily added for the suppliers as well.
The SIPOC tool is particularly useful in identifying:
Who supplies inputs to the process?
What are all of the inputs to the process we are aware of? (Later in the DMAIC methodology
you will use other tools which will find still more inputs, remember Y=f(X) and if we are going to
improve Y, we are going to have to find all the X’s.
What specifications are placed on the inputs?
What are all of the outputs of the process?
Who are the true customers of the process?
What are the requirements of the customers?
You can actually begin with the Level 1 PFM that has 4 to 8 high-level steps, but a Level 2 PFM is even
of more value. Creating a SIPOC with a process mapping team, again the recommended method is a
wall exercise similar to your other process mapping workshop. Create an area that will allow the team to
place post-it
post it note additions to the 8.5
8 5 X 11 sheets with the letters S,
S I,
I P,
P O and C on them with a copy of
the Process Map below the sheet with the letter P on it.
Hold a process flow workshop with key members. (Note: If the process is large in scope, hold an
individual workshop for each subsection of the total process, starting with the beginning steps).
The preferred order of the steps is as follows:
1. Identify the outputs of this overall process.
2. Identify the customers who will receive the outputs of the process.
3. Identify
f customers’ preliminary requirements
4. Identify the inputs required for the process.
5. Identify suppliers of the required inputs that are necessary for the process to function.
6. Identify the preliminary requirements of the inputs for the process to function properly.

112
Process Discovery
Identifying Customer Requirements

You are now ready to
identify the customer
requirements for the Create the
Level 2 PFM
outputs you have defined. PROCESS OUTPUT
Process Name
Operational
Definition
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
Customer requirements, 1
Output Data
3 4 5 6 7
Requirements Data
8 9 10
Measurement Data
11 12
Value Data
13
General Data/Information
called VOC, determine

Customer (Name) Metric Measurement VA
System (How is it Frequency of or
Perform Process Output - Name (Y) Internal External Metric LSL Target USL Measured) Measurement Performance Level Data NVA Comments
what are and are not SIPOC
acceptable for each of the

outputs. You may find that
some of the outputs do not Identify all X’s
and Y’s
have requirements or
specifications. For a well
managed process, this is Identify
customer
not acceptable. If this is the requirements
case, you must
ask/negotiate with the
Identify
customer as to what is supplier
acceptable. requirements
There is a technique for

determining the validity of customer and supplier requirements. It is called “RUMBA” standing for:
Reasonable, Understandable, Measurable, Believable and Achievable. If a requirement cannot meet all of
these characteristics, then it is not a valid requirement , hence the word negotiation. We have included the
process for validating
p g customer requirements
q at the end of this lesson.
The Excel spreadsheet is somewhat self explanatory. You will use a similar form for identifying the
supplier requirements. Start by writing in the process name followed by the process operational
definition. The operational definition is a short paragraph which states why the process exists, what it
does and what its value proposition is. Always take sufficient time to write this such that anyone who
reads it will be able to understand the process. Then list each of the outputs, the Y’s, and write in the
customer’s name who receives this output, categorized as an internal or external customer.
Next are the requirements data. To specify and measure something, it must have a unit of measure;
called a metric. As an example, the metric for the speed of your car is miles per hour, for your weight it is
pounds, for time it is hours or minutes and so on. You may know what the LSL and USL are but you may
not have a target value. A target is the value the customer prefers all the output to be centered at;
essentially, the average of the distribution. Sometimes it is stated as “1 hour +/- 5 minutes”. One hour is
the target, the LSL is 55 minutes and the USL is 65 minutes. A target may not be specified by the
customer; if not, put in what the average would be. You will want to minimize the variation from this
value.
value
You will learn more about measurement, but for now you must know that if something is required, you
must have a way to measure it as specified in column 9. Column 10 is how often the measurement is
made and column 11 is the current value for the measurement data. Column 12 is for identifying if this is
a value or non value added activity; more on that later. And finally column 13 is for any comments you
want to make about the output.
You will
Yo ill come back to this form and rank the significance of the o
outputs
tp ts in terms of importance to identif
identify
the CTQ’s.

113
Process Discovery
Identifying Supplier Requirements
The supplier input or

process input identification
and analysis form is nearly Create the
Level 2 PFM
identical to the output form PROCESS INPUT
Process Name
Operational
Definition
just covered. Now you are IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS

1 2
Input Data
3 4 5 6 7
Requirements Data
8 9 10
Measurement Data
11
Value Data
12
the customer, you will Perform Controlled (C)

Process Input- Name (X) Noise (N)
Supplier (Name)
Internal External Metric LSL

Metric
Target USL
Measurement
System (How is it Frequency of Performance
Measured) Measurement Level Data
NV
or
NVA Comments
specify what is required of SIPOC
your suppliers for your

process to work correctly;
Identify all X’s
remember RUMBA – the and Y’s
same rules apply.
You will notice a new Identify

customer
parameter introduced in requirements
column 2. It asks if the input
is a controlled input or an
Identify
uncontrolled input (noise). supplier
requirements
The next topic will discuss
the meaning of these terms.
Later you will come back to this form and rank the importance of the inputs to the success of your
process and eventually you will have found the Critical X’s.
Controllable vs. Noise Inputs
For any process or process Screens in Place
step input, there are two Procedural Oven Clean

Ingredients prepared
Inputs
primary types of inputs:
Controllable - we can exert
influence over them
Uncontrollable - they behave Controllable Key Process
Inputs Process Outputs
as they want to within some
reasonable boundaries. Correct Ingredients
Properly Cooked
Procedural - A standardized Room Temp Pizza Size Hot Pizza >140 deg
set of activities leading to Moisture Content
Ingredient Variation
Noise Inputs Ingredient Types/Mixes
Volume
readiness of a step.
Compliance to GAAP
Every input can be either:
(Generally Accepted Controllable (C) - Inputs can be adjusted or controlled while the process is running (e.g., speed,
Accounting Principals). feed rate, temperature, and pressure)
Procedural (P) - Inputs can be adjusted or controlled while the process is running (e.g., speed,
feed rate, temperature, and pressure)
However, even with the inputs Noise (N) - Things we don’t think we can control, we are unaware of or see, too expensive or too
we define as controllable, we difficult to control (e.g., ambient temperature, humidity, individual)
never exert complete control.

We can control an input within the limits of its natural variation, but it will vary on its own based on
its distributional shape - as you have previously learned. You choose to control certain inputs
because you either know or believe they have an effect on the outcome of the process, it is
inexpensive to do, so controlling it “makes us feel better” or there once was a problem and the
solution (right or wrong) was to exert control over some input.

114
Process Discovery
Controllable vs. Noise Inputs (cont.)

You choose to not control some inputs because you think you cannot control them them, you either know or
believe they don’t have much affect on the output, you think it is not cost justified or you just don’t
know these inputs even exist. Yes, that’s right, you don’t know they are having an affect on the output.
For example, what effect does ambient noise or temperature have on your ability to be attentive or
productive, etc?
It is important to distinguish which category an input falls into. You know through Y=f(X), that if it is a
Critical X, by definition, that you must control it. Also if you believe that an input is or needs to be
controlled then you have automatically implied there are requirements placed on it and that it must be
controlled,
measured. You must always think and ask whether an input is or should be controlled or if it is
uncontrolled.
Exercise – Supplier Requirements
The purpose of this exercise is to identify the requirements for the

Create the
suppliers to the key process you have selected as your workplace
Level 2 PFM assignment.
Read the following background for the exercise: You will use
Perform your selected key process for this exercise (if more than one
SIPOC
person in the class is part of the same process you may do it as a
small ggroup).
p) You may y not have all the p
pertinent detail to correctly
y
identify all supplier requirements, that is ok, do the best you can.
Identify all X’s This will give you a starting template when you go back to do your
and Y’s
workplace assignment. Use the process input identification and
analysis form for this exercise.
Identify
customer Task 1 – Identify a generic name for the process.
requirements
Task 2 - Write an operational description for the process
Task 3 - Complete
p the remainder of the form except
p the Value –
Identify Non value added column.
supplier Task 4 - Report out to the class when called upon,
requirements

115
Process Discovery
The Level 3 Process Flow Diagram
Pi
Pizza
Dough
No
Take Order Add Place in Observe Check Yes Remove
from Cashier Ingredients Oven Frequently if Done from Oven 1
Start New
Pizza
Scrap
No
Tape
Pizza Place in Put on
1 Correct Box
Order on Delivery Rack
Yes Box
Process Name Step Name/Number

PROCESS STEP Process Name Step Name/Number Process Name Step Name/Number
PROCESS STEP PROCESS STEP
OUTPUT IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS PROCESS STEP Process Name Step Name/Number
OUTPUT
1 IDENTIFICATION
3 4 AND
5 ANALYSIS
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 INPUT IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
1 Output Data 3 4 5 Requirements
6 Data7 8 9 Measurement
10 Data 11 Value Data
12 General Data/Information
13 INPUT
1 IDENTIFICATION
2 3 AND4 ANALYSIS
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Customer (Name) Metric 1 Input Data2 3 4 5Requirements
6 Data7 8 9 Measurement 10Data 11 Value Data
12 General Data/Information
13
Output Data Requirements Data Measurement Measurement Data Value
VA Data General Data/Information
Customer (Name) Metric System (How is it Frequency of or VA Input Data Supplier (Name) Metric
Requirements Data Measurement Measurement Data VA
Value Data General Data/Information
Measurement Controlled (C) System (How is it Frequency of Performance or VA
Process Output - Name (Y) Internal External Metric LSL Target USL Measured) Supplier (Name) Metric Measurement
System (How is itMeasurement
Frequency of Performance Level Data NVA or Comments
Process Input- Name (X) Noise Internal
(N) (C) External Metric LSL Target USL Measured)
Controlled it Frequency ofLevel
System (How isMeasurement Data
Performance NVA or Comments
Process Output - Name (Y) Internal External Metric LSL Target USL Measured) Measurement Performance Level Data NVA Comments
Process Input- Name (X) Noise (N) Internal External Metric LSL Target USL Measured) Measurement Level Data NVA Comments
You h
Y have a decision
d i i att thi
this point
i t tto continue
ti with
ith a complete
l t characterization
h t i ti off th
the process you h
have
documented at a Level 2 in order to fully build the process management system or to narrow the effort
by focusing on those steps that are contributing to the problem you want solved.
Usually just a few of the process steps are the root cause areas for any given higher level process
output problem. If your desire is the latter, there are some other Measure Phase actions and tools you
will have to use to narrow the number of potential X’s and subsequently the number of process steps.
To narrow the
T th scope so it is
i relevant
l t tto your problem
bl consider
id ththe ffollowing:
ll i R
Remember
b using
i ththe pizza
i
restaurant as our example for selecting a key process? They were having a problem with overall delivery
time and burnt pizzas. Which steps in this process would contribute to burnt pizzas and how might a
pizza which was burnt so badly it had to be scrapped and restarted effect delivery time? It would most
likely be the steps between “place in oven” to “remove from oven”, but it might also include “add
ingredients” because certain ingredients may burn more quickly than others. This is how, based on the
Problem Statement you have made, you would narrow the scope for doing a Level 3 PFM.
For your project, the priority will be to do your best to find the problematic steps associated with your
Problem Statement. We will teach you some new tools in a later lesson to aid you in doing this. You may
have to characterize a number of steps until you get more experience at narrowing the steps that cause
problems; this is to be expected. If you have the time you should characterize the whole process.
Each step you select as the causal steps in the process must be fully characterized, just as you have
previously done for the whole process. In essence you will do a “mini SIPOC” on each step of the
process as defined in the Level 2 Process Map.Map This can be done using a Level 3 Micro Process Map
and placing all the information on it or it can be consolidated onto an Excel spreadsheet format or a
combination of both. If all the data and information is put onto an actual Process Map, expect the map to
be rather large physically. Depending on the scope of the process, some people dedicate a wall space
for doing this; say a 12 to 14 foot long wall. An effective approach for this is to use a roll of industrial

116
Process Discovery
The Level 3 Process Flow Diagram (Cont.)

grade brown package wrapping paper, which is generally 4 feet wide. Just roll out the length you want,
cut it, place this on the wall and then build your Level 3 Process Map by taping and writing various
elements onto the paper. The value of this approach is that you can take it off the wall, roll it up, take it
with you and then put it back on any wall; great for team efforts.
A Level 3 Process Map contains all of the process details needed to meet your objective: all of the flows,
set points, standard operating procedures (SOPs), inputs and outputs; their specifications and if they are
classified as being controllable or non-controllable (noise). The Level 3 PFM usually contains estimates of
defects per unit (DPU), yield and rolled throughput yield (RTY) and value/non-value
value/non value add. If processing
cycle times and inventory levels (materials or work queues) are important, value stream parameters are
also included.
This can be a lot of detail to manage and appropriate tracking sheets are required. We have supplied
these sheets in a paper and Excel spreadsheet format for your use. The good news is the approach and
forms for the steps are essentially the same as the format for identifying supplier and customer
requirements at the process level. A spreadsheet is very convenient tool and the output from the
spreadsheet can then be fed directly into a C&E matrix and an FMEA (to be described later),
later) also built
using spreadsheets.
You will find the work you have done up to this point in terms of a Level 1 and 2 Process Maps and the
SIPOC will be of use, both from knowledge of the process and actual data.
An important reminder of a previous lesson: You will recall when you were taught about project definition
where it was stated that you should only try to solve the performance of only one process output, at any
one time
time. Because of the amount of detail you can get into for just one Y
Y, trying to optimize more than one
Y at a time can become overwhelming. The good news is that you will have laid all the ground work to
focus on a second and a third Y for a process by just focusing on one Y in your initial project.
Process Inputs (X’s) and Outputs (Y’s)
You are now down at the PROCESS STEP
OUTPUT IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS

step level of the process, 1
Output Data
3 4 5 6 7
Requirements Data
8 9 10
Measurement Data
11 12
Value Data
13
this is what we call the Create a Customer (Name) Metric Measurement

System (How is it Frequency of
VA
or
Level 3 PFM Process Output - Name (Y) Internal External Metric LSL Target USL Measured) Measurement Performance Level Data NVA Comments
improvement view of a
process. Now you do
exactly the same thing
Add
as you did for the overall Performance
process, you list all of data
the input and output

information for steps of
th process you h
the have Identify
f
VA/NVA steps
selected for analysis and
PROCESS STEP
INPUT IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
characterization to solve 1 2
Input Data
3 4 5 6 7
Requirements Data
8 9 10
Measurement Data
11 12
Value Data
13
Supplier (Name) Metric Measurement VA
your problem. To help Process Input- Name (X)

Controlled (C)
Noise (N) Internal External Metric LSL Target USL
System (How is it Frequency of Performance
Measured) Measurement Level Data
or
NVA Comments
you comprehend what

we are trying to
accomplish we have
provided you with
visualization for the
inputs and outputs of the
Pizza restaurant.

117
Process Discovery
Process Inputs (X’s) and Outputs (Y’s) (cont.)
Any process, even a pizza

restaurant process can be C /N Requirements or Specs. Inputs (Xs) Process
characterized. This Ys
visualization shows many N/C 7”, 12”, 16”
N/C 12 meats, 2 veggies, 3 cheese
Size of Pizza
Toppings
of the inputs and outputs N N/A Name
N Within 10 miles Address Order
and their requirements. By N Within area code Phone
Take Order •All fields
complete
using the process and the N 11 AM to 1 AM
N 5 X 52
Time
Day
process step input and N MM/DD,YY Date
output
t t sheets,
h t you gett a
very detail picture about C All fields complete
C Per Spec Sheets
Order
Ingredients •Size
Make Pizza Raw
how your process works. S.O.P Per Rev 7.0 Recipe Pizza
•Weight
•Ingredients
C As per recipe chart 3-1 in Oz. Amounts
Now you have enough data correct
to start making informed

C All fields complete Order
decisions about the C Ingredients per order Raw Pizza
C 350F +/- 5F Oven Temp Cook Pizza •>140F
process performance. The C 10 Min Time Cooked
Pizza •Ingredients
next lesson pages will N 60 per hour max Volume correct
•No burns
describe how you
determine if a process task, activity or step is a value added step or not.
Identifying Waste
When we produce
A
products or services, we
Writes Add to Rewrite
NV
time on Order order
scratch
pad
p
engage process-based Greetings Request

NV
A
No
No
Writes on
Call for an Answer Asks for
activities to transform
and Confirm
Order phone mention order from scratch more?
customer pad order
specials
physical materials, ideas 1

Yes
2
and information into NV
A No
No
Inform Thanks
something valued by Calculate Asks cook Gets customer Another
2 customer Order
price for time of still OK?
address & 3 & hangs call
estimate price/time phone # up waiting
Yes
customers. Some NV
A Yes
Writes
time on
activities in the process Create a
Level 3 •Each process activity can be tested for
Yes
1
scratch
pad New
order?
its value-add contribution
generate true value
value, PFM N
No
A
others do not. The •Ask the following two questions to NV Completes
order from
3
Add identify non-value added activity: from note
pad
expenditure of resources, Performance –Is the form, fit or function of the A
data work item changed as a result of OK NV
capital and other this activity?
Give order to
Cook
Verify
with
notes
Not
energies that do not Identify
–Is the customer willing to pay for OK
this activity? A
generate value is VA/NVA
steps
NV
Rewrite
Order
considered waste. Value

generation is any activity
that changes the form, fit or function of what we are working on in a way that the customer is willing to
pay for. The goal of testing for VA vs. NVA is to remove unnecessary activity (waste) from a process.
Hint: If an action starts with the two letters “re” it’s a good chance that it’s a form of waste, i.e. rework,
replace, review, etc.
Some non-value activities cannot be removed; i.e., data collection is required to understand and plan
production activity
p y levels,, data must be collected to comply
p y with g
governmental regulations,
g , etc. ((even
though the data have no effect on the actual product or service)
On the process flow diagram we place a red X through the steps or we write NVA or VA by each step.

118
Process Discovery
Definition of X-Y Diagram
The X-Y Diagram is a great tool to • The X-Y diagram

g is:
help us focus, again it is based on – A tool used to identify/collate potential X’s and assess their
team experience and “Tribal” relative impact on multiple Y’s (include all Y’s that are
knowledge. At this point in the customer focused)
project that is great although it – Based on the team’s collective “opinions”
should be recognized that this is
– Created for every project
NOT hard data. As you progress
through the methodology don’t be – Never completed
surprised if you find out through – Updated
U d t d whenever
h a parameter t is
i changed
h d
data analysis that what the team
thought might be critical turns out • To summarize, the X-Y is a team-based prioritization tool for the
to be insignificant. potential X’s
The great thing about the X-Y
Diagram is that it is sort of an • WARNING! This is not real data, this is organized
unbiased way to approach brainstorming!!
g At the conclusion of the pproject
j yyou mayy realize
definition around the process and that the things you thought were critical are in fact not as
WILL give you focus. important as was believed.
The Vital Few
A Six Sigma Belt does not just discover which X’s are important in
a process (the vital few).
– The team considers all possible X’s that can contribute or
cause the problem observed.
– The team uses 3 primary sources of X identification:
• Process
ocess Mapping
app g
• Fishbone Analysis
• Basic Data Analysis – Graphical and Statistical
– A List of X’s is established and compiled.
– The team then prioritizes which X’s it will explore first, and
eliminates the “obvious” low impact X’s from further
consideration.
The X-Y Diagram is this Prioritization Tool!
This is an important tool for the many reasons we have already stated. Use it to your benefit,
leverage the team and this will help you progress you through the methodology to accomplish your
ultimate project goal.

119
Process Discovery
The “XY Diagram”
This is the X-Y Diagram. You should have a copy of this template. If possible open it and get
familiar with it as we progress through this section.
Using the Classified X’s

Xs
• Breakthrough requires dealing primarily with controllable X’s

impacting the “Y”.
• Use the controllable X’s from the Fishbone analysis to include in the
g
X-Y Diagram.
• The goal is to isolate the vital few X’s from the trivial many X’s.
• Procedures and Noise X’s will be used in the FMEA at the end of
this module. However:
– All procedures must be in total compliance.
• This mayy require
q some type
yp of effectiveness measure.
• This could reduce or eliminate some of the defects currently seen in
the process (allowing focus on controllable X’s).
– Noise type inputs increase risk of defects under current
technology of operation and therefore:
• Increase RPN on the FMEA document from an input.
• Help identify areas needing investment for a justified ROI.
*Risk Priority Number

120
Process Discovery
X-Y Diagram: Steps
Li t X’s
List X’ from
f Fishbone
Fi hb Diagram
Di in
i horizontal
h i t l rows
Use your Fishbone Diagram as the source and type in the Inputs in this section, use common sense,
some of the info from the Fishbone may not justify going into the X-Y inputs.
Enter your primary metric

and any other secondary
List Y’s in columns (including Primary and Secondary metrics).
metrics across into this Weight the Y’s on a scale of 1-10 (10 - highest and 1- lowest).
area. Weight these output
variables (Y’s) on a scale
of 1-10 you may find that
some have the same
weight which is just fine.
If, at this time, additional
metrics come to the
surface, which is totally
common, you may realize
that you need to add
secondary metrics to your
project or even refine your
primary metric.

121
Process Discovery
X-Y Diagram: Steps (cont.)

For each X listed along the left
left, F eachh X listed,
For li t d rankk itits effect
ff t on eachh metric
t i bbasedd on a scale
l off 11, 3 or 99.
rank its effect on each
– 9 = Highest
corresponding metric based on
– 3 = Marginal
a scale of 0, 1, 3 or 9. You can
use any scale you choose – 1 = None
however we recommend this
on. If you use a scale of 1 to 10
this can cause uncertainty
within
i hi the
h team…is i iit a 6 or a 7,
what’s the difference, etc.?
The template we have provided

automatically calculates and “Ranking” multiplies the rank of each X by the Weight of each Metric.
The product of that is added together to become the “Ranking”.
sorts the ranking shown here.

122
Process Discovery
Example
Click the Demo button to see an example. Shown here is a basic

example of a completed X-Y
Diagram. You can click
“Demo” on your template to
view this anytime.
Example
This is the summary
worksheet. If you click Click the Summary Worksheet
on the “Summary” tab
you will see this output.
Take some time to YX Diagram Summary
review the worksheet. Process: laminatingg
Date: 5/2/2006 Input Matrix Results
100.00%
Output Variables Input Variables 90.00%
80.00%
Description Weight Description Ranking Rank %
Output (Y's)
70.00%
60.00%
broken 10 temperature 162 14.90% 50.00%
40.00%
unbonded area 9 human handling 159 14.63% 30.00%
20.00%
smears 8 material properties 130 11.96% 10.00%
0.00%
thickness 7 washer 126 11.59%
temperature
time
clean room cleanliness
material properties
pressure
foreign material 6 pressure 120 11.04%

0 robot handling 120 11.04%
0 time 102 9.38%
0 clean room practices 90 8 28%
8.28% Input Summary
0 clean room cleanliness 78 7.18% Input (X's)
0 - 0.00%

123
Process Discovery
Fishbone Diagram Exercise
Ex ercise objective: Create an X-Y diagram

using the information from the Fishbone
analysis.
1. Using the Fishbone Diagram created earlier, create

an X
X-Y
Y diagram.
diagram
2. Present results to your mentor.
Definition of FMEA
Failure Modes Effect
Analysis or FMEA Failure Modes Effect Analysis (FMEA) is a structured approach to:
[*usually pronounced • Predict failures and pprevent their occurrence in manufacturingg
as F-M-E-A (individual
and other functional areas which generate defects.
letters) or FEMA** (as
a word)] is a structured • Identify the ways in which a process can fail to meet critical
approach to: read customer requirements (Y).
bullets. FMEA at this
point is developed with • Estimate the Severity, Occurrence and Detection (SOD) of
tribal knowledge with a defects
cross-functional
cross functional team.
team • Evaluate the current control plan for preventing these failures
Later using process from occurring and escaping to the customer.
data the FMEA can be
updated and better • Prioritize the actions that should be taken to improve and control
estimates of detection the process using a Risk Priority Number (RPN).
and occurrence can be
obtained. The FMEA is
not a tool to eliminate Give
G ve mee an
a “F”,
F , give
g ve mee an
a “M”……
M
X’s but rather control
the X’s. It is only a tool
to identify potential X’s
and prioritize the order
in which the X’s should
be evaluated.

124
Process Discovery
History of FMEA
History of FM EA:
• First used in the 1960’s in the Aerospace industry during the
Apollo missions
• In 1974 the N avy developed MIL-STD-1629 regarding the use of
FMEA
• In the late 1970’s
1970 s, automotive applications driven by liability
costs, began to incorporate FMEA into the management of their
processes
• Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) now maintains the
FMEA standard for both Design and Process FMEA’s
The “edge of your seat” info on the history of the FMEA! I’m sure you will all be sharing this with
everyone tonight at the dinner table!
Types of FMEA’s
There are many diff

Th differentt • System FMEA: Performed on a product or service product at the early
types of FMEA’s. The concept/design level when various modules all tie together. All the module level
basic premise is the FMEA’s tie together to form a system. As you go lower into a system more failure
modes are considered.
same.
– Example: Electrical system of a car, consists of the following modules:
battery, wiring harness, lighting control module, and alternator/regulator.
– System FMEA focuses on potential failure modes associated with the
modules of a system caused by design
• Design DFMEA: Performed early in the design phase to analyze product fail
modes before they are released to production. The purpose is to analyze how
fail modes affect the system and minimize them. The severity rating of a fail
mode MUST be carried into the Process PFMEA.
• Process PFMEA: Performed in the early quality planning phase of

manufacturing to analyze fail modes in manufacturing and transactional
processes that may escape to the customer. The failure modes and the potential
sources of defects are rated and corrective action taken based on a pareto
analysis ranking.
• Equipment FMEA: used to analyze failure modes in the equipment used in a

process to detect or make the part.
– Example: Test Equipment fail modes to detect open and short circuits.

125
Process Discovery
Purpose of FMEA
FMEA’s:
• Improve the quality, reliability, and safety of products.
• Increase customer satisfaction.

satisfaction
• Reduce product development time and cost.
• Document and track actions taken to reduce risk and

improve the process.
process
• Focus on continuous problem prevention not problem

solving.
Who Creates FMEAs and When?
FMEA’s are a team tool like

most in this phase of the Who When
methodology. They are • Process FMEAs should be started:
• The focused team working
applicable
pp is most everyy
on a breakthrough project
project. • At the conceptual design phase
phase.
project, manufacturing or
• Process FMEAs should be updated:
service based. • ANYONE who had or has a
• When an existing design or process
role in defining, executing,
For all intensive purposes is being changed.
or changing the process.
they will be used in • When carry-over designs or
conjunction with your • This includes: processes will be used in new
problem solving project to applications and environments.
• Associates
characterize and measure • When a pproblem solvingg studyy is
• Technical Experts completed and needs to be
process variables. In some
• Supervisors documented.
cases the FMEA will
manifest itself as a • System FMEAs should be created after
• Managers system functions are defined but before
management tool when the
• Etc. specific hardware is selected.
project concludes and in
• Design FMEAs should be created when
some cases it will not be
new systems, products and processes are
appropriate to be used in being designed.
that nature.

126
Process Discovery
Why Create an FMEA?
A a means to
As t manage… FMEA s help you manage
FMEA’s
RISK by classifying your
RISK!!!
process inputs and monitoring
their effects. This is extremely
important during the course of
your project work.
We want to avoid causing failures in the Process as well as the

Primary & Secondary Metrics .
The FMEA…
This is an FMEA
FMEA. We have provided a template for you to use.
use
# Process Potential Potential S C Potential O Current D R Recommen Responsibl Taken S O D R

Functio Failure Failure E l Causes of C Process E P d Actions e Person & Action E C E P
n Modes Effects V a Failure C Controls T N Target s V C T N
((Step)
p) (process (Y's) s (X's) Date
defects) s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

127
Process Discovery
FMEA Components…#
The first column

Function Failure Failure E l Causes of C Process E P d Actions e Person & Action E C E P highlighted here is the
(Step) Modes Effects V a Failure C Controls T N Target s V C T N “Process Step
(process (Y's) s (X's) Date
defects) s Number”.
The first column is the Process Step Number.

1
2
3
4
5
Etc.
FMEA Components…Process Step
The second
Th d column
l iis
the Name of the Process # Process
Function
Potential
Failure
Potential
Failure
S
E
C
l
Potential
Causes of
O
C
Current
Process
D R
E P
Recommen
d Actions
Responsibl
e Person &
Taken
Action
S O D R
E C E P
Step. The FMEA should (Step) Modes
(process
Effects
(Y's)
V a
s
Failure
(X's)
C Controls T N Target
Date
s V C T N
sequentially follow the defects) s
steps documented in
your Process Map.
Phone Enter the Name of the Process Step here. The FMEA should
Dial Number sequentially
ti ll ffollow
ll ththe steps
t d
documented
t d iin your Process
P Map.
M
Listen for Ring Phone
Say Hello Dial Number
Introduce Yourself Listen for Ring
Etc. Say Hello
Introduce Yourself
Etc.

128
Process Discovery
FMEA Components…Potential Failure Modes
The third column to the mode

Functio Failure Failure E l Causes of C Process E P d Actions e Person & Action E C E P in which the process could
(Step) (process (Y's) s (X's) Date potentially fail. These are the
defects) s
defects caused by a C, P or N
factor that could occur in the
Process.
This refers to the mode in which the process could potentially fail.
These are the defects caused by a C,P or N factor that could occur
in the Process.
Process
This information is obtained from Historical Defect Data.
FYI..A failure mode is a fancy name for a defect.
FMEA Components…Potential Failure Effects
The fourth column

highlighted here is # Process Potential Potential S C Potential O Current D R Recommen Responsibl Taken S O D R
simply the effect of Functio Failure Failure E l Causes of C Process E P d Actions e Person & Action E C E P
realizing the potential (process (Y's) s (X's) Date
(Step)
failure mode on the defects) s
overall process and is
focused on the output
of each step.
This information is
usually obtained from This is simply the effect of realizing the potential failure
your Process Map.
mode on the overall process. It focuses on the outputs
of each step.
This information can be obtained in the Process Map.

129
Process Discovery
FMEA Components…Severity (SEV

(Step) (process (Y's) s (X's) Date
defects) s
This ranking should be developed based on the teams knowledge of

the process in conjunction with the predetermined scale.
The measure of Severity is a financial measure of the impact to the
business of realizing a failure in the output.
The fifth column highlighted here is the ranking that is developed based on the team’s knowledge of the
process in conjunction with the predetermined scale.
Severity is a financial measure of the impact to the business of a failure in the output.
Ranking Severity
The Automotive Industry Action Group, a consortium of the “Big Three”: Ford, GM and Chrysler
developed this criteria. If you don’t like it develop one that fits your organization; just make sure it’s
standardized so everyone uses the same scale.
Effect Criteria: Severity of Effect Defined Ranking

Hazardous: May endanger the operator. Failure mode affects safe vehicle operation and/or 10
Without involves non
non-compliance
compliance with government regulation
regulation. Failure will occur WITHOUT
Warning warning.
Hazardous: May endanger the operator. Failure mode affects safe vehicle operation and/or 9
With Warning involves non-compliance with government regulation. Failure will occur WITH
warning.
Very High Major disruption to the production line. 100% of the product may have to be scrapped. 8
Vehicle/item inoperable, loss of primary function. Customers will be very dissatisfied.
High Minor disruption to the production line. The product may have to be sorted and a portion 7
(less than 100%) scrapped. Vehicle operable, but at a reduced level of
performance. Customers will be dissatisfied.
Moderate Minor disruption to the production line. A portion (less than 100%) may have to be 6
scrapped (no sorting)
sorting). Vehicle/item operable
operable, but some comfort/convenience
item(s) inoperable. Customers will experience discomfort.
Low Minor disruption to the production line. 100% of product may have to be re-worked. 5
Vehicle/item operable, but some comfort/convenience item(s) operable at a
reduced level of performance. Customers will experience some dissatisfaction.
Very Low Minor disruption to the production line. The product may have to be sorted and a 4
portion (less than 100%) re-worked. Fit/finish/squeak/rattle item does not
conform. Most customers will notice the defect.
Minor Minor disruption to the production line. A portion (less than 100%) of the product may 3
have to be re-worked online but out-of-station. Fit/finish/squeak/rattle item
does not conform. Average customers will notice the defect.
Very Minor Minor disruption to the production line. A portion (less than 100%) of the product may 2
have to be re-worked online but in-station. Fit/finish/squeak/rattle
q item does
not conform. Discriminating customers will notice the defect.
None No effect. 1
* Potential Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Reference Manual, 2002. Pgs 29-45. Chrysler
Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.

130
Process Discovery
Applying Severity Ratings to Your Process
• The guidelines presented on the previous slide were developed for

the auto industry.
• This was included only as a guideline....”actual results may vary” for
your project.
• Your severity may be linked to impact on the business or impact on
the next customer, etc.
You will
Y ill need
d to
t define
d fi your own criteria…
it i …
criteria
and be consistent throughout your FMEA
Let’s brainstorm how we might define the following SEVERITY

levels in our own projects:
1, 5, 10
The actual definitions of the severity are not so important as the fact that the team remains
consistent in its use of the definitions. Below is a sample of transactional severities.
Sample Transactional Severities
Effect Criteria: Impact of Effect Defined Ranking
Critical Business May endanger company’s ability to do business. Failure mode affects process
10
Unit-wide operation and / or involves noncompliance with government regulation.
Critical Loss - May endanger relationship with customer. Failure mode affects product delivered
Customer and/or customer relationship due to process failure and/or noncompliance with 9
Specific government regulation.
Major disruption to process/production down situation. Results in near 100%
High 7
rework or an inability to process. Customer very dissatisfied.
Moderate disruption to process. Results in some rework or an inability to process.
Moderate Process is operable, but some work arounds are required. Customers experience 5
dissatisfaction.
Minor disruption to process. Process can be completed with workarounds or
Low rework at the back end. Results in reduced level of performance. Defect is 3
noticed and commented upon by customers.
Minor disruption to process. Process can be completed with workarounds or
Minor rework at the back end. Results in reduced level of performance. Defect noticed 2
internally, but not externally.
None No effect. 1
Shown here is an example for severity guidelines developed for a financial services company.

131
Process Discovery
FMEA Components…Classification “Class”

defects) s
Class should categorize each step as a…

Controllable (C)
Procedural (P)
Noise (N)
This information can be obtained in the Process Map.
Controllable – A factor that can be dialed into a specific setting/value. For example Temperature or
Flow.
Procedures – A standardized set of activities leading to readiness of a step. For example Safety
Compliance, “Lock -Out Tag-Out.”
Noise - A factor that can not be dialed in to a specific setting/value.
setting/value For example rain in a mine
mine.
Recall the classifications of Procedural, Controllable and Noise developed when constructing your
Process Map and Fishbone Diagram? Use those classifications from the Fishbone in the “Class”
column, highlighted here, in the FMEA.
P t ti l C
Potential Causes off F
Failure
il (X’s)
(X’ )

defects) s
Potential Causes of the Failure refers to how the failure could occur.
This information should be obtained from the Fishbone Diagram.
The column “Potential Causes of the Failure”, highlighted here, refers to how the failure could
occur.
This should also be obtained from the Fishbone Diagram.

132
Process Discovery
FMEA Components…Occurrence “OCC”
The column “Occurrence”

Occurrence
# Process Potential Potential S C Potential O Current D R Recommen Responsibl Taken S O D R highlighted here, refers to
Function Failure Failure E l Causes of C Process E P d Actions e Person & Action E C E P
(Step) Modes Effects V a Failure C Controls T N Target s V C T N how frequently the specified
(process (Y's) s (X's) Date failure is projected to occur.
defects) s
This information should be
obtained from Capability
Studies or Historical Defect
Data in conjunction with the
Occurrence refers to how frequently the specified failure is projected predetermined scale.
to occur.
This information should be obtained from Capability Studies or
Historical Defect Data - in conjunction with the predetermined scale.
Ranking Occurrence
Probability of Failure Possible Failure Rates Cpk Ranking
Very High: Failure is almost 1 in 2 < 0.33 10

inevitable.
1 in 3 ³ 0.33 9
High: Generally associated with
1 in 8 ³ 0.51 8
processes similar to previous
processes that have often failed.
1 in 20 ³ 0.67 7
Moderate: Generally associated 1 in 80 ³ 0.83 6

with processes similar to previous
processes that have experienced 1 in 400 ³ 1.00 5
occasional failures but not in major
proportions. 1 in 2,000 ³ 1.17 4
Low: Isolated failures associated

1 in 15,000 ³ 1.33 3
with similar processes.
Very Low: Only isolated failures
associated with almost identical 1 in 150,000 ³ 1.5 2
processes.
Remote: Failure is unlikely
unlikely. No
failures ever associated with almost 1 in 1,500,000 ³ 1.67 1
identical processes.
Potential Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Reference Manual, 2002. Pg. 35.. Chrysler Corporation, Ford
Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
developed these Occurrence rankings.

133
Process Discovery
FMEA Components…Current Process Controls

(Step) Modes Effects V a Failure C Controls T N Target s V C T N
defects) s
Current Process Controls refers to the three types of controls that are
in place to prevent a failure in with the X’s. The 3 types of controls are:
•SPC (Statistical Process Control)
•Poke-Yoke – (Mistake Proofing)
•Detection after Failure
Ask yourself “how do we control this defect?”
The column “Current Process Controls” highlighted here refers to the three types of controls that are
in place to prevent a failures.
FMEA Components…Detection
Components Detection (DET)

defects) s
Detection is an assessment of the probability that the proposed type

of control will detect a subsequent failure mode.
This information should be obtained from your Measurement System

Analysis Studies and the Process Map. A rating should be assign in
conjunction with the predetermined scale.
The “Detection” highlighted here is an assessment of the probability that the proposed type of
control will detect a subsequent failure mode.

134
Process Discovery
Ranking Detection
Criteria: The likelihood that the existence of a defect will

Detection be detected by the test content before the product Ranking
advances to the next or subsequent process
Almost Impossible Test content must detect < 80% of failures 10
Very Remote Test content must detect 80% of failures 9
Remote Test content must detect 82.5% of failures 8
Very Low Test content must detect 85% of failures 7
Low Test content must detect 87.5% of failures 6
Moderate Test content must detect 90% of failures 5
Moderately High Test content must detect 92.5% of failures 4
High Test content must detect 95% of failures 3
Very High Test content must detect 97.5% of failures 2
Almost Certain Test content must detect 99.5% of failures 1
Potential Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), AIAG Reference Manual, 2002 Pg. 35.. Chrysler Corporation,
Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
developed these Detection criteria.
Risk Priority Number “RPN”
The “The Risk Priority

Number” highlighted here is # Process
Functio
Potential
Failure
Potential
Failure
S C
E l
Potential
Causes of
O Current
C Process
D R
E P
Recomme
nd Actions
Responsibl
e Person &
Taken
Action
S O D R
E C E P
a value that will be used to n Modes Effects V a Failure C Controls T N Target s V C T N
rank order the concerns defects) s
from the process.
We provided you with a

template which will The Risk Priority Number is a value that will be used to rank order
automatically calculate this the concerns from the process.
for you based on your
inputs for Severity,
Occurrence and Detection
Detection. The RPN is the product of,
of Severity,
Severity Occurrence and Detect ability
as represented here…
RPN = (SEV)*(OCC)*(DET)

135
Process Discovery
FEMA Components…Actions

defects) s
Recommended Actions refers to the activity for the prevention of a

defect.
Responsible Person & Date refers to the name of the group or person
responsible for completing the activity and when they will complete it.
Taken Action refers to the action and effective date after it has been
completed.
The columns highlighted here are a type of post FMEA. Remember to update the FMEA throughout
your project, this is what we call a “Living Document” as it changes throughout your project.
FMEA Components…Adjust RPN

defects) s
Once the Recommended Actions, Responsible Person & Date,

T k Action
Taken A ti have
h beenb completedl t d the
th Severity,
S it Occurrence
O andd
Detection should be adjusted. This will result in a new RPN rating.
The columns highlighted here are the adjusted levels based on the actions you have taken within the
process.

136
Process Discovery
FMEA Exercise
Exercise objective: Assemble your team in order

to create a FMEA using the information
generated from the Process Map, Fishbone
Diagram and X-Y Diagram.
1. Be prepared to present results to your mentor.
OK Team,
Team let’s
get that FMEA!

137
Process Discovery
At this point, you should be able to:
Create a high-level Process Map
Create a Fishbone Diagram
Create an X-Y Diagram
Create an FMEA
Describe the purpose of each tool and when it should be used
You have now completed Measure Phase – Process Discovery.
Notes

138
Lean Six Sigma

Black Belt Training
Measure Phase
Six Sigma Statistics
Now we will continue in the Measure Phase with “Six Sigma Statistics”.

139
Overview
In this module you will learn how your
processes speak to you in the form of W
Welcome
l
Welcome to
tto Measure
M
Measure
data. If you are to understand the Process
Process Discovery
Discovery
behaviors of your processes, then you
Six
Six Sigma
Sigma Statistics
Statistics
must learn to communicate with the
process in the language of data. Basic
Basic Statistics
Statistics
Descriptive
Descriptive Statistics
The field of statistics provides the tools Statistics
and techniques
q to act on data,, to turn Normal
Normal Distribution
Distribution
data into information and knowledge Assessing
Assessing Normality
Normality
which you will then use to make Special
Special Cause
Cause // Common
Common Cause
Cause
decisions and to manage your
processes. Graphing
Graphing Techniques
Techniques
Measurement
Measurement System
System Analysis
Analysis
The statistical tools and methods that
you will need to understand and Process
Process Capability
Capability
optimize your processes are not
Wrap
Wrap Up
Up &
& Action
Action Items
Items
difficult. Use of Excel spreadsheets or
specific statistical analytical software
has made this a relatively easy task.
In this module you will learn basic, yet powerful analytical approaches and tools to increase your
ability to solve problems and manage process behavior.
Purpose of Basic Statistics
The purpose of Basic Statistics is to:

• Provide a numerical summary of the data being analyzed.
– Data (n)
• Factual information organized for analysis.
• Numerical or other information represented in a form suitable for processing by
computer
• Values from scientific experiments.
• Provide the basis for making inferences about the future.
• Provide the foundation for assessing process capability.
• Provide a common language to be used throughout an organization to
describe processes.
Relax….it won’t
be that bad!
Statistics is the basic language of Six Sigma

Sigma. A solid understanding of Basic Statistics is the foundation
upon which many of the subsequent tools will be based.
Having an understanding of Basic Statistics can be quite valuable to an individual. Statistics however,
like anything, can be taken to the extreme.

140
Purpose of Basic Statistics (Cont.)
But it is not the need or the intent of this course to do that

that, nor is it the intent of Six Sigma
Sigma. It can
be stated that Six Sigma does not make people into statisticians, rather it makes people into
excellent problem solvers by using appropriate statistical techniques.
Data is like crude oil that comes out of the ground. Crude oil is not of much good use. However if
the crude oil is refined many useful products occur; such as medicines, fuel, food products,
lubricants, etc. In a similar sense statistics can refine data into usable “products” to aid in decision
making, to be able to see and understand what is happening, etc
Statistics is broadly used by just about everyone today. Sometimes we just don’t realize it. Things
as simple as using graphs to better understand something is a form of statistics, as are the many
opinion and political polls used today. With easy to use software tools to reduce the difficulty and
time to do statistical analyses, knowledge of statistics is becoming a common capability amongst
people.
An understanding of Basic Statistics is also one of the differentiating features of Six Sigma and it
would
ld nott b
be possible
ibl without
ith t th
the use off computers
t andd programs liklike MINITAB™
MINITAB™. It hhas b
been
observed that the laptop is one of the primary reasons that Six Sigma has become both popular
and effective.
Statistical Notation – Cheat Sheet
Summation An individual value, an observation
The standard deviation of sample data A particular (1st) individual value
The standard deviation of population data For each, all, individual values
The variance of sample data The mean, average of sample data

The variance of population data
The grand mean, grand average
The range of data
The mean of population data
The average range of data
Multi-purpose notation, i.e. # of subgroups, # A proportion of sample data

of classes
A proportion of population data
The absolute value of some term
Sample size
Greater than, less than
Greater than or equal to, less than or equal to Population size
Use this as a cheat sheet, don’t bother memorizing all of this. Actually most of the notation in Greek is
for population data.

141
Parameters vs. Statistics
Population: All the items that have the “property of interest” under study.
Frame: An identifiable subset of the population.
Sample: A significantly smaller subset of the population used to make an inference.
Population
Sample
Sample
Sample
Population Parameters: Sample Statistics:

– Arithmetic
A ith ti ddescriptions
i ti off a population
l ti – Arithmetic
A ith ti descriptions
d i ti off a
– µ, , P, 2, N sample
– X-bar , s, p, s2, n
The purpose of sampling is:

To get a “sufficiently accurate” inference for considerably less time, money, and other resources,
and also to provide a basis for statistical inference; if sampling is done well, and sufficiently, then
the inference is that “what
what we see in the sample is representative of the population”
population
A population parameter is a numerical value that summarizes the data for an entire population, a
sample has a corresponding numerical value called a statistic.
The population is a collection of all the individual data of interest. It must be defined carefully, such
as all the trades completed in 2001. If for some reason there are unique subsets of trades it may
be appropriate to define those as a unique population, such as, “all sub custodial market trades
completed in 2001”
2001 or “emerging
emerging market trades”
trades .
Sampling frames are complete lists and should be identical to a population with every element
listed only once. It sounds very similar to population… and it is. The difference is how it is used. A
sampling frame, such as the list of registered voters, could be used to represent the population of
adult general public. Maybe there are reasons why this wouldn’t be a good sampling frame.
Perhaps a sampling frame of licensed drivers would be a better frame to represent the general
public.
The sampling frame is the source for a sample to be drawn.
It is important to recognize the difference between a sample and a population because we typically
are dealing with a sample of the what the potential population could be in order to make an
inference. The formulas for describing samples and populations are slightly different. In most
cases we will be dealing with the formulas for samples.

142
Types of Data
Attribute Data (Qualitative)

– Is always binary, there are only two possible values (0, 1)
• Yes, No
• Go, No go
• Pass/Fail
Variable Data (Quantitative)
– Discrete (Count) Data
• Can be categorized in a classification and is based on counts.
– Number of defects
– Number of defective units
– Number of customer returns
– Continuous Data
• Can be measured on a continuum, it has decimal subdivisions that are
meaningful
– Time, Pressure, Conveyor Speed, Material feed rate
– Money
– Pressure
– Conveyor Speed
– Material feed rate
The nature of data is important to understand. Based on the type of data you will have the option
to utilize different analyses.
Data, or numbers, are usually abundant and available to virtually everyone in the organization.
Using data to measure, analyze, improve and control processes forms the foundation of the Six
Sigma
g methodology. gy Data turned into information,, then transformed into knowledge,
g , lowers the
risks of decision. Your goal is to make more decisions based on data versus the typical practices
of “I think”, “I feel” and “In my opinion”.
One of your first steps in refining data into information is to recognize what the type of data it is
that you are using. There are two primary types of data, they are Attribute and Variable Data.
Attribute Data is also called qualitative data. Attribute Data is the lowest level of data. It is purely
binary in nature. Good or bad, yes or no type data. No analysis can be performed on Attribute
Data. Attribute Data must be converted to a form of Variable Data called Discrete Data in order to
be counted or be useful.
Discrete Data is information that can be categorized into a classification. Discrete Data is based
on counts. It is typically things counted in whole numbers. Discrete Data is data that can't be
broken down into a smaller unit to add additional meaning. Only a finite number of values is
possible and the values cannot be subdivided meaningfully. For example, there is no such thing
as a half of defect or a half of a system lockup.
lockup
Continuous Data is information that can be measured on a continuum or scale. Continuous Data,
also called quantitative data can have almost any numeric value and can be meaningfully
subdivided into finer and finer increments, depending upon the precision of the measurement
system. Decimal sub-divisions are meaningful with Continuous Data. As opposed to Attribute
Data like good or bad, off or on, etc., Continuous Data can be recorded at many different points
(length, size, width, time, temperature, cost, etc.). For example 2.543 inches is a meaningful
number, whereas 2.543 defects does not make sense.
Later in the course we will study many different statistical tests but it is first important to
understand what kind of data you have.

143
Discrete Variables
Discrete Variable Possible values for the variable
The number of defective needles in boxes of 100 0,1,2, …, 100

diabetic syringes
The number of individuals in groups of 30 with a 0,1,2, …, 30

Type A personality
The number of surveys returned out of 300 0,1,2, … 300

mailed in a customer satisfaction study.
The number of employees in 100 having finished 0,1,2, … 100

high school or obtained a GED
The number of times you need to flip a coin 1,2,3, …

before a head appears for the first time
(note, there is no upper limit because you might
need to flip forever before the first head appears.
Shown here are additional Discrete Variables. Can you think of others within your business?
Continuous Variables
Continuous Variable Possible Values for the Variable
The length of prison time served for individuals All the real numbers between a and b,
b where a is
convicted of first degree murder the smallest amount of time served and b is the
largest.
The household income for households with All the real numbers between a and $30,000,
incomes less than or equal to $30,000 where a is the smallest household income in the
population
Th blood
The bl d glucose
l reading
di for
f those
th individuals
i di id l All reall numbers
b b
between
t 200 and d b,
b where
h b is
i
having glucose readings equal to or greater than the largest glucose reading in all such individuals
200
Shown here are additional Continuous Variables. Can you think of others within your business?

144
Definitions of Scaled Data
• Understanding the nature of data and how to represent it can affect the
types of statistical tests possible.
• Nominal Scale – data consists of names, labels, or categories. Cannot

be arranged in an ordering scheme. No arithmetic operations are
performed for nominal data.
• Ordinal Scale – data is arranged in some order, but differences between

data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless.
• Interval Scale – data can be arranged in some order and for which
differences in data values are meaningful. The data can be arranged in
an ordering scheme and differences can be interpreted
interpreted.
• Ratio Scale – data that can be ranked and for which all arithmetic
operations including division can be performed. (division by zero is of
course excluded) Ratio level data has an absolute zero and a value of
zero indicates a complete absence of the characteristic of interest.
Shown here are the four types of scales. It is important to understand these scales as they will dictate
the type of statistical analysis that can be performed on your data.
Nominal Scale
Listed are some Qualitative Variable Possible nominal level data values for
examples of the variable
Nominal Data.
The only analysis Blood Types A, B, AB, O
is whether they
are different or
not.
State of Residence Alabama, …, Wyoming
Country of Birth United States, China, other
Time to weigh in!

145
Ordinal Scale
These are examples of

Qualitative Variable Possible Ordinal level data
Ordinal Data.
values
Automobile Sizes Subcompact, compact,

intermediate, full size, luxury
Product rating Poor, good, excellent
Baseball team classification Class A, Class AA, Class AAA,

Major League
Interval Scale
I t
Interval
l Variable
V i bl P
Possible
ibl Scores
S
IQ scores of students in 100…

BlackBelt Training (the difference between scores
is measurable and has
meaning but a difference of 20
points between 100 and 120
does not indicate that one
student is 1.2 times more
i t lli
intelligent
t )
These are examples of Interval Data.

146
Ratio Scale
Ratio Variable Possible Scores Shown here is an

example of Ratio Data.
Grams of fat consumed per adult in the 0…

United States (If person A consumes 25 grams of fat and
person B consumes 50 grams, we can say
that person B consumes twice as much fat
as person A. If a person C consumes zero
grams of fat per day, we can say there is a
complete absence of fat consumed on that
day. Note that a ratio is interpretable and
an absolute zero exists.)
Converting Attribute Data to Continuous Data
Continuous Data
provides us more • Continuous Data is always more desirable
opportunity for
statistical analyses.
Attribute Data can often • In many cases Attribute Data can be converted to
be converted to continuous
Continuous by
converting it to a rate. • Which is more useful?
– 15 scratches or Total scratch length of 9.25”
– 22 foreign materials or 2.5 fm/square inch
– 200 defects or 25 defects/hour

147
We will review the Measures of Location (central tendency)

Descriptive Statistics shown – Mean
here which are the most – Median
commonly used. – Mode
1) For each of the measures

Measures of Variation (dispersion)
of location, how alike or
– Range
different are they?
y
– Interquartile Range
2) For each measure of – Standard deviation
variation, how alike or – Variance
different are they?
3) What do these similarities

or differences tell us?
We are going to use

O pen the M IN ITAB™ Project “ M ea sure Da ta Sets.m pj” the MINITAB™
a nd select the w ork sheet “ ba sicsta tistics.mtw ” worksheet shown here
to create graphs and
statistics. Open the
worksheet
“basicstatistics.mtw”.
.

148
Measures of Location
Mean are the most

common measure of Mean is:
location. A “Mean”, implies • Commonly referred to as the average.
that you are talking about • The arithmetic balance point of a distribution of data.
the population or inferring
Stat>Basic Statistics>Display Descriptive Statistics…>Graphs…
something about the >Histogram of data, with normal curve
population. Conversely,
average,
g implies
p Histogram(with
Hi t
Histogram ( ithNorm
(with N allCurve)
Normal C )of
Curve) offData
D t
Data
Sample
p Population
p
something about sample 80
80
Mean
Mean
StDev
5.000
5.000
StDev 0.01007
0.01007
data. 70
70
NN 200
200
60
60
Although the symbol is 50

FrFrequency
50
e que ncy
different, there is no 40
40
Descriptive Statistics: Data
mathematical difference 30
30
Variable N N* Mean SE Mean StDev Minimum Q1
between the Mean of a 20
20 Median Q3
Data 200 0 4.9999 0.000712 0.0101 4.9700 4.9900
sample and Mean of a 10

100 5.0000 5.0100
Variable Maximum
population. 00
4.97
4.97 4.98
4.98 4.99
4.99
Data
5.00
5.00 5.01
5.01 5.02
5.02 Data 5.0200
Data
The physical
Th h i l center t
of a data set is the Median is:
Median and • The mid-point, or 50th percentile, of a distribution of data.
• Arrange the data from low to high, or high to low.
unaffected by large
– It is the single middle value in the ordered list if there is an odd
data values. This is number of observations
why people use – It is the average of the two middle values in the ordered list if there
Median when are an even number of observations
discussingg averageg
salary for an Histogram
Histogram(with
(withNNormal
ormal Curv e) of
Curve) ofData
Data
American worker,
M ean 5.000
80
80 Mean 5.000
S tD ev 0.01007
StDev 0.01007
N 200
N 200
70
people like Bill

70
60
60
Gates and Warren 50

Frequency
50
Frequency
Buffet skew the 40

40
30
Variable N N* Mean SE Mean StDev Minimum Q1 Median Q3
30 Data 200 0 4.9999 0.000712 0.0101 4.9700 4.9900 5.0000 5.0100
average number. 20
20 Variable Maximum
10
Data 5.0200
10
00
4.97
4.97 4.98
4.98 4.99
4.99 5.00
5.00 5.01
5.01 5.02
5.02
Dat a
Data

149
Measures of Location (cont.)
Trimmed Mean is a:
Compromise between the mean and median.
• The trimmed mean is calculated by eliminating a specified percentage
of the smallest and largest observations from the data set and then
calculating the average of the remaining observations
• Useful for data with potential extreme values
values.
Stat>Basic Statistics>Display Descriptive Statistics…>Statistics…> Trimmed Mean
Variable N N* Mean SE Mean TrMean StDev Minimum Q1 Median

Data 200 0 4.9999 0.000712 4.9999 0.0101 4.9700 4.9900 5.0000
Variable Q3 Maximum
Data 5.0100 5.0200
The trimmed Mean (highlighted above) is less susceptible to the effects of extreme scores.
Mode is:
The most frequently occurring value in a distribution of data.
Mode = 5
H i s t o g r a m ((with
Histogram w ith N o r m a l CCurve)
Normal u r v e ) oof
f DData
a ta
MMean
ean 55.000
.000
880
0
SStDev
tD e v 00.01007
.01 007
NN 2200
00
770
0
660
0
550
0
quency
requency
440
0
Fre
Fr
r
330
0
220
0
110
0
00
44.97
.9 7 44.98
.9 8 44.99
.9 9 55.00
.0 0 55.01
.0 1 55.02
.0 2
DData
ata
It is
i possible
ibl to
t have
h multiple
lti l Modes,
M d when
h this
thi h
happens it’
it’s called
ll d Bi
Bi-Modal
M d l Di
Distributions.
t ib ti H
Here we
only have One mode = 5.

150
Measures of Variation (cont.)
Range is the:
Difference between the largest observation and the smallest
observation in the data set.
• A small range would indicate a small amount of variability and a large
range a large amount of variability.

Data 200 0 4.9999 0.000712 0.0101 4.9700 4.9900 5.0000 5.0100
Variable Maximum
Data 5.0200
Interquartile Range is the:

Difference between the 75th percentile and the 25th percentile.
Use Range or Interquartile Range when the data distribution is skewed.
A range is typically used for small data sets which is completely efficient in estimating variation for
a sample of 2. As your data increases the Standard Deviation is a more appropriate measure of
variation.
Standard Deviation is:

Equivalent of the average deviation of values from the mean for a
distribution of data.
A “unit of measure” for distances from the mean.
Use when data are symmetrical.
S
Sample P
Population
l ti

Data 200 0 4.9999 0.000712 0.0101 4.9700 4.9900 5.0000 5.0100
Variable Maximum
Data 5.0200
Cannot calculate population Standard Deviation because this is sample data.
The Standard Deviation for a sample and population can be equated with short and long-term
variation.
Usually a sample is taken over a short period of time making it free from the types of variation
that can accumulate over time so be aware.
We will explore this further at a later point in the methodology.

151
Measures of Variation (cont.)
Variance is the:
Average squared deviation of each individual data point from the
mean.
Sample Population
The Variance is the square of the Standard Deviation. It is common in statistical tests where it is
necessary to add up sources of variation to estimate the total. Standard Deviations cannot be
added, variances can.
Normal Distribution
The normal distribution is the most recognized distribution in

statistics.
What are the characteristics of a Normal distribution?

– Only random error is present
– Process free of assignable cause
– Process free of drifts and shifts
So what is present when the data is Non-Normal?
We can begin to discuss the Normal Curve and its properties once we understand the basic
concepts of central tendency and dispersion.
As we begin to assess our distributions know that sometimes it’s actually more difficult to determine
what is effecting a process if it is Normally Distributed. When we have a Non-normal Distribution
there is usually special or more obvious causes of variation that can be readily apparent upon
process investigation.

152
The Normal Curve
The Normal Distribution is

the most commonly used The normal curve is a smooth, symmetrical, bell-shaped curve,
and abused distribution in generated by the density function.
statistics and serves as the
foundation of many
statistical tools which will be
taught later in the
methodology
methodology.
It is the most useful continuous probability model as many

naturallyy occurringg measurements such as heights,
g weights,
g
etc. are approximately normally distributed.
Normal Distribution
The shape of the

Each combination of Mean and Standard Deviation generates a
Normal
unique normal curve:
Distribution is a
function of 2
parameters, (the
Mean and the
Standard
Deviation).
We will convert the “Standard” Normal Distribution

Normal
– Has a = 0, and σ = 1
Distribution to the
standard Normal in – D
Datat from
f any normall distribution
di t ib ti can be
b made
d to
t
order to compare fit the standard normal by converting raw scores
various Normal to standard scores.
Distributions and
to estimate tail – Z-scores measure how many Standard Deviations from the
area proportions. mean a particular data-value lies.
By normalizing the Normal Distribution this converts the raw scores into standard Z-scores
Z scores with a
Mean of 0 and Standard Deviation of 1, this practice allows us to use the Z-table.

153
Normal Distribution (cont.)
The area under the curve between any 2 points represents the
proportion of the distribution between those points.
The
Thearea
areabetween
betweenthe
the
Mean
Mean andany
and anyother
other
point
pointdepends
dependsupon
uponthethe
Standard Deviation.
Standard Deviation.
x
Convert any raw score to a Z-score using the formula:
Refer to a set of Standard Normal Tables to find the

proportion between and x.
The area under the curve between any two points represents the proportion of the distribution. The
concept of determining the proportion between 2 points under the standard Normal curve is a critical
componentt to
t estimating
ti ti Process
P Capability
C bilit and
d will
ill b
be covered
d iin d
detail
t il iin th
thatt module.
d l
Empirical Rule
The Empirical rule

allows us to predict or The Empirical Rule…
more appropriately
make an estimate of
how our process is
performing. You will
gain a great deal of
understanding within
the Process Capability
module. Notice the
difference between +/-
1 SD and +/- 6 SD. -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
68.27 % of the data will fall within +/- 1 standard deviation

95.45 % of the data will fall within +/- 2 standard deviations

154
The Empirical Rule (cont.)
No matter what the shape of your distribution is, as you travel 3 Standard
Deviations from the Mean, the probability of occurrence beyond that point
begins to converge to a very low number.
Why Assess Normality?
There is no W hile ma ny processes in na ture beha ve a ccording to the

good and bad. It N orma l Distribution, ma ny processes in business, pa rticula rly in
is not always the a rea s of service a nd tra nsa ctions, do not
better to have
“Normal” data,
There a re m a ny types of distributions:
look at it in
respect to the
intent of your
project. Again,
there is much
informational
content in non- There a re m a ny sta tistica l tools tha t a ssume N orma l Distribution
Normal properties in their ca lcula tions.
Distributions for
Distributions,
this reason it is
useful to know So understa nding just how “ N orma l” the da ta a re w ill impa ct
how Normal our how w e look a t the da ta .
data are.
Go back to your project, what do you want to do with your distribution, Normal or Non-normal.
Many distributions simply by nature can NOT be Normal. Assume that your dealing with a time
metric how do you get negative time
metric, time, without having a flux capacitor as in the movie “Back
Back to the
Future.” If your metric is, by nature bound to some setting.

155
Tools for Assessing Normality
The Anderson
Darling test yields a The sha pe of a ny norma l curve ca n be ca lcula ted ba sed
statistical on the norma l proba bility density function.
assessment (called
a goodness-of-fit
test) of Normality Tests for N orma lity ba sica lly compa re the sha pe of the
and the MINITAB™ ca lcula ted curve to the a ctua l distribution of your da ta
version of the points.
N
Normal l probability
b bili
test produces a For the purposes of this tra ining, w e w ill focus on 2
graph to visual
w a ys in M IN ITAB™ to a ssess N orma lity:
demonstrate just
how good that fit is. – The Anderson-Da rling test
– N orma l proba bility test
Watch that curve!
Goodness-of-Fit
The Anderson-Darling test uses an empirical density function.
100
Expected for Normal Distribution
Departure of the Actual Data
20%
actual data from the
80
expected normal C
u
m
distribution. The u
l
a 60
Anderson-Darling t
i
v
Goodness-of-Fit test e
assesses the P
e 40
r
magnitude of these c
e
n
departures using an t
20
Observed minus 20%
Expected formula. 0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Raw Data Scale
Anderson-Darling assess how closely actual frequency at a given value corresponds to the
theoretical frequency for a Normal Distribution with the same Mean and Standard Deviation.

156
The Normal Probability Plot
Probability
ProbabilityPlot
Plotof
ofAmount
Amount
Normal
Normal
99.9
99.9
Mean
Mean 84.69
84.69
StDev
StDev 7.913
7.913
99
99 NN 70
70
AD
AD 0.265
0.265
95
95 P-Value 0.684
P-Value 0.684
90
90
80
80
70
ercent
70
rcent
60
60
50
50
40
40
Pe
Pe
30
30
20
20
10
10
55
11
0.1
0.1
60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100 110
110
Amount
Amount
The Anderson-Darling test is a good litmus

test for normality: if the P-value is more
than .05, your data are normal enough for
most purposes.
The graph shows the probability density of your data plotted against the expected density of a
N
Normal l curve. NNotice
ti ththatt th
the y-axis
i ((probability)
b bilit ) does
d nott increase
i linearly.
li l Normal
N l data
d t will
ill lie
li on a
straight line (the red line) in this analysis. The graph shows you which values tend to deviate from
the Normal curve.
The Anderson-Darling test also appears in this output. Again,

if the P-value is greater than .05, assume the data are normal.
The reasoning behind the

decision to assume
normality based on the P -
value will be covered in
the Analyze Phase. For
now, just accept this as a
general guideline.

157
Anderson-Darling Caveat
Use the Anderson Darling column to generate these graphs.

Summary
Summary for
for Anderson
AndersonDarling
Darling
Probability
Probability Plot
Plotof
ofAnderson
AndersonDarling
Darling AAnderson-D
nderson-Darling
arlingNNorm ality TTest
est
Normal
Normal ormality
AA-S-Squared
quared 0.18
0.18
99.9
99.9 PP-V-Value
alue 0.921
0.921
Mean
Mean 50.03
50.03 MMean
ean 50.031
50.031
StDev
StDev 4.951
4.951
99 SStD
tDev
ev 4.951
4.951
99 NN 500
500 VVariance 24.511
ariance 24.511
AADD 0.177 SSkew
95
0.177 kewness
ness -0.061788
-0.061788
95 P-Value
P-Value 0.921
0.921 KKurtosis
urtosis -0.180064
-0.180064
90
90 NN 500
500
80
80 MMinim um
inimum 35.727
35.727
70 1st
1stQQuartile
uartile 46.800
46.800
70
Perrcent
cent
60
60 MMedian
edian 50.006
50.006
50
50 3rd
3rdQQuartile
uartile 53.218
53 218
53.218
Perc
40
40
36
36 40
40 44
44 48
48 52
52 56
56 60
60 MMaxim um 62.823
aximum 62.823
30
30 95%
95%CConfidence
onfidenceInterv
Intervalalfor
forMMean
ean
20
20 49.596
49.596 50.466
50.466
10
10 95%
95%CConfidence
onfidenceInterv
Intervalalfor
forMMedian
edian
55 49.663 50.500
49.663 50.500
95%
95%CConfidence
onfidenceInterv
Intervalalfor
forSStD
tDev
ev
11 9955%
% CConfide nce IInter
onfidence nte r vvaals
ls
4.662
4.662 5.278
5.278
Mean
Mean
0.1
0.1
35
35 40
40 45
45 50
50 55
55 60
60 65
65 Median
Median
AAnderson
ndersonDarling
Darling 49.50 49.75 50.00 50.25 50.50
49.50 49.75 50.00 50.25 50.50
In this case, both the Histogram and the Normality Plot look very “normal”. However,
because the sample size is so large, the Anderson-Darling test is very sensitive and any
slight deviation from normal will cause the p-value to be very low
low. Again
Again, the topic of
sensitivity will be covered in greater detail in the Analyze Phase.
For now, just assume that if N > 100 and the data look normal, then they probably are.
If the Data Are Not Normal, Don’t Panic!
Once again, Non-

normal Data is NOT a • Normal data are not common in the transactional world.
bad thing, depending
on the type of process • There are lots of meaningful statistical tools you can use to
/ metrics yyou are analyze your data (more on that later).
working with.
Sometimes it can even • It just means you may have to think about your data in a
be exciting to have slightly different way.
Non-normal Data
because in some ways
it represents
opportunities for
improvements
improvements.
Don’t touch that button!

158

Normality Exercise
Ex ercise objective: To demonstra te how to

test for N orma lity.
1 . Genera te N orma l Proba bility Plots a nd

the gra phica l summa ry using the
“ Descriptive Sta tistics
tistics.M
M TW ” file.
file
2 . Use only the columns Dist A a nd Dist D.
3 . Answ er the follow ing quiz questions

ba sed on your a na lysis of this da ta set.
Answers:
1) Is Distribution A Normal? Answer > No
2) Is Distribution B Normal? Answer > No
Isolating Special Causes from Common Causes
Don’t get too worried

about killing all variation, Special Cause: Variation is caused by known factors that result in
get the biggest bang for a non-random distribution of output. Also referred to as “Assignable
your buck and start Cause”.
making improvements by
following the
methodology. Many Common Cause: Variation caused by unknown factors resulting in
a steady but random distribution of output around the average of
companiesi ttoday
d can
the data. It is the variation left over after special cause variation has
realize BIG gains and
been removed and typically (not always) follows a normal
reductions in variation by
distribution.
simply measuring,
describing the
performance and then If we know that the basic structure of the data should follow a
making common sense normal distribution, but plots from our data shows otherwise; we
adjustments within the know the data contain special causes.
process…recall the
“ground fruit”?
Special Causes = Opportunity
Think about your data in
terms of what it should
look like, then compare it to what it does look like. See some deviation, maybe some Special
Causes at work?

159
Introduction to Graphing
Passive data
collection means The purpose of Gra phing is to:
don’t mess with the • Identify potential relationships between variables.
process! We are • Identify risk in meeting the critical needs of the Customer,
gathering data and Business and People.
looking for patterns • Provide insight into the nature of the X’s which may or may not
in a graphical tool. If control Y.
the data is
• Show the results of passive data collection.
collection
questionable, so is
the graph we create
from it. For now In this section w e w ill cover…
utilize the data 1. Box Plots
available, we will 2. Scatter Plots
learn a tool called
3. Dot Plots
Measurement
System Analysis 4. Time Series Plots
later in this phase. 5. Histograms
Data Sources
Data
demographics Data sources are suggested by many of the tools that have
will come out of
the basic
been covered so far:
Measure Phase – Process Map
tools such as – X-Y Matrix
Process Maps, – Fishbone Diagrams
X-Y Diagrams,
FMEAs and – FMEA
Fishbones. Put
your focus on Examples are:
the top X’s from
X-Y Diagram to 1. Time 3. Operator
focus your Shift Training
Day of the week Experience
activities.
Week of the month Skill
S
Season off th
the year Adherence to procedures
2. Location/position 4. Any other sources?

Facility
Region
Office

160
Graphical Concepts
The characteristics of a graph are

critical to the graphing process. The characteristics of a good graph include:
The validity of data allows us to • Variety of data
understand the extent of error in • Selection of
– Variables
the data. The selection of
– Graph
variables impacts how we can
– Range
control a specific output of a
process. The type
p yp of graph
g p will Information to interpret relationships
depend on the data
demographics while the range Explore quantitative relationships
will be related to the needs of the
customer. The visual analysis of
the graph will qualify further
investigation of the quantitative
relationship between the
variables
variables.
The Histogram
A Histogram is a basic graphing tool
that displays the relative frequency A Histogram displays data that have been summarized into
or the number of times a measured intervals. It can be used to assess the symmetry or skewness of the
items falls within a certain cell size. data.
Histogram
Histogramof
ofHistogram
The values for the measurements Histogram
are shown on the horizontal axis (in 40

40
cells) and the frequency of each size

is shown on the vertical axis as a bar 30
30
FrFrequency
graph. The graph illustrates the

equency
20
distribution of the data by showing 20
which values occur most and least 10

10
frequently. A Histogram illustrates
the shape, centering and spread of 00
98 99 100 101 102 103
the data you have. It is very easy to 98 99 100
HHistogram
istogram
101 102 103
construct and an easy to use tool

that you will find useful in many
situations. This graph represents the To construct a Histogram, the horizontal axis is divided into equal
data for the 20 days of arrival times intervals and a vertical bar is drawn at each interval to represent its
intervals,
at work from the previous lesson frequency (the number of values that fall within the interval).
page.
In many situations the data will form specific shaped distributions. One very common distribution
you will encounter is called the Normal Distribution, also called the bell shaped curve for its
appearance. You will learn more about distributions and what they mean throughout this course.

161
Histogram Caveat
As you can see in
the MINITAB™ file All the Histograms below were generated using random samples of
the columns used to the data from the worksheet “ Graphing Data.mtw” .
generate the
Histogram
Histogramof
ofH1_20,
H1_20, H2_20,
H2_20, H3_20,
H3_20,H4_20
H4_20
Histograms above 98
98 99
99 100
100 101
101 102
102
only have 20 data 44
H1_20
H1_20
44
H2_20
H2_20
points. It is easy to 33 33
generate your own 22 22
samples to create 11 11
FFrequency
requency
Histogram simply by 00
88
H3_20
H3_20
00
88
H4_20
H4_20
using the MINITAB™ 66 66

menu path: 44 44
“Calc>Random 22 22
Data>Sample from 00 00
98 99 100 101 102
columns…” 98 99 100 101 102
Be careful not to determine N ormality simply from a Histogram plot,

if the sample size is low the data may not look very N ormal.
Variation on a Histogram
The
Histogram Using the worksheet “ Graphing Data.mtw” create a simple Histogram for
the data column called granular.
shown
here looks
to be very
Normal. Histogram of Granular
25
20
15
Frequency
10
0
44 46 48 50 52 54 56
Granular

162
Dot Plot
Using the worksheet “Graphing
Graphing
Data.mtw”, create a Dot Plot. The Dot Plot can be a useful alternative to the Histogram especially if you
want to see individual values or you want to brush the data.
Histogram for the granular
distribution obscures the granularity,
whereas the Dot Plot reveals it.
Also, Dot Plots allow the user to
brush data points. The Histogram
Dotplot
Dotplotof
of Granular
does not
not. Granular
Points could have Special Causes

associated with them.
These occurrences should also be 44 46 48 50 52 54 56

44 46 48 50 52 54 56
identified in the Logbook in order to Granular
Granular
assess the potential for a special

cause related to them
them. You should
look for potential Special Cause
situations by examining the Dot Plot for both high frequencies and location.
If in fact there are special causes (Uncontrollable Noise or Procedural non-compliance) then they
should be addressed separately and then excluded from this analysis.
Take a few minutes and create other Dot Plots using the columns in this data set.
Box Plot
A Box Plot (sometimes called a
Whisker Plot) is made up of a box Box Plots summarize data about the shape, dispersion and center of the
representing the central mass of the data and also help spot outliers.
variation and thin lines, called Box Plots require that one of the variables, X or Y, be categorical or
whiskers extending out on either
whiskers, discrete and the other be continuous
continuous.
side representing the thinning tails of
A minimum of 10 observations should be included in generating the box
the distribution. Box Plots summarize plot.
information about the shape, Maximum Value
dispersion and center of your data.

Because of their concise nature, it
75th Percentile
easy to compare multiple Middle
distributions side by side. 50% of 50th Percentile (Median)
Data
Mean
25th Percentile
These may be “before” and “after”
views of a process or a variable. Or
they may be several alternative ways
of conducting an operation. min(1.5 x Interquartile Range
or minimum value)
Essentially, when you want to quickly Outliers
find out if two or more distributions

are different (or the same) then you
create a Box Plot. They can also
help you spot outliers quickly which
show up as asterisks on the chart.

163
Box Plot Anatomy

A Box Plot is based on quartiles and
represents a distribution as shown * Outlier
on the left of the graphic. The lines Upper Limit: Q3+1.5(Q3-Q1)
extending from the box are called
whiskers. The whiskers extend Upper Whisker
outward to indicate the lowest and
highest values in the data set Q3: 75th Percentile
(excluding outliers). The lower Median
B ox
whisker represents the first 25% of Q2 M
Q2: Median
di 50th Percentile
P til
the data in the Histogram (the light Q1: 25th Percentile
grey area). The second and third
quartiles form the box, which
Lower Whisker
represents fifty percent of the data
and finally the whisker on the right
Lower Limit: Q1+1.5(Q3-Q1)
represents the fourth quartile. The
line drawn through the box
represents the median of the data. Extreme values, or outliers, are represented by asterisks. A
value is considered an outlier if it is outside of the box (greater than Q3 or less than Q1) by more
than 1.5 times (Q3-Q1).
You can use the Box Plot to assess the symmetry of the data: If the data are fairly symmetric,
the Median line will be roughly in the middle of the box and the whiskers will be similar in length.
If the data are skewed, the Median may not fall in the middle of the box and one whisker will
likel be noticeabl
likely noticeably longer than the other
other.
Box Plot Examples
The first Box Plot

shows the differences Boxplot
Boxplot of
of Glucoselevel
Glucoselevel vs
vs SubjectID
SubjectID
in glucose level for 225
225 What can you tell about
nine different people. 200
200
the data expressed in a
B Pl
Box Plots?
t ?
175
The second Box Plot 175
Glucoselevel
s e le v e l
shows the effects of 150

150
cholesterol 125
Gluco
125
medication over time 100

100
for a group of
75
75
patients. Cholesterol
Cholesterol Levels
Levels
50
50
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 8350
8350 99
SubjectID
SubjectID
300
300
Eat this – 250

250
Data
ta
then check
Da
200
200
the Box 150

150
Plot! 100
100
2-Day
2-Day 4-Day
4-Day 14-Day
14-Day

164
Box Plot Examples
Using the
MINITAB™
worksheet “Graphing
Data.mtw”.
The data shows the setup

cycle time to complete The data shows the setup cycle time to complete “Lockout –
“Lockout – Tagout” for three Tagout” for 3 individuals in the department.
people in the department.
Looking only at the Box Plots,

SetupCycle
Setup Cycle Timefor
Time for "Lockou
"Lockoutt -- Tagout"
Tagout"
it appears that Brian should
be the benchmark for the 20.0
20.0
department since he has the
lowest median setup cycle 17.5
17.5
time with the smallest
variation. On the other hand, 15.0
15.0
Shree’s data has 3 outlier
points that are well beyond 12.5
12.5
DData
ata
what would be expected for

the rest off the data and his 10.0
100
10.0
variation is larger.
7.5
7.5
Be cautious drawing
conclusions solely from a Box 5.0
5.0
Plot. Shree may be the expert
BBrian
rian Greg Shree
who is brought in for special Greg Shree
setups
p because no one else
can complete the job.

165
Individual Value Plot Enhancement
Open the
O h MINITAB™ P Project
j The individual value plot shows the individual data points that are
“Measure Data Sets.mpj” and represented in the Box Plot.
select the worksheet “Graphing
Data.mtw”.
The individual value plot shows

the individual data points that are Individual
Individual Value
Value Plot
Plot of
of Brian,
Brian, Greg,
Greg, Shree
Shree
represented
p in the Box Plot. 20.0
20.0
There are many options available 17.5

17.5
within MINITAB™, take a few
15.0
15.0
minutes and explore the options
within the dialog box found by 12.5
Data
12.5
Da ta
following the menu path “Graph> 10.0
10.0
Individual Value Plot> Multiple
7.5
7.5
Y’s, Simple…”.
5.0
5 0
5.0
Brian
Brian Greg
Greg Shree
Shree
Attribute Y Box Plot
Using the MINITAB™

Box Plot with an attribute Y (pass/fail) and a continuous X
Data.mtw”. Graph> Box Plot…One Y, With Groups…Scale…Transpose value and category scales
To create this Box

Plot follow the
MINITAB™ menu
path “Graph>
Graph> Box
Plot…One Y, With
Groups…Scale…Tran
spose value and
category scales”.
If the output is
pass/fail, it must be
plotted on the y axis.
Use the data shown
to create the
transposed Box Plot.
The reason we do this
is for consistency and
accuracy.

166
Attribute Y Box Plot
The dialog box

shown here can be
found by selecting
the “Scale” button
in the “One Y, With
Groups “ dialog
box.
Boxplot
Boxplot of
of Hydrogen
Hydrogen Content
Content vs
vs Pass/Fail
Pass/Fail
The output Y is
Pass/Fail, the Box
11
Plot shows the
spread of hydrogen
Pass/Fail
Pass/Fail
content that created
the results.
22
215.0
215.0 217.5
217.5 220.0
220.0 222.5
222.5 225.0
225.0 227.5
227.5 230.0
230.0 232.5
232.5
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Content
Content
Individual Value Plot

worksheet “Graphing The Individual Value Plot when used with a Categorical X or Y
Data.mtw”, follow the enhances the information provided in the Box Plot:
MINITAB™ menu
path “Stat>ANOVA> – Recall the inherent problem with the Box Plot when a bimodal
One-Way (Unstacked distribution exists (Box Plot looks perfectly symmetrical)
)>Graphs…Individual – The Individual Value Plot will highlight the problem
value plot, Boxplots of
data”, make both
Stat>ANOVA> One-Way (Unstacked )>Graphs…Individual value plot, Box Plots of data
graphs using the
columns indicated
and tile them. Boxplot
Boxplotof
of Weibull, Norm
Weibull, al, Bi
Normal, Bi Modal
Modal Individual
Individual Value
ValuePlot
Plotof
ofW eibull, Norm
Weibull, al, Bi
Normal, BiModal
Modal
30
30 30
30
25
25 25
25
20
20 20
20
Data
Data
15
15 15
15
ta
ta
Da
Da
10
10 10
10
55 55
00 00
Weibull
Weibull Normal
Normal BiBiModal
Modal Weibull
Weibull Normal
Normal BiBiModal
Modal

167
Jitter Example
By using the Jitter
function we will Once your graph is created, click once on any of the data points (that
action should select all the data points).
spread the data apart
Then go to MINITAB™ menu path: Editor> Edit Individual Symbols…Jitter…
making it easier to
Increase the jitter in the x-direction to .075, click OK, then click anywhere
see how many data on the graph except on the data points to see the results of the change.
points there are.
This gives us
Individual
Individual Value
Value Plot
Plot of
of Weibull,
Weibull, Normal,
Normal, Bi
Bi Modal
Modal
relevance so we 30
30
don’t have points

25
25
plotted on top of
each other. 20
20
Data
15
Data
15
10
10
55
00
Weibull
Weibull Normal
Normal Bi
Bi Modal
Modal
Time Series Plot
Using the MINITAB™ Time series plots allow you to examine data over time.
Depending on the shape and frequency of patterns in the plot,
Data.mtw”.
several X’s can be found as critical or eliminated.
A Time Series is Graph> Time Series Plot> Simple...
created by following
the MINITAB™ menu
path “Graph>
Graph> Time
Time Series
Time Series Plot
Plot of
of Time 11
Time
Series Plot>
Simple...” 602
602
Time Series Plots are 601

601
very useful in most
projects. Every 600
600
Time 11
project should provide

Time
time series data to 599

599
look for frequency,
magnitude and 598
598
patterns. What X
would cause these 597
597
11 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
issues? 10 20 30 40 50
Index
60 70 80 90 100
Index

168
Time Series Example

Looking at the Time
Looking at the time series plot below, the response appears to be
Series Plot, the
very dynamic.
response appears to
be very dynamic.
Time
TimeSeries
Series Plot
Plotof
of Time
Time11
The benefit of this 602

602
approach to charting
is you can see every 601
601
d t point
data i t as it is
i
600
600
Time 11
gathered over time.
Time
Some interesting 599
599
occurrences can be
revealed. 598
598
597
597
11 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100
Index
Index
What other characteristic is present?

worksheet “Graphing Let’s look at some other time series plots.
Data.mtw”. What is happening within each plot?
What is different between the two plots?
Now let’s lay two
Time Series on top of Graph> Time Series Plot> Multiple...(use variables Time 2 and Time 3)
each other. This can

Time
Time Series
Series Plot
Plot of
of Time
Time 2,
2, Time
Time 33
be done by following
605
605 Variable
the MINITAB™ menu Variable
Time
Time 22
604
604 Time
Time 33
path “Graph> Time
603
603
Series Plot>
602
602
Multiple...” (use
601
variables Time 2 and 601
Data
Data
600
Time 3). 600
599
599
What is happening 598

598
within each plot? 597

597
What’s the difference 596
596
between the two 11 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100
Index
Index
plots? Time 3 appears
to have wave pattern.

169
Curve Fitting Time Series

Using the
MINITAB™ MINITAB™ allows you to add a smoothed line to your time series
worksheet based on a smoothing technique called Lowess.
“Graphing Lowess means Locally Weighted Scatterplot Smoother.
Data.mtw”.
Graph> Time Series Plot> Simple…(select variable Time 3)…Data View…Smoother…Lowess
MINITAB™
allows you to Time
Time Series
Series Plot
Plot of
of Time
Time 33
add a 605
605
smoothed line 604

604
to your time 603

603
series based on 602

602
601
601
a smoothing
Time 33
Time
600
600
technique 599
599
called Lowess. 598
598
597
597
596
596
11 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100
Index
Index

170
Explain the various statistics used to express location and spread

of data
Describe characteristics of a Normal Distribution
Explain Special Cause variation
Use data to generate various graphs and make interpretations

based on their output
You have now completed Measure Phase – Six Sigma Statistics.
Notes

171
Lean Six Sigma

Black Belt Training
Measure Phase
Measurement System Analysis
Now we will continue in the Measure Phase with “Measurements System Analysis”.

172
Overview
Measurement System
Analysis is one of those Welcome
Welcome to
to Measure
Measure
non-negotiable items!
MSA is applicable in Process
Process Discovery
Discovery
98% of projects and it
alone can have a Six
Six Sigma
Sigma Statistics
Statistics
massive effect on the
success of your project Measurement
Measurement System
y
System Analysis
y
Analysis
and improvements
within the company. Basics
Basics of
of MSA
MSA
In other words, LEARN
IT & DO IT. It is very Variables
Variables MSA
MSA
important. Attribute
Attribute MSA
MSA
Process
Process Capability
Capability
Wrap
Wrap Up
Up &
& Action
Action Items
Items
Introduction to MSA
So far we have learned that the heart and soul of Six Sigma is
that it is a data-driven methodology.
– How do you know that the data you have used is accurate and
precise?
– How do know if a measurement is a repeatable and
reproducible?
How good are these?

or
or
MSA
In order to improve your processes, it is necessary to collect data on the "critical to" characteristics.
When there is variation in this data, it can either be attributed to the characteristic that is being
measured and to the way that measurements are being taken; which is known as measurement error.
When there is a large measurement errorerror, it affects the data and may lead to inaccurate decision-
decision
making.
Measurement error is defined as the effect of all sources of measurement variability that cause an
observed value (measured value) to deviate from the true value.

173
Introduction to MSA (Cont.)

The measurement system is the complete process used to obtain measurements, such as the
procedures, gages and personnel that are employed to obtain measurements. Each component
of this system represents a potential source of error. It is important to identify the amount of error
and, if necessary, the sources of error. This can only be done by evaluating the measurement
system with statistical tools.
There are several types of measurement error which affect the location and the spread of the
distribution. Accuracy, linearity and stability affect location (the average). Measurement accuracy
describes the difference between the observed average and the true average based on a master
reference value for the measurements. A linearity problem describes a change in accuracy
through the expected operating range of the measuring instrument. A stability problem suggests
that there is a lack of consistency in the measurement over time. Precision is the variability in the
measured value and is quantified like all variation by using the standard deviation of the
distribution of measurements. For estimating accuracy and precision, multiple measurements of
one single characteristic must be taken.
The primary contributors to measurement system error are repeatability and reproducibility
reproducibility.
Repeatability is the variation in measurements obtained by one individual measuring the same
characteristic on the same item with the same measuring instrument. Reproducibility refers to
the variation in the average of measurements of an identical characteristic taken by different
individuals using the same instrument.
Given that Reproducibility and Repeatability are important types of error, they are the object of a
specific study called a Gage Repeatability & Reproducibility study (Gage R&R). This study can be
performed on either attribute-based or variable-based measurement systems. It enables an
evaluation of the consistency in measurements among individuals after having at least two
individuals measure several parts at random on a few trials. If there are inconsistencies, then the
measurement system must be improved.

Measurement System Analysis is the MSA is a mathematical procedure to quantify variation introduced to a
entire system, NOT just calibration or process or product by the act of measuring.
how good the measurement instrument
is. We must evaluate the entire
environment and Measurement System Item to be Reference
Analysis gives us a way to evaluate the Measured Measurement
measurement environment Operator Measurement Equipment
mathematically. Process
All these sources of variation combine Procedure

to yield a measurement that is different Environment
than the true value.
The item to be measured can be a physical part, document or a scenario for customer service.
It is also referred to as “Gage R&R” Operator can refer to a person or can be different instruments measuring the same products.
studies where R&R is: Repeatability & Reference is a standard that is used to calibrate the equipment.
Procedure is the method used to perform the test.
Reproducibility. Equipment
q p is the device used to measure the pproduct.
Environment is the surroundings where the measures are performed.

174
Measurement Purpose
Measurement is a process within In order to be worth collecting,
g, measurements must provide
p value -
itself. In order to measure something that is, they must provide us with information and ultimately,
you must go through a series of tasks knowledge
and activities in sequence. Usually
there is some from of set-up, there is The question…
an instrument that makes the
measurement, there is a way of
recording the value and it may be
What do I need to know?
done by multiple people.
people Even when
you are making a judgment call about …must be answered before we begin to consider issues of measurements,
metrics, statistics, or data collection systems
something, there is some form of
setup. You become the instrument
and the result of a decision is Too often, organizations build complex data collection and
information management systems without truly understanding how
recorded someway; even if it is verbal
the data collected and metrics calculated actually benefit the
or it is a set of actions that you take.
organization.
The ttypes and
Th d sophistication
hi ti ti off
measurement vary almost infinitely. It is becoming increasingly popular or cost effective to have
computerized measurement systems. The quality of measurements also varies significantly - with
those taken by computer tending to be the best. In some cases the quality of measurement is so
bad that you would be just as well off to guess at what the outcome should be. You will be
primarily concerned with the accuracy, precision and reproducibility of measurements to determine
the usability of the data.
Purpose
The purpose of
conducting an MSA is The purpose of MSA is to assess the error due to
to mathematically measurement systems.
partition sources of
The error can be partitioned into specific sources:
variation within the
measurement system – Precision
itself. This allows us • Repeatability - within an operator or piece of equipment
to create an action • Reproducibility - operator to operator or attribute gage to
plan to reduce the attribute gage
biggest contributors of – Accuracy
measurement error. • Stability - accuracy over time
• Linearity-
Linearity accuracy throughout the measurement range
• Resolution
• Bias – Off-set from true value
– Constant Bias
– Variable Bias – typically seen with electronic
equipment, amount of Bias changes with setting
levels

175
Accuracy and Precision
Measurement systems,
systems like
all things, generate some Accurate
Accuratebut butnotnotprecise
precise--On On Precise
Precisebut
butnotnotaccurate
accurate--The
The
average,
average,thetheshots
shotsare
areininthe average
averageisisnot
noton onthe
thecenter,
center,but
amount of variation in the the but
center
centerofofthe
thetarget
targetbut
butthere
thereisisaa the
thevariability
variabilityisissmall
small
results/data they output. In lot
lotof
ofvariability
variability
measuring, we are primarily
concerned with 3
characteristics:
1. How
1 H accurate
t is
i th
the
measurement? For a
repeated measurement,
where is the average
compared to some known
standard?. Think of the
target as the measurement
system,, the
syste t e known
o
standard is the bulls eye in
the center of the target. In
the first example you can see the “measurements” are very dispersed, there is a lot of variability as
indicated by the Histogram curve at the bottom. But on average, the “measurements” are on target.
When the average is on target, we say the measurement is accurate. However, in this example they
are not very precise.
2 How precise is the measurement? For a repeated measurement

2. measurement, how much variability exists? As
seen in the first target example, the “measurements” are not very precise, but on the second target
they have much less dispersion. There is less variability as seen in the Histogram curve. However, we
notice that the tight cluster of “measurements” are off target, they are not very accurate.
3. The third characteristic is how reproducible is the measurement from individual to another? What is
the accuracy and precision from person to person. Here you would expect each person that performs
the measurement to be able to reproduce the same amount of accuracy and precision as that of other
person performing
f i the
h same measurement.
Ultimately, we make decisions based on data collected from measurement systems. If the
measurement system does not generate accurate or precise enough data, we will make the decisions
that generate errors, waste and cost. When solving a problem or optimizing a process, we must know
how good our data are and the only way to do this is to perform a Measurement System Analysis.

176
MSA Uses
M SA ca n be used to:
Compare internal inspection standards with the standards of your

customer.
Highlight areas where calibration training is required.
Provide a method to evaluate inspector training effectiveness as well

as serves as an excellent training tool.
Provide a great way to:

–Compare existing measurement equipment.
–Qualify new inspection equipment.
The measurement system always has some amount of variation and that variation is additive to
the actual amount of true variation that exists in what we are measuring. The only exception is
when the discrimination of the measurement system is so poor that it virtually sees everything the
same.
This means that you may actually be producing a better product or service than you think you are,
providing that the measurement system is accurate; meaning it does not have a bias, linearity or
stability problem. It may also mean that your customer may be making the wrong interpretations
about your product or service.
The components of variation are statistically additive. The primary contributors to measurement
system error are Repeatability and Reproducibility. Repeatability is the variation in measurements
obtained by one individual measuring the same characteristic on the same item with the same
measuring instrument. Reproducibility refers to the variation in the average of measurements of an
identical characteristic taken by different individuals using the same instrument.
Why MSA?
Why is MSA so important?
M ea surem ent System Ana ly sis is important to:
MSA is was allows us to trust
• Study the % of variation in our process that is caused by our
the data generated from our measurement system.
processes. When you charter • Compare measurements between operators.
a project you are taking on a • Compare measurements between two (or more) measurement
significant burden which will devices.
require Statistical Analysis. • Provide criteria to accept new measurement systems (consider new
What happens if you have a equipment).
great project, with lots of data • Evaluate a suspect gage
gage.
from measurement systems • Evaluate a gage before and after repair.
that produce data with no • Determine true process variation.
integrity?
• Evaluate effectiveness of training program.

177
Appropriate Measures
Sufficient means that are
Sufficient,
measures are available to Appropria te M ea sures are:
be measured regularly, if
not it would take too long • Sufficient – available to be measured regularly
to gather data.
Relevant, means that they • Relevant –help to understand/ isolate the problems
will help to understand
and isolate the problems.
problems
• Representative - of the process across shifts and people
Representative measures
mean that we can detect • Contextual – collected with other relevant information that
variation across shifts and might explain process variability.
people.
Contextual means they are necessary to gather information on other relevant information that actually
ld h
would help
l tto explain
l i sources off variation.
i ti
Poor Measures
It is very common
while working gpprojects
j Poor M ea sures can result from:
to discover that the
current measurement • Poor or non-existent operational definitions
systems are poor. • Difficult measures
Have you ever come
across a situation • Poor sampling
where the data from • Lack of understanding of the definitions
your customer or
supplier doesn’t
doesn t match • Inaccurate,
Inaccurate insufficient or non-calibrated
non calibrated measurement
yours? It happens devices
often. It is likely a
problem with one of
the measurement
M ea surement Error compromises decisions that affect:
systems. We have – Customers
worked MSA projects – Producers
across critical – Suppliers
measurement points
in various companies,
it is not uncommon for more than 80% of the measurements to fail in one way or another.

178
Examples of What to Measure

At this point you should
have a fairly good idea Ex a mples of w ha t a nd w hen to m ea sure:
of what to measure, • Primary and secondary metrics
listed here are some
ideas to get you • Decision points in Process Maps
thinking… • Any and all gauges, measurement devices, instruments, etc
• “ X’s” in the process
• Prior to Hypothesis Testing
• Prior to modeling
• Prior to planning designed experiments
• Before and after process changes
• To qualify operators
M SA is a Show Stopper!!!
Components of Variation
W henever y ou mea sure a nything, the va ria tion tha t you

observe ca n be segmented into the follow ing components…
O bserved Va ria tion
Unit-to-unit (true) Variation Measurement System Error
Precision Accuracy
Repeatability Reproducibility
p y Stability
y Bias Linearity
y
All measurement systems have error. If you don’t know how much of the
variation you observe is contributed by your measurement system, you
cannot make confident decisions.
If you w ere one speeding tick et a w a y from losing your license,

how fa st w ould you be w illing to drive in a school zone?
We are going to strive to have the measured variation be as close as possible to the true variation.
In any case we want the variation from the measurement system to be a small as possible. We are
now going to investigate the various components of variation of measurements.

179
Precision
A precise metric is one that returns the same value of a given The spread of the data
is measured by
attribute every time an estimate is made.
Precision. This tells us
how well a measure
can be repeated and
Precise data are independent of who estimates them or when
reproduced.
the estimate is made.
Precision can be partitioned into two components:

– Repeatability
– Reproducibility
Repea ta bility a nd Reproducibility = Ga ge R+R
Repeatability
Measurements will be Repea ta bility is the variation in measurements obtained with one
different…expect it! If mea surement instrument used several times by one appraiser
measurement are while measuring the identical characteristic on the sa m e pa rt.
always exactly the
same this is a flag,
sometimes it is Y
because the gauge
does not have the
proper resolution,
meaning the scale
doesn’t go down far Repeatability
enough to get any For example:
variation in the – Manufacturing: One person measures the purity of multiple samples
measurement. of the same vial and gets different purity measures.
– Transactional: One person evaluates a contract multiple times (over a
For example, would
period of time) and makes different determinations of errors.
you use a football field
to measure the gap in a
spark plug?

180
Reproducibility
Reproducibility will be
present when it is Reproducibility is the variation in the average of the
possible to have more measurements made by different appraisers using the sa me
than one operator or mea suring instrument when measuring the identical
more than one characteristic on the sa me pa rt.
instrument measure the Reproducibility
same part.
Y Operator A
Operator B
For example:
– Manufacturing: Different people perform purity test on samples from
the same vial and get different results.
– Transactional: Different people evaluate the same contract and
make different determinations.
Time Estimate Exercise
Ex ercise objective: Demonstrate how well you can

estimate a 10 second time interval.
1. Pair up
p with an associate.
2. One person will say start and stop to indicate how
long they think the 10 seconds last. Do this 6 times.
3. The other person will have a watch with a second
hand to actually measure the duration of the estimate.
Record the value where your partner can’t see it.
4 Switch tasks with partner and do it 6 times also.
4. also
5. Record all estimates, what do you notice?

181
Accuracy
Accuracy and the
average are related. An accurate measurement is the difference between the observed average of
Recall in the Basic the measurement and a reference value.
Statistics module we – W hen a metric or measurement system consistently over or under estimates the
talked about the Mean value of an attribute, it is said to be “ inaccurate”
and the variance of a Accuracy can be assessed in several ways:
distribution. – Measurement of a known standard
– Comparison with another known measurement method
Think of it this – Prediction of a theoretical value
way….If the W hat happens if we don’t have standards, comparisons or theories?
Measurement System
True
is the distribution then Avera ge
accuracy is the Mean
and the precision is
Accura cy
the variance. W a rning, do not a ssume y our
gy reference is g
m etrology gospel.
M ea surement
Accuracy Against a Known Standard
In transactional processes, the measurement system can consist of a

database query.
– For example, you may be interested in measuring product
returns where you will want to analyze the details of the
returns over some time period.
– The query will provide you all the transaction details
However, before you invest a lot of time analyzing the data, you
must ensure the data has integrity.
– The analysis should include a comparison with known
reference points.
– For the example of product returns, the transaction details
should add up to the same number that appears on financial
reports, such as the income statement.

182
Accuracy vs. Precision
ACCURATE PRECISE BO TH
+ =
Accuracy relates to how close the

average of the shots are to the
Master or bull
bull's
s-eye.
eye
Precision relates to the spread of

the shots or Variance.
N EITHER
Most Measurement Systems

y are accurate but not at all p
precise.
Bias
Bia s is defined as the deviation of the measured value from the

actual value.
Calibration procedures can minimize and control bias within

acceptable limits. Ideally, Bias can never be eliminated due to
material wear and tear!
Bias Bias
Bias is a component of Accuracy. Constant Bias is when the measurement is off by a constant
value. A scale is a prefect example, if the scale reads 3 lbs when there is no weight on it then there
is a 3lb Bias. Make sense?

183
Stability
Stability just looks

for changes in the Sta bility of a gauge is defined as error (measured in terms of
accuracy or Bias standard deviation) as a function of time. Environmental conditions
over time. such as cleanliness, noise, vibration, lighting, chemical, wear and
tear or other factors usually influence gauge instability. Ideally,
gauges can be maintained to give a high degree of stability but can
never be eliminated unlike reproducibility. Gauge stability studies
would be the first exercise past calibration procedures.
C t l Ch
Control Charts
t are commonly l usedd tto ttrack
k th
the stability
t bilit off a
measurement system over time.
Drift
Sta bility is Bia s cha ra cterized

a s a function of time!
Linearity
Linea rity is defined as the difference in Bias values throughout the

measurement range in which the gauge is intended to be used. This tells you
how accurate your measurements are through the expected range of the
measurements. It answers the question, " Does my gage have the same
accuracy for all sizes of objects being measured?"
measured?
Linearity = | Slope| * Process Variation

Low Nominal High
% Linearity = | Slope| * 100 +e

B i a s (y)
0.00
*
-e
*
*
Reference Value (x)
y = a + b.x
y: Bias, x: Ref. Value
a: Slope, b: Intercept
Linearity just evaluates if any Bias is consistent throughout the measurement range of the
instrument. Many times Linearity indicates a need to replace or maintenance measurement
equipment.

184
Types of MSA’s
Variable Data is
always preferred over M SA’s fa ll into tw o ca tegories:
Attribute because it – Attribute
give us more to work – Va ria ble
with.
Attribute Va ria ble
Now we are gong to – Pa ss/ Fa il – Continuous sca le
review Variable MSA – Go/ N o Go – Discrete sca le
testing
testing. – Document Prepa ra tion – Critica l dimensions
– Surfa ce imperfections – Pull strength
– Customer Service – W a rp
Response
Tra nsa ctiona l projects typica lly ha ve a ttribute ba sed

mea surem ent systems.
M a nufa cturing projects genera lly use va ria ble studies more
often, but do use a ttribute studies to a lesser degree.
Variable MSA’s
MSA s
MSA’s use a
MIN ITAB™ calculates a column of variance components (VarComp) which are used to
random effects calculate % Gage R&R using the AN OVA Method.
model meaning
that the levels for
Measured Value True Value
the variance
components are
not fixed or
assigned, they are
assumed to be
random. Estimates for a Gage R&R study are obtained by calculating the variance components
for each term and for error. Repeatability, Operator and Operator* Part components
are summed to obtain a total variability due to the measuring system.
W e use variance components to assess the variation contributed by each source of
measurement error relative to the total variation.

185
Session Window Cheat Sheet
Contribution
Contribution ofof variation
variation to
to the
the total
total
variation
variation of
of the
the study.
study.
%
% Contribution,
Contribution, based
based onon variance
variance
components,
components, is is calculated
calculated byby dividing
dividing each
each
value
value in
in VarComp
VarComp by by the
the Total
Total Variation
Variation then
then
multiplying
multiplying the
the result
result by
by 100.
100.
Use
Use %% Study
Study Var
Var when
when you
you are
are interested
interested in
in
comparing
comparing thethe measurement
measurement system
system variation
variation to
to the
the
total variation.
total variation.
%
% Study
Study Var
Var is
is calculated
calculated by
by dividing
dividing each
each value
value in
in
Study
Study Var
Var by
by Total
Total Variation
Variation and
and Multiplying
Multiplying by
by
100
100.
100
100.
Study
Study Var
Var isis calculated
calculated asas 5.15
5.15 times
times the
the Standard
Standard
Deviation
Deviation for
for each
each source.
source.
(5.15
(5.15 is
is used
used because
because when
when data
data are
are normally
normally
distributed,
distributed, 99%
99% ofof the
the data
data fall
fall within
within 5.15
5.15
Standard
Standard Deviations.)
Deviations.)
Refer to this when analyzing your Session Window output.
Session W indow ex pla na tions
WWhen
hen the
the process
process tolerance
tolerance is is entered
entered inin the
the
system,
system, MINMINITAB
ITABTMTM calculates
calculates % % Tolerance
Tolerance whichwhich
compares
compares measurements
measurements system
system variation
variation to to
customer
customer specification.
specification. This
specification This allows
allows us
us to
to
determine
determine thethe proportion
proportion of of the
the process
process tolerance
tolerance
that
that is
is used
used by
by the
the variation
variation inin the
the measurement
measurement
system.
system.
Always round down to the nearest whole number.
Notice the calculation method explained here for Distinct Categories.

186
Number of Distinct Categories
The number of distinct ca tegories tells you how ma ny sepa ra te

groups of pa rts the system is a ble to distinguish.
Una ccepta ble for

estima ting process
pa ra m eters a nd indices
O nly indica tes w hether
the process is producing
conform ingg or
1 Data Category
nonconform ing pa rts
Genera lly una ccepta ble

for estim a ting process
pa ra m eters a nd indices
O nly provides coa rse
2 - 4 Categories
estima tes
R
Recom mended
d d
5 or more Categories
Here is a rule of thumb for distinct categories.
AIAG St
Standards
d d for
f Gage
G Acceptance
A t
Here are the Automotive Industry Action Group’s definitions for

Gage acceptance.
% Tolera nce
or % Contribution System is…
% Study Va ria nce
1 0 % or less 1 % or less Idea l
10% - 20% 1% - 4% Accepta ble
20% - 30% 5% - 9% M a rgina l
3 0 % or grea ter 1 0 % or grea ter Poor

187
MINITABTM Graphic Output Cheat Sheet
Gage name: Sample Study - Caliper

Date of study: 2-10-01
Gage R&R (ANOVA) for Data Reported by: B Wheat
Tolerance:
Misc:
Components of Variation By Part

100
%Contribution 0.630
%Study Var
%Tolerance
Percent
50 0.625
0 0.620
Gage R&R Repeat Reprod Part to Part
Part-to-Part Part 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R Chart by Operator By Operator

MIN TM
MINITAB
ITABTMbreaks
breaksdown
downthe thevariation
variationininthe
0.010
the
1 2 3
0.630
Sample Range
UCL=0.005936
measurement
measurementsystem systeminto intospecific
specificsources.
sources. Each
Eachcluster
cluster
0.005
ofofbars
bars represents a source of variation. Bydefault,
0.625 represents a source of variation. By default,
R=0.001817
each
each cluster will have two bars, corresponding to
0.000 LCL=0 0.620 cluster will have two bars, corresponding to
0 %Contribution
%Contribution
Operator 1 and
and%StudyVar.
%StudyVar.
2 3 If you add a tolerance
If you add a tolerance
Xbar Chart by Operator and/
and/ ororhistorical sigma,
Operator*Part
historical sigma, bars
Interaction
bars for
for %% Tolerance
Toleranceand/
Operator and/oror
0.632 1 2 3
0.631
UCL=0.6316
%Process
0.631
%Process
0.630 are
areadded.
added.
1
2
Mean
0.630
0.629 3
age
0.629
Sample M
0 628
0.628 Mean=0 6282
Mean=0.6282 0 628
0.628
Avera
0.627
0.626
InInaa good
goodmeasurement
0.627
0.626 measurementsystem,
system,thethelargest
largestcomponent
component
0.625
0.624
LCL=0.6248
ofofvariation
variation is Part-to-Part variation. Ifinstead
0.625
0.624
is Part-to-Part variation. If insteadyou
youhave
have
0
large
largeamounts
Part
amountsofofvariation
1 2 3 4
variationattributed
5 6 7 8
attributedtotoGage
9 10
GageR&R,
R&R,then
then
corrective
correctiveaction
actionisisneeded.
needed.

Tolerance:
Misc:

100 %Contribution 0.630
%Study Var
%Tolerance
nt
Percen
50 0.625
0.620
0
MIN ITABTMTMprovides an R Chart and Xbar Chart by Operator.
Gage R&R Repeat Reprod Part-to-Part MIN ITAB
Part 1 2 provides
3 4 5 an 6 R7 Chart
8 9 and
10 Xbar Chart by Operator.
The
TheRRchart
chartconsists
consistsofofthe
thefollowing:
following:
R Chart by Operator By Operator
0.010 1 2 3
- The plotted points are the difference between the largest
0.630
- The plotted points are the difference between the largest
Sample Range
UCL=0.005936 and
andsmallest
smallestmeasurements
measurementson oneach
eachpart
partfor
foreach
eachoperator.
operator.
0.005
If the measurements are the same then the range = 0.
0.625
If the measurements are the same then the range = 0.
- The Center Line, is the grand average for the process.
R=0.001817
- The Center Line, is the grand average for the process.
0.000 LCL=0 - -The
0.620 TheControl
ControlLimits
Limitsrepresent
representthetheamount
amountofofvariation
variation
0 expected
Operator 1 for the subgroup
2 ranges
ranges. 3These limits are calculated
expected for the subgroup ranges. These limits are calculated
Xbar Chart by Operator using the variation within subgroups.
using the Operator*Part Interaction
variation within subgroups. Operator
0.632 1 2 3
UCL=0.6316 0.631 1
0.631
If any of the points on the graph go above 2the upper Control
0.630
Sample Mean
0.630 If any of the points on the graph go above3 the upper Control
0.629
Limit (UCL), then that operator is having problems consistently
Average
0.629
0.628 Mean=0.6282 Limit (UCL), then that operator is having problems consistently
0.628
0.627 measuring
measuringparts.
0.627
parts. The
TheUpper
UpperControl
ControlLimit
Limitvalue
valuetakes
takesinto
into
0.626 0.626
0.625 LCL=0.6248 account
accountthe
0.625 thenumber
numberofofmeasurements
measurementsby byananoperator
operatoron onaa
0.624
part and the variability between parts. If the operators are
0.624
0 part and
Part 1 2the3 variability
4 5 6 between
7 8 9 parts.
10 If the operators are
measuring
measuringconsistently,
consistently,then
thenthese
theseranges
rangesshould
shouldbe besmall
small
relative
relativetotothethedata
dataandandthe
thepoints
pointsshould
shouldstay
stayinincontrol.
control.

188
MINITABTM Graphic Output Cheat Sheet (cont.)

Tolerance:
Misc:

100
%Contribution 0.630
%Study Var
%Tolerance
Percent
50 MIN ITABTMTMprovides an R Chart and Xbar Chart by Operator.

MIN ITAB provides an R Chart and Xbar Chart by Operator.
0.625
The Xbar Chart compares the part-to-part variation to
The Xbar Chart compares the part-to-part variation to
repeatability.
repeatability. The
0.620 TheXbar
Xbarchart
chartconsists
consistsofofthe
thefollowing:
following:
0
Gage R&R Repeat Reprod Part-to-Part Part 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R Chart by Operator - -The

Theplotted
plottedpoints
By are
points arethe
theaverage
Operator averagemeasurement
measurementon oneach
each
0.010 1 2 3 part
partfor
foreach
each operator.
operator.
- -The
0.630 Center Line is the overall average for all part
Sample Range
The Center Line is the overall average for all part

0.005
UCL=0.005936 measurements
measurementsby byall
alloperators.
operators.
- -The
0.625
TheControl
ControlLimits
Limits(UCL
(UCLand
andLCL)
LCL)are
arebased
basedon onthe
thevariability
variability
R=0.001817 between
between parts and thenumber
parts and the numberofofmeasurements
measurementsinineach
each
0.000 LCL=0
average.
0.620
average.
0 Operator 1 2 3
Xbar Chart by Operator Because Operator*Part Interaction

Becausethetheparts
partschosen
chosenfor
foraaGage
GageR&RR&R study
studyshould
Operator should
0.632
0.631
1 2 3
UCL=0.6316 represent
representthe
0.631
theentire
entirerange
rangeofofpossible
possibleparts,
parts,this
1
thisgraph
graphshould
should
0.630
ideally show lack-of-control.
lack of control. Lack
Lack-of-control
of control exists
2
i t when
h many
an
0.630
id ll show
ideally h llack-of-control.
k f t l Lack-of-control
L k f t l 3exists when many
Sample Mea
0 629
0.629
Average
0.629
0.628 Mean=0.6282 points are above the Upper Control Limit and/ or below the
0.628
0.627 points are above the Upper Control Limit and/ or below the
0.627
Lower Control Limit.
0.626
0.625
Lower Control Limit.
0.626
LCL=0.6248 0.625
0.624 0.624
In this case there are only a 7few8 points out of control which
0 In this case
Part 1 2 there
3 4are
5 only
6 a few points
9 10 out of control which
indicates the measurement system is inadequate.
indicates the measurement system is inadequate.

Tolerance:
MIN
MINITAB
ITABTMprovides
TM
providesananinteraction
interactionchart
chartthat
thatshows
shows
Misc:
the
theaverage
averagemeasurements taken
takenofby
Components
measurements each
eachoperator
Variation
by operatoron on By Part
each
eachpart
partininthe
thestudy,
100
study,arranged
arrangedby bypart.
part. Each
Eachline
line
%Contribution 0.630
connects
connectsthe
theaverages
averagesfor
foraasingle
singleoperator.
operator.
%Study Var
%Tolerance
%
nt
Percen
50 0.625
Ideally,
Ideally,the
thelines
lineswill
willfollow
followthethesame
samepattern
patternand andthe
the
part
partaverages
averageswill0
willvary
vary enough
enough that
that differences
differences
0.620
Gage R&R Repeat Reprod Part-to-Part Part 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
between
betweenparts
partsare areclear.
clear. R Chart by Operator By Operator
0.010 1 2 3
0.630
Sample Range
UCL=0.005936
Pa ttern 0.005 M ea ns… 0.625
R=0.001817
0.000 LCL=0
Lines a re virtua lly identica l O pera tors a re m ea suring 0.620
0 O
Operator
t 1 2 3
the pa rts the sa m e
Xbar Chart by Operator Operator*Part Interaction
O ne line is consistently
0.632 Tha
1 t opera
2 tor is mea
3 suring Operator
UCL=0.6316 0.631 1
0.631
higher or low er tha
0.630n the pa rts consistently higher or 0.630 2
Sample Mean
0.629 3
others low er tha n the others
Average
0.629
0.628 Mean=0.6282 0.628
0.627 0.627
Lines a re not pa ra llel or
0.626
0.625
The opera tors a bility to 0.626
LCL=0.6248 0.625
they cross 0.624 mea sure a pa rt depends 0.624
0 on w hich pa rt is being Part 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
mea sured (a n intera ction

betw een opera tor a nd
pa rt))
p

189
Practical Conclusions
For this example, the measuring system contributes a great deal to the overall variation,
as confirmed by both the Gage R&R table and graphs.
The variation due to the measurement system, as a percent of study variation is causing
92.21% of the variation seen in the process.
By AIAG Standards this gage should not be used. By all standards, the
data being produced by this gage is not valid for analysis.
% Tolera nce
or % C
Contribution
t ib ti System is…
is
% Study Va ria nce
1 0 % or less 1 % or less Idea l
10% - 20% 1% - 4% Accepta ble
20% - 30% 5% - 9% M a rgina l
3 0 % or grea ter 1 0 % or grea ter Poor
Repeatability and Reproducibility Problems
For Repeatability Problems:

If all operators have the same Repea ta bility Problems:
Repeatability and it is too big, • Calibrate or replace gage.
• If only occurring with one operator, re-train.
the gage needs to be repaired
or replaced. Reproducibility Problems:
If only one operator or in the • Measurement machines
case where there are no – Similar machines
• Ensure
E allll h
have b
been calibrated
lib t d andd th
thatt the
th standard
t d d measurementt
operators, but several gages method is being utilized.
and only one gage is showing – Dissimilar machines
Repeatability problems, re- • One machine is superior.
• Operators
train the one operator or – Training and skill level of the operators must be assessed.
replace the one gage. – Operators should be observed to ensure that standard procedures are
followed.
• Operator/ machine by part interactions
For Reproducibility Problems: – Understand why the operator/ machine had problems measuring some parts
In the case where only and not others
others.
machines are used and the • Re-measure the problem parts
• Problem could be a result of gage linearity
multiple machines are all • Problem could be fixture problem
similar in design, check the • Problem could be poor gage design
calibration and ensure that the
standard measurement method is being used. One of the gages maybe performing differently than
the rest, the graphs will show which one is performing differently. It may need to go in for repair or it
may simply be a setup or calibration issue. If dissimilar machines are used it typically means that
one machine is superior. In the case where multiple operator are the graphs will show who will need
additional training to perform at the same level as the rest. The most common operator/machine
interactions are either someone misread a value, recorded the value incorrectly or that the fixture
holding the part is poor.

190
Design Types
Crossed Designs are
the workhorse of Crossed Design
• A crossed design is used only in non-destructive testing and assumes that all
MSA. They are the the parts can be measured multiple times by either operators or multiple
most commonly machines.
used design in – Gives the ability to separate part-to-part variation from measurement
industries where it is system variation.
possible to measure – Assesses repeatability and reproducibility.
something more than – Assesses the interaction between the operator and the part.
once. Chemical and
biological systems N ested Design
can use Crossed • A nested design is used for destructive testing (we will learn about this in
MBB training) and also situations where it is not possible to have all
Designs also as long operators or machines measure all the parts multiple times.
as you can assume – Destructive testing assumes that all the parts within a single batch are
that the samples identical enough to claim they are the same.
used come from a – N ested designs are used to test measurement systems where it is not
homogeneous possible (or desirable) to send operators with parts to different locations.
solution and there is – Do not include all possible combinations of factors.
no reason they can – Uses slightly different mathematical model than the crossed design.
be different.
Nested Designs must be used for destructive testing. In a Nested Design, each part is measured by
only one operator. This is due to the fact that after destructive testing, the measured characteristic is
different after the measurement process than it was at the beginning. Crash testing is an example of
destructive testing.
testing
If you need to use destructive testing, you must be able to assume that all parts within a single batch
are identical enough to claim that they are the same part. If you are unable to make that assumption
then part-to-part variation within a batch will mask the measurement system variation.
If you can make that assumption, then choosing between a Crossed or Nested Gage R&R Study for
destructive testing depends on how your measurement process is set up. If all operators measure
parts from each batch,
batch then use Gage R&R Study (Crossed).
(Crossed) If each batch is only measured by a
single operator, then you must use Gage R&R Study (Nested). In fact, whenever operators measure
unique parts, you have a Nested Design. Your Master Black Belt can assist you with the set-up of
your design.

191
Gage R & R Study
A Gage R&R
R&R, like any study
study, Ga ge R& R Study
requires careful planning. The – Is a set of trials conducted to assess the repeatability and reproducibility
common way of doing an of the measurement system.
Attribute Gage R&R consists – Multiple people measure the same characteristic of the same set of
of having at least two people multiple units multiple times (a crossed study)
measure 20 parts at random, – Example: 10 units are measured by 3 people. These units are then
twice each. This will enable randomized and a second measure on each unit is taken.
you to determine how
y
consistently these people A Blind Study is extremely desirable.
evaluate a set of samples
– Best scenario: operator does not know the measurement is a part of a test
against a known standard. If
– At minimum: operators should not know which of the test parts they are
there is no consistency currently measuring.
among the people, then the
measurement system must
be improved, either by NO, not that kind of R&R!
defining a measurement
method, training, etc. You use
an Excel spreadsheet
template to record your study and then to perform the calculations for the result of the study.
Variable Gage R & R Steps
The pparts selected for

St
Step 1 : Call
C ll a tteam meeting
ti and d iintroduce
t d th
the concepts
t off th
the G
Gage R&R
the MSA are not
Step 2 : Select parts for the study across the range of interest
random samples. We – If the intent is to evaluate the measurement system throughout the process range,
want to be sure the select parts throughout the range
parts selected represent – If only a small improvement is being made to the process, the range of interest is
the overall spread of now the improvement range
parts that would Step 3 : Identify the inspectors or equipment you plan to use for the analysis
normally be seen in – In the case of inspectors, explain the purpose of the analysis and that the
inspection system is being evaluated not the people
manufacturing.
f t i Do
D nott
Step 4 : Calibrate the gage or gages for the study
include parts that are
– Remember linearity, stability and bias
obviously grossly
Step 5 : Have the first inspector measure all the samples once in random order
defective, they could Step 6 : Have the second inspector measure all the samples in random order
actually skew your – Continue this process until all the operators have measured all the parts one time
mathematical results – This completes the first replicate
and conclude that the Step 7 : Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the required number of replicates
MSA is jjust fine. For – Ensure there is always a delay between the first and second inspection
example, an engine Step 8 : Enter the data into MIN ITABTM and analyze your results
manufacturer was using Step 9 : Draw conclusions and make changes if necessary
a pressure tester to
check for leaks in engine blocks. All the usual ports were sealed with plugs and the tester was attached
and pressure was applied. Obviously, they were looking for pin hole leaks that would cause problems
later down the line. The team performing the MSA decided to include an engine block that had a hole in
the casting so large you could insert your entire fist. That was an obvious gross defect and should
never been
b iincluded
l d d iin th
the MSA
MSA. Don’t
D ’t b be silly
ill saying
i th
thatt once iin a while
hil you gett a partt lik
like th
thatt and
d it
should be tested. NO IT SHOULDN’T - you should never have received it in the first place and you
have got much bigger problems to take care of before you do an MSA.

192
Gage R & R Study
This is the most

commonly used Pa rt Alloca tion From Any Popula tion
Crossed Design.
1 0 x 3 x 2 Crossed Design is show n
10 parts are each
measure by 3
A minimum of tw o mea surem ents/ pa rt/ opera tor is required
different operators Three is better!
2 different times.
To get the total Tria l 1

O pera tor 1
number of data
points in the study Tria l 2
P
simply multiply a
these numbers Tria l 1
r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 O pera tor 2
together. In this t Tria l 2
study we have 60 s
measurements. Tria l 1
O pera tor 3
Tria l 2
Gage R & R Study
Crea te a da ta collection sheet for:

– 10 parts
– 3 operators
– 2 trials
The next few slides show how to create a data collection table in MINITAB™
MINITAB . You can use Excel
also.

193
Data Collection Sheet
Here is the
completed table.
The trial column
will not be used
for the analysis
and can actually
be deleted.
Open the file “ Gageaiag2.MTW ” to view the worksheet.
Va ria bles:
– Part
– Operator
– Response

194
Gage R & R
Use the MINITAB™

menu path
“Stat>Quality
Tools>Gage
Study>Gage R&R
Study (Crossed)…”.
Within the dialog box
Gageg R&R Study y
(Crossed), the
“Options…” button
shown in the dialog
box here allows you
to calculate variation
as a percent of study
variation, process
tolerance or a
Use 1.0 for the tolerance.
historical Standard
Deviation.
In this example a Tolerance Range of 1 was used.
Graphical Output
Looking at the “ Components of Variation” chart, the Part to Part Variation needs to be larger
than Gage Variation.
If in the “ Components of Variation” chart the “ Gage R&R” bars are larger than the “ Part-to-
Part’ bars, then all your measurement variation is in the measuring tool i.e.… “ maybe the
gage needs to be replaced” . The same concept applies to the “ Response by Operator”
chart. If there is extreme variation within operators, then the training of the operators is
suspect.
Pa rt to Pa rt
Va ria tion needs
to be la rger tha n
Ga ge Va ria tion
O pera tor
Error

195
Session Window
The Session Tw o-W a y AN O VA Ta ble W ith Intera ction

Window output from Source DF SS MS F P
Part 9 1.89586 0.210651 193.752 0.000
Gage R & R has Operator 2 0.00706 0.003532 3.248 0.062
many values. The Part * Operator 18 0.01957 0.001087 1.431 0.188
Repeatability 30 0.02280 0.000760
ANOVA table values Total 59 1.94529
Ga ge R& R
are utilized to
calculate % %Contribution
Source VarComp (of VarComp)
Contribution and Total Gage R&R 0.0010458 2.91
Standard Deviation. Repeatability 0.0007600 2.11
Reproducibility 0.0002858 0.79
To calculate % Operator 0.0001222 0.34
study variation and Operator* Part 0.0001636 0.45
Part-To-Part 0.0349273 97.09
% tolerance, you will Total Variation 0.0359731 100.00
need to know values N umber of Distinct Categories = 8
for the Standard
Deviation and
tolerance ranges.
ranges
MINITAB™ defaults I can see clearly now!
to a value of 6
(the number of Standard Deviations within which about 99.7 % of your values should fall).
Tolerance ranges are based on process tolerance and are business values specific to each
process.
If the va ria tion due to Ga ge R & R is high, consider:

• Procedures revision?
• Gage update? • 2 0 % < % Tol. GRR < 3 0 % Ga ge Una ccepta ble
• Operator issue? • 1 0 % < % Tol GRR < 2 0 % Ga ge Accepta ble
• Tolerance validation?
• 1 % < % Tol GRR < 1 0 % Ga ge Prefera ble
Study Var %Study Var %Tolerance

Source StdDev (SD) (6 * SD) (%SV) (SV/ Toler)
Total Gage R&R 0.032339 0.19404 17.05 19.40
Repeatability 0.027568 0.16541 14.54 16.54
Reproducibility 0.016907 0.10144 8.91 10.14
Operator 0.011055 0.06633 5.83 6.63
Operator* Part 0.012791 0.07675 6.74 7.67
Part-To-Part 0.186889 1.12133 98.54 112.13
Total Variation 0.189666 1.13800 100.00 113.80
N umber of Distinct Categories = 8
This output tells us that the part to part variation exceeds the allowable tolerance. This gage is
acceptable.

196
Signal Averaging
Signa l Avera ging can be used to reduce repeatability error when

a better gage is not available.
– Uses average of repeat measurements.
– Uses central limit theorem to estimate how many repeat
measures are necessary.
Signal Averaging is a method

to reduce repeatability error in
a poor gage when a better
gage is not available or when
a better gage is not possible.
Signal Averaging Example
Suppose SV/ Tolerance is 35%.
SV/ Tolerance must be 15% or less to use gage.
Suppose the Standard Deviation for one part measured by one person
many times is 9.5.
Determine what the new reduced Standard Deviation should be.
Here we have a problem with Repeatability, not Reproducibility so we calculate what the Standard
Deviation should be in order to meet our desire of a 15% gage.
The 35% represents the biggest problem, Repeatability.
We are assuming that 15% will be acceptable for the short term until an appropriate fix can be
implemented. The 9.5 represents our estimate for Standard Deviation of population of Repeatability.

197
Signal Averaging Example (cont.)
We now use it in the

Determ ine sa m ple size:
Central Limit
Theorem equation
to estimate the
needed number of Using
Using the
theaverage
averageof of66
repeated measures repeated
repeatedmeasures
measureswillwill
to do this we will use reduce
reducethe
therepeatability
repeatability
the Standard component
componentof of
measurement
measurement t error
errorto
tto
Deviation estimated
the
thedesired
desired15%
15%level.
level.
previously.
This m ethod should

sho ld be considered tempora ry!
r !
Paper Cutting Exercise
Ex ercise objective: Perform and Analyze a variable

MSA Study.
1. Cut a piece of paper into 12 different lengths that are all

fairly close to one another but not too uniform. Label the
back of the piece of paper to designate its “ part number”
2. Perform a variable gage R&R study as outlined in this module.
Use the following guidelines:
– N umber of parts: 12
– N umber of inspectors: 3
– N umber of trials: 5
3. Create a MIN ITABTM data sheet and enter the data into the
sheet as each inspector performs a measurement. If possible,
assign one person to data collection.
4. Analyze the results and discuss with your mentor.

198
Attribute MSA
The Discrete Measurement A methodology used to assess Attribute Measurement Systems.

Study is a set of trials
conducted to assess the ability Attribute
of operators to use an Attribute Gage
Gage Error
Error
operational definition or
categorize samples, an
Attribute MSA has:
Repeatability
Repeatability
epea ab y Reproducibility
ep oduc b y
Reproducibility Calibration
Calibration
Ca ba o
1 . Multiple operators measure
(categorize) multiple samples a – They are used in situations where a continuous measure cannot
multiple number of times. For be obtained.
example: 3 operators each – It requires a minimum of 5x as many samples as a continuous
categorize the same 50 study.
samples, then repeat the – Disagreements should be used to clarify operational definitions
measures at least once. for the categories.
• Attribute data are usually the result of human judgment (which
category does this item belong in).
2. The test should be blind. It
• W hen categorizing items (good/ bad; type of call; reason for
is difficult to run this without the leaving) you need a high degree of agreement on which way an
operator knowing it is a item should be categorized.
calibration test, but the
samples should be
randomized and their true categorization unknown to each operator.
The test is analyzed based on correct (vs

(vs. incorrect) answers to determine the goodness of the
measuring system.
Attribute MSA Purpose
The purpose of an Attribute M SA is:

– To determine if all inspectors use the same criteria to determine “ pass” from “ fail” .
– To assess your inspection standards against your customer’s requirements.
– To determine how well inspectors are conforming to themselves.
– To identify how inspectors are conforming to a “ known master,” which includes:
• How often operators ship defective product.
• How often operators dispose of acceptable product.
– Discover areas where:
• Training is required
required.
• Procedures must be developed.
• Standards are not available.
An Attribute MSA is similar in many ways to the continuous MSA, including the
purposes. Do you have any visual inspections in your processes? In your experience
y been?
how effective have they
When a Continuous MSA is not possible an Attribute MSA can be performed to evaluate the quality
of the data being reported from the process.

199
Visual Inspection Test
Take 60 Seconds and count the number of times “F”

F appears in this paragraph?
The N ecessity of Training Farm Hands for First Class Farms

in the Fatherly Handling of Farm Live Stock is Foremost in
the Eyes of Farm Owners. Since the Forefathers of the Farm
O ners Trained the Farm Hands for First Class Farms in
Owners
the Fatherly Handling of Farm Live Stock, the Farm Owners
Feel they should carry on with the Family Tradition of
Training Farm Hands of First Class Farmers in the Fatherly
Handling of Farm Live Stock Because they Believe it is the
B i off Good
Basis G dF Fundamental
d t l Farm
F Management.
M t
Did you get 34? That’s the right answer!
Why not? Does everyone know what an “F” (defect) looks like? Was the lighting good in the
room? Was it quite so you could concentrate? Was the writing clear? Was 60 seconds long
enough?
e oug
This is the nature of visual inspections! How many places in your process do you have visual
inspection? How good do you expect them to be?
How can we Improve Visual Inspection?
Visua l Inspection ca n be im proved by:

• O pera tor Tra ining & Certifica tion
• Develop Visua l Aids/ Bounda ry Sa m ples
• Esta blish Sta nda rds
• Esta blish Set-Up Procedures
• Esta blish Eva lua tion Procedures
– Eva lua tion of the sa me loca tion on ea ch pa rt.
– Ea ch eva lua tion perform ed under the sa m e lighting.
– Ensure a ll eva lua tions a re m a de w ith the sa m e
sta nda rd.
Look closely now!

200
Excel Attribute R & R Template
Attribute Gage R & R Effectiveness
SCORING REPORT
DATE: 5/10/2006
Attribute Legend5 (used in computations) NAME: Joe Smith
1 pass PRODUCT: My Gadget All operators
2 fail BUSINESS: Unit 1 agree within and All Operators
between each agree with
Other standard
Known Population Operator #1 Operator #2 Operator #3 Y/N Y/N
Sample # Attribute Try #1 Try #2 Try #1 Try #2 Try #1 Try #2 Agree Agree
1 pass pass pass pass pass fail fail N N
2 pass pass pass pass pass fail fail N N
3 fail fail fail fail pass fail fail N N
4 fail fail fail fail fail fail fail Y Y
5 fail fail fail pass fail fail fail N N
6 pass pass pass pass pass pass pass Y Y
7 pass fail fail fail fail fail fail Y N
9 fail pass
p pass
p pass
p pass
p pass
p pass
p Y N
10 fail pass pass fail fail fail fail N N
In order to conduct an Attribute Gage R&R first select a set of samples. These samples should be
a mix of clearly Good/Pass, clearly Bad/Fail and Marginal so we can test an operator’s ability
across different types of attributes.
For each sample an attribute or true status of the part should be documented by an expert or team
of experts, these people have to be different that the operators who will do the study. Each
operator should assign a Pass or Fail to each part on two or three separate occasions.
The requirements for any sort of confidence with Attribute Data are big. Start with 50 samples, that
should give you enough data. If you use more, realistically things will just get worse.
Attribute: Precision Assessment Deliverable
Precision Precision + Bia s
Repea ta bility
Reproducibility R
A
C A
T
The
eggreen
ee ttriangle
a g e represents
ep ese ts tthe
e actua
actual sco
score
eoof tthe
e
U
A
N
appraiser. The range between the red squares is the L
G
Confidence Interval which is a function of the operators
score and the size of the sample they have inspected. E

201
Statistical Report
The O pera tor a grees on

both tria ls w ith the k now n
The O pera tor a grees w ith sta nda rd
them selves on both tria ls
All O pera tors a gree

All O pera tors a gree W ithin & Betw een
W ithin & Betw een them selves a nd w ith
them selves the sta nda rd
M&M Exercise
Ex ercise objective: Perform and Analyze an Attribute MSA Study.
• You will need the following to complete the study:

– A bag of M&Ms containing 50 or more “ pieces”
– The attribute value for each piece.
– Three or more inspectors.
• Judge each M&M as pass or fail.

N umber Part Attribute
– The customer has indicated that they want a bright and shiny M&M
1 M&M Pass and that they like M’s.
2 M&M Fail
• Pick 50 M&Ms out of a package.
3 M&M Pass
• Enter results into either the Excel template or MIN ITABTM and
draw conclusions.
• The instructor will represent the customer for the attribute score.
To complete this study you will need, a bag of M&Ms containing 50 or more “pieces”. The Attribute
Value for each piece, which means the “True” value for each piece, in addition to being the
facilitator of this study you will also serve as the customer, so you will have the say as to if the
piece is actually a Pass or Fail piece
piece. Determine this before the inspectors review the pieces
pieces. You
will need to construct a sheet as shown here to keep track of the “pieces” or “parts” in our case
M&Ms it is important to be well organized during these activities. Then the inspectors will
individually judge each piece based on the customer specifications of bright and shiny M&M with
nice M’s.

202
Understand Precision & Accuracy
Understand Bias, Linearity and Stability
Understand Repeatability & Reproducibility
Understand the impact of poor gage capability on

product quality.
Identify the various components of variation
Perform the step by step methodology in variable

variable,
and attribute MSA’s
You have now completed Measure Phase – Measurement System Analysis.
Notes

203
Lean Six Sigma

Black Belt Training
Measure Phase
Process Capability
Now we will continue in the Measure Phase with “Process Capability”.

204
Process Capability
Overview
Within this module we W

W elcom
elcomee to
to M
Mea
easure
sure
are going to go through
Stability and its affect
on a process as well as Process
Process Discovery
Discovery
how to measure the
Capability of a process. Six
Six Sigm
Sigmaa Sta
Statistics
tistics
We will examine the M
Mea
easurem
surement
entt Sy
System
S stem
t
meaning of each of Ana
Analy
lysis
sis
these and show you
how to apply them. Process
Process Ca
Capa
pability
bility
Continuous
Continuous Capability
Capability
Concept
Concept of
of Stability
Stability
Attribute
Attribute Capability
Capability
W
W ra
rapp Up
Up &
& Action
Action Item
Itemss
Understanding Process Capability
Process Ca pa bility:
• The inherent a bility of a process to meet the ex pecta tions of the

custom er w ithout a ny a dditiona l efforts.
• Provides insight a s to w hether the process ha s a :

– Centering Issue (rela tive to specifica tion lim its)
– Va ria tion Issue
– A com bina tion of centering a nd va ria tion
– Ina ppropria te specifica tion lim its
• Allow s for a ba seline m etric for improvem ent.
*Efforts: Time, Money, Manpower, Technology, and Manipulation
This is the Definition of Process Capability. We will now begin to learn how to assess it.

205
Process Capability
Capability as a Statistical Problem
Simply put Six

O ur Sta
St tistica
ti ti l Problem:
P bl W hat
h t iis th
the probability
b bilit off our
Sigma always starts
with a practical
process producing a defect ?
problem, translates it
into a statistical
Define a Practical
problem, corrects the
Problem
statistical problem
and then validates
Create a
the practical Statistical Problem
problem.
Correct the
We will re-visit this Statistical Problem
concept over and
over, especially in Apply the Correction
the Analyze Phase to the Practical
when determining g Problem
sample size.
Capability Analysis
Capability Analysis
provides you with a The X
X’ss Y = f(X) (Process Function) The Y
Y’ss
Variation – “Voice of
(Inputs) (Outputs)
quantitative assessment of the Process”
Frequency
your processes ability to Verified Op i + 1
Op i
meet the requirements X1
Data for
?
Y1…Yn
placed on it. Capability X2 Off-Line

Y1
Analysis Scrap
10.16
10.11
10.16
10.05
10.11
9.87
9.99
10.16
9.87 10.11
10.12
9.99 10.05
Correction 10.33
10.05
Analysis is traditionally
10.44
10.33 10.43
10.12 10.33
X3 Y2 9.86
10.44 10.21
10.43 10.44
10.01
10.21 9.86
9.80 9.90 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5
10.07
9.86
10.29
10.07 10.15
10.01 10.07
10.36
10.29 10.44
10.15 10.29
used for assessing the

X4 10.36 10.03
10.44 10.36
10.33
10.03
10.15
10.33
Yes Y3 No 10.15
X5 Correctable
outputs of a process, in ?
other words comparing the

Voice of the Process to the Critical X(s): Requirements – “Voice
of the Customer” Data - VOP
Any variable(s)
Voice of the Customer. LSL = 9.96 USL = 10.44
10.16
10.11 9.87 10.16
which exerts an 10.05
10.33
9.99
10.12
10.43
10.11
10.05
undue influence on
10.44 10.33
However, you can use the

9.86 10.21 10.44
10.07 10.01 9.86
the important 10.29

10.36
10.15
10.44
10.03
10.07
10.29
outputs (CTQ’s) of a
10.36
10.33
same technique to assess

10.15
process Defects
Defects
the capability of the inputs

Ca pa bility Ana lysis N um erica lly
going into the process. they
Com pa res the VO P to the VO C
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
are after all,

all outputs from Percent Composition
9.70 9.80 9.90 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6
some previous process,

and you have expectations, specifications or requirements for their performance. Capability Analysis
will give you a metric that you can use to describe how well it performs and you can convert this
metric to a sigma score if you so desire.
You will learn in the lesson how the output variation width of a given process output compares with
the specification width established for that out put. This ratio, the output variation width divided by
th specification
the ifi ti width
idth iis what
h t iis kknow as capability.
bilit
Since the specification is an essential part of this assessment, a rigorous understanding of the
validity of the specification is vitally important, it also has to be accurate. This is why it is important to
perform a RUMBA type analysis on process inputs and outputs.

206
Process Capability
Process Output Categories

Two output behaviors
determine how well we meet
Incapable Off target
our customer or process Average LSL USL
output expectations. The first LSL USL Average
is the amount of variation

present in the output and the
second is how well the output
is centered relative to the Target Target
requirements.
i t If the
th amountt off
Re
ss
du
variation is larger than the Capable and ce
ce
on target ro
difference between the upper rp
sp
e
nt
r ea
Average
spec limit minus the lower LSL USL Ce
d
spec limit, our product or
service output will always
produce defects, it will not be
capable of meeting the T
Target
t
customer or process output
requirements.
As you have learned, variation exists in everything. There will always be variability in every process
output. You can’t eliminate it completely, but you can minimize it and control it. You can tolerate
variability if the variability is relatively small compared to the requirements and the process
demonstrates long-term stability, in other words the variability is predictable and the process
performance is on target meaning the average value is near the middle value of the requirements.
The output from a process is either: capable or not capable, centered or not centered. The degree of
capability and/or centering determines the number of defects generated. If the process is not
capable, you must find a way to reduce the variation.
And if it is not centered, it is obvious that you must find a way to shift the performance. But what do
you do if it is both incapable and not centered? It depends, but most of the time you must minimize
and gget control of the variation first, this is because high
g variation creates high
g uncertainty,
y yyou can’t
be sure if your efforts to move the average are valid or not. Of course, if is just a simple adjustment
to shift the average to where you want it, you would do that before addressing the variation.
Problem Solving Options – Shift the Mean
Our efforts in a Six Sigma This involves finding the variables that will shift the process over to the
project that is examining a target. This is usually the easiest option.
process that is p
p performing
g at a
level less than desired is to USL
LSL
Shift the Mean of performance Shift
such that all outputs are within
an acceptable range.
Our ability to Shift the Mean

involves finding the variables
that will shift the process over
to the target. This is the
easiest option.

207
Process Capability
Problem Solving Options – Reduce Variation

Reducing the variation means
fewer of our outputs fail further This is typically not so easy to accomplish and occurs often in Six
Sigma projects.
away from the target. Our
objective then is to reduce
LSL USL
variation of the inputs to
stabilize the output.
Problem Solving Options – Shift Mean & Reduce Variation

Combination of shifting the
This occurs often in Six Sigma projects.
Mean and reducing variation –
This is the primary objective of
Six Sigma projects. USL
LSL Shift & Reduce
Problem Solving Options
Move the specification limits – Obviously this implies making them wider, not narrower. Customers
Obviously this implies making usually do not go for this option but if they do…it’s the easiest!
them wider,, not narrower.
Customers usually do not go LSL USL USL
for this option.
Move Spec

208
Process Capability
Capability Studies
A stable process is one that is

consistent with time. Time Ca pa bility Studies:
Series Plots are one way to • Are intended to be regular, periodic, estimations of a process’s ability
check for stability, Control to meet its requirements.
Charts are another. Your • Can be conducted on both discrete and continuous data.
process may not be stable at • Are most meaningful when conducted on stable, predictable
this time. One of the purposes processes.
of the Measure Phase is to • Are commonly reported as Sigma Level which is optimal (short term)
identify the many X’s possible performance
performance.
for the defects seen, gather • Require a thorough understanding of the following:
data and plot it to see if there – Customer’s or business’s specification limits
– N ature of long term vs. short term data
are any patterns to identify
– Mean and Standard Deviation of the process
what to work on first.
– Assessment of the normality of the data (continuous data only)
When performing Capability – Procedure for determining Sigma level
Analysis,
y , tryy to get
g as much
data as are possible, back as far in time as possible, over a reference frame that is generally
representative of your process.
Steps to Capability
Select Output for

Improvement
#1 Verify Customer
Requirements
#2 Validate
Specification
Limits
#3 Collect Sample
Data
#4 Determine
Data Type
(LT or ST)
#5 Check data
for normality
#6 Calculate
Z-Score, PPM,
Yield, Capability
Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk
#7

209
Process Capability
Verifying the Specifications
Q uestions
ti to
t consider:
id Specifications must be
verified before
completing the
• W hat is the source of the specifications?
Capability Analysis. It
– Customer requirements (VOC) doesn’t mean that you
– Business requirements (target, benchmark) will be able to change
– Compliance requirements (regulations) them, but on occasion
– Design requirements (blueprint
(blueprint, system) some internal
specifications have
• Are they current? Likely to change? been made much
tighter than the
customer wants.
• Are they understood and agreed upon?
– Operational definitions
– Deployed to the work force
Data Collection
You must know if the
data collected from Ca pa bility Studies should include “ a ll” observa tions (1 0 0 % sa mpling) for a specified period.
process outputs is a Short-term da ta : Long-term da ta :

• Collected across a narrow inference • Is collected across a broader inference
short-term or a long-term space. space.
representation of how • Daily, weekly; for one shift, • Monthly, quarterly; across multiple
machine operator
machine, operator, etc
etc. shifts machines,
shifts, machines operators
operators, etc
wellll th
the process • Is potentially free of special cause • Subject to both common and special
performs. There are variation. causes of variation.
• More representative of process
several reasons for this, • Often reflects the optimal
performance over a period of time.
performance level.
but for now we will focus • Typically consists of 30 – 50 data • Typically consists of at least 100 – 200
on it from the points. data points.
perspective of assessing Lot 1 Lot 5
the capability of the Lot 3

Quantity
process.
Fill Q
To help you understand

Lot 2
short-term vs. long-term
Lot 4
data, we will start by S h o r t - t e r m s tu d ie s
looking at a
L o n g -te rm s tu d y
manufacturing example
first. In this scenario the
manufacturer is filling bottles with a certain amount of fluid fluid. Assume the product is built in lots
lots. Each
lot is built using a particular vendor of the bottle, by a particular shift and set of employees and by one
of many manufacturing lines. The next lot could be from a different vendor, employees, line, shift, etc.
Each lot is sampled as it leaves the manufacturing facility on its way to the warehouse. The results
are represented by the graphic where you see the performance data on a lot by lot basis for the
amount of fill based on the samples that were taken. Each lot has its own variability and average as
shown. The variability actually looks reasonable and we notice that the average from lot to lot is
varying as well.
What the customer eventually experiences in the amount of fluid in each bottle is the value across the
full variability of all the lots. It can now be seen and stated that the long-term variability will always be
greater than the short-term variability.

210
Process Capability
Baseline Performance
Here is another way to look

at long-term and short-term Process
Process Ba Baseline:
seline: The
The
performance. The “road” average,
average, long-term
long-termperformance
performance
appearing graphic actually level
levelof
ofaaprocess
processwhen
whenall
allinput
input
represents the target (center variables
variablesare
areunconstrained.
unconstrained. Long-term
Long-term
line) and the upper and lower ba
baseline
seline
spec limits. Here again you 4
Short
ShortTerm
see the representative
p PPerform
Perform
f
Term
aance
nce
performance in short-term
snapshots, which result in
the larger long-term ` 3
performance.
Process Baseline is a term 2

that you will use frequently 1
as a way to describe the
output performance of a LSL TARGET USL
process. Whenever you hear
the word “Baseline” it automatically implies long-term performance. To not use long-term data to
describe the Baseline Performance would be dangerous.
As an example, imagine you reported the process performance Baseline was based on distribution 3
in the graphic, you would mislead yourself and others that the process had excellent on target
performance. If you used distribution 2, you would be led to believe that the average performance was
near the USL and that most of the output of the process was above the spec limit. To resolve these
potential problems, it is important to always use long-term data to report the Baseline.
How do you know if the data you have is short or long-term? Here are some guidelines. A somewhat
technical interpretation of long-term data is that the process has had the opportunity to experience
most of the sources of variation that can impact it. Remembering the outputs are a function of the
inputs what we are saying is that most of the combinations of the inputs,
inputs, inputs each with their full range of
variation has been experienced by the process. You may use these situations as guidelines.
Short-term data is a “snapshot” of process performance and is characterized by these types of

conditions:
One shift One line
One batch One employee
One type of service One or only a few suppliers
Long-term data is a “video” of process performance and is characterized by these types of conditions:
Many shifts Many batches
Many employees Many services and lines
Many suppliers
Long-term variation is larger than short-term variation because of : material differences, fluctuations in
temperature and humidity, different people performing the work, multiple suppliers providing
materials, equipment wear, etc.
As a general rule, short-term data consist of 20 to 30 data points over a relatively short period of time
and long-term data consist of 100 to 200 data points over an extended period of time. Do not be

211
Process Capability
Baseline Performance (cont.)

misled by the volume of product or service produced as an indicator of long and short-term
performance. Data that represents the performance of a process that produces 100,000 widgets a day
for that day will be short-term performance. Data the represents the performance of a process that
produces 20 widgets a day over a 3 month period will be long-term performance.
While we have used a manufacturing example to explain all this, it is exactly the same for a service or
administrative type of process. In these types of processes, there are still different people, different
shifts, different workloads, differences in the way inputs come into the process, different software,
computers,
t temperatures,
t t etc.
t The
Th same exactt conceptst andd rules
l apply.l
You should now appreciate why, when we report process performance, we need to know what the data
is representative of. Using such data we will now demonstrate how to calculate process capability and
then we will show how it is used.
C
Components
t off V
Variation
i ti
There are many ways

to look at the Even stable processes will drift and shift over time by as much as 1.5
difference between Standard Deviations on the average.
short-term and long-
term data. Long Term
O vera ll Va ria tion
First keep on mind
that you never have
purely short-term or
purely long-term data.
It is always something
in between.
Short Term
Betw een Group Va ria tion
Short term data
Short-term
basically represent
your “entitlement”
Short Term
situation: you are
W ithin Group Va ria tion
controlling all the
controllable sources
of variation.
Long-term data includes (in theory) all the variation that one can expect to see in the process.
process
Usually what we have is something in between. It is a judgment call to decide which type of data you
have: it varies depending on what you are trying to do with it and what you want to learn from it.
In general one or more months of data are probably more long-term than short-term; two weeks or
less is probably more like short-term data.

212
Process Capability
Sum of the Squares Formulas
These are the equations

describing the sum of
squares which are the
SS tota l = SS betw een + SS w ithin
basis for the calculations
used in capability.
No, you do not need to

memorize them or even
really understand them
them.
They are built into Precision
Shift (short-term capability)
MINITABTM for the x
processing of data.
Output Y
x x
x
x x
x x x
x x
x
x x x Time
x x x x
x x
x x x
x
Stability
Stability is established by A Sta ble Process is consistent over time. Time Series Plots and
plotting data in a Time Control Charts are the typical graphs used to determine stability.
Series Plot or in a
Control Chart. If the data At this point in the Measure Phase there is no reason to assume the
used in the Control Chart process is stable.
goes out of control, the Time Series Plot of PC Data
data is not stable. 70
Att this
t s point
po t in the
t e 60
Measure Phase there is
no reason to assume the
PC Data
50
process is stable.
Performing a capability Tic toc…
study at this point 40
tic toc…
effectively draws a line in
the sand. 30
1 48 96 144 192 240 288 336 384 432 480
Index
If however, the process
is stable, short-term data
provides a more reliable estimate of true process capability.
Looking at the Time Series Plot shown on this slide, where would you look to determine the
entitlement of this process?
As you can see th

A the circled
i l d region
i hhas a much h titighter
ht variation.
i ti W
We would
ld consider
id thi
this th
the process
entitlement; meaning, that if we could find the X’s that are causing the instability this is the best the
process can perform in the short term. The idea is that we’ve done it for some time, we should be
able to do it again. This does not mean that this is the best this process will ever be able to do.

213
Process Capability
Measures of Capability
Mathematically Cpk and Ppk are the same and Cp and Pp are the same.
The only difference is the source of the data, Short-term and Long-term,
respectively.
– Cp and Pp Hope
p
• W hat is Possible if your process is perfectly Centered
• The Best your process can be
• Process Potential (Entitlement)
– Cpk and Ppk Reality

• The Reality of your process performance
• How the pprocess is actually
y runningg
• Process capability relative to specification limits
Capability Formulas
Six tim es the sa m ple

Sta nda rd Devia tion
Sa m ple M ea n
Three tim es the sa m ple

Sta nda rd Devia tion
Note: Consider the “K” value the penalty for being off center LSL – Lower specification limit
USL – Upper specification limit

214
Process Capability
MINITAB™ Example
Open the worksheet

Open worksheet “ Camshaft.mtw” . Check for N ormality.
“Camshaft.mtw”.
There are two columns of

data that show the length of By looking at the “ P-values”
camshafts from two different the data look to be normal
since P is greater than .05
suppliers. Check the
Normalityy of each supplier.
pp
In order to use process

capability as a predictive
statistic, the data must be
Normal for the tool we are
using in MINITAB™.
At this point in time we are only attempting to get a Baseline number that we can compare to at the
end of problem solving. We are not using it to predict a quality, we want to get a snapshot. DO NOT
try and make your process STABLE BEFORE working on it! Your process is a project because
there is something wrong with it so go figure it out, don’t bother playing around with stability.
Crea te a Ca pa bility Ana lysis for both suppliers, a ssume long term
da ta .
N ote the subgroup size for this ex a m ple is 5 .
LSL= 5 9 8 USL=6 0 2

215
Process Capability
MINITAB™ Example (cont.)
599.548
599 548 is the process
Process Capability of Supplier 1
Mean which falls short of
the target (600) for LSL USL
Supplier 1, and the left P rocess D ata Within
LS L 598 Ov erall
tail of the distribution Target *
P otential (Within) C apability
USL 602
falls outside the lower S ample M ean 599.115 Cp 1.19
C P L 0.66
specification limits. From S ample N
S tD ev (Within)
100
0.559239 C P U 1.72
C pk 0.66
a practical standpoint S tD ev (O v erall) 0.604106
O v erall C apability
p y
what does this mean? Pp 1.10
PPL 0.62
You will have camshafts PPU 1.59
P pk 0.62
that do not meet the C pm *
lower specification of
598 mm.
597.75 598.50 599.25 600.00 600.75 601.50
Next we look at the Cp O bserv ed P erformance E xp. Within P erformance E xp. O v erall P erformance
index.
de Thiss tells
te s us if wee P P M < LS L 30000.00
PPM > USL 0 00
0.00
P P M < LS L 23088.05
PPM > USL 0 12
0.12
P P M < LS L 32467.79
PPM > USL 0 90
0.90
will produce units within P P M Total 30000.00 P P M Total 23088.18 P P M Total 32468.68
the tolerance limits.

Supplier 1 Cp index is
.66 which tells us they need reduce the process variation and work on centering.
Look at the PMM levels? What does this tell us?
600.06
600 06 is the process man
for Supplier 2 and is very Process
Process Capability
Capability of
of Supplier
Supplier 22
close to the target
LSL
LSL USL
USL
although both tails of the PProcess
rocessDData
ata W
Within
ithin
LS
LSLL 598 Ov
distribution fall outside of 598 O verall
erall
Target
Target **
PPotential
otential(Within)
(Within)CCapability
the specification limits. UUSSLL
SSample
ample MMean
602
602
ean 600.061
600.061
CCpp 0.66
0.66
apability
CCPPLL 0.68
The Cpk index is very SSample
ample NN
SStD
100
100
CCPPUU 0.64
0.68
0.64
tDev
ev(Within)
(Within) 1.00606
1.00606
similar to Supplier 1 but SStD
tDev
ev(O
(Ovverall)
erall) 1.14898
1.14898
CCpk
pk 0.64
OOvverall C
0.64
apability
erallll C apability
bilit
this infers that we need to PPpp 0.58
0.58
PPPPLL 0.60
work on reducing PPPPUU
0.60
0.56
0.56
variation. When making a PPpk
pk
CCpm
pm
0.56
0.56
**
comparison between
Supplier 1 and 2 elative to
Cpk vs Ppk we see that 597
597 598
598 599
599 600
600 601
601 602
602 603
603
Supplier 2 process is more OObserv
bserved
edPPerformance
erformance EExp.
xp.Within
WithinPPerformance
erformance EExp.
xp.OOvverall
erallPPerformance
erformance
PPPPMM << LS
LSLL 40000.00 PPPPMM << LS
LSLL 20251.30 PPPPMM <<LS
LSLL 36425.88
prone to shifting over time
time. 40000.00
PPPPMM >> UUSSLL 60000.00
60000.00
20251.30
PPPPMM >> UUSSLL 26969.82
26969.82
36425.88
PPPPMM >>UUSSLL 45746.17
45746.17
That could be a risk to be PPPPMM Total
Total 100000.00
100000.00 PPPPMM Total
Total 47221.11
47221.11 PPPPMM Total
Total 82172.05
82172.05
concerned about.
Again, Compare the PPM levels? What does this tell us? Hint look at PPM < LSL.
So what do we do. In looking only at the means you may claim that Supplier 2 is the best. Although
Supplier 1 has greater potential as depicted by the Cp measure and it will likely be easier to move their
Mean than deal with the variation issues of Supplier 2
2. Therefore we will work with Supplier 1 1.

216
Process Capability
Generate the new

capability graphs for both MIN ITAB™ has a selection to calculate Benchmark Z’s or Sigma
suppliers and compare Z levels along with the Cp and Pp statistics. By selecting these the
values or sigma levels. graph will display the “ Sigma Level” of your process!
Stat>Quality Tools>Capability Analysis>Normal…>Options…Benchmark Z’s (sigma level)
The overall long term

sigma level is 1.85 for Process Capability of Supplier 1
supplier 1 you should LSL USL

also note that it has the P rocess Data Within
LS L 598 Ov erall
potential to be 1.99 Target *
P otential (Within) C apability
USL 602
sigma as the process S ample M ean 599.115 Z.Bench 1.99
S ample N 100 Z.LS L 1.99
stands in its current S tDev (Within) 0.559239 Z.U S L 5.16
C pk 0 66
0.66
state. S tDev (O v erall) 0.604106
Z.Bench 1.85
Z.LS L 1.85
Z.U S L 4.78
P pk 0.62
C pm *
597.75 598.50 599.25 600.00 600.75 601.50

O bserv ed P erformance E xp. Within P erformance E xp. O v erall P erformance
P P M < LS L 30000.00 P P M < LS L 23088.05 P P M < LS L 32467.79
PPM > USL 0.00 PPM > USL 0.12 PPM > USL 0.90
P P M Total 30000.00 P P M Total 23088.18 P P M Total 32468.68

217
Process Capability
The overall long-term

long term sigma
level is 1.39 for supplier 2, Process Capability of Supplier 2
you should also note that it LSL USL
has the potential to be 1.39 LS L
P rocess D ata
598
Within
Ov erall
sigma as the process Target
USL
*
602 P otential (Within) C apability
stands in its current state. S ample M ean

S ample N
600.061
100
Z.Bench 1.67
Z.LS L 2.05
S tD ev (Within) 1.00606 Z.U S L 1.93
S tD ev (O v erall) 1.14898 C pk 0.64
Z.Bench
Z Bench 1.39
1 39
Z.LS L 1.79
Z.U S L 1.69
P pk 0.56
C pm *
597 598 599 600 601 602 603

O bserv ed P erformance E xp. Within P erformance E xp. O v erall P erformance
P P M < LS L 40000.00 P P M < LSL 20251.30 P P M < LS L 36425.88
PPM > USL 60000.00 P P M > U S L 26969.82 P P M > U S L 45746.17
P P M Total 100000.00 P P M Total 47221.11 P P M Total 82172.05
Example Short Term
MIN ITAB™ assumes long term data

– W hen short-term data is taken, do one of the following:
O ption 1 O ption 2
Enter subgroup size = tota l Go to options, turn off W ithin
num ber of sa m ples subgroup a na lysis
The default of MINITAB™ assumes long-term data. Many times you will have short-term data, be
sure to adjust MINITAB™ based on Option 1 or 2 as shown here to ensure you get a proper
analysis.
For option 1 you will enter the subgroup size as the total number of data points you have in your
short-term study.
For option 2, you will turn off the within subgroup analysis found inside the Options selection.

218
Process Capability
Continuous Variable Caveats

Well this is one way to lie Capability
C bilit iindices
di assume N ormally
ll Di
Distributed
t ib t d d
data.
t
with Statistics…When Always perform a N ormality test before assessing capability.
used as a predictive
model, capability makes Process Capability
assumptions about the LSL USL

Process Data Within
shape to the data. When LSL
Target
35.00000
*
Overall
data is Non-normal, the USL

Sample Mean
65.00000
50.19214
Potential (Within) Capability
Z.Bench 2.54
Z.LSL 2.81
models assumptions
Sample N 150
StDev(Within) 5.40199 Z.USL 2.74
Cpk 0.91
StDev(Overall) 20.93958
don’t work and would be CCpk
Overall Capability
0.93
inappropriate to predict. Z.Bench

Z.LSL
0.07
0.73
Z.USL 0.71
Ppk 0.24
It’s actually good news to Cpm

99.9
* Probability Plot
Mean
StDev
50.19
20.90
have data that looks like 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

99
95
90
N
AD
P-Value
150
11.238
<0.005
this because your project Observed Performance Exp. Within Performance Exp. Overall Performance
80
70
Percent
60
50
work will be easy!!!

PPM < LSL 413333.33 PPM < LSL 2459.27 PPM < LSL 234065.73 40
30
PPM > USL 453333.33 PPM > USL 3060.91 PPM > USL 239730.12 20
PPM Total 866666.67 PPM Total 5520.18 PPM Total 473795.85 10
Why? y Clearly y there is

5
something occurring in 0.1

0 25 50 75 100 125
the process that should

be fairly obvious and is causing these very two distinct distribution to occur. Go take a look at each of
the distributions individually and determine what is causing this. DON’T fuss or worry about Normality
at this point, hop out to the process and see what is going on.
Here in the Measure Phase stick with observed performance unless your data are Normal. There are
ways to deal with Non-normal Data for predictive capability but we
we’llll look at that once you have
removed some of the Special Causes from the process. Remember here in the Measure Phase we get
a snapshot of what we’re dealing with, at this point don’t worry about predictability, we’ll eventually get
there.
Capability Steps
When we follow the
steps in performing a
capability study on
Select Output for
Improvement
W e can follow the steps for
Attribute Data we hit calculating capability for
a wall at step 6. #1 Verify Customer
Requirements
Continuous Data until we
Attribute Data is not reach the question about
considered Normal Validate
so we will use a
#2
Specification data N ormality…
Limits
different
#3 Collect Sample
mathematical Data
method to estimate
capability. #4 Determine
Data Type
(LT or ST)
#5 Check data
for Normality
#6 Calculate
Z-Score, PPM,
Yield, Capability
Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk
#7

219
Process Capability
Attribute Capability Steps
Select Output for

Improvement
N otice the difference when
#1 Verify Customer
we come to step 5 …
Requirements
#2 Validate
Specification
Li it
Limits
#3 Collect Sample
Data
#4
Calculate
DPU
#5
Find Z-Score
#6 Convert Z-Score
to Cp & Cpk
#7
Z Scores
Z Score is a measure of the distance in Standard Deviations of a

sample from the Mean.
The Z Score effectively transforms the actual data into standard normal
units. By referring to a standard Z table you can estimate the area under
the N ormal curve.
– Given an average of 50 with a Standard Deviation of 3 what is
the proportion beyond the upper spec limit of 54?
50
54

220
Process Capability
Z Table
In our case we have
to lookup the
proportion for the Z
score of 1.33. This
means that
approximately 9.1%
of our data falls
beyond the upper
spec limit of 54. If
we are interested in
determining parts
per million defective
we would simply
multiply the
proportion .09176 by
one million
million. In this
case there are
91,760 parts per
million defective.
Attribute Capability
Attribute data is a lw a ys long term in the shifted condition since it requires so

many samples to get a good estimate with reasonable confidence.
Short term capability is typically reported, so a shifting method will be employed

to estimate short term capability.
You Want to Estimate : ZST ZLT

Short Term Long Term Sigma Short-Term Long-Term
Your Data Is : Capability Capability Level DPMO DPMO
1 158655.3 691462.5
Short Term Subtract
ZST Capability 1.5 2 22750.1 308537.5
Long Term Add 3 1350.0 66807.2

ZLT Capability 1.5 4 31.7 6209.7
5 0.3 232.7
6 0.0 3.4
Stable process can shift and drift by as much as 1.5 Standard Deviations. Want the theory behind
the 1.5…Google it! It doesn’t matter.

221
Process Capability
Attribute Capability (cont.)
Some people like to

use sigma level By viewing these formulas you can see there is a relationship between them.
(MINITAB™ reports
this as “Z-bench”), If we divide our Z short-term by 3 we can determine our Cpk and if we divide
other like to use Cpk, our Z long-term by 3 we can determine our Ppk.
Ppk. If you are using
Cpk and Ppk you
can easily translate
that into a Z score or
sigma level by
dividing by 3.
Attribute Capability Example
A customer service group is interested in estimating the capability of their

call center.
A total of 20,000 calls came in during the month but 2,500 of them
“ dropped” before they were answered (the caller hung up).
Results of the call center data set:

Samples = 20,000
Defects = 2,666
They hung up….!
We will use this example

p to demonstrate the capability
p y of a customer service call g
group.
p

222
Process Capability
Attribute Capability Example (cont.)
Follow these steps to

determine your 1. Ca
Calcula
lculate
te DPU
DPU
process capability. 2. Look up
up DPU
DPU va lue on
on the
the Z
Z-Ta
-Table
ble
3. Find
Find Z-Score
Remember that, 4. Convert Z Score toto Cpk
Cpk,, Ppk
Ppk
DPU is Defects per
unit, the total number
of possible errors or
defects that could be
counted in a process
or service. DPU is
calculated by
dividing the total Example:
Example:
Look
Look up
up ZLT
ZLT
number of defects by
ZLT
ZLT == 1.11
1.11
the number of units Convert
Convert ZLT
ZLT to
to ZST
ZST == 1.11+1.5
1.11+1.5 == 1.61
1.61
or p
products.
"Cpk” is an index (a
11.. Ca
Calcula
lculate
te DPU
DPU
simple number)
22.. Look
Look upup DPU
DPU va
value
lue on
on the
the Z-Ta
Z-Table
ble
which measures how 33.. Find
Find ZZ Score
Score
close a process is 44.. Convert
C
Convert tZZ Score
Score
S to
t Cpk
to C k,, Ppk
Cpk Ppk
P k
running to its
specification limits,
relative to the natural Ex
Ex aample:
mple:
variability of the Look
Look up up ZLT
ZLT
Z LT == 11.1
ZLT .111
process.
Convert
Convert ZLT ZLT to
to ZST
ZST == 11.1
.111++1
1 .5
.5 == 11.6
.611
A Cpk of at least
1.33
1 33 is desired and
is about 4 sigma +
with a yield of
99.3790% .
The above Cpk of

.54 is about 1.5
sigma or a 50%
Yield.
If you want to know how that variation will affect the ability of your process to meet customer
requirements (CTQ's), you should use Cpk.
If you just want to know how much variation the process exhibits, a Ppk measurement is fine.
Remember Cpk represents the short-term capability of the process and Ppk represents the long-
t
term capability
bilit off th
the process.
With the 1.5 shift, the above Ppk process capability will be worse than the Cpk short-term capability.

223
Process Capability
Estimate capability for Continuous Data
Estimate capability for Attribute Data
Describe the impact of Non-normal Data on the

analysis presented in this module for continuous
capability
You have now completed Measure Phase – Process Capability.
Notes

224
Lean Six Sigma

Black Belt Training
Measure Phase
Wrap Up and Action Items
The Measure Phase is now complete. Get ready to apply it. This module will help you create a
plan to implement the Measure Phase for your project.

225
Measure Phase Overview - The Goal
Th goa l off the

The th M ea sure Pha
Ph se is
i to:
t
• Define, explore and classify “ X” variables using a variety of tools.

– Detailed Process Mapping
– Fishbone Diagrams
– X-Y Diagrams
– FMEA
• Demonstrate a working knowledge of Basic Statistics to use as a

communication tool and a basis for inference.
• Perform Measurement Capability studies on output variables.
• Evaluate stability of process and estimate starting point capability.
Six Sigma Behaviors
• Being tenacious, courageous
• Being
B i rigorous,
i di
disciplined
i li d
• Making data-based decisions
• Embracing change & continuous learning Walk

• Sharing best practices
the
Walk!
Ea
Each
ch ““pla
playerer” in
yyer” in the
the Six
Six Sigma
Sigma process
process m
must
ust be
be
AA RO LE M O DEL
RO LE M O DEL
for
for the Six Sigm
the Six Sigmaa culture
culture

226
Measure Phase Deliverables
Listed below are the M ea sure Delivera bles that each candidate
should present in a Power Point presentation to their mentor and project
champion.
At this point you should understand what is necessary to provide these

deliverables in your presentation.
– Team Members (Team Meeting Attendance)
– Primary Metric
– Secondary Metric(s)
– Process Map – detailed
– FMEA
– X-Y Matrix
– Basic Statistics on Y
– MSA
– Stability graphs
– Capability Analysis
– Project Plan
– Issues and Barriers
Measure Phase - The Roadblocks
Look for the potential roadblocks and plan to address them before they
become problems:
– Team members do not have the time to collect data.
– Data presented is the best guess by functional managers.
– Process participants do not participate in the creation of the X-Y
Matrix, FMEA and Process Map.
It won’t all be
smooth
sailing…..
g
You will run into roadblocks throughout your project. Listed here are some common ones that Belts
have to deal with in the Measure Phase.

227
DMAIC Roadmap
Process Owner
Champion/
Identify Problem Area
Determine Appropriate Project Focus

Define
Estimate COPQ
Establish Team
Measure
Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems
Identify and Prioritize All X’s

Analyze
Prove/Disprove Impact X’s Have On Problem

Imprrove
Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems
Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems

Control
Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return
Verify Financial Impact
The DMAIC Phases Roadmap p is a flow chart of what g

goals should be reached during
g each phase
p of
DMAIC. Please take a moment to review.
Measure Phase
This map of the Measure Phase

rollout is more of a guideline than a Detailed Problem Statement Determined
rule. The way that you apply the Six Detailed Process Mapping
Sigma problem-solving methods to a Identify All Process X’s Causing Problems (Fishbone, Process Map)
project depends on the type of

Select the Vital Few X’s Causing Problems (X-Y Matrix, FMEA)
project your working with and the
environment that you are working in. Assess Measurement System
Y
Repeatable &
For example in some cases it may N

Reproducible?
make sense to jump directly into

Implement Changes to Make System Acceptable
Assess Stability (Statistical Control)
studies while you collect data to
characterize other aspects of the Assess Capability (Problem with Centering/ Spread)
process in parallel. In other cases it Estimate Process Sigma Level
may be necessary to get a better Review Progress with Champion
understanding of the process first.

Let common sense and data dictate Ready for Analyze
your path.
y

228
Measure Phase Checklist
These are questions that

you should be able to M ea sure Q uestions
answer in clear, Identify critica l X ’ s a nd potentia l fa ilure m odes
understandable • Is the “ as is” Process Map created?
• Are the decision points identified?
language at the end of • W here are the data collection points?
this phase. • Is there an analysis of the measurement system?
• W here did you get the data?
Identify critica l X ’ s a nd potentia l fa ilure m odes
• Is there a completed XYX-Y Matrix?
• W ho participated in these activities?
• Is there a completed FMEA?
• Has the Problem Statement changed?
• Have you identified more COPQ?
Sta bility Assessm ent
• is the “ Voice of the Process” stable?
• If not, have the special causes been acknowledged?
• Can the good signals be incorporated into the process?
• Can the bad signals be removed from the process?
• How stable can you make the process?
Ca pa bility Assessm ent
• W hat is the short-term and long-term capability of the process?
• W hat is the problem, one of centering, spread or some combination?
Genera l Q uestions
• Are there any issues or barriers that prevent you from completing this phase?
• Do you have adequate resources to complete the project?
Planning for Action
W HAT W HO W HEN W HY W HY N O T HO W
Identify the com plex ity of the process
Focus on the problem solving process
Define Cha ra cteristics of Da ta
Va lida te Fina ncia l Benefits
Ba la nce a nd Focus Resources
Esta blish potentia l rela tionships betw een va ria bles

Q ua ntify risk of m eeting critica l needs of Custom er,
Business a nd People
Predict the Risk of susta ina bility
Cha rt a pla n to a ccomplish the desired sta te of the
culture
W ha t is y our defect?
W hen does your defect occur?
How is your defect m ea sured?
W ha t is y our project fina ncia l goa l (ta rget & tim e) to
rea ch it?
W ha t is y our Prim a ry metric?
W ha t a re your Seconda ry m etrics?
Define the a ppropria te elem ents of w a ste
Over the last decade of deploying Six Sigma it has been found that the parallel application of the
tools and techniques in a real project yields the maximum success for the rapid transfer of
knowledge. For maximum benefit you should apply what has been learned in the Measure Phase
to a Six Sigma project. Use this checklist to assist.

229
At this point, you should:
Have a clear understanding of the specific action items
Have started to develop a Project Plan to complete the

action items
Have identified ways to deal with potential roadblocks
Be ready to apply the Six Sigma method within your

business
You have now completed the Measure Phase. Congratulations!
Notes

230
Lean Six Sigma

Black Belt Training
Measure Phase
Quiz
Now we will see what you have retained from the Measure Phase of the course. Please answer
these questions to the best of your ability without referencing the text. The answers are in the
Appendix. Please check your answers against the answers provided and review the sections in
the Measure Phase where your retention of the knowledge is less than you desire.

231
Measure Phase Quiz
1 Wh
1. When looking
l ki att precision,
i i th
the primary
i d
desire
i iis tto confirm
fi ththe process measurementt
system has low Repeatability and____________________. (fill in the blank)
2. The difference in Bias values across the process range are known
as_______________________. (fill in the blank)
3. There are many reasons why Basic Statistics are important to a Black Belt. The following
items are good reasons for using Basic Statistics except which one?
A. Makes inferences about the future
B. Foundation for assessing process capability
C. Data collection for streamed orientation
D. Provide a numerical description of the data especially if it´s Normally Distributed
4. Variable Data can be either Discrete or Continuous.

True False
5. A Black Belt was entering data into MINITABTM. The data being entered is the name of
the countries that his company supplies product to. This is an example of:
A. Nominal Scale Data
B. Ration Scale Data
C. Continuous Data
D. Ordinal Scale Data
6. The most frequently occurring number in a distribution set is 7. The 7 is the sample´s?
A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. Standard Deviation
7. A fundamental rule is that Standard Deviations cannot be summed but variances can be
summed.d
True False
8. The main difference between Special Cause and Common Cause is? (check all that
apply)
A. Sample size impacts if Common Cause variation is found or not.
B. Special Causes are often the focus of BB projects
C. Special Causes are found in short term Process Capability
D. Common Cause variation is larger than Special Cause variation.
9. The Fishbone is a tool to generate ideas about possible causes for defects.
True False
10. The X-Y Diagram is a tool used to identify/collate potential X´s and assess their relative
impact on multiple Y´s.
T
True False
F l

232
Measure Phase Quiz
11. The X-Y Diagram serves an important function to a Black Belt. From the list below select
th item
the it th
thatt best
b t describes
d ib ththe importance
i t off the
th X-Y
X Y Di
Diagram.
A. To eliminate the obvious high impact independent variables
B. To help prioritize the independent variables
C. To help prioritize the dependent variables
D. To help with project scope
12. The term FMEA is an abbreviation for Failure Measures Effect Analysis.
True False
13. The FMEA tool is an important tool for a Black Belt. From the list below select the items
that describe the importance of constructing a FMEA. (check all that apply)
A. Predict failure risks and minimize their occurrence
B. Quantifies the severity, occurrence and detection of defects
C. Highlights the non-value added portions of a process
D. Identify ways how a process leads to a failure to meet customer requirements
14. Measurement System Analysis is an analytical process to quantify accuracy or variation

in a process or product by the use of a gage.
True False
15. After performing a MSA study if an error occurs, the error can be categorized into which
two specific categories?
A. Precision
B. Detailed
C. Accuracy
D. Random
E. Desirability
16. The following are some good examples of what Black Belt projects should measure:
(check all that apply)
A Primary
A. Pi andd Secondary
S d Metrics
M ti
B. Vital few X´s in the process
C. Before and after process changes
D. All outputs of the process steps
17. The reason for performing a MSA on your system is to confirm minimal variation or
inaccuracy with your measurement systems and reduce the sources for the excessive
variation or inaccuracy.
y
True False
18. Accuracy can be assessed in several ways. From the list below select the least correct
accuracy assessment.
A. Measurement of a known standard
B. Comparison to another recently calibrated instrument with a proven accuracy
C. Comparison with another proven measurement technique
D C
D. Comparison
i with
ith a proven precise
i iinstrument
t t
19. A Crossed Design Gage R&R is best used for destructive testing.
True False

Lean Six Sigma Measure Phase

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Lean Six Sigma Measure Phase

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lean Six Sigma Measure Phase

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

86

Lean Six Sigma

Here you enter

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

These are the modules

Identify Problem Area

Assess Stability, Capability, and Measurement Systems

Identify and Prioritize All X’s

Prove/ Disprove Impact X’s

Identify, Prioritize, Select Solutions Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems

Implement Solutions to Control or Eliminate X’s Causing Problems

Implement Control Plan to Ensure Problem Doesn’t Return

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Measure Phase Deployment

Detailed Problem Statement Determined

Detailed Process Mapping

Identify All Process X’s Causing Problems (Fishbone, Process Map)

Assess Measurement System

Implement Changes to Make System Acceptable

Assess Stability (Statistical Control)

Assess Capability (Problem with Centering/Spread)

Estimate Process Sigma Level

Review Progress with Champion

Ready for Analyze

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Lean Six Sigma

Now we will continue in the Measure Phase with “Process Discovery”.

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

There are four key deliverables from the Measure Phase:

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Overview of Brainstorming Techniques

Cause and Effect Diagram

1. Agree on the category or condition to be considered.

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Cause and Effect Diagram

Cause and Effect Diagram A commonly used tool

Products Categories for the legs of the Transactional

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Cause and Effect Diagram

The Measurement category groups causes related to the measurement and

Cause and Effect Diagram

Examples of questions to ask:

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Cause and Effect Diagram

Classifying the X’s

The Cause & Effect Diagram is simply a tool to generate opinions

Think of procedural as a subset of controllable. Unfortunately, many

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Chemical Purity Example

Measurement Manpower Materials

Incoming QC (P) Training on method (P) Raw Materials (C)

Measurement Insufficient staff (C)

Work order variability (N)

Methods Mother Nature Equipment

Cause & Effect Diagram - MINITAB™

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com

Cause & Effect Diagram - MINITAB™

Open the MINITAB™ worksheet “Surfaceflaws.mtw”.

Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt Book Copyright OpenSourceSixSigma.com