The Scientific Movement

The early years of the nineteenth century marked a period of rapid gains in understanding
physiology. Charles Bell (1794-1842) in England and Francois Magendie (1783-1855) in
France, working independently discovered that the nerves could be separated into distinct
sensory and motor functions. By severing the dorsal (back root of the spinal nerves), it was
observed that an animal would not move a limb when pricked with a pin. However, the limb
could be moved voluntarily by the animal. Thus, the dorsal messages are for bodily sensations
rather than with movement. Severing of the ventral (front) root eliminated any movement,
although the animal would show obvious distress if a painful stimulus was applied to the useless
limb. Bell further suggested that since the nerves seemed to serve only one function (sensory
nerves conducting toward the brain, motor nerves conducting away from the brain), all nerves
are capable of conduction in only one direction.
The discovery that nerves serve a specific function - sensory or motored to further
probing of nervous system specification Johannes Muller (1801-1858) formulated his law of the
specific energy of nerves, which state that the different senses are served by different nerves.
Muller further argued that all nerves probably work on the same principle; that is, all nerves
transmit messages using the same mechanism. Thus, the brain does not directly receive colors or
sounds, but learns about the mind directly through the activity of the nerves leading from the
eyes or the ears.
The law of the specific energy of nerves led neuro-physiologists to a new emphasis. The
problem became one of tracing the nervous system path ways of the various specialized nerves.
Charles Sherrington (1861-1952) an English physiologist investigated many different Reflexes
and concluded that there were direct connections between sensory and motor pathways in the
nervous system. Sherrington’s work on reflexes led him to talk about excitation suggests
inhibition within the nervous system. Excitation suggests that activity of some nerves results in
increased activity in the nervous system. Inhibition of some nerves block or reduce on-going
activities in the nervous system. The concept of inhibitions extremely important to
understanding the integrative action of the nervous system.
The recognition of specialization of nerves in the nervous system led to speculation
concerning specialization of areas in the brain. Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) and his student
Johann Sourzheim (1776-1832) are associated with the pseudo-science called phrenology.
Basically, phrenologists assume that different parts of the brain serve specific kinds of thought
functions. Thus, it is possible to locate the particular area as associated with love, mathematics,
logic, anger, etc.
Gall and his followers then argued that the more a specific area is used, the larger that
area must become (something like the effect of exercising on muscles).Since the brain is tightly
packed in the skull, bumps on the head must reflect the expanded contours of the underlying
brain areas. The phrenologists claimed that it was possible to "read" an individual's personality
and capacities by measuring the bumps on his head.
On the basis of systematic studies, Pierre Flourens (1794-1867) noted that certain areas
of the brain seemed to be related to certain functions. For example, he pointed out that motor
reflexes could be observed when only the spinal cord was intact. Vital functions, such as
digestion and breathing, required the lower brain stem. The cerebellum seemed to be involved
with motor co-ordination, and the mid-brain areas were necessary for visual and auditory
reflexes. To the cortex, Flourens assigned the function of “higher mental processes”.
Paul Broca (1824-1880) conducted post-mortem examinations on aphasic (without
speech) patients and found lesions on the left side of the cortex. This "speech area" is still known
as Broca's area, although Broca went on to label numerically all areas of the cortex. Brocas
 numerical labels are still employed to specify the geography of the cortex (You shall know more
about these areas in later lectures).
The discovery that electricity might be the means by which the nervous system functions
allowed the possibility of electrically stimulating parts of the brain. Although, stimulation by
touching and dropping chemicals on the surface of the brain had generally led to inconclusive
findings ,Fritsch and Hitzig in 1870 observed that specific movements of the body could because
by applying an electric current to certain areas of the cortex. Direct stimulation of the brain with
electric currents is now a demonstration in the research by Wilder Penfield (1935), who has
triggered specific memories by careful procedure used by many investigators of brain function.
One of the more spectacular electrical stimulation of the cortex of conscious human beings.
The electrical nature of the nervous system meant that it was also theoretically possible
to record the on-going electrical activity of the brain, known as brain waves. As instruments for
measuring electrical activity were fined, this theoretical fact became technologically possible.
Hans Berger (1929) made the first encephalogram and pioneer its clinical use in identifying
abnormalities associated with epilepsy. The alpha feedback devises that give feedback
information in sense relaxation training are an extension of Berger's discovery.
Alexander Baina contemporary of Wundt, is generally considered the founder of
physiological psychology. He believed that the mind was simply a breadboard of electrical
circuitry. His most famous quote succinctly states, "No nerve currents, no mind", Bain, (1885).
Also, the man Wilhelm Wundt(1879) and his structuralism school of psychology contributed
towards the development of physiological psychology. Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory,
based on the principles of natural selection and the struggle for survival, and incorporated the
themes of variation among individuals continuity both intra and interspecies, and above all the
functional aspect of structures and abilities.

Summary of Sub-Lecture
Scientific research and experimentations were the order during the scientific era. How the
messageswere transmitted from one part of the body to the other was discovered and the nerves were
also divided into the sensory and motor nerve fibres. PaulBroca's division of the cortex into specific
areas are of immense help to clinicians and neurologists as well as the use of electroencephalogram
byHas Berger.
ModernTrends
During the twentieth century, several general trends were apparent in the development of
physiological psychology. Emphasis was on understanding the rules of organization within the
nervous system. Thus, the discovery of spinal reflexes and of excitatory and inhibitory
connections between the nerves, and the location of specific function in certain brain areas, all
led to the increase in understanding of the hereditary circuitry in the brain. This line of
investigation is continuing. At the moment, research is being conducted on the highly
specialized function of individual nerve cells. At the same time, there has been a branching of
interest, with researchers now trying to determine some of the dynamic characteristic of the
nervous system .For example, physiological research is attempting to determine the kinds of
neurological changes that occur during the learning process as wel1 as what mechanisms
account for memory. Some of the earliest speculations on this topic were formulated by the great
Russian physiologist Ivan Sechenov (1829 -1905), who believed that reflexes could be modified
during the life of the organism. In fact, Schenov thought that all behavior-movements, thoughts,
emotion, etc., represented nothing other than elaborate reflexive activity of the brain. Sechonov's
ideas reached fruition in the work of another Russian, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who
 discovered, named, and thoroughly researched the conditioned reflex. The conditioned reflex is
an example of new neural circuits being created in response to environmental events. Today,
research into physiological mechanisms of learning range from conditioned reflexes through
human creative thought.
Karl Lashley(1890-1958) argued against the notion of specific locations for specific
functions. In his experiments , he removed parts of the brains of animals and then observed the
kinds of behavior losses that resulted. Lashley concluded that the most important factor was the
amount of cortical material removed irrespective of where the removal was made.
Lashley coined the terms mass action and equipotentiality for two principles, respectively:
(a) The brain works as an integrated whole rather than a series of separate units; and
(b) Any part of the brain is capable of serving a specific function as any factor.

SummaryofSub-Lecture
Inthe19thand20thcentury,physiologicalpsychologistsandotherresearchscientistsinthefieldofphysiologic
alpsychologybegantowitnesstheemergenceofthelocationofspecificfunctionsin certain brain areas.
Also, the work of Ivan Sechenov and Ivan Pavlov are particularly interestingin putting physiological
psychology on the right path of progress. Karl Lashley advanced his twofamous lawsofmass action
andequipotentiality.
RelationshiptoOtherDisciplines
Physiological psychology is a very obvious hybrid discipline and embraces a number of
other hybrids such as neuropsychology, neurophysiology, neuron anatomy, neurochemistry,
clinicalgero psychology, as well as psychopharmacology, ,neurology, biochemistry, psychiatry
and general medicine, behavioral genetics, psycho endocrinology and psycho neuron
immunology. Although, a good deal of effort has been directed toward establishing psychology
as a descriptive science, physiological psychology has grown up with the aim of explaining
happenings in the psychological world rather than simply describing their spatial-temporal
features. Consequently, physiological psychology is pre-occupied with the question of why
things happen, together with the constant search for mechanisms underlying the way people feel
and act . Naturally, the explanations are sought through the simultaneous consideration of data
from physiological and psychological spheres of discourse.

SummaryofSub-Lecture
Physiologicalpsychologyisrelatedtosuchdisciplinesaspsychiatryandgeneralmedicine,behaviouralgeneti
Post-
cs,clinicalgeropsychology,neurophysiology,neurochemistry,etc.
Test
1.
Summary
Physiological psychology contributes a body of knowledge and provides a general theme
whichattemptstocomprehendhumanbehaviourfromabiologicalpointofview.Physiologicalpsychology
is thus the scientific study of how body structure and function, primarily the nervoussystem can
affect and control the overt and subjective behavioural characteristics of an
organism.TheearlyGreekphilosophersandFrenchphilosophersallcontributedtowardourunderstandingo
f scientific physiological psychology. Also, the scientists such as Charles Bell, Sherrington,
HansBerger,AlexanderBain,KarlLashley,etc.haveallcontributedimmenselytowardourunderstandingo
fphysiologicalpsychology.
Physiological psychology is:
A. The scientific study of behavior.
B. The scientific study of the interaction between physiology and behavior.
C. The scientific study of brain-behavior interaction.
 D. The study of the Central Nervous System (CNS).

2. Physiological psychology has emerged to:

A. Solve the “brain-behavior” problem.
B. Resolve the “mind-body” dualism.
C. Solve the “physiology-psychology” problem.
D. Resolve the “mind-body” problem.
3. Physiological psychology is related to all the following except:
A. Geography
B. Genetics
C. Physiology
D. Psychopharmacology.

4. The statement, "No nerve current, no mind" is credited to:

A. WilhelmWundt
B. Alexander Bain
C. Eric Byrne
D. William James.

5. These men were associated with the emergence of physiological psychology except:
A. Paul Broca
B. Pierre Flourens
C. Joseph Gall
D. EricH.Erikson.

6. Physiological psychology could contribute to your knowledge of:

A. Human behaviors
B. Sleep
C. Dreams
D. Hormones.
7. Physiological psychology covers such areas below except:
A. Perceptual problems
B. Learning and memory
C. Emotional states
D. Digestive products.

8. A closely related discipline to physiological psychology is:

A. Neurophysiology
B. Neuropsychology
C. Clinicalpsychology
D. Neurology.

9. Physiological psychology studies:

A. The CNS
B. The Hormones
C. A and B
D. The PNS
10. The study of physiological psychology will enable me to:
A. Know myself better
B. Counsel clients with neurological problems
C. Understand the biological bases of human behaviour.
D. BandC.

References
Blundell,J.PhysiologicalPsychology.London:MethuenandCompanyLimited,1975.Lashley.K.S.,Brain
MechanismscJiJIntelligence.NewYork,DoverPublicationInc,1963.
3.Morgan,C.T.PhysiologicalPsychology.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1943.
Morgan,C.J.PhysiologicalPsychology.(3rdedition).NewYork:McGraw-
Hill,1965.Thompson,R.F.FoundationsofPhysiologicalPsychology.NewYork:HarperandRo
w,
1967.