FORM 4 HISTORY NOTES 2018

BACKGROUND OF MAJOR EUROOPEAN POWERS BEFORE WORLD WAR 1

-There were several European powers before WW1 which included;

1. Britain

2. France

3. Germany

4. Russia

5. Italy

6. Austria- Hungary

7. Turkey

BRITAIN

-Was by far the leading industrialized country and it was referred to as the workshop of the world.

- Towards the end of the 19th century Britain became a continental power because it controlled a quarter
of the world’s surface as colonies.

- By 1900 Britain was seen as the “Lion of the sea” meaning it had the largest and most powerful navy in
the world. It dominated oceans, protecting sea routes and its interests in many countries outside Europe.

- Politically Britain had a democratic government.

- Britain followed a policy of splendid isolation because of her stable government, naval supremacy,
industrialization and imperialism.

FRANCE

-The 1870 – 71 defeat Prussia humiliated France and her pride was wounded greatly.

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- France’s position in the balance of power was replaced by Germany. France then diverted her attention
to Africa for colonies.

-Politically France had a republican government.

GERMANY

-She became a continental power like Britain after unification.

- Germany industrialization and militarization took from the ground on a much faster rate.

-She shifted the balance of power in Europe, once in the absence of France, into her hands. By 1900
Germany was the biggest, strongest and most organized country in Europe.

-She dominated elsewhere looking for the Lesbram (living space for the Germans)

- This pushed Germany into two major wars nearly made her a dominant major world power

RUSSIA

-Russia was the most backward reactionary power in the 19 th century yet she had plenty of resources and
the largest land mass in Europe.

-Russia was ruled by Tsars/Czars who were looked upon as gods. However seldom poverty, famine,
deception and corruption rocked Russia.

-The government was aristocratic in 1900.

-Russia’s bid to find an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea. This put Russia into conflict with the Balkans
and other European powers.

-In the Middle East the Slav nations rose against Turkish rule. This caused Russia to participate in the
Eastern Question and be involved in the great wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45.

ITALY

-Italian states united and rose steadily as a young nation. She struggled for supremacy in colonies.

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-She was also struggling to build the industry and a strong navy in the 19th century.

-Italy looked prosperous but her army was inefficient. The government was discredited for failing to end
great wars in Italy.

AUSTRIA –HUNGARY

-It was dually ruled by two authorities or families from Austria and from Hungary. This Empire was
called Hapsburg Empire’

-Austria-Hungary a hotch potch group of nations which when put together were over 40 million people.
She ruled Slavs, Serbs, and Poles, Romanizes, Greeks and many others.

-Most of them were Roman Catholics, Moslems and Orthodox.

-By far Austria – Hungary was backward in industrialization when compared to Britain, France, Germany
and Italy.

-Inefficient government caused by the monarchy meant Austria – Hungary was the laughing stock of
Europe.

-When nationalization and the spirit of rebellion exploded amongst the subjects, the dual monarchy
collapsed.

-The government was aristocratic.

TURKEY

-Turkey also ruled the Balkan states which were mixed states race states and races. The empire was
known as the Ottoman Empire.

-The government was corrupt, inefficient and repressive.

-For more than a century the Empire had been falling apart but it remained clinging to Albania, some
parts of Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914 – 18)

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-The most important thing about World War 1 is that it was the unsought and unintended product of a
long sequence of events which began in 1871.

-The causes of WW1 can be divided into long term, short0- term and immediate causes.

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR 1

LONG TERM CAUSES -These are causes which build up for years before finally exploding into fights.
These include:

1. Formation of alliances/ alliance system.

2. Militarism – a. arms race b. naval race

3. Nationalism

4. Imperialism

5. Franco-German hostility (Germany policy)

6. Eastern Question/ Balkan Question

SHORT TERM CAUSES–causes which build up over a few years before the war. They include:

Moroccan crises (1905 and 1911)

Bosnian crisis (1908)
The Balkan wars (1912 and 1913)

IMMEDIATE CAUSES –Takes place at the beginning of the war.

1. Sarajevo assassination.

THE LONG TYERM CAUSES

1. Alliance System

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-Great powers recognized that there was strength in numbers. As a result from the 1870s up until the
beginning of WWI large number of mutual defense treaties was signed amongst various powers.

-The treaties included smaller powers such as Russia, Austria – Hungary, Japan and Turkey and greater
powers such as Britain, France and Germany.

-These powers eventually formed the main alliances which divided the world into the hostile camps
namely the triple alliance and the triple Entente.

The Triple Alliance 1882

-Bismarck succeeded in bringing into Italy into the Dual Alliance in 1882 which lasted up to the First
World War in 1914.

-This was caused by the fact that Italy was at loggerheads with France because of France’s policy in
Tunisia and the Italian government had plans for taking over Tunisia.

-Therefore France’s occupation of Tunisia disappointed Italy and she joined Germany and Austria –
Hungary.

The agreements were:

1) If France and Russia attacked only one member of the alliance all would come to her aid.

2) They also agreed to assist each other if any of them was attacked by two or more powers, and to
remain neutral if attacked by one power.

3) Italy however secured the policy that she in no circumstance fight against her long standing friend
Great Britain.

4) As the price of joining the alliance, Italy gave up her claims of Austria ruled territory of South Tyrol
and Trieste.

5) Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to help Italy if she was attacked by France.

-The effect of this alliance was that Bismarck had succeeded leaving France more isolated than ever.

-Later in 1902 Italy came to an understanding with France over Morocco and Tripoli (Lybia}, and she
secretly agreed not to join war against Britain.

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The Triple Entente (1907)

-Factors which led to the formation of the triple entente were:

1. Mistrust of Germany and fear of her naval power by Britain.

2. French pressure on both Russia and Britain to join hands.

-In August 1907 Russia and Britain entered negotiations which helped to clear barriers to friendship. This
agreement was called the Anglo-Russian Agreement.

Agreements were:

-The century –old dispute over Afghanistan and foreign frontiers was brought to an end.

-Britain gained effective control of the foreign policy of Afghanistan.

-Both Britain and Russia were to enjoy equal trading rights in the country.

-Persia was partitioned.

-Russia gained control of Northern Persia, while Britain controlled the south east and the Persian Gulf
which British’s oil interests were already established.

-The sovereignty of the Slav in the spheres of influence was to be fully recognized.

-The removal of such obstacles to friendship in 1907 enabled Britain, France and Russia to come to
understanding known as the triple entente.

Effects were:

1) From 1907 the major states of Europe were drawn up into two camps i.e. triple alliance and triple
entente.

2) There was great competition on building the army.

3) Spirit of militarization increased.

TRIPPLE ENTENTE (Allied powers) TRIPPLE ALLIANCE (Central powers)

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 Britain Germany
France Turkey
Russia Bulgaria
Belgium (Balkans), Serbia Austria – Hungary
Japan Jordan
Italy
Portugal
USA
Canada

Most important part of these alliances was an agreement that if one country in the alliance was
attacked all the other countries would come to the defense.
The great powers also included their colonies in the alliance i.e. if the war involving
Britain/France broke out, nearly all of Africa would become involved as well.
These armed camps aimed to prepare for a possible war and the existence of the two camps made
it possible for local issue between the two camps and spread and bring in the rest of Europe into
conflict e.g. Serbia against Australia in 1914.

2) MILITARISM -

Militarism is a belief in being military prepared for war and use of force to get advantages for
after 1871 the people of Europe believed a lot that war would give them more territory, give their
country more production and admired the solders.
As a result they increased their war material.
ARMS RACE
There was competition in the production of materials at the beginning of the 20 th century.
European powers increased the number of solders.
Training many more as reserve solders compulsory military services was introduced in several
countries e.g. from 1912-14 Germany increased her army by nearly 150 000 movement to bring it
to total 800 000.
In 1913 Russia joined the competition by adding 500 000 soldiers to her army.
In the same year, France increased the period to national service for all men from two to three
years.
Countries increased their weapons and war budget.

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 Soldiers acquired new status in society.
They were admired and respected.
The temptation to use these weapons to settle disputes became great in 1914 that no big European
power was able to resist.

THE NAVAL RACE

Countries increased in number of warships. There was competition in building the navy.
This was mainly between Britain and Germany (Anglo-Germany competition.)
Britain had been outstanding military power before 1870 but after that Germany was now
challenging the British military.
To Germany the naval race was luxury whilst to Britain it was a necessity to maintain her military
status.
In 1898 Germany introduced naval laws and these were aimed at increasing her navalship.
In 1906 Britain introduced a new battleship called the Dreadnaught.
The British had a policy of building 2battleships to everyone German Dreadnaught such that by
1914 Britain had 32 Dreadnaughts and Germany had 20.
Other powers were also involved in militarization e.g. Germany made concrete war plan.
The naval and arms race worsened relations between Britain and Germany on a large scale those
of the triple entente and the triple alliance making a war between two different groups impossible
to avoid was fully prepared.

III. `WAR PLANS

- The various powers felt so sure that that the war was bound to come sooner or later. They began
to draw up their war plans for what to do and when to do it.

a. Germany – She had a plan drawn up by Count Alfred Schlieffen, Chief of the Staff from 1891 to 1906.
He was a German Commander.

-This plan was a secret plan. The plan was based on the belief by Schlieffen that if war broke out they
would probably have to fight France quickly before turning to Russia that was expected to be slower in
reaction. Germany’s war plan was called the Schlieffen Plan.

b. France – France’s war plan was called Plan 17. Her army was also very large and well equipped.

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-France was however afraid of being overwhelmed by Germany numbers. She therefore was determined
if war came to force Germany to fight on two fronts from the first moment.

c. Austria-Hungary – Austria-Hungary relied on the success of the Schlieffen Plan.

-She hoped the plan would quickly defeat France.

-She was also confident to gain German support in any military adventure.

3) Nationalism- The feeling that we are one.

European stability was threatened by the nationalism of the different peoples of Austria-Hungary
and the nationalism in the Balkan states, especially the attempt by Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia to
expel the Ottoman Turks from Europe.
Of particular importance was the challenge of Slavs of Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to break
from Austria – Hungary and unite all slave states and form a united state to be called Yugoslavia
This encouraged Austria – Hungary to set war against Serbia when the Archduke, Francis
Ferchnard was murdered on 28 June 1914

4) IMPERIALISM / COLONIAL RIVALRY

Policy dominating other countries by acquiring countries/provinces controlled by others

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the powerful nations of Europe had taken control of large parts
of Asia and made them into their colonies.
By the 1900, Britain was the leading imperialist power followed by France.
Germany wanted to catch up with her French and British rivals.
Britain and France didn’t want Germany to advance.
This meant there was intense imperialist competition in the early 1900s

5) FRANCO – GERMANY HOSTILITY

The hostility started from Franco – Prussian war of 1870.

France was seen to be greatest danger to the Germany government and Bismarck’s foreign policy
was geared towards isolating France.
In 1885-86 there was danger of war between German y and France.
The French were mobilized for a war by General Boulanger.
This national resentment in France against Germany was called Boulangarism.

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 A war was declared on France by Germany but Britain intervened and stopped Germany.

EASTERN QUESTION

European powers were interested in the Balkans.

Russia wanted expansion in the Balkans so as to have access to the Mediterranean Sea because it
was a land locked country
Austria wanted to expand into the Balkans in order to block Russia’s expansion because it feared
Russia. Interests of Austria – Hungary were simply defensive.
Germany didn’t want to see a strong Russia in the Mediterranean for the sake of monitoring the
balance of power.
Britain wanted to prevent sea routes; it felt threatened by Russia’s interests.
France had claimed the right to protect the Roman Catholics interests in the Roman Empire.

THE SHORT TERM CAUSES

1) Moroccan crises

1st Moroccan crisis

France was interested in Morocco, She signed treaties with Italy and Britain in 1904 respectively
and thus to agree in return for recognition of British interest in Egypt and Italy’s in Tripoli
(Libya.)
France established a protectorate over Morocco.
Germany was interested in Morocco so Kaiser Welhelm II visited Tangier and made a speech
directed against France.
They challenge both France and Britain. Germany called for an international conference.
In this crisis, Germany wanted to test the strength of the Entente cordiale between Britain and
France and saw that indeed the agreement was strong.

The Algeciras conference (1906)

-12 states met in Algeciras in Spain and settle the status of Morocco.
France and Spain were authorized to keep order in Morocco by all states except Austria –
Hungary.
France was also given the responsibility to control customs and arms supply of Morocco.
The only real concession gained by Germany was an equal control with France, Spain and Britain
in the state bank of Morocco (finance) which gave Germany clear trading rights.

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 France, Russia and Britain were brought close together by this conference. This while no great
power wanted war in 1906, the Moroccan crisis had the effect of intensifying preparations
politically and militarily which led to the war in 1914.

b) 2nd Moroccan crisis (1911)

The Sultan of Morocco had trouble with his subjects. He asked for France’s help and troops from
France occupied fez, the capital city of Morocco in 1911 to resolve order.
France had violated the Algeciras conference.
Germany regarded it as a step towards as a step towards full control. The Germany government
sent a gunboat called the Panther to Agadir mainly to protect Germany’s interest.
Both sides were prepared for war and Britain was prepared to help France against Germany.
On November 1911 Germany and France came to some agreements and signed the treaty of Paris
by which France occupied Morocco and Germany was given territorial compensation from
French Congo
Germany withdrew embarrassed as it was clearly French victory. This crisis increased tensions
between the triple entente and the triple alliance.

2.) The Bosnian crisis of 1908

-In 1908 Austria – Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.

-This provoked Turkey and she aimed at recovering the two.

-It also angered Serbia since her hopes of annexing the two provinces had been crashed.

-Serbia wanted an outlet an outlet to the Antarctic sea – Serbia was also interested in the two provinces
because they were populated by people of Slav nationality.

-The Serbs prepared for war and asked for help from Russia.

-Germany moved in and threatened war on Russia if she supported Serbia. Peace was therefore saved by
Russia who failed to support Serbia because of:

a. Pressure from Germany.

b. Russia hadn’t fully recovered from defeat in 1905 by Japan and from the Bolshevik revolution
that followed the Russo Japanese war.

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-Serbia could not go to war alone against Austria – Hungary so she gave in. However the crisis strained
relations between Austria – Hungary and Serbia which finally led to the Sarajevo assassination

3) The Balkan wars

Backgrounds of the Balkan League

-These were former Turkish possession.

-They were never satisfied by their boundaries and they wanted to expand their territories into more
Turkish areas.

-They desired to see all Slavs independent from Austria – Hungary and Turkey, However they were too
weak for each to stand on her own. Therefore they formed the Balkan League.

-Serbia wanted to form a state for all Southern Slavs to be called Yugoslavia.

-Russia a big Slav nation supported the Balkan states.

a) The first Balkan war (1912)

Events leading to the war:

1) Formation of the Balkan League

2) Russian support

3) Italy defeated Turkey in 1912. Italian success encouraged the Balkan nations to fight Turkey and drive
it out.

-The Balkan League consisted of Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria and Montenegro. They declared war on Turkey
in October 1912 and in a matter of time they captured Adrianople.

-In some weeks Turkey was defeated. An international, conference was called for in London to solve the
Problem.

The Treaty of London

-Serbia’s annexation of Albania was blocked by Austria – Hungary. An independent Albania was created.

-Greece was prevented from annexing Valona but won Thrace and Salonika.

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-Serbia and Greece obtained small portions of Macedonia. Both Serbia and Greece saw their victory to a
large extent as empty.

-When Austria blocked the annexation of Albania she was backed by Germany, while Russia supported
Serbia. Thus the incident increased tension between the great powers.

THE SECOND BALKAN WAR (1913)

-In 1913 the second Balkan war broke out mainly because of the Bulgarians who claimed a part of
Macedonia which the Serbians refused to give up.

-Serbia got central Macedonia at the London conference which was wanted by Bulgaria as there were
Bulgars and Serbs.

-Bulgaria attacked Serbia in June 1913, other Balkans which included Montenegro, Greece and Romania
joined. Turkey also joined members of the Balkan League against Bulgaria.

-Bulgaria was defeated in August 1913.

-The treaty of Bucharest was signed.

The Treaty of Bucharest

-Turkey regained Adrianople, while Serbia and Greece kept parts of Macedonia which they gained by the
treaty of London.

-The treaty of Bucharest was a blow on Bulgaria who lost most of her earlier gains.

-Austria directly contributed to the second Balkan war by encouraging the Bulgarians to attack Serbia as
an attempt to build up the Bulgarians as opponents of Serbia.

-She demanded that Albania be given the control of the whole Atlantic coast line, meaning to keep Serbia
landlocked.

-all this increased tension between Austria Hungary and Serbia.

Results of the Balkan wars

1) Turkey was reduced in size and weakened.

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2) The quick and decisive battles made Serbia feel she could do the same to Austria – Hungary and get
Bosnia and Herzegovina

3) Bulgaria had failed to get Central Macedonia and was determined to fight against to get it.

4) Relations between Russia and Austria became worse as Russia supported Serbia expansion whilst
Austria opposed.

5) Serbia was now the biggest Balkan state.

6) Bad relations between Austria and Serbia made the Serbian government look on while Bosnian
nationalists planned to kill the man who would have succeeded to the Austrian throne on 28 July 1914.

7) Russia felt humiliated at the end of the Balkan wars when she failed to support Serbia’s hopes. She
decided that she could in to Austria again. Therefore in 1914 she supported fully and world war began.

THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE

The Sarajevo assassination in 1914

-Sarajevo was capital of Bosnia which had been annexed by Austria – Hungary, form the Ottoman in
1908. Bosnia was populated by Slav people who wanted to break away from Austria – Hungary Empire.

-In June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austria – Hungary throne made a tour of Bosnia.
On 28 June, a Bosnian student Gavrilo Princip who belonged to the Serbian anti Austrian secret society
(Black Hand) shot and killed the Archduke and his wife. This took place in Sarajevo the capital of
Bosnia.

-The blame was put on Serbia and an ultimatum was sent to Serbia on July 23 by Austria – Hungary
which was to be answered in two (2) days time (48 hours).

Demands of the ultimatum:

1 Serbia was to suppress all anti - Austrian organizations or societies.

2 Serbia was to dismiss all officials whom Austria was objected to.

3. Austrian officials were to enter Serbia to investigate the murder and insure that the first demands were
carried out

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-Serbia agreed to the first two demands and not the third one. Austria used this opportunity to crash
Serbia.

-On 28 July Austria declared war on Serbia.

-On 29 July Russia mobilized her armies and Germany demanded demobilization of Russian forces and
this was rejected.

-On 1 august Germany declared on Russia.

-On 3 August Germany declared war on France. When Germany demanded that France gives a guarantee
of neutrality she refused.

-On 4 August Germany army began the invasion of Belgium in violation of the 1839 treaty which
declared neutrality of Belgium in wars. The Germany called it a scrap of paper not worthy defending.

-Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August because she wanted to guarantee Belgian neutrality and
secure herself.

-The great powers of Europe were now at war i.e. the triple entente or allied powers against the triple or
central powers.

-Italy joined the side of the allied powers.

Reasons why each European power joined the war

-Each of the countries went to war to either fight for survival or to prevent something it regarded as the
greatest evil than war.

Austria – Hungary

-Wanted to maintain her territory, integrity and her position as a great power.

-She believed that she could do that by destroying Serbia.

Serbia

-She fought to avoid domination by Austria – Hungary.

-She fought to get her Slav nations independent from Austria – Hungary and Turkish rule.

Russia

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-Fought to improve any further Austro – Hungary influence in the Balkans.

-To have access to the Mediterranean Sea.

Germany

-Fought to prevent the destruction of Austria – Hungary. The destruction would mean that Russia could
get control over Balkans and this could weaken her.

France

-To prevent the defeat of Russia. WHY?

-The defeat of Russia would leave her on the mass of Germany. She also wanted to recover Alsace and
Lorraine from Germany.

Great Britain

-fought to prevent Germany from defeating either Russia or France.

-The defeat of France and Russia would make Germany so Powerful that Britain and her Empire would
be defenseless against her.

WHO SHOULD BE BLAMED FOR THE OUTBREAK OF WW1

-Although much blame might be put on Austria – Hungary no state was entirely free from blame.

-All countries were part of the same system. All had the national policies and ambitions which could
clash some day.

-All recognized the pilling of arms (arms race and preparing alliances in readiness of conflict)

-Few really wanted war, but no one was prepared to abandon objects which made the war almost
inevitable.

-The party happened to come from extensionist policies.

-Assassination of Ferdinand led to the disappointment of Austria – Hungary.

-Austria – Hungary domination in the Balkans aroused nationalist feeling in the Balkans.

-Austria – Hungary wanted to remove Serbia from the map.

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-It is true that A-H.was looking for an opportunity to clash Serbia, but she was hoping for a limited war
with Serbia and Russia but never a general European power.

-While it is true that the careless and aggressive foreign policy of Germany frightened other powers into
anti-Germany alliance and created tension from her. However it is doubtful that Germany wanted a
general war.

-Germany didn’t want to participate in the Sarajevo incident to the outbreak of war.

-When Serbia accepted most of Austria’s demand in 1914. Kaiser William II replied, “With it ground of
war disappears.” If he wanted war could he respond that way? However it certain that what caused the
war was Austria’s action against Serbia.

-A-H thought Russia would back down on helping Serbia as was in 1908 when Russia pulled on Serbia
over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

-Russia didn’t back down as expected and a major war broke out.

Question

a) List 6 long term causes of the war.

b) Describe the events of the immediate cause of the war (The Sarajevo assassination/incident).

c) Would it be correct to blame Austria – Hungary alone for the outbreak of war?

To what extend was it a world war?

To a greater extent:

-Because every continent took part in it.

-Africa was dragged in and had no choice because of the colonial power so did Asia.

-Canada came to assist Britain.

-Japan came to Germany outposts in China and the Pacific.

COURSE OF THE WAR

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The Schlieffen Plan

-It was a German war plan to attack France.

-It was designed by Germany for victory in the outbreak of the war.

-The plan was devised by General Alfred Count von Schlieffen while he was chief of the Germany staff
from 1891 – 1906. He devised in 1905.

-It was revised every year to make it perfect.

-The plan was based on Germany’s superiority of number, organization, training and better equipment
and to use lightning war (Blitzkrieg).

-German armies were to use railway lines to carry soldiers.

-The plan assumed that Russia was going to mobilize slowly

-Germany had planned to invade France through Belgium.

-She was to strike France through North east, occupy North East France, and veer round to the South
through west of Paris then storm the capital city and force France to surrender within 6 weeks.

Aims of the Schlieffen Plan

1) The Germans wanted to fight war against France and Russia on one front at a time

2) Capture France within a short space of time before returning to Russia after six weeks.

3) Conquer France before Russia mobilized.

4) March through Belgium within two weeks.

5) They were to rely on the speedy movement of German forces through Belgium.

6) They were to allocate the bulk of the German soldiers on the Western front.

7) The Germans wanted to hold the French in Alsace –Lorraine.

8) Capture channel ports in order to prevent the landing of British reinforcements

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GERMAN INVASION IN 1914

-When war broke out in 1914, Germany moved quickly to implement the Schlieffen Plan.

-Troops quickly (swiftly) moved into Belgium.

-Germany faced resistance from the Belgians.

-Britain quickly joined the war and sent soldiers to capture the channel ports.

-British soldiers helped Belgium and France.

-Russia was quick to mobilize.

-Germany had to change the plan.

-It sent soldiers to the East to fight Russia. This means war was now in two fronts

-Germany was forced to attack Paris through a shorter route, East of Paris instead of West.

-The German army was checked at the battle of the Marne. France counter attacked checked Germany.
The advance of Germany was stopped.

-The Germans retreated 60km up to the river Aisne and began to dig trenches. Trench war continued for
the next 4 years.

Successes of the Schlieffen Plan.

-It motivated Germany to declare war on Russia and France.

-Germany was able to enter Belgium.

-Germany nearly captured Paris.

-The French government was forced to flee from Paris.

-It allowed Germany to avoid war on two fronts for a short period.

Failures of the Schlieffen Plan / Reasons Failure of the Schlieffen Plan

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-The right flank was weakened.

-Britain quickly entered the war. It captured the channel ports and assisted France and Belgium.

-Germany was forced to alter or change the plan because of the British assistance.

-France and Russia were quick to mobilize. It forced Germany to fight on two Fronts

-Germany failed to capture Paris (failed to encircled Paris)

-Germany failed to knockout France in 6 weeks.

-The plan failed to knockout Russia.

-Germany was forced to dig trenches. This forced the war to continue for 4 years.

Role played by Belgium in the Failure of the Schlieffen Plan.

-The Belgians resisted and slowed down the Germany army.

-After the German attack Britain sent the BEEF of 90 000 soldiers.

-Germany exhausted her resources in Belgium.

-At Mons and Liege inside Belgium progress were stopped.

-This affected their plan of a swift knockout blow to France through neutral Belgium.

-It affected their plan of attacking Paris because they were delayed in Belgium.

THE BATTLE OF MARNE (SEPTEMBER 6 – 10 1914)

-French soldiers were led by General Joseph Jeffrey and Joseph Simon Gallieni.

-The Germans were led by General Moltke

-The battle took place on 6 – 10 September 1914. The French made ferocious attacks on German forces.

-Jeffrey had decided an all out effort to push the invaders back.

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-Troops were rushed from Paris in every available form of transport e.g. Lorries, omnibuses and taxis.

-The Germans were forced back to the river Aisne where they took up defensive positions.

-This battle saved France from disaster.

-France lost about 600 000 soldiers out of about 1 300 000 soldiers.

-French casualties had been too great to enable them to follow up the advantage gained.

-However the Schliffen plan failed and Moltke appeared to have made serious errors. He pulled 100 000
troops out of the army advancing on Paris because the Russians had mobilized for more quickly than
expected and had already invaded Germany.

-He was replaced by General Falkenhayn.

-The battle of Marne turned into a stalemate which lasted 4 days.

-It was followed by the Battle of Ypres in October.

Impact of the battle of Marne

-The defeat by France was a setback for the Central powers as human and material resources were lost.

-French victory meant that Germany had to re-strategies and fight on two war fronts, especially after the
failure of the Schlieffen plan.

Battle of Ypress

-Retreating of the Germans to the Aisne was followed by battle of Ypress in Belgium in October and
November 1914.

- The French and the British managed to control and maintain channel ports.

-The Germany attack did not penetrate and beat through to the channel ports but British losses were
heavy.

-Poisonous gas was used for the first time by the Germans at this battle.

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-The German Zeppelin (air ship) was used.

-By the end of 1914 there was a deadlock on the Western front.

-Germany divided her attention to the Eastern front against Russia.

Battle of Verdun / Siege of Verdun.

-This was between France and Germany.

-The German army commander Falkenhayn devised a plan to frustrate the allied forces on the Western
front.

-According to Falkenhayn, Britain was the iron pillar of the allied forces, and it could be removed out of
allied war by serious submarine action.

-Falkenhayn viewed that France was the main German objective.

-Verdun was a very important French fortress and hub of the French defensive system which threatens the
German lines of communication.

-By attacking the French manpower Falkenhayn hoped to destroy the forces, capture Verdun and knock
France out of war.

-On 21 February 1916, the Germans began a massive bombardment on Verdun. He used 19 German
divisions heavily armed with artillery.

-The French forces were commanded by General Petain.

- The British, Russians, and the Italians came to help France.

-The British launched an attack on Somme in order to reduce pressure on the French at Verdun.

-The Russian and Italian armies began offensive attacks on the South western fronts.

-This compelled the Germans to withdraw. The French strengthened their resistance and they put off the
Germans.

-The Germans retreated to their trenches having failed to capture Verdun.

-Hindenburg and Ludendorff replaced Falkenhayn as the new German commanders.

22 | P a g e
-The French lost 350 000 while the Germans lost 330 000 but Verdun did not fall to the Germans.

Battle of Somme 1916

-In the Western front the British launched an attack on Somme. One of the reasons was to reduce German
pressure on Verdun.

-This is the time when the British started using tanks which they had invented.

-The British army was led by General Haig. His aim was to break through the German lines and capture
German fortresses at Cambria and Bapaume.

-The battle was a series of attacks commencing / starting on 1 July lasting through to November 1916.

-There was bombardment on the Germans by the British on the North of Somme River. The French
attacked on the south.

-The British were killed in great numbers as they advanced on the Germans but their generals directed
them to fight on.

-France changed its General Joffre with a younger General Neville.

-The British Haig was replaced by other more active generals to work with Neville to put off German
attacks.

-It was at this battle that discredited Douglas Haig and this led to the resignation of the British Prime
Minister, Asquith who was replaced by Lloyd George.

-As the war went on there was progress in aeronautics.

-Airplanes were at first used for scouting but new fighter plans were used to protect the scouting planes
and many air battles were fought.

-The German lines of sewage were pumped downhill into the British trenches.

-However by mid-November 1916 German armies had been greatly worn out.

-At Somme the Germans lost over500 000 men, Britain lost over 200 000 and France lost about 400 000
but neither side won a decisive victory.

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-Japan also fought on the side of Britain.

The Battle of Jutland (31 May 1916)

It was the only real naval battle of the WW1 fought in May 1916.

-The German fleet under Admiral Scheer tried to destroy the British grand fleet which was stationed at
Scapa Flow in Rosyth.

-A small British force under Admiral Hipper was sent out to sea and make contact with Admiral Beatty’s
German force. They fought.

-The main British forces under Jellico and that of Germany under Scheer rushed to the area and the war
intensified.

-British losses were heavy than those of the Germans.

-The Germans could have won the battle of Jutland but they withdrew from the scene on the night of May
31 to their bases behind the mine fields.

-This made them give up the sea to the British and remained inactive until Germany surrender in 1918
Nov.

THE EASTERN FRONT

-At the beginning of the war 1914, Russia mobilized her forces faster than Germany had anticipated.

-This forced Germany to divert more of her forces to the Eastern front so that she fought the war on two
fronts.

-This is what Bismarck tried to avoid.

-In the Eastern front, German armies were commanded by Paul von Hindenburg and Eric von

Ludendorff

-Russia attacked Galicia and Eastern Prussia in August 1914.

24 | P a g e
-The Russians were ill-prepared such that they were devastated by the Germans at the battle of
Tannenberg and Masurian lakes where 30 000 were killed and 92 000 were captured.

-The Germans further slaughtered the Russians in Warsaw and took the city.

-The Russians were being more successful against Austria-Hungary.

-In September 1914 they captured Len berg capital of Austria-Hungary capital.

-Germany diverted more of her forces away from the Western front in 1915 to assist Austria-Hungary and
the Russians were driven out of Austria-Hungary.

-A combined force of Germany and Austria-Hungary invaded little Serbia and she fell.

-In 1916 Russia lost a million men to Germany.

-Although Russia had abundance of men she was short of weapons, ammunition and other essential
equipment.

Entry of Turkey (1916)

-Turkey entered war on the side of Germany in 1916.

-The entry of Turkey in the war resulted in the closure of the straits to Russian ships.

-The entry of Turkey in the war resulted in the closure of the straits to Russian ships.

-Britain and France could no longer supply Russia with her needs.

-As a result Russia experienced serious shortages of weapons, ammunition and food as well.

-At the same time, prices of the little food were so high.

-The devastating defeat of Russia demoralized her troops who soon refused to fight and streamed
homewards from the war front in large numbers.

-By the end of 1916 strikes, lockouts and food up rises were the order of the day in Russia.

Defeat of Russia

25 | P a g e
-In March 1917 the Tsar was overthrown by a revolution which broke out.

-A liberal lawyer Alexander Kerensky became the leader and continued the war.

-In April 1917 the Germans assisted return of Lenin the leader of the Bolsheviks to overthrow Alexander
Kerensky.

-Lenin declared an end to the war, much to the joy of the Germans.

-When Russia collapsed the Germans diverted their Eastern front troops to the Western front to deliver a
knockout blow to Britain and France.

-In March 1918 the Russians signed the treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.

Terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

1. Russia was forced to surrender the control of the Baltic provinces (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania),
provinces of Poland, Finland and Ukraine.

2. Kars and Batumi were also given to the Turkey from Russia,

3. Russia lost a total of 34% of its population, 32% of its agriculture land, and 54% of its industry.

4. Germany demanded an indemnity from Russia of 3000 million rubles.

THE DARDENELLES AND THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN (1915)

-When the allied powers failed on the Western front they decided to support Russia on the Eastern front.

-However there were disagreements in Britain about the point of attack.

-They therefore entered the Eastern front inadequately prepared.

-The attack was made through the Dardanelles so that;

1. They open up a supply line to Russia through to Russia though the Black sea and capture
Constantinople.

2. To influence the uncommitted Balkan countries to join Allied powers especially Bulgaria.

26 | P a g e
-At first in March 1915 they attacked the Dardanelles by naval action.

-However they had inadequately prepared for the clearing of mines, while Turkish shore

Battalion was busy sinking the Allies minesweepers.

-The Allied powers therefore decided to send land and naval forces but the Turks had 6 weeks in which
they had trained and devise a defensive strategy.

-The Allied forces under the command of Sir Ian Hamilton were able to land in April and August.

-The Australians and New Zealanders (The Anzacs) were also able t5o land with the aid of the French
forces.

-However the Allied powers failed to defeat the turkey at the Dardanelles and Gallipoli because of;

1. Lack of proper coordination between land and naval forces

2. Serious errors of execution

3. Unexpected strength of the Turkish resistance under the command of the German General Liman von
Sanders.

4. The Dardanelle and Gallipoli battle was regarded as a sideshow and only those troops and resources
which could be spared from other battles of the war were sent.

Effects of the Dardanelles and Gallipoli

-Convinced the Westerners more than ever that war could only be won on the Western front.

-Led to Bulgarian’s decision to join Germany.

-Led to the conquest of Serbia and Montenegro by combined German, Bulgarian, Austria-Hungarian
forces.

-Italy joined the Allied powers in 1915 after she was promised Trieste and Polar.

-It led to the American massacre of people in April 1915.

27 | P a g e
To what extent did the outcome of the Gallipoli campaign benefit the Central powers?

-Bulgaria joined the central powers after the victory of the central powers.

-The defeat of the allies made it difficult for the allies to assist Russia via the straits.

-It boosted the morale of the Central powers.

-The straits remained closed for the Allied powers.

-This starved Russia of ammunition, food and other war necessities which forced her out of the war.

Other Factors

-Fighting on the Western front continued.

-USA entered into war on the side of the allied powers.

Austria continued to lose battles.

OTHER FRONTS

Austro-Italian Front

-Italy, Austria-Hungary and Germany fought on this front.

-Italy who was a member of the Triple Alliance declared war on Austria-Hungary in May 1915, which
was also a member of the Triple Alliance.

-She had signed a secret treaty of London with the Entente (Allied) powers which promised her Istria, the
city of Trieste, Trentino, South Tyrol and some Dalmatian Islands.

-Italy thus changed her mind and fought on the side of the Allied powers.

-Italy fought the Austrians at Isonzo, north of Trieste.

-A series of inconclusive battles (11 battles) were fought here in 1916.

-In October 1917, combined German and Austro-Hungarian forces defeated the Italians at the battle of
Caporetto.

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-Italy lost 600 000 men.

-Despite such a blow, Italy remained in the war and was counted among the victors after world war one.

The Brislov Offensive

-It took place on 4 June 1916. It was meant to aid the French in the struggle at Verdun.

-The Russian on the South-Western front began an attack on Austrian armies.

-Russia was led by General Brislov who kept the Austrian in retreat for 3 months.

-He did not carry his campaign to success because of:

1. Lack of resources and reserves

2. Loses which amounted to 1 million people.

3. The arrival of German reinforcements from the west.

-However the Brislov offensive had managed to relieve Austrian pressure on the Italians.

-It forced Falkenhayn to weaken his western offensive against Verdun.

BATTLES FOUGHT DURING WORLD WAR ONE

 Battle of Mons -Battle of Tannenberg

 Battle of Liege -Battle of Masurian Lake Islands
 Battle of Marne - Battle of Isonzo

 Battle of Ypress - Battle of Caporetto

 Battle of Verdun - Battle of Dardanelle
 Battle of Somme -Battle of Gallipoli
 Battle of Jutland
 Battle of Cambria - Battle of Arras
 Battle of Passchendaele - Battle of Amiens
 Battle of Folklands

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WEAPONS USED DURING WORLD WAR ONE

 Tanks -Depth chargers

 Rifles -Bombs
 Destroyers -Grenades
 Howitzers -Submarines(U-boats)
 Hydrophones -Dreadnoughts(battle ships)
 Aeroplanes(Zeppelins) -Cruisers
 Poisonous gas -Cannons
 Torpedoes
 Light cruisers

SEAS WHERE WORLD WAR ONE WAS FOUGHT

 North Sea
 English Channel
 Pacific
 Red Sea
 Atlantic

TYPES SHIPS OF USED DURING WORLD WAR ONE

 Dreadnoughts
 Light cruisers
 Cruisers
 Submarines(U-boats)
 Battle cruisers
 Destroyers

ALLIED POWERS DURING WW1

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  Britain -Australia
 France -New Zealand
 Russia -China
 Italy -Spain
 United States of America -Belgium
 Canada -Armenia
 Serbia -Georgia -
 Romania -Montenegro
 Greece -Portugal
 South Africa -Japan

CENTRAL POWERS DURING WW1

 Germany
 Austria-Hungary
 Turkey
 Bulgaria
 Jordan

METHODS OF WARFARE/FIGHTING UESD DURING WW1

 Trench warfare
 Air strikes / warfare
 Naval warfare / Submarine
 Use of poisonous gas.

1. Trench Warfare

-There was trench warfare on the western in Belgium and northern France.

-Lines of parallel trenches stretching from Alps to Swiss frontiers to the sea at Ostead were dug and
fortified.

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-The trench warfare was the brainchild of the German soldiers.

-The trenches were dug a few 100 metres away.

-Trenches were heavily fortified with barbed wire.

-In between the soldiers lay the no man’s land. Those who advance to the no man’s land were killed by
machine guns. They were sure to die a cruel death.

-Other soldiers were drowned in mud.

-The trenches were filled with soldiers.

-These soldiers were armed with rifles, bayonets and machine guns.

-Sometimes the soldiers waited in trenches for days, even weeks without a shot being fired.

-They often waited in the rain, cold or the coast burning heat of the sun.

-Usually they could not even stick their head up or they might be shot.

-The worst trench warfare was that at Somme in 1916.The Germans fought the British and French. One
day they would occupy the enemy’s trenches, the next day they were forced back and they went back and
fought for three month before the Germans were defeated.

-Great number of soldiers died in the trench warfare.

Weapons of trench warfare

 Rifles
 Machine guns
 Poison gas e.g. chlorine. It caused blindness, death( problem caused by lings)
 Bayonets
 Artillery shells
 Aero planes e.g. Zeppelins
 Bombs
 Grenades

32 | P a g e
Problems faced by soldiers in the trenches

i. Diseases e.g. T.B, rotting legs, influenza, Spanish flu

ii. Shortage of food and medicine. Soldiers were given food rations

iii. Thirst caused by shortage of water to drink. Soldiers sometimes survived on their own urine.

iv. Homosexuality.

v. There were injuries and deaths of people. Soldiers became used to seeing dead bodies of their friends.

vi. Seeing mud mixed with blood every day.

vii. Tanks and boots stuck in mud.

viii. Soldiers faced boredom and home sickness

xv. Loss of morale

x. Cold or harsh weathers

xi. Lived with swarms, rats, flies, and sewages.

xii. Experienced noise of the shooting and exploding bombs.

xiii. Did not have enough supply of ammunition.

xiv. Attacked by lice.

2. NAVAL WAREFARE

-The withdrawal of the Germans from the sea after the battle of Jutland made them give up the sea to the
British and remained inactive until Germany surrendered in 1918 November. Britain and France decided
to use the navies to blockade Germany and Austria-Hungary.

a. Naval Blockade

-France was to protect British and French interests in the Mediterranean Sea while Britain was to protect
the French and British interest in the English and the North East.

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-Since Britain had a large navy than France, she extended her activities to the Atlantic and Pacific for
security of the British Empire and her trade routes.

-Their main task was to blockade the Central powers and cut off their trade link with the outside world.

-As a result the Germans and the A-Hrians lost their external markets and sources of raw materials.

-Even neutral ships were prevented from German posts.

b. Submarine warfare

-In reply to the Anglo-French naval supremacy, Germany imparted in the submarine /u-boat warfare.

-Britain was relying on foreign trade than any other in the world.

-Therefore Germany decided to use the submarine to torpedo British ships in order to destroy her foreign
trade.

-This was meant to make Britain economy to collapse and force her to surrender.

-Germany submarines therefore plied the Red sea, The English Channel, The North Sea and especially the
Atlantic Ocean to cut off British and French trade in USA.

-Throughout 1915 and 1916 the German submarine had a very huge shipping tonnage. This threatened
both the British economy and security.

-In April 1915 the Germans sunk the British passenger ship, the Lusitania and 1198 passengers died. 128
were Americans.

This angered USA and increased tension between the two countries,

-Britain therefore devised ways of combating this menace.

-These ways included use of mine sweeps and the convoy system.

-The anti-submarine devices were proven quite effective and the shipping tonnage was beginning to
decrease.

-The British used armed Q boats which were disguised as ordinary traders to fire on surface and also fleet
of armed trawlers were introduced to attack the U-boats.

-The convoy system proved to be the only effective method of combating the submarine.

34 | P a g e
-Other anti-submarines were hydrophones, depth chargers, aero planes that spotted the U-boats and armed
escorts.

-In 1917 the Germans declared unrestricted submarine warfare meaning the U-boats were to torpedo and
combat neutral ships. This brought USA to war in 1917.

-Therefore with the help of USA allied powers managed to destroy the U-boats bases at Zeebrudge
Ostend in April 1918.

Effects of the naval blockade and submarines

1. British ships began to travel in convoys escorted by warships.

2. There were food shortages which led to the introduction of substitutions e.g. margarine for butter,
rationing of food and long queues for food.

3. More effort was made to grow more food in Britain e.g. in reclaimed wasteland areas, hillsides and
parks.

4. German industries ran short of fuels and chemicals of explosives and gas.

5. Food rationing began in Germany in 1915 and 1916.

6. Food riots broke out in Germany as people demanded for bread.

7. Half a million starved to death in Germany.

8. A civilian population demanded an end to war through strikes and riots.

ADVANTAGES OF THE CENTRAL POWERS IN WW1

i. Germany had prepared for war.

 It had a war Plan – use of lightning war. (BLITSKRIEG)

 Well trained army
 Better equipment
 Use of railway lines to transport soldiers, food, weapons

35 | P a g e
  Experienced generals (army leaders)

ii. Use of U-boats

 It disturbed trade among the Allies.

 It caused shortage of food and raw materials in Britain. Britain was left with food for 6 weeks
only at one point.

THE ENTRY OF USA IN THE WORLD WAR I

REASONS

-There was an Anglo-French propaganda in USA media.

-To restore peace and balance of power.

-Unrestricted Germany submarine warfare. U-boats were disturbing American trade by sinking merchant
ships

-The sinking of the Lusitania and the Sussex killed American citizens (civilian).

-USA had given loans to the Allies.

-Food situation in Britain. Britain was only left six weeks supply of food.

-Linguistic and constitutional commonness with Britain and France.

-Germany secret agents were disturbing production in war industries in USA – economic sabotage.

-Zimmerman telegram. This was used by USA as an excuse to declare war on the Germans.

ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM

-A letter was written by the German Foreign Minister Zimmerman to the German Ambassador to
persuade Mexico the Germans in a war against USA.

-In return Mexico was to get USA states which included Texas, Arizona and others.

36 | P a g e
-The letter was intercepted by the British Naval intelligence and handed to USA were congress voted for
war against German.

-As the world’s greatest industrial power with population of hundred million USA decisively felted the
balance of power against German.

-Many reinforcements were poured into Europe by America e.g. Food stuffs, gun, Fuel, funds, warships,
loans, troops, uniform, medicine etc

EFFECTS OF AMERICAN ENTRY

1. Unlimited supply of food, weapons, soldiers e.t.c. to the Allied powers.

2. Strengthened the Allied powers after disadvantages caused by the withdrawal of Russia.

3. USA and Britain introduced stop and search operations in the seas

4. British and American naval power led to shortages in Germany e.g. food and raw materials.

5. Brought victory to the Allied powers as Germany got defeated.

6. At the same time German allies began to collapse e.g.

i. Austria-Hungary was destroyed by nationalistic uprising as Czechs, Slovaks, Poles and Romanians
began to demand their independence.

ii. Turkey and Bulgaria made peace with the Allied Powers.

iii. By this time German armies in the Western Front were been pushed back by an allied counter attack.
Strikes and Mutinies also broke out in German as people had had enough. German could fight no more
and asked the allied powers for an armistice [cease fire] on eleven November 1918.

LIFE ON THE HOME FRONT

-Since most man had gone to fight, women became liberated and worked in factories, joined the police
force and drove buses etc.

-There were in engaged in jobs formally done by man.

37 | P a g e
-They earned the right to vote.

-Time for work was increased.

-Many civilians were sunk by German Submarines.

-Air raids threatened many civilians and destroyed homes, farm lands and factories.

-Millions became homeless.

-There was mass starvation, long queues and rations.

-Millions fought on behalf of their masters and people in villages of Africa were destroyed.

-Colonies also made cash donations to the war effects.

REASONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF GERMANYIN THE FIRST WORLD WAR

-Failure of the Schlieffen Plan.

-Weakness of Germany`s allies which were knocked out.

-There was revolution in Germany led by the Socialist party.

-Poor food supply.

-American entry in the war.

-Allied powers had more manpower.

-British naval control [superiority] in the sea.

-Allied blockade brought the starvation of Central Powers of food and raw materials.

-Britain had a lot of resources from its empire e.g. food, clothing, funds etc.

-The allies had one commander.

-Loss of experienced soldiers.

-Italy changed sides and fought for the allies.

38 | P a g e
-Failure of U-Boat warfare.

-Poison gas affected German soldiers e.g. blindness and death.

-The trench warfare.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENTRANCE OF USA TO THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY

-USA joined the war later when others were weak and tired of fighting.

-USA had a powerful navy, fresh and many soldiers to aid the allies.

-More tanks were made available by USA.

-USA aided the allies with food, funds, weapons and ammunition in loan to ensure that Germany and her
allies were defeated.

-The entrance of USA was very timely.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE US NAVY TO THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY

-US navy increased the scope of the war.

-German troops were demoralized by the entry of USA.

-There were fresh marines from USA.

-US navy brought a steady supply of war materials for the allies.

-The USA navy helped to effect naval blockade on Germany.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN TO THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY AND HER

ALLIES [CENTRAL POWERS]

-Germany failed to march through Belgium because of Belgian resistance. The time table was delayed.

-The right side of the attack on France was weakened.

39 | P a g e
-Britain occupied the channel ports and quickly joined the war.

-German failed to capture Paris and failed to knockout France.

-Russia was quick to mobilize and attacked East German.

-Germany was forced to fight on two fronts.

-Germany was forced to use Trench Warfare which was unplanned. As a result the war took a long
period. Germany had planned for a quick and short war.

-The war continued for four years.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE TRENCH WARFARE

-Demoralization of the soldiers.

-Loss of experienced soldiers because of death.

-Boor dome and home sickness.

-Hardships e.g. hunger, thirst and diseases.

-It produced a stalemate.

BRITISH NAVAL POWER OR STRENTH CONTRIBUTION

-It had superior number of battleships.

-It introduced the blockade of Germany. This caused shortage of food and raw materials.

-At the end there was a mutiny in the Germany army. Riots and revolution began in Germany.

-The British navy began to use the convoy system to protect merchant ships from U-boats attacks.

-The hydrophone was used to pick the sounds of U-boats which became ineffective.

RESULTS/EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

40 | P a g e
POLITICAL RESULTS/EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR ONE

-The central powers were defeated.

-Self determination was given to some minorities.

-There was rise of dictators like Mussolini and Hitler in Europe.

-Franchise [voting] was introduced for women in countries like USA, Britain and France.

-Four empires collapsed, that is, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Russia.

-There was creation of new states like Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Latvia.

-There was singing of peace treaties with the defeated powers.

-There was rise of extremist parties such as Nazi part in Germany, Fascist part in Italy and Communist
part in Russia.

-There was development of new ideologies such as Communism in Russia.

-There was creation of the League of Nations.

-There was rise of banditry [robbery], especially by demoralized soldiers.

-There was establishment of democratic governments in Germany and Austria, thus there was fall of
monarchism.

-There was abdication of the Kaiser in Germany.

-A legacy of hatred, bitterness and suspicion was left among nations which helped to bring world war
two.

-New methods of warfare were introduced, for instance, trench warfare.

-There was introduction of new weapons of mass destruction, for instance, tanks, bombs, aero planes,
machine guns and gas.

-The map of Europe was redrawn.

-There was a shift in balance of power, for instance, Germany was left a weaker state.

41 | P a g e
SOCIAL RESULTS/EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR ONE

-Many children were orphaned.

-Many women became widows.

-Unemployment was rampant [widespread].

-There was erosion of class and sex barriers as men of all classes had shared the same hardships in the
trenches and had been forced into conduct.

-Prostitution was rampant.

-There was emergence of incurable diseases like influenza.

-There was great loss of human lives, for example, Germany lost 1900000 soldiers.

-Homeless societies were created.

-There was widespread poverty and destitution.

There was widespread starvation and hunger.

-There was an improvement in communication, for example, radios, televisions and the code language
were introduced.

-There was equality of men and women as women worked in ammunition factories together with
men.

-There was poor living and sanitary conditions.

ECONOMIC RESULTS/EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR ONE

-War gave commercial advantage to industrialized nations outside Europe, for example, USA and Japan.

-America got a large share of world trade and became the greatest creditor nation.

-Europe became relatively poor and the people of Europe were heavily taxed to pay off the war debts.

-Countries like India now began to build industries of their own instead of depending on European
countries.

42 | P a g e
-There was increased production.

-There was availability of cheaper goods.

-Workers earned low wages.

-There was land degradation.

-Inflation was high.

-Unemployment was rampant.

-There was an economic depression [not of 1929].

-There was closure of factories.

-There was destruction of infrastructure.

-British and French industries were concentrating on war materials and could no longer supply customers
with the day to day goods.

-Europe lost its lead in industrial development and its people became poorer.

-Some countries lost raw materials to newly formed states.

-There were technological advancements for example washing machines, gramophones, radios, vacuum
cleaners, telephones, cars, buses etc

-Many countries were left with war debts.

-There was payment of reparations by defeated Central Powers.

-There were bankrupts in Europe.

-There were strikes, lockouts and demonstrations in Europe.

TO WHAT EXTENT DID WOMEN BENEFIT FROM THE RESULTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

BENEFITS

-War situation created jobs for several women who would otherwise have spent much of their time at
home.

43 | P a g e
-Women took up tasks usually the preserve of men, for example, in industries, the military and so on,
proving wrong the notion that they were of a weaker and inferior orientation.

-Franchise [voting] was opened to women in some countries like USA, France and Britain.

-Women were freer than before, for example, in USA they could now drive cars, smoke, discuss sex
openly and move freely without accompaniment by men.

NON BENEFITS

-Some women were left widows and took up roles of bread winners.

-Not all women were given franchise.

-The return of men from war meant that some women lost their jobs.

TO WHAT EXTENT DID THE MINORITY GROUPS BENEFIT FROM THE EFFECTS OF WORLD
WAR ONE

BENFITS

-Women were made free than before for example they had the right to vote, moved freely without male
accompaniment

-Minorities like Slavs and Czechs had states created for them.

-There was recreation of states like Poland which had been swallowed by Germany and Russia.

NON BENEFITS

-The Jews were scattered all over the world due to the war.

-The return of men from war meant loss of jobs by some women.

To what extent did the people of Europe benefit from the results of world war one?

Benefits

-People benefited from technological developments that occurred in production of goods during the war

44 | P a g e
-Greater benefits only came when their countries had introduced tariffs against American goods.

-Railways were built.

-Hydro-electric power plants were incepted.

-There was an improvement in communication, for example, radios, televisions and code language.

-Equality of men and women came about as women worked in ammunition factories.

Non Benefits

-Europe lost its lead in industrial development and the people became poorer.

-The people of Europe were heavily taxed to make up for war debts.

-Unemployment was rampant.

-There was destruction of industries.

To what extent did USA benefit economically from world war one

Benefits

-War gave great commercial advantage to USA.

-She exported cars and chemicals to Europe.

-USA loaned money to the fighting countries.

-USA overtook Europe to become European giant.

Non benefits

-The war also brought some economic disadvantages.

-Overproduction later led to the great depression.

-After the war some European countries introduced tariffs on America.

-Some countries failed to pay back the American loans.

45 | P a g e
New states created in Europe after the First World War

-Poland

-Austria

-Yugoslavia

-Lithuania

-Estonia

-Czechoslovakia

-Hungary

-Finland

-Latvia

THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE/SETTLEMENT

-The victorious powers and their representatives gathered in Paris on January 18 1919 to celebrate peace
and make the way forward after the war.

The victorious powers represented at the conference

-USA represented by WOODROW WILSON.

-BRITAIN represented by DAVID LLOYD GEORGE.

-FRANCE represented by GEORGES CLEMENCEU.

-ITALY represented by VITTEIRO EMMANUEL ORLANDO.

-JAPAN represented by IKHALI.

-SOUTH AFRICA represented by JAN SMUTS.

46 | P a g e
-GREECE represented by VENIZOLOS.

-BELGIUM represented by KING ALBERT

-Jan Christian Smuts was the only one who signed both peace settlements .i.e. after World War One and
World War Two.

-He was born in 1870 and died in 1950.

-He was the Prime Minister of South Africa from 1939-48.

-The leading states at the negotiations at Paris were the big three which are

i] USA represented by Woodrow Wilson

ii] France represented by Georges Clemenceau.

Iii] Britain represented by David Lloyd George.

-All the defeated powers were not represented.

-These were

i] Germany

ii] Austria

iii] Hungary

iv Turkey

v] Bulgaria

PROBLEMS FACED BY STATESMAN IN PEACE MAKING

1. Lack of unity of purpose.

2. Pressure from people from home.

3. The venue.

4. The attitude of the American people.

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5. The chaotic situation in Europe.

6. Fear of communism by statesman.

1 Lack of unity of purpose

-The three statesman who did most of the decision making ha d very different aims on how to treat the
defeated powers.

-Wilson and Clemenceau were extremely opposite that is their views were different.

-Lloyd George acted as a chancellor between the two.

2 Pressure from people at home

-The statesman had defined expectations from home to fulfill.

-The big three were not so free to make decisions without considering expectations of the citizens at
home.

a. The British wanted Germany to be severely punished.

b. The French wanted revenge on Germany. Clemenceau lost the presidency after the Paris Peace

Conference as people accused him of being too compromising at the negotiations.

3. VENUE

-The venue was not conducive for a fair peace conference e.g.

i. German delegates had to be protected by wire netting.

ii. The French pinned two allied delegates’ coattails posters with slogans on them like, “hang the Kaiser “
and “ Make Germany pay”.

4 .THE ATTITUDE THE OF AMERICAN CITIZENS

-Americans were not interested in getting involved in the affairs of Europe.

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-Wilson participated in the Paris Peace Conference against wishes of the Americans.

5. Chaotic situations in Europe

-The situation was deteriorating in Europe as the conference progressed e.g. by 1918 Austria Hungary
was broken up.

-The time of the Peace Conference in Europe was not settled.

6. Fear of communism

-Communism revolution had been successful in Russia. Signs were that the communist revolution would
spread the rest of Europe e.g. attempts were made to establish the communist who in Bavaria and
Hungary.

-Therefore statesman wanted a quick peace so as to establish buffer zones.

THE VIEWS OF THE BIG THREE

David Lloyd George 0f Britain

-He wanted an end of the German threat to the British navy and empire.

-To make Germany a no aggressive country without colonies

-To prevent Germany from becoming economically weak so that a revival of European industry and trade
is not hindered.

-To prevent Germany from becoming very poor such that they have no reasons to

-To avoid humiliating Germans so that they have no reason to seek revenge.

-To help secure France against Germany but prevent France from becoming too powerful.

-To create a balance of power so that no one European country can threaten others.

-To hang the Kaiser.

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-To make Germany pay for war damages.

Georges Clemenceau of France

-To have revenge on Germany for France`s suffering.

-To make Germany pay for the cost of damage.

-To punish Germany for the humiliation she had inflicted on France after defeating her in the 1870-71
Franco Prussian war.

-To ensure that Germany would never be able to attack France again.

-To take away German Lands.

-To weaken German industries.

-To reduce her armed forces.

-To weaken Germany militarily and economically.

-To have Germany into a small state.

-To hang the Kaiser.

-The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France.

-Prevention of Union of Germany and Austria.

-Return of French flags taken by Germany.

-Germany was to accept the responsibility of causing the war.

Woodrow Wilson of USA

-To establish peace without humiliating defeated powers.

-To reduce armaments.

-To prevent Germany from becoming aggressive again.

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-To have a fair settlement.

-To establish an international association of nations.

-To base the peace treaties on the 14 points.

-To create a world made of safe democracy.

-To punish Germany for her aggression.

-To avoid forcing Germany to pay heavy damages.

-He wanted self determination and to give nations democratic governments of their choice.

To what extent extend where the aims of Wilson fulfilled?

Aims fulfilled

-Alsace-Lorraine was given to France.

-An international organization (League of Nations) was formed.

-Self determination was given to minorities.

Aims not fulfilled

-Reparations were too high.

-Disarmament was applied only to the defeated powers.

-Self determination was denied to Germans, for example, post war Poland contained million of Germans.

-The terms of the treaties were too harsh.

To what extent were the aims of Gorges Clemenceau fulfilled in the treaty of Versailles?

Aims fulfilled

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-Germany was weakened which Clemenceau wanted.

-Alsace-Lorraine went back to France.

-Germany was made to pay reparations.

-The Saar and Ruhr coal fields were to be managed by France who would take profits as compensation
for war damages.

-German military strength was weakened as her air force was disbanded.

-The Rhineland was demilitarized.

-Germany was forced to sign the war guilty clause.

Aims not fulfilled

-Germany sought revenge which the French did not want because of the loss of her territory.

-Germany never paid the reparations in full because they were too harsh.

-British and American views were also considered

-Germany was not divided into smaller states as Clemenceau wanted.

To what extent were the aims of Lloyd George fulfilled?

Aims fulfilled

-Germany was made to pay reparations.

-Germany lost colonies which Lloyd George wanted.

-The Rhineland was demilitarized so as to make France secure.

-German army was reduced so as to make her a non aggressive state.

Aims not fulfilled

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-Germany never paid the reparations in full.

-French and American views were also considered.

-Germany sought revenge because of her loss of territory.

WOODROW WILSON’S FOURTEEN (14) POINTS

1. End of secret diplomacy and secret treaties between governments

2. Freedom of the seas/ Freedom of navigation on seas.

3. Free trade/ removal of trade barriers/tariffs.

4. Disarmament – reduction of the armaments (weapons) to a level consistent with domestic safety.

5. Settlement of colonial matters with proper regard to the interests of the colonized people.

6. Germany evacuation from Russian territory.

7. Belgium to be completely free or Germany army to move out of Belgium.

8. Alsace and Lorraine to be returned back to France.

9. Italy to receive her proper frontiers/boundaries.

10. Independence to the subject people of Austria Hungary e.g. Slavs.

11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia given access to the sea.

12. People ruled by Turkey to gain independence. The Dardanelles to be open to ships and commerce of
all nations.

13. Creation of an independent Poland with access to the sea.

14. An international organization to be formed in order to protect independence for all nations.

To what extent were Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points followed?

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Points followed

-Points number 7, 8, 10, 11 and 12 were accepted.

-Belgian sovereignty was restored [7]

-Alsace –Lorraine were returned to France [8]

-The subject peoples under Austria-Hungary were made independent [10]

-Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were evacuated and Serbia was given access to sea [11]

-The people under Turkish rule were given autonomy [12]

Points not followed

-The Allied powers met in secret [1]

-Britain refused to give up its right to search ships trading with an enemy during war time [2]

-Tariff barriers were retained and increased [3]

-There was no real attempt at disarmament [4]

-Britain and France increased their colonial holdings [5]

-The allies sent troops to attack the Bolsheviks [6]

-The boundary of Italy was not settled [9].

-Post war Poland contained millions of Germans [13]

-The League of Nations never works as Wilson had hoped [14].

The First 5 Points

-Deal with the adjustments of international problems of international problems and it was suggested that
there should be no secrets between diplomats.

-National armaments were to be reduced as much as possible.

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-Colonial claims were to be settled in an equitable manner.

-Freedom seas were to be granted to all.

The Next 8 points

-These concern territorial arrangements.

-All occupied areas were to be abandoned or returned e.g. Alsace and Lorraine.

-The people of Austria-Hungary and Turkey were to be given self government.

-The general association of nations should be set up for the purpose of guaranteeing mutual independence
of all states great and small.

THE DEAFETED POWERS WERE FORCED TO SIGN TREATIES WITH THE ALLIED POWERS

-Germany - Versailles Treaty

-Austria - St Germain

-Hungary - Trianon

-Turkey - Sevres

-Turkey - Lausanne

-Bulgaria - Neuilly

THE VERSAILLES TREATY

-It was signed with Germany at Versailles in France.

-The German delegates were never directly involved in the negotiations. They were invited only to sign
the treaty. Thus it was a diktat settlement.

-The Versailles Treaty had territorial and non-territorial terms (provisions/clauses/articles)

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Territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty

-Alsace and Lorraine captured from France by Germany in 1871 were returned.

-The Saar valley/basin which had rich coal mines were placed under international control for Fifteen
years.

-Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet went to Belgium.

-North Schleswig was given to Denmark.

-Memel was given to Lithuania.

-Sudetenland went to Czechoslovakia.

-Kiel Canal opened to ships for all nations.

-Rhineland was demilitarized.

-Upper Silesia, Posen, Polish Corridor and East Prussia went to Poland.

-Finland gained independence.

-Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania gained independence from Germany.

-War guilty clause blamed Germany for causing WW1.

-Union between Germany and Austria was banned. Anschluss was banned.

-The Port of Danzig, a predominantly German area was made an independent city under League of
Nations.

-Strasbourg and Metz were given to France.

-All Germany islands in the Pacific Ocean were divided under amongst Australia, New Zealand and
Japan. South East Asia [Samoa Islands] went to New Zealand. Caroline Islands went to Japan. New
Guinea was given to Australia.

-Germany lost her colonies. They became Mandates under the League.

Colonies lost by Germany

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-Cameroon and Togo became mandates under France.

-Namibia [South West Africa] became a mandate under South Africa.

-Tanganyika [German East Africa] became a mandate under Britain.

-Rwanda and Burundi became mandates under Belgium.

Territories lost by Germany in Europe at the Treaty of Versailles

-Alsace and Lorraine -Eupen

-Malmedy -Upper Silesia

-Danzig -Memel

-Northern Schleswig -Saar Basin

-Moresnet -Strasbourg

-Posen -Lithuania

-East Prussia -Estonia

-Latvia.

Where the Territorial terms of the treaty of Versailles fair?

Unfairness of the terms

-Humiliation and loss of pride.

-It was a dictated Treaty.

-Germany lost manpower and territories in Europe.

-The Treaty blamed Germany alone for the outbreak of WW1 but other powers also contributed to WW1.

-Germany lost raw materials and factories

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-Loss of colonies.

-The population was reduced.

-The treaty ignored the idea of self determination.

-Germans were now found in Polish Corridor and Czechoslovakia.

-Union between Germany and Austria was banned but the shared the same blood/nationality.

-The treaty divided or separated Germany families.

Fairness of the Treaty

-However, the Germans had no reasons to complain.

-Alsace and Lorraine were French provinces.

-Germany had an aggressive foreign policy.

-Germany was blamed for the outbreak of WW1 because she had a war plan and invaded Belgium, a
neutral country.

-German forced Russia to sign a harsh Treaty [Treaty of Brest-Litovisk].

-The Polish Corridor was given to Poland so that Poland had access to the sea.

-The Sudetenland went to Czechoslovakia so that Czechoslovakia had industries to strengthen her
economy.

-The union between Germany and Austria was banned to make sure Germany would not be too powerful.

-Germany had taken one third of Russian territory through the treaty of Brest Litovisk, so these territories
had to gain independence.

-Germany had caused great destruction to France and Belgium.

-The demilitarized Rhineland was to act as a buffer zone [a barrier] against French insecurity.

Non-territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty

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-The terms involved payment of reparation and military terms.

-The Allied powers reduced German economic and military powers.

a. Reparations

-German was forced to admit that the war was caused by the aggression of Germany and her allies.

-Germany was to pay reparation. This was the cost of repaying all the devastated areas in allied countries.

-Restoring property damaged during the war.

-Pay the pensions in allied countries.

-Germany was to pay Belgium war debts which were the sum of money browed by Belgium in the war.

-To pay the annual tribute of coal to France, Belgium and Italy for 10 years.

-To pay an annual fee of 6, 6 billion pounds to the allied powers.

-France was to occupy the Saar for 15 years for the purpose of depriving the Germans of the rich coal
mines.

b. Disarmament/Military terms ----navy – air force – army

-German army was forbidden to conscript men for services. Thus soldiers were to be recruited
voluntarily.

-German arm was reduced to 100 000 men (it was reduced to the size of the army of Greece).

-Ordinary soldiers were to serve for 12 years.

-German General Staff of 1914-1918 was dissolved.

--U-boats/submarines were banned.

-Germany was allowed to have only 6 battleships.

-No tanks and no artillery shells

-The air force was banned – no military aircraft allowed.

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-The navy was reduced to 15 000 men’

-Germany was allowed to have 6 cruisers (vessels)

-Germany had to build a number of ships for Allied powers.

-Germany was to have 12 destroyers and 12 torpedo boats.

-German naval base at Heligoland was destroyed.

-Officers were to serve for 25 years.

-Manufacturing of heavy artillery and heavy army was banned

-Germany was not allowed to have armoured cars

-Germany was demilitarized on the Rhineland.

-The Kaiser and army generals were to face trial because U-boats killed civilians and for using the war
plan and poison gas.

Were the Non-Territorial Terms of the Versailles fair to the Germans?

Fairness

-German had a war plan.

-German forced Russia to sign a harsh treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

-Germany gave Austria-Hungary an open cheque by giving her total support.

-Germany caused the naval race with Britain.

-The Kaiser’s action caused the increase in tension with France during the Moroccan crisis.

-U-boats killed innocent people.

-Germany destroyed infrastructure

-Germany used poison gas.

-Germany army was to be reduced to prevent her from starting another war.

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-France and Belgium needed compensation for destruction.

-Demilitarization of the Rhineland was meant to give France security and safety.

-The banning of recruitment in Germany would ensure security and safety of France and Belgium.

-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon e.g. France was asked to pay reparations by
Germany in the Treaty of Frankfurt after the Franco Prussian war in 1871.

Unfairness of the Terms

-Germany had reasons to complain because the non territorial terms were unfair.

-The reparations were too high. This weakened the economy.

-Other countries refused to disarm e.g. France.

-Disarmament caused insecurity inside Germany. The army was too small to maintain law and order.

-Disarmament caused unemployment.

-The treaty was a diktat. It was dictated to Germany.

-It blamed Germany alone but the other powers were responsible for the outbreak of war.

-Germany was humiliated.

-The Rhineland belonged to Germany but it was demilitarized.

-The Kaiser and army leaders were heroes not criminals to the Germans.

The Treaty of Saint Germain [September 1919]

-It was signed by Austria and Allied powers.

Terms of the Treaty

-The union of Germany and Austria [Anschluss] was forbidden.

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-Austria and Hungary were to be separated.

-She lost Bohemia, part of Silesia, the lower part of Austria and Moravia to Czechoslovakia.

-Bosnia and Herzegovina were given to Serbia.

-Bukovina was given to Romania.

-Galicia was given to Poland

-South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Trieste and Dalmatia were given to Italy.

-Austria was made a Republic [monarchy was banned].

-The army was reduced to thirty thousand men.

-Austria was to pay reparations

-Conscription was banned in Austria.

-Austria was made a landlocked country and had to make a hundred kilometer journey across Italy to
reach the coast.

-Up to 80% of her industries were now under foreign control and mainly under Czech control.

-The best of her Agriculture land was placed under Hungary.

-Her population was reduced from about 30 million to 6, 5 million.

Were the Terms of the Treaty of Saint Germain fair to Austria

Unfairness

-The union of Austria and Germany (Anschluss) was forbidden yet the Austrians were Germany in origin.

-Her territories with strong German population were taken away.

-Austria was made a landlocked country.

-80% of her industrial land was now in Hungary.

-Her population was reduced from 30 million to 6,5 million.

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Fairness

-Austria had been too ambitious in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

-Her ultimatum to Serbia was calculated to cause war.

-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.

How far were the terms of the Treaty of St Germain influenced by Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points?

-Creation of new states such as Poland and Czechoslovakia sympathized with the princess of self
determination.

-The breakup of the Austrian Empire was in line with Wilson’s 14 points.

-The restoration of Italian frontiers (boundaries) was part of the 14 points.

-The covenant of League was part of the 14 points.

Other factors

-The desire to punish the defeated powers and to weaken them was also a strong point.

-The restoration of Italian frontiers had to be matched with later settlements.

THE TREATY OF NEUILLY (November 1919)

-It was signed by Bulgaria and allied powers.

Terms of the treaty of Neuilly

-Bulgaria lost Western Thrace to Greece.

-Bulgaria lost some border areas to Yugoslavia.

-She lost access to the Mediterranean Sea.

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-Her army was reduced to 20 000 men.

-She had to pay reparations to the allied powers

-Bulgaria had played a relatively small part in the war and was treated less harshly than its allies.

Unfairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly.

-Million Bulgars were under foreign rule.

-Reduction of her army left the country insecure

-Her population was reduced.

--She lost her resources to other states.

Fairness of the terms of the treaty of Neuilly

-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon

-She had been part of the losing side.

THE TREATY OF TRIANON (June 1920)

-It was signed by Hungary and the allied powers.

Terms of the Treaty of Neuilly

-Hungary became independent from Austria.

-She lost Bosnia, Slovenia, Croatia and part of Banet to Yugoslavia.

-She lost Trentino to Italy.

-Burgenland was passed to Austria.

-She was to observe the covenant of the League of Nations.

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-Transylvania was given to Romania.

-She lost Ruthenia and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia.

-She lost nearly 66% of her pre-war territory to the new states

-Her population was reduced from 20million to 8million.

-Conscription was banned in Hungary.

-She was to pay a war indemnity (reparations).

-Her army was reduced to 35 000 men.

-New frontiers created left a number of Magyars under foreign rule.

Unfairness of the treaty of Trianon

-New frontiers (boundaries) left a number of Magyars under foreign rule, e.g. Romania, Czechoslovakia
and Yugoslavia.

-Reduction of the army left the country insecure.

-She had failed to recognize the sovereignty of the Balkan states.

-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.

THE TREATY OF SEVRES (August 1920)

-It was signed by Turkey and the victors.

Terms of the Treaty of Sevres

-Turkey lost Western Thrace and part of Aegean Island to Greece.

-She lost Syria and Lebanon to France.

-She lost Transjordan and Iraq to Britain.

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-Armenia became independent.

-Adalia and Rhodes Islands were given to Italy.

-The states of Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia) became independent.

-Palestine was given to Britain.

-Turkish straits were put under the League of Nations. She lost control of the Black Sea.

-The covenant of the League of Nations was to be accepted.

-Anatolia (Smyrna) was given to Greece.

-Her army was reduced.

-She was to pay reparations to the allies.

Unfairness of the treaty of Sevres

-She lost too many territories.

-The allies ignored Turkish national feeling.

-Occupation by foreign troops was unfair.

-The Treaty was imposed on her.

-Reduction of her army left her insecure.

Fairness of the treaty of Sevres

-Payment of reparations was a European phenomenon.

-She had been part of the losing side.

-It was fair as it resulted in the opening of the straits.

-Non-Turkish territories were made independent.

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-Turkey had aided Germany during the war.

-Turks were outraged by this treaty. The treaty of Sevres was never ratified and in 1923 it was replaced
by the treaty of Lausanne. The treaty of Sevres became a dead letter when a nationalist revolution led by
Mustapha Kemal broke out against Turkey and received military assistance from Soviet Union. Turkey
declared war on the Greeks and drove them out of Smyrna (Anatolia). The allies made a new treaty of
Lausanne.

THE TREATY OF LAUSANNE (1923)

-It was signed by Turkey and the allied powers. It was a revision of the treaty of Sevres.

Terms of the treaty of Lausanne

-Turkey recovered Anatolia / Smyrna from Greece.

-Eastern Thrace was returned to Turkey.

-The Straits and the Greco-Turkish frontiers were demilitarized.

Italy kept Dodecanese Islands.

-Britain’s possession of Cyprus was confirmed.

-Rhodes Islands were given to Italy.

-Turkey was to pay reparation to the allies.

-Her army was reduced.

Countries which Italy wanted at Paris Peace Conference in 1919

-South-Tyrol -Trentino

-Istria -Dalmatia

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-Trieste -Fiume

-Adalia -Rhodes

-Albania

Weaknesses of the peace treaties signed after world war one

-The treaties were just imposed / dictated upon countries.

-The treaties created a group of discontented revisionist like Hitler and Mussolini.

-Russia took no part at Paris peace settlement so it was not bound by it.

-The treaties created many weak unstable governments.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

-The League of Nations was formed to fulfill Woodrow Wilson’s 14 th point which was concerned with the
formation of a general association of nations. It was aimed at promoting international peace and
prevention of war.

-It was set up in 1920, in Geneva, in Switzerland. Geneva was the headquarters of the League of Nations.

-However, it was never a universal organization and it failed to maintain peace in Europe since it had no
army to enforce resolutions.

AIMS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

 To maintain peace and security in the world/to prevent war.

 To protect member states from aggression. –To prevent a situation where one member attacks
another member.
 To promote disarmament / reduction of weapons and armies to a minimum level.
 To prevent secret diplomacy and secret treaties / promote open diplomacy.

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  To promote the welfare of human kind in the world
 To promote health or fight diseases e.g. malaria, cholera, TB, measles, leprosy, and influenza.
 To supervise the administration of the mandates.
 To assist poor (needy) countries economically / financially.
 To control the trade in dangerous drugs e.g. cocaine, opium and mandrax.
 To promote the rights of minority groups
 To promote the rights of fishermen.
 To fight slavery and abuse of women.
 To promote education and scientific research.
 To prevent overfishing.

Leaders involved in the formation of the League of Nations.

 Woodrow Wilson of USA.

 David Lloyd George of Britain
 Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando of Italy
 Jan Smuts of South Africa.
 Ikhali of Japan
 Venizolos of Greece
 Lord Grey of Britain

Members of the League of Nations

 Britain -Greece
 France -Belgium
 Italy -Brazil
 Japan -South Africa
 China -Switzerland
 Denmark -Costa Rica
 Holland -Spain
 Ethiopia -Canada
 Serbia -Australia
 Russia -Germany

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Members of the League of Nations to 1934

 Britain -France
 Italy -Japan
 Holland -Belgium
 China -Spain
 Ethiopia -Brazil
 South Africa -Greece

Permanent members of the Council of Nations

 Britain
 Italy
 France
 Japan

-Britain, France, Italy and Japan were permanent members and all other states were temporary members.

-The fact that the USA never joined the League yet it was her brain child demoralized other countries.

-Germany was admitted in 1926 but she left in 1933 when her rearmament was criticized.

-Russia was admitted in 1934 but expelled in 1939 after she attacked Finland.

-Japan, having been found guilty for aggression against China walked out of the League in 1933.

-The fact that Germany. Russia and Japan were never full members meant that there was little chance for
peace in Europe since these powers could do as they pleased.

-Only Britain and France were members throughout its existence.

The organs of the League of Nations

Main Organs

 The Assembly or General Assembly

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  The Council
 The Secretariat
 The International Court of Justice (I.C.J.)
 The International Labour Organisation (I.L.O.)

1. The General Assembly

-It was the main body of the League of Nations in which all states had representatives.

-In 1920 it had 42 members. In 1924 it had 55 members.

-It was the League’s debating Chamber.

-It met once a year.

-Each member had one vote.

-Each member had equal representation (3 delegates from each).

-All nations in this body were working on basis of equality.

-It discussed any matters relating to the peace or welfare of the world and decided on appropriate course
of action.

-All decisions had to be unanimous.

-It prepared the League budget.

-It elected non permanent members of the Council.

-It admitted new members and expelled members.

-It was the League’s parliament.

-It elected the Secretary General.

-It proposed revision of peace treaties.

Successes of the General Assembly in carrying out the work of the League of Nations

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Successes

-It was successful in preparing the League budget.

-It admitted new members into the League e.g. Germany in 1926 and Russia in 1934.

-It succeeded in appointing the Secretary General.

-It debated issues concerning the world peace.

Failures

-Since it met once a year, it failed to debate matters fully thus referring issues to the Council.

-It failed to stop the withdrawal of members from the League, for example Germany, Italy and Japan.

-It failed to stop Germany from withdrawing from the Disarmament Conference organized by the League.

2. The Council

-It was the smaller body of four permanent members which became 5 after the admission of Germany in
1926.

-The permanent members included Britain, France, Italy, Japan and Germany. Russia joined the League
in 1934 and became a permanent member to 1939.

-It also had non-permanent members, raised to 6 in 1926, T0 9 IN 1929 AND 11 IN 1936.

-Each of the permanent members of the council had a veto. This meant one permanent member can stop
the council from acting even if all other members agreed.

-It met more often, at least 3 times a year or whenever it was necessary.

-Decisions were to be unanimous just like in the Assembly to prevent great powers from imposing their
will on smaller states.

-It dealt with problems when the Assembly was not in session.

-It organized sanctions against aggressors.

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-It raised peace keeping forces.

-It mediated between conflicting members.

-It enforced decisions of the Assembly.

How successful was the Council in maintaining peace up to 1939?

Successes

-It solved the problem of Vilna.

-It settled the dispute between Greece and Bulgaria.

-It settled a dispute between Peru and Columbia.

-It settled disputes between Turkey and Iraq.

-It settled a dispute between Sweden and Finland.

-It settled a dispute between Germany and Poland.

-It settled a dispute between Serbia and Albania.

Failures

-It failed to stop Japanese invasion of Manchuria.

-It failed to stop Hitler’s acts of aggression, that is, over Austria, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and
Poland.

-It failed to stop Italian invasion Abyssinia (Ethiopia).

-It failed to prevent the outbreak of another world war (World War 2).

3. The Secretariat

-The League was serviced by a permanent Secretariat that worked as League’s headquarters in Geneva, in
Switzerland.

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-It was a sort of a civil service. It was made up of civil servants from member states.

-It dispatched information or reports to members states.

-It was a permanent body of officials drawn from all member states and headed by a Secretary General.

-The first Secretary General was from Britain. He was called Sir Eric Drummond.

-It implemented the decisions from the council.

-It did most of the work of the League.

-It looked after all administrative functions.

-It wrote down resolutions of the League.

-It prepared reports for the Council and Assembly.

-It kept records of League meetings and debates.

-It wrote down minutes during meetings.

-It carried out day to day activities of the League.

-It prepared the League agendas.

--It had specialist sections covering areas such as health, disarmament and economic matters.

-It translated languages (it organized translators)

-It collected information.

International Court of Justice

-It was established in 1921 with its headquarter at Hague in Netherlands.

-It consisted of 15 judges from different countries, who were experts in international law.

-Each representative held office for 9 years.

-It was mandated to deal with legal disputes among states only referred to it e.g. frontier disputes and
fishing rights.

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-The judges were appointed by the council and assembly.

-It dealt with cases referred to it.

-It had no way of making sure countries follow its rulings.

-It advised the Assembly and country if asked.

-In practice only 32 cases were heard in 22 years as governments were not willing to have judgments
against them.

5. International Labour Organisation (ILO)

-This body came into being in 1919.

-It distributed information on working conditions.

-Its aim was to improve working conditions of people throughout the world.

-It collected statistics and information about working conditions and it tried to persuade member countries
to adopt its suggestions.

-Each member was to send 4 representatives to its Annual Conference (2 from government, 1 employer
and 1 worker)

-Its purpose was to deal with workers’ plight, for example, living conditions, working hours and
compensation.

-It regulated working hours.

-It dealt with industrial and economic problems of the workers of the world.

-Its major task was to frame and apply international rules that governed conditions of labour.

-It was concerned with such issues as child labour, women and labour and rights of agricultural labourers.

-It discussed wages and work in different parts of the world.

-Where the conditions were bad the ILO urged the nations concerned to pass laws to improve them but
could apply no pressure if the government concerned refused.

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-It was to create international labour standards.

-It also aimed at enhancing employment opportunities for workers.

-It discouraged forced labour and monitored the situation.

-It helped to bring cooperation between employers and employees.

PART C QUESTION

To what extent did the ILO succeed in achieving its aims? / How successful was the ILO in improving the
working conditions amoung member states?

Successes

-It was successful in bringing about cooperation between workers and employers across frontiers.

-It created 8 hour working day. Some countries adopted the 8 hour working day and 48 hours per week.

-Child labour was reduced in some parts of the world.

-Some governments passed laws that protected workers.

-International standards of work were introduced.

-It investigated and published its findings.

-Gender equality at the work place was promoted.

-It helped in crafting safety laws at work place.

-It called for the introduction of minimum wages.

-Most member countries increased wages of workers.

Failures

-Use of child labour continued in some countries.

-Wages continued to be low for most workers.

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-Long working hours continued.

-No gender equality between men and women.

-Poor safety at work.

-The ILO had no power to enforce decisions – it was toothless.

Commissions / Subsidiary Organs / Committees / Agencies of the League of Nations

-Mandates Commission

-Minorities Commission

-Drugs Commission

-Refugees Commission

-Disarmaments Commission

-Health Commission

-Women Rights Commission

-Slavery Commission

-Military Affairs Commission

-Transport and Communication Commission

-Labour Commission

-Reparations Commission

- Economic and finance Commission

-Food Commission.

To what extent did the structure of the League of Nations contribute to its failure to maintain world
peace?

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-It had limited funds as there was no provision for this in the constitution of the League.

-The Assembly met only once a year and this was not sufficient to deal with problems.

-The League had no army to enforce its decisions.

-The League was closed tied with hated treaties like the Versailles and it was viewed as the Victors’ club.

-The unanimity clause meant that each member had a veto over any decisions.

-It also depended too much on goodwill and good faith of its members.

Other factors which contributed to its failure

-The rise of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini.

-Failure of disarmament

-Disagreements between France and Britain.

-Absence of USA, which was one of the League’s key architects.

-The withdrawal of some powers such as Germany, Italy and Japan.

-The policy of appeasement.

SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (1920-1939)

 The ILO debated workers’ conditions such as wages, work hours, pensions, child labour, gender,
equality, safety.
 The Health Committee set up a health service which did valuable work during the disease
epidemics after WW1 in the control of Malaria and Influenza.
 It gave financial assistance to poor counties e.g. Greece and Austria.
 The Refugees committee gave assistance to Prisoners of War (POW) and Refugees. It assisted
refugees in Russia with famine relief e.g. food, shelter, medicine.
 Treaties were signed to protect the rights of minority groups. These rights included the right to
practice their own language. It also provided passports to stateless people.

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  The Drugs committee established control in drugs trade like opium and other dangerous drugs.
 The League worked hard to remove all forms of slavery.
 The Disarmament committee organized conferences.

The Drugs committee:

i. It reduced smuggling of drugs.

ii. It gave education to the people about the dangers of drug abuse.

iii. Persuaded governments to tighten customs and postal control.

 The League resolved conflicts in the 1920s so it was successful:

-It resolved conflict between Germany and Poland

-It resolved the conflict between Sweden and Finland

-Solved the dispute between Iraq and Turkey.

-Solved the dispute between Greece and Bulgaria

-Solved the dispute between Columbia and Peru

-Solved the dispute between Paraguay and Bolivia.

-Solved the dispute between Albania and Yugoslavia

-Solved the dispute between Hungary and Czechoslovakia.

FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

 In 1920 it failed to stop the Russia- Polish war.

 In 1920 it failed to stop the Polish – Lithuanian conflict (Vilna dispute).
 In 1923 it failed to take decisive action against Greece seizures on the island of Corfu.
 It failed to stop Lithuania annexation of Memel in 1923.
 In 1931 it failed to stop the Japanese seizure of Chinese province of Manchuria.
 In 1934 it failed to stop Hitler from withdrawing from the L. O. N.

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  In 1935 it failed to stop the Italian invasion of Abyssinia/ Ethiopia.
 It failed to prevent the outbreak of WW2 in 1939.
 It failed to stop the aggression of the dictators.
 It failed to disarm the victorious powers
 It failed to raise a standing army to enforce decisions hence it was powerless against aggression
of powerful states e.g. Germany, Japan and Italy.
 It failed to keep all greater powers in the L. O. N e.g. USA, Germany, Russia.

Reasons for the failure of the League of Nations

 It was a club of victors

 Lack of army
 The use of sanctions
 Association with the Versailles treaties and other past war treaties.
 Absence of great powers
 The policy of appeasement
 The use of an unanimous vote
 Selfishness
 One nation one vote
 It was a League of European nations
 Favouratism
 Failure of disarmament
 The great depression
 The signing of agreements outside the League.

Weaknesses of the League of Nations / Problems faced by the League of Nations in

maintaining world peace up to 1939
 -It lacked a standing army to enforce its decisions.
 -The sanctions were not effective and were difficult to enforce.
-It had membership problem, for instance,
a] USA [a major power] never joined the League.
b] Russia was not a member until 1934 and left in 1939.
c] Germany joined in 1926 but left in 1933.
d] Italy and Japan left the League the moment it criticized their actions in 1935.

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e] Britain and France were the only great powers which remained members continuously
throughout the 20 years [from 1920 to 1939].
 -The members signed treaties outside the League, for example, Anglo-German Naval
treaty [1935] and Stressa Front.
 -The League was associated with hated treaties like Versailles. Defeated powers felt the
League was an instrument to oppress them.
 -The Great Depression of 1929-1939 hindered its work.>>
 -The League was dominated by European powers. Its policy was mainly determined by
Britain and France though countries across the world belonged to it.
 -The League Assembly did not have enough time to resolve conflicts which piled because
it met once per year.
 -There was lack of cooperation among members, for instance, Britain and France
followed the policy of appeasement.
 -The acts of aggression committed by Germany, Italy and Japan made the League to fail
to maintain peace.>>
 -The members were mainly interested in pursuing their own national interests and were
not committed to the League. Most countries were concerned with events affecting them,
for example, no country was prepared to impose sanctions on Japan because they felt
such sanctions would destroy their economies. Also half hearted sanctions were imposed
on Italy because some countries like Britain wanted to benefit.
 -There was favouritism, for example, Poland and Greece received much favour during the
1920s.
 -The League attempt at general disarmament failed.
 -The League was viewed as a club of victors. Its work was biased towards the interests of
the victorious powers and their allies. The defeated powers were obliged not to respect it.
 -There was also the problem of the Anglo-French differences on the role of the League.
Britain did not want to give the League real authority and power while France wanted it
to enforce the terms of the peace treaties.
 -The League had limited financial resources.
 -The rise of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini hampered its work. They were determined
to reverse the peace treaties>> .
 -Italy did not support the League fully because it did not gain much from the peace
settlement.
 -The constitutional defects of the League hampered its work. For instance,
a] The League Assembly met once a year.
b] Veto power made it impossible to make decisions.
c] Many countries disagreed with the constitution of the League which
gave every state one vote only. Thus China with 500 million people carried
the same weight with Latvia with 2 million people. Britain with its great
industrial power had the same vote with Ethiopia.

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d] The need for unanimity on all Council and Assembly decisions made the League inefficient in
implementing decisions. It was impossible for all members to agree on the same issue.

DISPUTES DEALT WITH BY THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

1. The Invasion of Corfu by Mussolini (1923)

-There occurred a border dispute between Greece and Albania, as a result an international commission
was sent to settle the Greece-Albanian boundary problem.

-During the course of its work an Italian general Tellin and four of his staff were ambushed and shot dead
while mapping the Greek-Albanian frontier on behalf of the Conference of Ambassadors.

-They were killed by unknown Greek assailants.

-Mussolini resorted to revenge this insult.

-He immediately issued an ultimatum to Greece demanding apology and a salute to the Italian flag, an
inquiry by Greece with the assistance of an Italian official and the payment of a large reparation.

-Greece refused to accept the demand or the terms of the ultimatum, denouncing them as outrageous and
violating the sovereignty of Greece.

-Mussolini who had been the Italian dictator for less than a year saw an opportunity to obtain glory and
triumph of a Fascist regime.

-Mussolini in turn ordered an Italian Naval squadron to the Greek Island of Corfu to bombard the harbor.

-This was a direct contravention of the League of Nations and the Paris Peace Settlement.

-15 civilians were killed and many were wounded.

- The Italians Marines landed and took possessions of the port (Corfu).

-Greece appealed to the league for help.

-The League failed to take decisive action against Mussolini’s seizure of Corfu.

-It could do nothing because Italy was major Power.

-the league left the issue to the Conference of Ambassadors which persuaded the Greeks to apologize and
pay the 50 million Lira, which Mussolini demanded within a month.

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-the amount was paid and Italian forces withdrew from Corfu.

Question: How successful was the League of Nations in dealing with the Corfu incident?

Successes

1. Commission of inquiry was ordered to investigate the incident.

2. Greece was ordered to pay 50 Million Lira by the Council of Ambassadors and it paid the amount
which the Italian forces to withdraw from Corfu.

Failures

1. Confronted by this incidents, the league turned to the Council of Ambassadors, a non League body.

2. The Commission presented its report without having discovered who was guilty of the murder.

3. War was averted but many members were indignant over the handling of the whole incident, because
some felt that the league had allowed Italy to defy the body. Others felt the evidence obtained by the
commission or council did not warranty imposition.

4. The League took too long to solve the incident.

5. The commission included an Italian (it was unfair).

2. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931)

-in 1931 Japan invaded and annexed the Chinese province of Manchuria.

-The economic hardship of Japan had caused this invasion.

-This resulted from the tough tariffs which were imposed by China and USA against Japan.

-This economic crisis was caused by the closure of the US markets.

-Japan army leaders recommended the attack on Manchuria as the solution to obtain wealth from her.

-The Japanese army controlled the south Manchurian railway which was sabotaged by the Chinese as
claimed by Japan

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-In retaliation/revenge Japan invaded Manchuria, annexed it and established a puppet government and
renamed it Manchukuo.

-This invasion was a direct contravention of the League of Nations.

-China appealed to the League of Nations for help.

-Japan claimed it was not invading as an aggressor but it was simply settling a local dispute.

-The committee sent by the League reported that Japan was the aggressor.

-The League condemned the invasion and ordered Japan to withdraw but it refused to withdraw from the
Chinese province.

-The League then sent a Commission under Lord Lytton to investigate the affair.

-The Commission suggested that Manchuria be governed by the League.

-Japan disagreed with this verdict and later left the League (1935).

-Hence the League failed to effectively deal with Japan.

QUESTION: Was the League successful in settling this dispute?

Successes

-The League accused Japan as the aggressor.

-The League condemned the invasion.

-It ordered Japan to withdraw from Manchuria.

Failures

-Japan refused to withdraw from China.

-The League failed to remove Japan from China.

-Japan refused to accept the decision by the Lytton Commission that Manchuria be governed by the
League.

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-Japan later withdrew from the League.

3. The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia / Ethiopia (1935)

-In October 1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia.

-Ethiopia was also a member of the League of Nations just like Italy.

-Mussolini invaded Ethiopia for various reasons.

-Mussolini thought that Abyssinia was rich in raw materials and would become a market for Italian
goods.

-Mussolini also wanted to avenge the defeat of Italy in 1896 at the battle of Adowa by Ethiopians.

-Mussolini also wanted to settle surplus Italian population.

-Mussolini also wanted to demonstrate that he was the true Caesar.

-Mussolini also wanted to cover up for the previous humiliations and failures and to enhance Italian
image and prestige.

-In 1935, Italy demanded compensation from Abyssinia after a frontier on the border between Abyssinia
and Somaliland.

-Abyssinia president Haile Selasie appealed to the league for league for help.

-Mussolini poured in Italian Somaliland and Eritrea preparing to invade Ethiopia.

-In October 1935 Mussolini attacked Abyssinia.

-Haile Selasie was removed from power and fled to Britain.

-The league condemned Italy as the aggressor and asked Mussolini to withdraw troops from Abyssinia.

-Mussolini refused to withdraw troops from Ethiopia.

-Instead, Mussolini withdrew Italy from the League of Nations.

-The league ordered member states to impose sanctions on Italy.

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-The sanctions were meant to starve Italy of necessities.

-However Britain and France imposed half hearted sanctions on Italy.

-The sanctions were ineffective as they excluded vital resources such as coal, oil and steel, the very
resources Mussolini needed most [For war].

-Romania and other oil producing countries were ready to impose sanctions but this was in vain.

-USA and Germany continued to trade with Italy as usual. They were outside the League.

-In May 1936 Italy completed her conquest.

-The league withdrew sanctions and failed to stop Mussolini.

Was the league successful in handling this dispute?

1. The league accused Italy as the aggressor.

2. It asked Mussolini to withdraw from Ethiopia.

3. Mussolini refused to withdraw his troops from Ethiopia.

4. The league asked members to impose sanctions on Italy.

5. The sanctions were half hearted.

6. USA and Germany who were not member states of the League of Nations continued to trade with Italy
again pointing a failure.

FASCISM IN ITALY

Fascism is an extreme form of nationalism which found expression in Italy.

Background of Italy

-In the beginning of the 20th century Italy was industrially backward. She had few resources of coal and
iron.

-The South of Italy was very primitive and poor.

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-As a result in 1914 Italy joined the Allied powers because she wanted territorial gains. In Africa she had
acquired Libya, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland and had gained nothing in Asia yet she always looked up
to the great days of Julias Caesar’s Roman Empire.

-Italy was hungry for territory and greatness once again as promised by the Allies in 1950.

-However the war proved disastrous for Italy e.g. Isonzo battle although she emerged on the winning side
Italy experienced great challenges.

-Territories Italy was promised included: Istria, Dodecanese, South Tyrol, Trentino, Fiume and Trieste.

Problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922

Although Italy emerged on the winning side of the First World War, she experienced serious economic,
social, social and political problems between 1919 and 1922.

Economic problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922

-there was low industrial production in Italy.

-Low agricultural production.

-Unemployment especially in the industrial North.

-A huge war debt.

-inflation, for example, a loaf of bread which cost 120 Lira before the war by 1919 was costing 600 Lira.

-Strikes were rampant.

-There was lack of capital.

-There was shortage of food.

-Lack of raw materials.

-Closure of banks.

-Decline in trade.

-There were lockouts of work by employees.

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-High taxation.

-Use of outdated machinery.

Social problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922.

-A lot of corruption in some place.

-Hunger.

-Poverty.

-Domestic violence was the order of the day

-Standards of living were low.

-Less advanced education [78% illiteracy].

-Strikes were rampant

-The south was primitive and poor.

-increase in crime rates

-Brigandage or lawlessness.

-Prostitution became the order of the day.

-Critical shortages of food.

-Demonstrations were rampant.

-Diseases

-There was no security in industries.

Political problems faced by Italy between 1919 and 1922

-The Italians were disappointed with the Paris Peace Settlement. This is because Italy had not been given
some promised territories like Albania, Fiume and Aegean island.

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-Weak governments were unpopular

-Political violence [Fascists frequently attacked socialists / communists].

-Too many political parties.

-Unstable coalition governments.

-Strikes and demonstrations were rampant.

-Clash between the church and the state.

-Inefficient and corrupt civil service.

-Fear of communism / communist’s threat.

*All these problems led to the rise of Mussolini to power.

Question: To what extent did the political problems contribute in the rise of Mussolini to power in
1922?

-Mussolini took advantage of political problems to win support.

-There was a running quarrel between the government and the pope.

-There were too many political parties which led to the formation of weak and unstable coalition
governments.

-The politicians and governments were not interested in solving the problems in Italy.

- Weakness of the government made it to fail to deal with the violence caused by the Fascists and
communists.

-Fear of Communism made the government to rely on the Black shirts [Fascists] to suppress communists
thus giving Mussolini popularity.

-Danger of a civil was forced the King to invite Mussolini to become Prime Minister.

Other factors which led to the rise of Mussolini

-Inflation which affected the middle class and workers whose savings were wiped out.

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-Unemployment which swept the whole country.

-Mussolini’s ability to use propaganda

-Poverty

-Hunger

-Strikes

-Food shortages

-War debts

Political parties in Italy

1. Fascist Party [Black shirts]

2. Populari party [Catholic party]

3. Socialist party [Red guards]

4. Communist Party [Red shirts]

5. Liberal party [Grey shirts]

6. Republican Party

7. Nationalist party [Blue shirts]

Italian leaders before Mussolini

1. Vittorio Emmanuel Orlando [October 1917 to June 1919]

2. Francisco Nitti [June 1919 to June 1920]

3. Giovanni Giolliti – [June 1920 to July 1921]

4. Ivanoe Bonomi – [July 1921 to February 1922]

5. Luigi Facta – [February 1922 to October 1922]

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Factors which led to the rise of Mussolini

-Fear of communism led to the rise of Mussolini. The industrialists and owners feared communism and
began to support Mussolini who was also against communism. They feared that if the communists seize
power, their property will be nationalized. So they supported Mussolini for protection. The Catholics
were prepared to support Mussolini who was a strong hand to fight the communists. Fear of communism
made the government to rely on black shirts (Fascists) to suppress communism thus giving Mussolini
popularity.

-Propaganda made Mussolini to rise to power. He used propaganda to appeal to all discounted groups. He
knew propaganda to appeal to all discounted groups. He knew the demands of all sections in Italy and
used propaganda to win them. He deliberately distorted information to discredit the government and other
political parties.

-Oratory led to Mussolini’s rise to power. His oratory convinced many people in Italy. He promised a
strong Government, to unite the church and the state, law and order, adoption on adventurous foreign
policy that would make Italy respected and feared. His oratory attracted more people.

-Failure of socialists and communist parties [which were anti Fascist] to unite against the Fascists enabled
Mussolini to rise to power. [

-Mussolini’s violent sermons against the government received much sympathy

-Use of intimidations led to his rise of power.

-Mussolini made conciliatory speeches about the Roman Catholics.

-Personal abilities of Mussolini led to his rise.

-The danger of a civil war made the king to invite Mussolini to become Prime Minister in 1922.

-Use of attractive parades.

-A general atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration

-weak economy

-Unemployment

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-Inflation

-Poverty

-Hunger

-Disease

-Social unrest

-Food shortages

-War debts

Stages in the rise of Mussolini to power / Stages taken by Mussolini in his rise to power up to 1922

 Mussolini’s rise to power was facilitated by various social, economic and political factors.
 These included a weak government, a general atmosphere of disillusionment and frustration, a
weak economy and so on.
 In 1919 Mussolini launched an organization that was to become the Fascist party within the next
two years.
 Thus he formed the Fascist party in 1921. He used the unemployed thugs, ex-soldiers to create an
army (Blackshirts).
 The Fascist party members wore black shirts.
 They were named after their uniforms.
 The Fascist Party was aggressive and believed in action.
 As leader of the Fascist Party, Mussolini initially participated in the election of May 1921.
 They won 35 out of 535 seats
 Eventually felt that parliamentary methods were ineffective against the threat of socialism.
 He embarked on the use of force. In other words his party adopted a policy of violence.
 Meetings of socialists and communists were attacked by the Fascists.
 Workers movement was broken by the Fascist, wealthy industrialists and land owners supported
Mussolini. The banks alone gave him 1,5 million pounds.
 His private army (Blackshirts) went around beating and intimidating opponents, at times forcing
them to eat live toads and drink castor oil.
 Sometimes they beat them with rubber hoses.
 Occasionally they murdered their opponents in public.
 He also adjusted his propaganda to appeal to all discontented groups.

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  He got support from every direction, from the rich and poor, monarchists and socialists, liberal
idealists and thugs, anti-clericals and priests.
 A general strike in the summer of 1922 gave the Fascist the opportunity to restore order.
 The government had been unable to prevent the strike.
 As the government was too weak to deal with the strike, the illegal actions of the Fascist won
them popular support.
 Landlords and industrialists sympathized with the movement which stood for strike breaking,
lower wages and hostility to communism.
 Eventually Mussolini was brought to power by the March on Rome in October 1922.
March on Rome (October 1922)

 In October 1922 Mussolini demanded representation in the government. The government refused
to accept this demand.
 This refusal was one factor which determined Mussolini to make a show of force.
 Mussolini had demanded that the country should be given a strong government capable of
restoring order.
 On 28 October 1922, the Fascist staged the famous March on Rome from various parts of the
country.
 This posed a serious dilemma for the king Victor Emmanuel 111, the Italian army and the police.
 The government appeared powerless to take action against Mussolini.
 Neither the royal family nor the army and the police took any effective action to prevent the entry
of the Fascist column into Rome.
 Thus Mussolini met little resistance if any.
 On 29 October 1922 , the king, Victor Emmanuel 111 asked Mussolini to form a government
with other ant-socialist groups.
 A coalition government was formed and Mussolini took the post of Prime Minister, Foreign
Minister and Minister of Home Affairs (Interior) at the same time.

The Reason Why the March to Rome Was Successful.

i. The king feared civil war.

ii. He doubted Facta’s ability to crush the Blackshirts.

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iii. The king doubted whether the army would agree to fight the Blackshirts. The Blackshirts were mostly
ex-soldiers.

iv. One of his cousins, the Duke of Aosta was a fanatic Fascism.

v. He wanted a strong government. He was interested in discipline, law and order.

vi. The queen mother was a supporter of Mussolini.

vii. The rich and powerful members in Italy supported Mussolini e.g. landlords, factory owners, the
Nationalists.

viii. The Fascists were anti – Communist.

MUSSOLINI’S DOMESTIC POLICIES (1922-1939)

a. Mussolini’s domestic aim

-He wanted self sufficiency (autarky)

-To maintain law and order.

-To crush Communism

-To create a one party state

-To create employment

-To re-arm

-To restore the pride and greatness of the Italian race.

-To be feared and to be respected.

b. Domestic Policy

 According to the Arcebo laws introduced in 1923, the majority party would two thirds of the seats
in the Parliament. In 1924 the Fascist won the majority vote and could pass any bill in parliament.
Mussolini and his Fascist party used corruption and violence.

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  Mussolini was able to CONSOLIDATE his power between 1922 and 1929.
 He gave himself the title “II Duce” which means the leader.
 Slogans were used they were called the 10 commandments e.g.;
 Mussolini is always right
 Obey! Believe! Fight!
 A minute in battle is equal to life of peace
 Nothing in history has been won without bloodshed
 Mussolini controlled the important government positions/ posts:
 President
 Prime Minister
 Commander of the army, navy, air force
 Minister of home affairs.
 Minister of foreign affairs
 Minister of corporations
 Chairman of the Fascist Grand Council.
 Other parties were banned. Italy became a one party state.
 He ruled by decree (command) starting 1926.
 Elections were banned in 1928 and chosen and members of parliament were to be chosen by the
Fascist Grand Council which was headed by Mussolini.
 Violence e.g. torture and murder.
 He appointed loyal members only and Fascist were appointed into town councils.
 Mussolini appointed and dismissed ministers and mayors
 He created a secret police called OVRA in 1927
 It caused fear because it was the eyes of the Fascist party
 Opponents were arrested and jailed. The anti- Fascist were arrested on Mussolini’s orders and
sent in exile on the Lipari Islands in the Mediterranean.
 The media was controlled. The control of media is called censorship.
 Examples of the media the instruments controlled by Mussolini;
 Radios.
 Television.
 Newspapers.
 Magazines.
 Posters.
 Theatre.

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  Films
 Education was strictly controlled. Teachers were forced to wear uniforms. The textbooks of
history were re-written to praise war and the Italian race. Biology textbooks were re-written to
show that the Italian race was superior. Teachers, lecturers and professors were closely watched.
They had to take an oath to show loyalty to Mussolini. Students reported their teachers and
parents to the party.
 Workers lost their rights. Strikes, demonstrations and lockouts were banned.
 Trade unions (workers unions were banned).
 Workers unions were replaced by Corporations controlled by the Fascists party.
 Mussolini controlled the industrialists. They were told what to produce, quantity and time.
 Workers were given free Sundays, cheap tours, paid annual leave, pensions, insurance etc.
 Mussolini fixed rents, prices, wages and exchange rates to control inflation. This was called
“battle of Lira.”The exchange rate was fixed at 1 pound to 90 Lira.
 He began the “battle of birth” to increase the population. He wanted to increase manpower and
the army. Mothers with many children were given awards/medals. He introduced competitions
like mother of the year. Bachelors were heavily taxed Newlyweds were given loans. Divorce was
banned he controlled prostitution by introducing heavy fines and controlled night life. Abortion
and contraceptives were banned. Infection by syphilis was heavily punished.
 Youth were forced to the Fascist Youth Organization. They were taught to praise Mussolini, to
follow orders and the importance of war, discipline and slogans
 Religion was controlled. Mussolini signed the LATERAN treaty with Pope. This ended the
conflict between the church and the state. It was signed between Pope Pius X1 and Mussolini.

THE TERMS OF THE LATERAN TREATY

 Catholicism became the religion of the state.

 The Pope was given the right to rule the Vatican City.
 The state paid compensation to the Church.
 Church land was returned.
 Taxes on the church were stopped.
 Religious Education was to be taught in all schools. Teaching R.E. was made compulsory.
 The crucifix was to be hanged in all classrooms and schools.
 Measures were taken to make divorce difficult.
 Catholics were free to operate e.g. Catholics Scouts.
 The Church recognized Mussolini’s rule.

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  The Lateran treaty improved Mussolini’s reputation and status in Italy.
 He got support from the Pope and the Catholics.
 It ended the long standing conflict between the church and the state.
 Many historians see the Lateran Treaty as Mussolini’s most lasting and important achievement.
 Mussolini got support by reducing unemployment. Ex-soldiers and youth got jobs in the army, navy
and air force.
 Great public work programmers were introduced to create jobs and improve infrastructure.
 Roads were widened. Bridges were constructed.
 He treated the motorways (Highways which connected main towns).
 Railway lines were electrified. The trains began to run on time.
 Buildings of flats, schools, hospitals, stadiums, canals, dams.

Mussolini introduced the “battle of wheat.”

 The aim was to make Italy self-sufficient

 The marshes were cleared to create more land e.g. the Pontine Marshes near Rome.
 Wheat farmers were given loans and inputs by the government. Inputs included: seeds, fertilizers,
tractors and pesticides.
 Irrigation was promoted.
 Olive plantations were cleared to create land for wheat.
 Wheat production doubled.
 It also reduced imports of wheat.

 Mussolini promoted heavy industries with subsidies e.g. iron, steel, car manufacturing and weapons.
He gave loan to the FIAT Company which manufactured cars. He introduced a program to refine oil
at Bari and leghorn.
 He expanded iron and steel industry.
 He expanded the textile industries.
 Expansion of the aviation industries.
 HEP stations were built to produce more electricity.
 Mussolini controlled sports. He encouraged Italians to win to show that Fascism was superior.
 Soccer was strictly controlled.
 Boxing was sponsored by the state. News about Italian boxers was common in the radio, TV and
newspaper.

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 Tennis players were forced to wear Fascist badges and to give the Fascist salute.

Benefits of Mussolini’s Domestic Policy to the Italians

-There was employment from the rearmament and public works.

-He improved infrastructure.

-Trains began to run on time.

-He improved wheat production.

-Millions of trees were planted.

-Loans were given to heavy industries.

-He created law and order by banning other parties and strikes.

-Mussolini reduced the fear of Communism.

-Malaria was reduced by draining the marshes.

-Workers got free Sundays, cheap tours, paid annual leave.

-Italians got pride.

-He reduced inflation.

-prostitution and divorce was reduced.

-loans to newlywed couples

-Loans to newly married couples.

-Illiteracy was reduced.
-The gap between the rich North and the poor South was reduced.
-He solved the dispute between the Pope and the State.

Non- benefits (harm).

- The secret police caused fear.

- Other parties were banned (one party state) so they was no political freedom.

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 - Children were brainwashed to praise Mussolini.

- Teachers were forced to wear uniforms.

- Children reported teachers and parents.

- Opponents were arrested/jailed/killed.

- Workers lost rights e.g. strikes and workers unions were banned. Wages were fixed.

- The Battle of Births led to overpopulation.

- The Battle of Wheat caused Mussolini to ignore other sectors of agriculture like dairy farming.
Wheat began to be grown in unsuitable soils. Olive plantations were also cleared to create space
for wheat.

- Bachelors were heavily taxed.

- Factory owners lost the right to make their own decisions.

- Government promoted sports which showed physical strength only e.g. boxing and wrestling.

- Women’s status was reduced to domestic work, child bearing, and satisfaction of husbands.

- Corruption increased.

-Light industries were ignored.

Principles / Features of Fascism in Italy

- Extreme nationalism and patriotism
- Violence and use of the military action.
- One party state.
- Supremacy of the state.
- National Unity.
- Totalitarianism
- Extensive propaganda
- Abolition of elections
- Dictatorship
- Banning of trade unions
- Rule by decree [command]
- Militarism
- Corporate state

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- A strong economy
- Suspension of human rights
- Economic self-sufficiency
- Strict censorship
- Absence of democracy
- Elimination of all opponents
- Banning of strikes
- Anti-Semitism
- Anti-Communism
- Banning of opposition political parties
- National prestige
- Glorification of the leader
- Suppression of women rights

Aims of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy

-To make a name for himself and his country
-To pursue an adventurous foreign policy
-To put Italy on the world map
-To make Italy great, feared and respected
-To gain prestige
-To make up for the lost past opportunities on earlier decades
-To civilize Africa and gain raw materials
-To revive the greatness of the ancient Roman Empire
-To make up for the past humiliations
-To create an empire as in the time of the Caesars
-To make Italy a bulwark against Bolshevism in Europe
-To create enough living space for the Italians

-He wanted to obtain raw materials.

- To obtain markets for finished goods.

-To be feared and respected.

- To create an Italian Empire in the horn of Africa.

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- To reduce the problem of overpopulation in Italy.
- To obtain cheap labour.
- To crush Communism.
-To divert the attention of the public from domestic problems at home.
- To test weapons and gain experience for the arms.
- To spread Fascism in Europe.
-To get pride and greatness

MUSSOLINI’S FOREIGN POLICY

- In 1923 Mussolini invaded the island of Corfu.

- Mussolini recognized the union of Soviet Socialist Republic.
- In 1924 Mussolini came to an agreement with Yugoslavia by which Italy gained Fiume. Mussolini
also established friendly relations with Greece, Hungary and Albania.
- In 1925 Mussolini attended the Locarno conference and signed the Locarno pact with Britain, France,
Germany and Belgium. The conference guaranteed Germany’s frontiers with France and Belgium.
This treaty was meant to promote a spirit of corporation. It was Germany which initiated this.
Mussolini was disappointed because Italian frontier with Austria was not guaranteed.
- In 1928 Mussolini signed the Briand-Kellogg Pact. Italy signed this Pact renouncing the cause to war
as a way of settling international dispute.
- 1930 to 1933 Italy was involved in the disarmament commission and the eventual conferences.
- Mussolini attended the Disarmament Conference at Geneva. He agreed to the proposals of general
disarmament. However in 1934 Mussolini embarked on a massive rearmament program. In 1933
again Mussolini signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia
- In 1934 an ant-Nazi Austrian Chancellor was assassinated by suspected Austrian Nazi. Mussolini
immediately sent 2 divisions of the Italian army to prevent a possible Germany invasion of Austria.
- The army intercepted Germany forces at Brenner Pass. Hitler Immediately called off his attempt to
seize power in Austria and to unite the countries.
- In 1935 Mussolini invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Italy, Britain and France met at Stressa in Italy and
signed the Stressa front guaranteeing the Eastern French boarder against Germany aggression. They
agreed to ensure that Hitler would not bridge the terms of the Versailles treaty. Mussolini withdrew
from the League of Nations in 1935.

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- In 1936 Mussolini signed the Rome Berlin access with Hitler. Mussolini came closer to Hitler
because Hitler had refused to impose sanctions on Italy after she invaded Abyssinia. In the same year,
Mussolini entered into Spanish civil war on the side of Germany to assist General Franco against the
Spanish Republic government. Mussolini wanted to spread Fascism to Spain. Over 5 000 Italian
soldiers and Fascist volunteers fought on the Franco’s side. Mussolini’s excuse was that he wanted to
prevent
- Franco was anti-communist just like Italy and Germany.
- In 1937 Mussolini signed the anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Mussolini paid his first visit to
Germany and he was impressed by the strength and discipline of the nation. In the same year
Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis (Pact) with Germany (Hitler), Japan (Tojo) against
international communism. It was also a military alliance.
- In 1938 Mussolini and Hitler signed contracts and these made Italy not to resist Germany invasion of
Austria. Hitler made an official visit to Italy and was also impressed with Italian Naval displays. In
the same year Mussolini attended the Munich.
- In 1939 Mussolini invaded Albania and annexed it. He also signed the Pact of
-
-
- agreed to help each other in the event of war.

Benefits / Positive Effects of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy to the Germans

-Italian trade prospered and her credit stood high. In his early days Mussolini created friendly
relations with other countries like Britain, France and Germany by entering Locarno Pact.
-Italy’s prestige was strengthened at home after Corfu Incident.
-Italy became more secure by entering agreements with powerful countries like Japan and
Germany.
-Mussolini improved relations with Albania which became an Italian satellite in 1926.
-Mussolini reduced population pressure in Italy by settling some Italians in Abyssinia and
Albania.
-The Italians also began to sell their goods to Albania [market].
-There was creation of employment especially in the army.
-There were some territorial gains.
-Foreign policy in general brought prestige.

Non Benefits / Negative Effects

-Mussolini’s foreign policy created more enemies than friends.

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 -Mussolini tended to ignore domestic issues and concentrated on foreign affairs. For instance,
there was misallocation of resources in Italy.
-Many Italians lost their lives during battles
-Many children were orphaned.
-Many women became widows.

-Creation of an alliance with Germany and Japan led to the upset of balance of power and to
the breakdown of international peace.
-Mussolini plunged Italy into the Second World War [1939] unprepared and lost many
human lives.

To what extent was Mussolini’s Foreign Policy influenced by that of Hitler?

-Initially Mussolini’s foreign policy was determined by Italian interests and aims.
-The Corfu incident was designed to advance national greatness in foreign policy.
-The Fiume incident and Albanian invasion by Italy was aimed at showing Italian greatness and
to secure control over entry into the Adriatic.
-Invasion of Abyssinia and Albania was meant to fulfil colonial interests.
-Germany’s attempted Anschluss with Austria in 1934 was strongly opposed by Mussolini.

Other side
-After the Rome-Berlin Axis Mussolini became a protégé of Hitler.
-There was now mutual cooperation between the two countries [Italy and Germany] leading to
the signing of the following treaties---
-Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis [1937]
-Anti- Comintern Pact [1937]
-Pact of steel [1939]
-Also the two entered into the Spanish Civil War on the side of General Franco [1936].

Mussolini’s Fantasies

-After the Ethiopian war Mussolini cultivated a bizarre personality in Italy.

1. Peasants knelt for him in the fields.

2. Women held their children to him to bless them.

3. Cabinet ministers were expected to stand for hours in his presence.

4. Journalists proclaimed him as a “minor divinity”, an agent of God working in history and ruler of a
race destined to dominate for centuries.

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5. His mother was made a cultivation figure while his own birth place and the tombs of his parents were
made into shrines where visitors came to kneel in thanks giving.

DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY (1919 – 1939)

The Weimar Republic [1919-1933]

Germany after the First World War was called the Weimar Republic. It was also known as the
Second German Reich. A republic is a state completely governed by elected representatives. It is
also a nation ruled by a president and not by a king. The German Empire which was created by
Bismarck in 1871 and destroyed during the First World War in 1918 was known as the First
German Reich. Hitler’s Germany from 1933 to 1945 was known as the Third German Reich or
the Nazi Reich. A Reich is a German state.

Problems faced by the Weimar Republic [Germany] from 1919 to 1933

The Weimar Republic had serious problems from the beginning. These problems helped in
destroying it hence leading to the rise of Adolf Hitler to power.

Economic Problems faced by the Weimar Republic [Germany]

-Payment of reparations
-Hyper inflation. For instance, 1 billion marks bought a loaf of bread. In November 1923,US $1
was equivalent to 4200000000000 marks.
-Unemployment. This was largely due to the Great Depression [1929-1939].The population of
the unemployed rose from 2258000 in 1928 to 6000000 in 1932.
-Closure of factories.
-The Great Depression of 1929 to 1939 which further caused many problems like
unemployment, inflation and so on.
-Shortage of food
-Low agricultural production
-Low industrial production
-Strikes were the order of the day, for example, the 1920 General strike in Berlin.
-Bankruptcy especially due to payment of reparations
-War debts
-Shortage of raw materials
-Low wages and salaries

Social Problems of the Weimar Republic

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-Critical shortage of food -Low living standards
-Street fights -Burglary
-Brigandage / Lawlessness -Prostitution
-Demonstrations -Strikes and food riots
-Sit ins -Lockouts
-Unemployment -Starvation
-Hunger -High crime rates
-Diseases like tuberculosis -Theft
-Low wages -Domestic violence
-Homelessness

Political Problems of the Weimar Republic

-The Weimar government was unpopular
-Socialist or Communist violence. They wanted to seize power.
-Unstable coalition governments. From February 1919 to January 1933 the Germans were ruled
by 21 governments, each lasted an average of about 7 months.
-Imposed democracy [inexperienced in democracy]
-Attempted coups, for instance, the 1919 Spartacist revolt, the 1920 Kapp Putsch and the 1923
Munich Putsch.
-Political assassinations [1920 to 1922]. Victims of such assassinations included the Jewish
Foreign minister, Walter Rathenan and Gustav Erzberger.
-Nazi violence
-Disappointment with the treaty of Versailles
-Parliamentary paralysis
-Strikes and demonstrations
-Threat of Communism
*NB All these problems led to the collapse of Weimar Republic and to the rise of Hitler.

QN: To what extent did the Economic problems of the Weimar Republic lead to the
collapse of the Weimar Republic and to the rise of Hitler?
-Inflation made the middle class to lose confidence in the government and began to support
extremist parties like Nazi.
-Many of the unemployed joined the Nazi party which promised them jobs.
-The Great Depression caused people to turn to extremist parties like Nazi.
-Nazi and communist support increased during the time of the economic crisis.
-The Great Depression made the parliament to be unstable resulting in chancellors resigning, for
example, Von Papen and Von Schleicher.

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Other factors
-Hitler’s ability to use propaganda
-Oratory
-Nazi violence
-Parliamentary paralysis
-Fear of communism by industrialists
-Too many political parties

Political Parties in Germany between 1919 and 1933

-Social Democratic Party [Socialists]
-German Nationalist People’s Party [Nationalists]
-Catholic Centre Party [Catholics]
-Communist Party [Communists]
-Liberal Party [Liberals]
-Bavarian People’s Party
-Nazi Party

Chancellors of Germany from 1918 to 1933

-Henry Mueller (June 1928 – March 1930)
-Heinrich Bruning (Catholic Centre Party)(March 1930 – May 1932)
-Franz Von Papen (May 1932 – 2 Dec 1932)
-Von Schleicher (Dec 1932 – Jan 1933)
-Franz Von Papen [Nationalist]
-Adolf Hitler (Jan 1933 – August 1934)

Presidents of Germany from 1919 to 1945

-Fredrick Ebert (1919 – 1923)

-Gustav Stresemann (1923 – 1929)

-Von Hindenburg (1929 – 1934)

-Adolf Hitler (1934 – 1945)

PERIOD OF GUSTAV STRESSMANN 1923 – 1929

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- He tried to bring about recovery and aimed to improve working conditions
- In 1923 he told the workers in the Ruhr ti go back to work.
- HE accepted the Dawes Plan in 1924 and introduced a new German mark called the Reuten
mark to make the currency more stable.
- In 1925 Belgium and France left the Ruhr.
- In 1925 he agreed on the Locarno agreement where the western boarders of Germany were
agreed but not the eastern.
- Stresemann won the noble price for his efforts in this field.
- In 1926 Germany joined the League of Nations and became one of the five permanent
members of the league council.
- In 1928 German was one of the five nations to sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact in which they
agreed to settle disputes without violence.
- In 1929 the Dawes Plan was replaced by the Young Plan.
- Reparations were to be reduced by ¾ of the amount and German was given 59 years to pay
them.
- German’s capital Berlin became the center of culture.
- There were advances in anti-atchelota music and literature. Germany films were successful
e.g. metropolicy.

Attempts to overthrow the Weimar government between 1919 and 1923

a] The Spartacist Rising [1919]

-This was the first of all the attempts to overthrow the government.
-Rosa Luxemburg [Red Rosa] and Karl Liebknecht made an attempt to overthrow the
government.
-The uprising was centred in Berlin.
-It was inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution.
-They seized power in Berlin and major cities in Germany.
-The uprising was put down by only by the aid of the Freikorps [ex-soldiers].
-However both leaders [Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht were murdered before coming for
trial.

b] Bavarian Uprising [1919]

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-Communist Eisner also tried to seize power.
-He was also detected by the Freikorps.
-Eisner was murdered by political opponents.

c] The Kapp Putsch [1920]

-In March 1920 Wolfgang Kapp, a right winger attempted to seize power in Berlin [Revolt in
Berlin].
-He revolted when the government wished to disband the Freikorps.
-The army refused to take action.
-A general strike paralysed the capital but the government managed to gain control.

d] The Munich Putsch / Beer hall Putsch [8 November 1923]

-In 1923 Hitler attempted to overthrow the Weimar government through the abortive Munich
Putsch.
-He was aided by General Ludendorff [the old war hero].
-They aimed to take over the state of Bavaria and then march to Berlin to overthrow the
government.
-This Putsch [coup] took place at the peak of inflation.
-It was a failed attempt at revolution.
-The French and Belgians had occupied the Ruhr and this angered most Germans.
-In 1923 [September] both the Chancellor Gustav Stresemann and the President Ebert had called
for Germany’s passive resistance in the Ruhr.
-Hitler thought that it was now the time to topple the government of Bavaria in Munich [it was a
regional government].
-This was to be a prelude to the takeover of the national government in Berlin.
-Thus after the march on Munich, the Nazi were to embark on the march on Berlin in a similar
gesture to the march on Rome.
-Thus the Putsch was inspired by Mussolini’s successful march on Rome.
-However, the consequences were different from those in Italy.
-In November 1923, Hitler hijacked a local government meeting in Munich and announced that
he was going to take over the government of Bavaria.
-The Storm Troopers [SA] began to take over official buildings.
-On the next day the Weimar government police hit back.
-They surrounded the Nazi and killed 16 of them.
-These 16 Nazi people were regarded as the first blood martyrs and were remembered by Hitler
in the foreword of Mein Kampf.
-Hitler had miscalculated the mood of Germans as they did not rise up to support him.
-Bavarian nationalists withdrew the support they had earlier promised.
-Hitler escaped in a car with a dislocated shoulder.
-Herman Goering badly wounded escaped to Austria. He was shot in the groin.
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-Scheubner Richter was killed by a bullet.
-The rest of the Nazi scattered or were arrested.
-Hitler and his followers were dispersed by few armed police.
-Hitler and other leaders were arrested, tried and imprisoned for treason.
-He was given five years in prison and was fined 500 Rich marks.
-He only served 9 months because he impressed the judges at his trial and also because of
influence from well placed Bavarians who sympathised with his right wing politics.
-At the trial Hitler condemned the Weimar government for its weaknesses.
-The Nazi Party headquarters were raided.
-Its newspaper [the People’s observer] was banned.
-While in prison Hitler wrote his book Mein Kampf [My Struggle] in which he aired out his
political and racial ideas.
Leaders and Commanders who participated in Munich Putsch
-Adolf Hitler -Erich Von Ludendorff
-Ernst Rohm -Herman Goering
-Ernst Hanfs -Alfred Rosenberg
-Rudolf Hess -Ulrich Graf
-Johann Aigner -Max Amman
-Adolf Lenk -Wilhelm Adam
-Ludwig Maximilian Erwin Von Scheubner-Richter

Contribution of the Munich Putsch to the rise of Hitler to power

-It convinced Hitler that the best way to seize power was through legal means.
-Hitler used his trial as an opportunity for propaganda against the government.
-While in prison he wrote a book Mein Kampf which later became the Nazi Bible.
-He used his trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas.
-Every word he spoke was reported in the newspaper the next day.
-At the trial he gained publicity for himself and his ideas hence gaining popularity.
Other Factors
-Oratory
-Weimar political suicide
-Inflation
-Too many political parties
-Unemployment

Factors which led to the rise of Hitler to power

-The Communist danger. The men of property, the industrialists and land lords as well as
the rest of the German aristocracy supported Hitler who was a strong hand against
communists.
-Unpopularity of the Weimar government

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 -Hitler’s ability to use propaganda led to his rise. He deliberately distorted the truth on a
vast scale so as to gain support.
-Hitler’s oratory. He promised every sector of the German community whatever needed
most. He promised security to men of property, employment to the unemployed, glory,
praise and honour to the generals and army, reconstruction and revival of Germany into
the mightiest nation in Europe and the world to the nationalists. This made him to
discredit the government and rival parties, posing as the only saviour of the nation.
-The Reichstag fire. In March 1933, the Reichstag building was burnt just a week before
the elections. The Nazi laid the blame on the communists in order to discredit them.
Hitler declared that the fire was the beginning of a communist uprising. He demanded
special emergence powers to deal with the situation and was given them by President
Hindenburg. The Nazi used these powers to arrest communists, break up meetings and
frightened voters. As a result Hitler won the majority votes he wanted. Most people voted
in favour of Hitler. It is highly probable that the fire was caused intentionally by the Nazi
agents.
-Mistake by the Weimar politicians to appoint Hitler as Chancellor [Weimar political
suicide]. In 1932 the Nazi had won 230 seats in the Reichstag. It had no majority seats. It
had two thirds out of 577 seats, but there was no single party with as many seats. Von
Papen became chancellor but the Reichstag with such a number of Nazi seats was
becoming ungovernable. General Von Schleicher approached President Hindenburg and
stressed that there was a danger of civil war in Germany if Von Papen continued as
Chancellor. The President removed Von Papen from power and replaced him with Von
Schleicher. Soon after his removal from power, Von Papen began to conspire with Hitler
and he suggested to Hitler that he and his friends would be prepared to support his
appointment as Chancellor provided that he himself became his deputy Chancellor. He
then turned to the President, Hindenburg, making the same proposals. The assumption
was that, as Hitler was not an experienced politician, he would not succeed as chancellor.
In the event of failure, the country would cry for Hitler’s removal and Von Papen would
become Chancellor again. With these assurances, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as
Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler however, did not fail and Schleicher was to lose
his head in 1934. In 1934 Hindenburg died and Hitler became both the Chancellor and
President with the title Fuhrer meaning leader. Thus the Weimar politicians had
committed political suicide by assisting Hitler to come to power. Once Hitler was
Chancellor, he called for elections so as to complete Nazi take over.
-Impotence [weaknesses] of the Weimar government
-Nazi violence
-Low wages
-Use of force / coercion
-The Great Depression
-Inflation
-Hunger and starvation
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 -Parliamentary paralysis. The Great Depression made the parliament to become unstable
resulting in Chancellors resigning.
-The Storm Troopers [SA], Hitler’s private army was attractive to young people out of
work.
-Parades
-Unemployment
-Elections [Manoeuvring of elections]
-Rallies
-General discontent with the Treaty of Versailles
-The Munich Putsch
-Industrial unrest
-Inexperienced democrats
-The book, My Struggle, which became the Nazi bible
-Hitler’s personality
-Hitler had extra ordinary political abilities
-Homelessness
*NB All problems faced by the Weimar Republic led to the rise of Hitler.

Ideas expressed by Hitler in his book Mein Kampf [My Struggle]

-To bring back all lost German territories
-To unify all Germans
-To unify Germany and Austria
-To expand Germany Eastwards
-To expel Jews from Germany
-To stop payment of reparations
-To expand territorial boundaries of Germany
-To secure enough living space for the Germans
-To restore Germany to her dominant place in Europe
-He condemned the disarmament provisions of the treaty of Versailles [100000 soldiers]

The rise of Hitler to power in Germany between 1920 and 1933 / Stages in the rise of Hitler
to power in 1933
-In 1920 Hitler joined the German Workers Party which later became the National Socialist
German Workers’ Party [Nazi]. Nazi is the German pronunciation of the letters NS.
-In 1921 Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party.
-In 1921 the Storm Troopers [SA] was created as a private army to deal with opponents.
-In 1923 at the peak of inflation, Hitler attempted to overthrow the Weimar government through
the Munich Putsch or Beer hall Putsch.

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-Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in jail but he served 9 months.
-While in prison he wrote his book, Mein Kampf [My Struggle].
-In 1924 Hitler re-founded the Nazi.
-Hitler created his personal body guards [the Schutzstaffel] SS headed by Heinrich Himmler. By
1933 there were 5200 of them.
-Hitler set up party branches nationwide.
-In the 1924 general elections, the Nazi won 14 seats in the Reichstag.
-Nazi popularity declined during the age of prosperity in Germany [1924 to 1929].
-In 1928 the Nazi won only 12 seats.
-The Great Depression tilted the scales in favour of Hitler.
-Hitler’s oratory appealed to many Germans and Nazi support grew.
-In the 1930 general elections Nazi seats rose from 12 to 107 making Nazi Party the second
largest political party in the Reichstag.
-In the March 1932 presidential elections, Hitler challenged Hindenburg.
-Hitler’s political position was strengthened as he won 13, 4 million votes against Hindenburg’s
19, 4 million.
-In July 1932, the Nazi won 230 seats out of 577 in the Reichstag, making Nazi the largest party
but with no overall majority.
-Hitler demanded to be appointed Chancellor but Hindenburg refused.
-The Nazi won 196 seats in the November 1932 elections.
-Nazi terror increased.
-Von Papen persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor hoping that they would use him.
-In January 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Weimar Republic.

Aims of Hitler’s Domestic policy

-To create employment
-To assemble the strongest army in Europe
-To create a strong economy]
-To make Germany a great power once more
-To create a one party state
-To ban trade unions
-To expel Jews from Germany
-To create a totalitarian state
-To restore order in Germany
-To establish dictatorship in Germany
-To ban strikes

Hitler’s Domestic Policy from 1933 to 1939

-Hitler created employment in Germany, for example, through conscription.
-He introduced a number of public works like the construction of motorways, roads, bridges,
hospitals and so on.
-Rearmament programmes were put in place.
-Hitler introduced conscription and developed the German air force [Luftwaffe].

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-Armament industries were incepted.
-Education was put under Nazi control and it became Nazi in orientation. Textbooks, especially,
history books were re-written to suit Nazi ideology. Children were indoctrinated.
-Boys were to join Hitler’s Youth League at the age of 14.
-Girls were to join the League of German maidens and chanted slogans, like, ‘The Fuhrer is
always right’.
-Concentration camps were established for all those who opposed or tried to criticise the Nazi
government.
-Hitler made Germany self-sufficient through his Four Year Plans [Autarky].
-Hitler established Nazi dictatorship as he ruled by decree.
-He banned all opposition political parties in Germany and arrested opposition leaders. He made
Germany a one party state.
-In April 1933, the civil service came under Nazi control. Officials who were not politically
reliable or who could not prove they were of pure Aryan race [descent] were dismissed. Judges
were expected to obey party instructions. They were to ignore crimes committed by Nazi agents.
-In 1934 Hitler combined the post of President and Chancellor and became the Fuhrer after the
death of President Hindenburg.
-There was no rule of law in Germany. Hitler himself was the law.

-Hitler made Germany self-sufficient through his Four Year Plans [Autarky].
-Hitler established Nazi dictatorship as he ruled by decree.
-He banned all opposition political parties in Germany and arrested opposition leaders. He made
Germany a one party state.
-In April 1933, the civil service came under Nazi control. Officials who were not politically
reliable or who could not prove they were of pure Aryan race [descent] were dismissed. Judges
were expected to obey party instructions. They were to ignore crimes committed by Nazi agents.
-In 1934 Hitler combined the post of President and Chancellor and became the Fuhrer after the
death of President Hindenburg.
-There was no rule of law in Germany. Hitler himself was the law.
-Hitler banned trade unions in May 1933.Their offices were raided by the SA and the SS. All
German workers were to belong to the Nazi run German Labour Front. Trade unions were
banned because they consistently opposed the Nazi party.
-In 1933 Hitler passed the Enabling Act in March which made Germany completely under his
control and forced Von Papen to resign. This gave him power to govern without consulting the
parliament.
-Hitler banned elections in Germany.
-Hitler banned strikes in Germany.
-Hitler opposed democracy. In January 1934 the Parliament was dissolved and the Reich ratwas
abolished.
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 -In 1934, Hitler embarked on the Night of the Long Knives where he was killing opponents
within the party, for example, Rohm and other SA leaders who were homo sexual.
-Joy organisations were formed and holidays were subsidised.
-All enemies were silenced, usually through the use of thugs, Gestapo and so on.
-Hitler formed his secret police called Gestapo which hunted for enemies in public places like
cinemas, beer halls, soccer fields, and wedding ceremonies under Himmler.
-Hitler created a totalitarian state.
-Children were encouraged to betray parents to Gestapo.
-Mass rallies were organised throughout the country and ‘Hail Hitler’ became the compulsory
German greeting.
-Hitler was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon women.
-There was strict censorship in Germany. The press, radios, newspapers and films were put under
strict censorship.
-There was elimination of opponents through purges and murders.
-Germany was made a police state.
-Propaganda was increased and Goebbels was appointed Minister of propaganda. This worked to
perpetrate and exaggerate the goodness of the Nazi government.
-Religion was put under state control.
-Hitler signed the Concordat with Roman Catholic Church which promised to keep out of
politics.
-Hitler adopted the policy of Anti-Semitism, a deliberate policy to exterminate the Jews.
-Local government was brought under the control of the Nazi.
-There was control of food prices.

Benefits of Germans from Hitler’s Domestic Policy

-Hitler created employment which pleased many Germans.
-Germany’s dependence on imports was reduced by improving production in farms and
industries.
-Businessmen were happy as they were making profits because workers were well disciplined.
-Expulsion of Jews and anti Nazis from the civil service created jobs for ordinary Germans.
-Production of steel increased thereby reducing importation of steel.
-Rearmament created employment for many, for example, in armament industries.
-Inflation was reduced.
-Workers benefited from luxurious holidays.
-The country develo-Creation of employment improved the standard of living.
-Rearmament made the country secure.
-Wages were improved particularly in strategic industries like engineering and building by 30%.
-Factories were reopened and steel mills and coal mines resumed production as new soldiers
needed uniforms, equipment and weapons.
-A degree of nationalism was asserted.

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Non Benefits / Negative Effects of Hitler’s Domestic Policy to Germans
-The Jews did not benefit as they were slaughtered, removed from jobs and discriminated
against.
-Education standards fell because of Nazification.
-Women did not benefit as they were looked down upon and denied employment opportunities
even if they had qualifications.
-People lost their freedom of speech and expression.
-Property and wealth of the Jews was taken.
-Workers were denied their right to strike for better wages.
-Education system of the Jews was destroyed.
-People were deprived of their civil and political rights through banning of opposition parties,
trade unions, press, introductionof violence and murder.
-Many Germans lived in perpetual fear.
-Church leaders were also critical of the Nazi as religion was brought under state control.

Hitler’s Policy towards Jewsin Germany up to 1939

-Hitler was against Jews. He hated the Jews.
-Persecution of Jews was a policy with many Germans initially.
-Jews were members of the Semitic race [Semites].
-The Jews were used as a scapegoat for everything from Versailles onwards [depression,
unemployment, communism and so on].
-The anti-Jewish campaign was given legal status by the 1935 Nuremberg Laws.
-These laws deprived Jews of German citizenship.
-It forbade them to marry non Jews.
-It ruled that a person with even one Jewish grandparent must be classified as a Jew.
-Jews were harassed in every possible way.
-Their property was attacked and burnt.
-Their shops were looted.
-Their homes were destroyed.
-A number of them were sent to concentration camps.
-They were not allowed to join formal schools and universities.
-Jews were not allowed to join the civil service.
-They were excluded from special public places like hotels.
-Jews were put into exile.
-The Jews were put into gas chambers.
-The Jews were blamed for the defeat of Germany in world war one.
-By 1939 about 6000000 Jews lost their lives in Germany.

Did the Germans benefit from Hitler’s policy towards Jews?

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Benefits
-Germans filled up vacancies in employment left by the Jews, at universities, in schools, in the
Judiciary and so on.
-Germans took over enterprises and businesses abandoned by the Jews as a result of Hitler’s
policy.
-Nationalist feelings were satiated especially those of Germans who blamed everything on Jews.
Other side
-Germany lost several skilled Jews such as teachers, doctors, lawyers and so on.
-Citizenship of some innocent Germans and other opportunities were lost as a result of the
Nuremberg laws.
-Families were separated.
Groups of people that were victims of Hitler in Germany
-Jews -Communists
-Trade unionists -Women
-Youths -Lesbians
-Homosexuals -Gypsies
-Blacks -Industrialists
-Catholics -Disabled
-Jehovah’s Witness [Watch tower] -Professionals

Hitler’s Economic Policy in Germany

-He introduced public works like construction of roads, bridge and so on.
-Industry was expanded to meet the needs of rearmament.
-Production of synthetic fuel, rubber and other products was increased.
-Wages were strictly controlled.
-Prices were also controlled.
-Peasants’ debts amounting to 12 billion were suspended in October 1933.
-Imported food staffs were subjected to high tariffs.
-The Hereditary farm Law of October 1933 gave smaller farmers security of tenure by forbidding
confiscation and division. However, the law militated against the development of larger farm
units and even against new farming methods.
-He created employment through conscription.
-He made Germany self sufficient through his Four Year Plan.
-He banned trade unions in Germany.
-Strikes for better wages were outlawed.
-He created the German Labour Front.
-Factories were reopened.

Hitler’s Social Policy in Germany

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-Hitler encouraged high birth rates by offering marriage loans, tax allowances for dependent
children and other benefits for mothers.
-There was strict censorship of the press.
-He introduced the Hitler Youth Organisation which was compulsory for those between 10 and
18 years.
-The youth were indoctrinated.
-Children spied on their teachers and parents.
-Education was brought under Nazi control.
-Strikes were banned.
-Trade unions were banned.
-The 1935 Nuremburg laws were passed which denied Jews their civil rights.
-Jews were stripped off their German nationality.
-Marriage between Jews and Germans was forbidden.
-Boys were to join Hitler’s Youth at the age of 14.
-Girls were to join the League of German maidens and chanted slogans like, ‘The Fuhrer is
always right’.
-Joy organisations were formed and holidays were subsidised.
-The civil service was brought under Nazi control.
-Hitler was a male chauvinist. He looked down upon women.
-Religion was put under state control.
-Hitler signed the concordat with the Roman Catholic Church.
-Hitler adopted a policy of anti-Semitism directed against Jews.
-People lost their right to vote.

Measures taken by Hitler to consolidate his power in Germany / Steps taken by Hitler to
achieve total control or establish dictatorship in Germany.
-He passed the Enabling Law [1933] which made him a complete dictator.
-He forced Von Papen to resign.
-He created a totalitarian state.
-He banned all opposition political parties in Germany.
-He banned elections.
-He purged the civil service and all Jews and other suspected enemies were removed from civil
service.
-He abolished trade unions.
-Religion was put under state control.
-He banned strikes.
-He abolished the parliament.
-Education was put under Nazi control and children were indoctrinated.
-Teachers, lecturers and professors were closely watched.
-He created the Hitler’s Youth.
-He created the League of German maidens.
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-He encouraged children to betray their parents to Gestapo.
-He introduced strict censorship on newspapers, radios, magazines and so on.
-There was intimidation of opponents, for example, killing them in public.
-He made use of spies to identify and report opponents.
-Propaganda was increased.
-He used the secret police [Gestapo] to hunt for enemies in public places.
-He used violent sermons.
-He made use of posters and rallies.
-He appointed Nazi leaders to top posts, for example, Goering.
-He appointed Nazi governors in all states.
-He embarked on the Night of the Long Knives [1934] where he killed enemies within the party.
-He combined the post of president and chancellor to become the Fuhrer after the death of
president, Hindenburg.
-School text books were re-written to suit with Nazi ideology.

Successes of Hitler in consolidating his power in Germany

-He became a complete dictator.
-No one could oppose him.
-He remained in power for 12 years [1933-1945].
-Nazi was the only political party remaining. All opposition political parties were successfully
suppressed.
-Use of violence by Gestapo and SS enabled Germans to submit to Hitler’s demands.
-Jews, Hitler’s potential challengers were completely silenced, exiled or murdered.
-Communists were suppressed.

Failures of Hitler in consolidating his rule in Germany

-His rule continued to be resisted by the Catholic Church, for example, Bonheoffer and some
members of the armed forces.
-Some young people did not join the Hitler Youth Movement.
-Some nationalists resisted his rule.
-Socialists and communists continued to exist.
-Opposition was driven underground and not completely eroded.
-It was not that people submitted to Hitler but, that people lived in fear.
-Not all communists were killed on the Night of the Long Knives.
-Hitler infringed on the human rights of the Germans.

Features of Nazism in Germany

-Totalitarianism -Dictatorship
-Economic self-sufficiency -Glorification of violence
-Strict censorship -Extensive propaganda
-Absence of democracy -Abolition of elections
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-Elimination of all opponents -Glorification of the leader
-Banning trade unions -Banning strikes
-Rule by decree or command -Anti Semitism
-Militarism -Anti Communism
-One Party State -Extreme nationalism
-A strong economy -National prestige
-Suppression of women rights -Suppression of human rights
-Banning of opposition political parties -Purity of Aryan race
-Reversing the treaty of Versailles -Creation of enough living space
-Supremacy of the state -Imperialism
-Anti- women -Uniting all German-speaking people

Nazi Leaders
-Adolf Hitler -Herman Goering
-Joseph Goebbels -Heinrich Himmler
-Rudolf Hess -Martin Bormann
-Ernst Rohm -Ludendorff
-Albert Speer -Rommel

Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policy

-To create enough living space for the Germans [Lebensraum]
-To stop payment of reparations
-To bring back all lost German territories
-To assemble the strongest army in Europe
-To bring back all lost Germans who lived outside, for example, in Poland and Memel
-To conquer Russia as a way of destroying communism there
-To put Germany on the world map
-To make Germany a great power once more

Hitler’s Foreign Policy [1933 to 1939]

*Hitler’s foreign policy was the major cause of world war two of 1939 to 1945.
-In 1933 Hitler pulled Germany out of the Geneva Disarmament Conference.
-In 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations.
-In 1933 Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by ordering German rearmament and the
creation of the German air force [Luftwaffe].
-In 1934 Hitler made a failed attempt to invade Austria. He was thwarted by Mussolini.
-In 1934 Hitler signed a Non Aggression Pact with Poland. Poland was to remain neutral when
Germany was to attack Austria and Czechoslovakia.
-In 1935 Hitler signed a secret naval agreement with Britain. Germany was allowed to rebuild
her navy as long as it was maintained at about 35% the size of the British navy.

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-In 1935 Hitler publicly announced German rearmament.
-In 1935 the Saar was reunified with Germany. 90% of the Saarlanders voted for reunification
with Germany.
-In 1936 Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland.
-In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini entered into the Spanish Civil War on the side of General Franco.
-In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin Axis.
-In 1937 Hitler signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.
-In 1937 Hitler [Germany], Mussolini [Italy] and Tojo [Japan] signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo
Axis or Pact. This alliance became more powerful than the League itself.
-In 1938 Hitler annexed the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia.
-In 1938 Hitler attended the Munich Conference.
-In 1938 Hitler invaded Austria and completed the Anschluss [Union of Austria and Germany]
-In 1939 Hitler signed the Pact of Steel with Mussolini. They agreed to help each other militarily.
-In 1939 Hitler seized Memel from Lithuania.
-In 1939 Hitler and Stalin [of Russia] signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Treaty / Non aggression
pact. Hitler had seen the danger of war breaking out in 1939 and Germany being forced to fight
on two fronts as what happened in the First World War. So the two countries agreed not to resort
to war against each other. They also agreed to invade Poland and partition it between themselves.
By this alliance and the invasion of Poland Germany wanted to frighten Britain and France from
coming to the aid of Poland. Also in the event of a war between France and Germany, Russia
would keep out of the war so that Germany would defeat France.
-On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and France knocked into the conflict
on the side of Poland as they had promised. Hence theSecond World War broke out.
Countries occupied by Germany between 1935 and 1939
-Rhineland -Sudetenland
-Austria -Czechoslovakia
-Poland -Memel
-Moravia -Bohemia

Benefits of Germans from Hitler’s Foreign Policy

-Germany became a powerful state once more.
-There was creation of employment due to conscription, rearmament and invasions.
-Hitler created enough living space for the Germans by annexing states like Czechoslovakia,
Memel and other states.
-Security of the Germans was enhanced as a result of rearmament and conscription.
-German soldiers became experienced due to invasions.
-Hitler united all Germans who were previously not under Germany, for example, some were in
Austria and Sudetenland.
-The humiliations that Germany had suffered due to the treaty of Versailles were removed, for
example, disarmament and payment of reparations.
-Their pride was restored by violation of the treaty of Versailles.
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-Industry obtained raw materials from occupied territories like Saar basin and Czechoslovakia.

Non Benefits / Negative Effects of Hitler’s Foreign Policy to

Germans
-Many German soldiers died during wars or invasions.
-German soldiers did not have time to rest because of endless campaigns.
-Both human and material resources were wasted.
-Hitler created more enemies than friends, for example, France, Britain, Poland and USA which
combined their forces against Germany during world war two.
-Many children were orphaned.
-Many women became widows due to invasions.
-Germany’s aggressions led to the outbreak of world war two which was costly to the Germans.

PART C QUESTION: To what extent was Hitler responsible for

the outbreak of the Second World War II?
C1 – Hitler / Germany was responsible for the outbreak of WW2.
- Hitler and Mussolini committed Acts of Aggression.
- They got courage and confidence to take risks.
- The dictators promised each other military assistance e.g. Rome – Berlin- Tokyo Axis.
- The sanctions imposed on Italy during the Abyssinian Crisis drew Hitler closer to Mussolini.
- Hitler and Mussolini formed a dreadful or terrible combination.
- Hitler reversed the Versailles Treaty e.g. he occupied the Rhineland, Austria and Poland.
- Germany’s rearmament made it difficult for others to disarm. Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament
Conference.
- Hitler’s actions set a bad example. It made other dictators to learn that it paid to be aggressive.
- Hitler’s actions exposed the weaknesses of the League of Nations – a toothless bulldog.
C2 – Other factors caused outbreak of WWII.
- The acts of aggression by Japan e.g. it caused Manchurian Crisis.
-The acts of aggression committed by Italy (examples will earn marks).
- League weaknesses (examples will earn marks) e.g. no army, no finance, e.t.c.
- Unfairness of Versailles Treaty.
- Great Depression led to rise of dictators like Hitler.
- U.S.A isolation - it never joined the League.
- Internationalism failed – replaced by nationalism.
- Policy of Appeasement followed by Britain and France.

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THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT
FOLLOWED BY BRITAIN AND FRANCE.
DEFINATION :What is meant by the term ‘APPEASEMENT?’
-Appeasement was the policy followed by Britain and France of avoiding war with aggressive powers
such as Japan, Italy and Germany.
-The appeasers gave way to the demands of Mussolini and Hitler.
-they tried to avoid war at all cost.
-appeasers accepted the claims of the aggressors by negotiation and avoiding force.
-Appeasement failed and contributed to the outbreak of World War 2.
Part (a): Identify leaders who followed the Policy of
Appeasement and their respective countries.
leader country
Chamberlain Britain.
Deladier France.
Other appeasers: MacDonald, Baldwin, Simon,Hoare.

QUSTION -The reasons why Britain and France followed

the Policy of Appeasement - The policy of appeasement was justified.
1) Fear of Communism.

- Hitler was anti – Communist so Britain and France wanted Hitler to stop the spread of Communism
from the East. There was a belief that Nazism was a better devil compared to Communism.
ii) Britain and France were not ready for another war. Economic problems made it difficult to recover
after WW1 e.g. War Debts and the Great Depression.
iii) Many people in Britain and France believed Germany and Italy were unfairly treated at the end of
WWI.
iv) Britain wanted economic co-operation between Britain and Germany e.g. trade.
v) France was weak and divided e.g. too many changes in govt and political instability.
vi) U.S.A. was not ready to assist Britain and France.
vii) Britain feared that Japan could attack her colonies the Far East – This was a strategic problem.
viii) Chamberlain believed that if the hated terms of the Versailles were removed then friendship could
develop between Germany and other countries.
ix) Chamberlain of Britain believed appeasement could bring peace and avoid war.

DESCRIBE THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT

FOLLOWED BY BRITAIN AND FRANCE .
EXAMPLES OF APPEASEMENT AT WORK – show that no action was taken against acts of aggression.
- Hitler announced in public that he was introducing rearmament. No action was taken against Hitler.

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- Germany withdrew from the Disarmament Commission and the League of Nations. Britain and France
took no action.
- Britain and Germany signed a secret Naval Treaty. This shows that Britain was not fully interested in
disarmament. This agreement reduced French confidence in Britain.
- In the Abyssinian Crisis, Britain and France took half- hearted punishment on Italy. The sanctions did
not include important items like iron and steel. The Suez Canal remained open to Italian ships.
- Hitler occupied the Rhineland. He had given orders to his army officers to withdraw if Britain and
France took action yet no action was taken. The British believed Germany was occupying its own
backyard. Hitler should have been taught a lesson at this stage.
- Hitler and Mussolini assisted General Franco in the Spanish civil war. Britain and France remained
neutral.
- No action was taken when Germany occupied Austria. This reversed the Versailles Treaty and yet no
action was taken.
- At the Munich Conference, Britain and France gave away the Sudetenland. Czechoslovakia was
weakened by the loss of industries and fortresses. It was now exposed to German attack in the North,
South and West.
- Hitler occupied Memel and Danzig. No action was taken.
- Japan invaded Manchuria,a Chinese province. The League condemned Japan as the aggressor, but
failed to take action.
- The dictators formed strong alliances e.g. Pact of Steel.
PART C QUESTION: To what extent did the Policy of
Appeasement contribute to outbreak of WWII?
C1 – contribution of appeasement .
- -Hitler and Mussolini gained confidence to take risks.
- -appeasement convinced Hitler and Mussolini of the weaknesses of Britain and France.
- -the surrender at Munich Conference encouraged Hitler to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia.
- -Hitler believed he could attack Poland with no opposition and this started WW2.
- -Britain and France should have taken a firm line against Hitler before Germany was too strong.
- When Hitler occupied the Rhineland,Britain and France should have taught Hitler a lesson. This should
have stopped Hitler’s career of aggression.
- Appeasement increased Hitler’s prestige at home.
- Lack of action by France and Britain encouraged Hitler to gamble on war with Poland.
- Hitler increased his industrial base.
- Obtained raw materials.
- Hitler obtained markets for German goods in the occupied areas.
- Hitler increased his manpower.

C2 – other factors contributed to the outbreak of WW2.

Acts of aggression: - they exposed the weaknesses of France and Britain.

-gave confidence to Hitler and Mussolini as they tested weapons.

-aggressors tested their military strength.

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-aggressors tested the commitment of other powers to peace.
Britain and France failed to assert their authority as custodians of peace which led to WW2.
Weaknesses of the League e.g. no finance, no army, unanimous vote, absence of USA, constitutional
problems etc.
The unfairness of the Versailles Treaty.
The Great Depression led to the rise dictators like Hitler.
Powers were interested in nationalism, and ignored internationalism.

CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1939 TO

1945).1
The acts of aggression committed by Japan, Italy and Germany give the actions of each country to
get marks.
The Policy of Appeasement followed by Britain and France explain.
The weakness of the League of Nations. examples.
The Great Depression. led to rise of dictators.
The unfairness of the Versailles Treaty explain.
Failure of internationalism. It was replaced by nationalism explain.

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