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Name: Marimar B. Ginez

Code: MA 207
Description: Anthropological Studies

CHAPTER 1
THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
The fields of sociology and anthropology investigate the intricacies of human societies
and cultures, providing light on the various ways that individuals interact, organize
themselves, and interpret their surroundings. Anthropology examines the variety of human
cultures found throughout the world, both past and present, while sociology is concerned with
the methodical study of social behavior, organizations, and social structures.
Fundamentally, sociology studies how people are shaped by the institutions, rules, and values
that exist in their social environments. Sociologists study a wide range of societal topics,
including family dynamics, education systems, social injustice, deviance, and the effects of
technology on interpersonal relationships. Sociologists use theoretical analysis and empirical
investigation to study social behavior patterns and determine the underlying mechanisms.
Anthropology, on the other hand, includes the study of cultures, languages, biology, and
archaeology in its comprehensive approach to understanding humanity. The diversity of
human cultures and societies—past and present—across various historical eras and
geographic locations is studied by anthropologists. They take part in participant observation,
fieldwork, and ethnographic research to obtain firsthand knowledge of the values, traditions,
and ways of life of many cultures.
When combined, sociology and anthropology provide insightful viewpoints on the intricacies
of social life in humans. These fields of research provide light on the dynamics of social
interaction, cultural variation, and the larger factors influencing human life by examining the
interactions between people, groups, and civilizations. By means of meticulous investigation
and analytical evaluation, the fields of sociology and anthropology enhance our
comprehension of human nature and Anthropology, on the other hand, includes the study of
cultures, languages, biology, and archaeology in its comprehensive approach to
understanding humanity. The diversity of human cultures and societies—past and present—
across various historical eras and geographic locations is studied by anthropologists. They
take part in participant observation, fieldwork, and ethnographic research to obtain firsthand
knowledge of the values, traditions, and ways of life of many cultures.
When combined, sociology and anthropology provide insightful viewpoints on the intricacies
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of social life in humans. These fields of research provide light on the dynamics of social
interaction, cultural variation, and the larger factors influencing human life by examining the
interactions between people, groups, and civilizations. By means of meticulous investigation
and analytical evaluation, the fields of sociology and anthropology enhance our
comprehension of human nature and
BODY
What is Sociology?
The study of human social structures and relationships is known as sociology. The
topics covered by sociology are wide-ranging and include anything from crime to religion,
the family to the state, racial and socioeconomic strata, shared cultural ideas, and societal
stability to drastic changes in entire countries. Sociology's goal of comprehending how
human activity and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and
social structures unifies the study of these disparate fields of study.
Sociology is an exciting and illuminating field of study that analyzes and explains
important matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the world. At the personal
level, sociology investigates the social causes and consequences of such things as romantic
love, racial and gender identity, family conflict, deviant behavior, aging, and religious faith.
At the societal level, sociology examines and explains matters like crime and law, poverty
and wealth, prejudice and discrimination, schools and education, business firms, urban
community, and social movements. At the global level, sociology studies such phenomena as
population growth and migration, war and peace, and economic development.
In order to expand and improve our knowledge of important social processes,
sociologists place a strong emphasis on the meticulous collection and examination of data
regarding social life. Researchers in sociology employ a variety of techniques. Sociologists
examine how groups function in daily life, carry out extensive surveys, decipher old records,
examine census data, examine interactions captured on camera, speak with group members,
and carry out lab tests. Sociologists' research techniques and theoretical frameworks provide
valuable insights into the social dynamics that shape people's lives as well as societal issues
and future possibilities in the modern world. We gain a clearer knowledge of the factors
influencing our own experiences and results in life by learning more about those social
processes.
The ability to see and understand this connection between broad social forces and
personal experiences — what C. Wright Mills called “the sociological imagination” — is
extremely valuable academic preparation for living effective and rewarding personal and
professional lives in a changing and complex society.
Students with a strong background in sociology are capable of asking insightful research
questions and thinking critically about human social life. They are skilled in creating well-
thought-out social research projects, meticulously gathering and examining empirical data,
and developing and articulating their study conclusions. Sociology majors are also skilled at
explaining to others how the social world functions and how it could be improved. They
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have, for the most part, mastered critical thinking, assessment, and effective, clear, and
creative communication. All of these skills are extremely valuable in a wide range of career
paths and occupations.
Sociology provides a unique and illuminating perspective on how society impacts our
lives and the environment in which we live. Sociology seeks to comprehend social life on a
deeper, more challenging, and revealing level by looking beyond conventional, taken-for-
granted perspectives. Sociology is a science that deepens our understanding of the social
relationships, cultures, and institutions that influence human history and our own lives
through its unique analytical perspective, social theories, and research methodologies.

Sociology as Science
Sociology is classified as a "social science" in the majority of academic settings. The
first sociologists actually created the discipline to be as close to the natural sciences as
possible through the use of the scientific method, but this categorization has been the subject
of much discussion.

Areas of Sociology
Hauser (1974) presented areas in the study of sociology for purposes of research and
teaching.
The 7 Areas of Sociology

1. Social Organization.

 A system of relationships between and

among various groups and individuals is
referred to as social organization. Since
social organization makes it possible to
conduct out extremely complex activities
in which other members of society either
participate in or are impacted by, it may be
said that social organization is the
essential building block of contemporary
society.

One of the most important tasks for

sociologists is to recognize and categorize
various social groups. Sociologists
typically characterize a group as being made up of two or more people who:
 converse with one another,
 possess a feeling of self or affiliation,
 Have expectations or norms that members of the group do not share.
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Although a country's broader society might be seen as an example of social organization, it is

actually composed of a number of structured social groupings that interact with one another.
Sociologists focus on the interactions and organizational structures within those groupings.

When sociologists talk about social organizations, they usually mean:

1. Family and school are examples of social institutions.

2. Social groups: neighborhood associations, Kiwanis Clubs, professional associations, and
volunteer organizations.
3. Social inequality is the division of society into classes, such as upper class, working class,
underclass, and middle class.
4. Churches and related charity are examples of religious organizations.
5. Bureaucracies, such as the administrative divisions of government agencies.

2. Social Psychology.

 The interaction between an

individual and the larger social
structures and processes in which
they are involved is emphasized in
sociological social psychology.
Sociology's fundamental focus is on
social organization and structure,
although interpersonal interactions
are the source of all social structure.
Therefore, we must comprehend the
individuals whose behavior makes
up social structure in order to
comprehend its significance, nature,
and impacts.

Deviance, socialization, group dynamics, health, race and ethnicity, and gender are important
research topics. Sociologists that specialize in this area have examined a wide range of
fascinating topics, including minority groups' perceptions of the dominant culture, the
psychological effects of work and family life, and obedience and disobedience during the
Holocaust.
3. Social Change and Social Disorganization
 Sociologists investigate both "what is" and "what changes." Any modification to a
society's structure is referred to as social change. Thus, sociologists try to understand
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these social changes' sources and effects.

Evolutionary explanations are emphasized in certain theories of social change.

According to these beliefs, societies evolve from basic to progressively complex
organizational structures. Thus, social change is progressive and linear.

4. Human Ecology
 This is the study of a particular population's
characteristics, behavior, and interactions with the
environment. It focuses on how social structures
change in response to the quantity and quality of
natural resources as well as the presence of
different human groups.
Such studies have demonstrated the prevalence in
urban areas and other contemporary, developed
settings of mental illness, criminality, delinquency,
prostitution, and drug addiction.

5. Population or Demography

 His field of research examines

population size, composition, change,
and quality as well as how these aspects
affect the more extensive social,
political, and economic systems.

This field also examines mortality and

fertility rates, as well as how migration
affects the distribution of particular
populations. Sociologists in this
profession research a variety of subjects,
such as patterns in population growth and how fertility, death, and migration rates
impact those trends, population distribution within a certain area (such as
segregation), poverty, and inequality.
6. Sociological Theory and Method

 A sociological theory is
an assumption that aims
to organize and establish
sociological knowledge
by taking into account,
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analyzing, and/or explaining objects of social reality from a

sociological perspective. It does this by making connections
between various concepts.

7. Applied Sociology
Applied sociology is using the
sociological tools to “understand, intervene,
or enhance human social life” (Steele and
Price, 2004: p. 4). People apply sociology
when they use sociological methods,
theories, concepts, or perspectives (tools) to
address a social problem or issue (Steele and
Price, 2008). Lots of social scientists ‘use’
sociological tools in their teaching or in their
research. But only a subset uses those tools
to plan or engage in direct, concurrent social
intervention or enhancement. We generally refer to those that do as applied sociologists.
Many different approaches to sociological application exist. We use the term ‘sociological
practice’ or ‘practitioner’ to inclusively refer to applied, clinical, and public sociologists, as
well as those who identify more with methodology used across the social sciences:
community-based researchers, participatory-action researchers, and translational researchers
(Weinstein and Goldman Schuyler, 2008).
Drawing on the works of David Cooper (2011) and Price et al. (2009), we argue that what
unites these groups is their commonality in goals, tools, and conversations – all of them focus
on ‘use;’ that is, use-based research and use-based applications.

What is Anthropology?
Anthropology, sometimes known as "the science of humanity," is the study of human
beings in all its facets, from their biology and evolutionary history to the social and cultural
components that set them apart from other animal species. Particularly from the mid-1900s,
anthropology has evolved into a group of increasingly specialized fields due to the wide
range of topics it covers. The area of physical anthropology is dedicated to studying human
biology and evolution. The article on human evolution goes into more detail about it.
Differently regarded as belonging to the fields of cultural anthropology (or ethnology), social
anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and psychological anthropology are the areas that
examine the social and cultural creations of human communities.
The scientific study of humankind's beginnings, evolution, behavior, and societies—
both past and present—is known as anthropology. It is a comprehensive field of study that
covers biological, linguistic, cultural, and archaeological facets of human existence. The goal
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of anthropology is to comprehend both the differences among human cultures and societies
and the universal human experiences.

 Man, the Main Concern in Anthropology

Throughout the history of the field of anthropology, the idea of "man" or "humanity"
has been crucial. But it's crucial to remember that anthropology has changed dramatically
throughout time, encompassing not only the study of individuals but also a wide range of
topics related to human civilizations, cultures, behaviors, and biological evolution.
That being said, the main focus of anthropology when it comes to "man" is frequently on
comprehending the complexity of our existence—including its biological, cultural, social,
and psychological aspects. The goal of anthropology is to investigate and examine the
meaning of humanity in various historical periods and social structures.
Undoubtedly, social anthropologists have a very different understanding of man than
economics do. As a result, it is important to make clear that, despite some intriguing parallels
that we will address later, the utilitarian philosopher John Stuart Mill's notions of homo
creator and homo economics are totally different from one another.
The concept of homo creator conveys the idea that humans are neither fashioned by
inescapable social, cultural, and psychological forces, nor do they mindlessly follow a bio
grammar imposed by particular rules of nature.

Branches of Anthropology
Anthropology, the study of human beings and their societies, is divided into several branches,
each focusing on different aspects of human culture, biology, and history.
1. Physical Anthropology

The study of the nature of the human organism is called physical anthropology,
sometimes referred to as biological anthropology. It discusses the evolution of humans and
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their relatives from fossils and living things. In order to comprehend the origins and evolution
of humans over time and place, physical anthropologists investigate the lineage of the human
species by examining fossils that have been found and by observing extant monkeys. They
expose every facet of human biology. The population genetics study. They attempt to
elucidate the parallels and divergences between humans and primates.
The study of human variation is one of physical anthropology's main concerns. Although
we are all members of the same species—Homo sapiens—we are not exactly same.
Physically, we all appear alike. Physical anthropology is concerned with this.
Physical anthropology can be broadly divided into two areas: the study of human populations
and the study of man as an evolutionary product.

2. Cultural Anthropology

Anthropology, whether social or cultural, is the study of how people learn to behave in
specific settings. It was formerly referred to as ethnology. "The science of people, their
cultures, and life histories as groups" is what Kroeber defines as ethnology. It examines the
interactions that exist between individuals and their surroundings, between humans as
organisms and their civilizations, and between various cultures and their various facets.
Comparative understanding and analysis of various ethnic groups over time and space is
known as ethnology. They also research the dynamics of culture, or how it evolves and
modifies throughout time. The detailed, documented study of social and cultural aspects is
called ethnography. A comparative study is not what ethnography is.
An ethnographer is someone who chooses one culture and analyzes it in-depth; an
ethnological research is built upon two or more ethnographies. The source material for
ethnology is ethnography. Socio-cultural anthropology studies these two domains.
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3. Archaeology

A subfield of anthropology called "archaeological anthropology" is concerned with

the study of human behavior and culture via the investigation of tangible objects, buildings,
and landscapes. Archaeologists piece together the histories of ancient communities and learn
more about their beliefs, customs, and technical innovations by examining the tangible
artifacts that these societies left behind. This field uses a variety of approaches, including as
laboratory analysis, comparative research, and excavation, and it covers a wide range of
historical periods, from prehistory to modern history. The findings of archeological study
shed important light on the evolution of human societies, the persistence and evolution of
cultures, and the interactions between individuals and their surroundings.

4. Linguistics

The study of speech and language in the framework of anthropology is known as

linguistic anthropology. It is the study of speaking as a cultural practice and language as a
resource. It investigates linguistic variances, language development, the relationships
between various languages spoken throughout the world, and language acquisition.
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It mostly focuses on unwritten languages, or those spoken by native speakers of non-Western

countries and lacking a written form. It focuses on the connections between language and
other facets of cognition and behavior in people. Language is one of the most useful
instruments for researching and comprehending people since it provides us with cultural
awareness.
The study of language use in many social circumstances is known as sociolinguistics. Stated
differently, it investigates the function of language in social behavior. The study of historical
linguistics reveals the historical connections among various languages. It is helpful in
tracking down immigrants from different cultures. The structure of the linguistic pattern is the
subject of structural linguistics. Grammar rules and other linguistic components are
compared.

Anthropology as a Science
The anthropological imagination (anthropological perspective) is how anthropologists see the
world. Anthropology differs from other sciences because it emphasizes holism and
genealogy. The emphasis on genealogy for cultural anthropology implies a focus on the
family (domestic structure). The emphasis on genealogy for physical anthropology extends
the metaphor of the family tree from an individual and their family, to a family tree writ-large
that uses phylogenetic taxonomy to contextualize the human species. Anthropology's
emphasis on holism implies a balance between different approaches and many subfields. The
four main subfields of anthropology are cultural anthropology, physical (biological)
anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics. Anthropologists balance objective and subjective
epistemologies.

 Relationship of Anthropology with other Social Sciences

There are several parallels between anthropology and other social disciplines
including economics, psychology, and sociology. Understanding society and human behavior
is at the heart of all of these disciplines, although each takes a slightly different approach to
the problem.

1. Psychology
The sciences of anthropology and psychology complement each other. The former is the
study of human conduct, while the latter is the study of human experiences and actions. It
also looks at how people behave in connection to their surroundings. The comparative and
analytical study of human experience and behavior is another aspect of anthropology. These
two topics are beneficial to one another. Psychologists can better comprehend the underlying
reasons of human behavior in other cultures by drawing on their knowledge of psychology,
while anthropologists may better calculate the impact of cultural environments on human
behavior by drawing on anthropological studies. Many anthropological studies have been
very helpful in the subject of psychology in the modern era. Anthropologists have
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demonstrated how cultural contexts influence human behavior by examining various

prehistoric societies. Every culture has a unique social control mechanism that shapes its
members' personalities. The relationship between the two main fields of psychology and
anthropology—social psychology and cultural anthropology—is where psychology and
anthropology are most closely related. Social contexts are used to study individual behavior
in social psychology. Studying human society, social structures, and groups is another aspect
of social anthropology. "The anthropologist concentrates chiefly on society of primitive
people, and the sociologist concentrates on our contemporary civilization," according to
renowned anthropologist Hoebel.
2. History
History and Anthropology are closely related fields of study. With its close ties to history,
anthropology is emerging as one of history's most authentic products. Because of the intimate
relationship between the two sciences, some writers do not recognize anthropology as a
separate science from history, and some anthropologists even consider anthropology to be a
subfield of history. Social life is not a natural byproduct of human birth; human birth is an
artificial process. While it is true that humans must live in cohesive groupings due to their
inherent nature, human nature does not determine a society's cultural level. Stated differently,
a society's culture is not a result of human nature. Unlike the solar system or an atom, the
structure of society does not follow a natural order. The social relationships that make up
society are woven together by moral principles and are shaped by historical events. Social
reformation has been carried out by anthropologists. Human behavior is a common theme in
both anthropology and history. Human behaviors that lead to social events are discussed in
social anthropology. These occurrences are described in history.
3. Economics

As social sciences, anthropology and economics are closely related. Anthropologists have
made contributions to the study of various facets of economic organization. Economists
provide the anthropologists with information about the property system, division of labor,
occupations, industrial organization, etc. because the two sciences are so closely related that
one is frequently treated as a branch of the other. Both economists and anthropologists share
a number of concerns, including labor relations, living standards, employer-employee
relations, social classes, socio-economic planning, socio-economic reforms, etc. The field in
which economics and anthropology collaborate is growing every day. These days, economists
study how social variables affect economic growth. Anthropologists and economists
collaborate to explore the issues of economic development in developing nations. The study
of economic issues is increasingly utilizing anthropological concepts and generalizations by
economists. Issues like as unemployment, poverty, hunger, overpopulation, and uncontrolled
industrialization have an impact on society and the economy.
4. Political Science
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Political science and anthropology are closely related fields. As a matter of fact, social
engagement includes political involvement as well. Political science thus seems to be an
offshoot of anthropology. Man's social life influences his political engagement. In actuality,
political action has no significance outside of a social framework. After all, politics is just
society's reflection. Political science provides anthropological facts about the structure and
operations of the state and government. While political science focuses on the state,
anthropology studies the state as one of the human associations. This is demonstrated by the
proverb "people have the government which they deserve."
State laws have a significant impact on society. Most of these laws are derived from usages,
customs, conventions, and traditions. However, anthropology is concerned with these
practices, traditions, and so forth. A component of social life is the family institution. It has to
do with anthropology. Both political scientists and anthropologists are interested in a few
common issues. Among these are war, large-scale movement’s
elections, voting, political minorities, government control, public opinion, propaganda,
leadership, and social laws like the civil code. Political and social ramifications can be found
in issues such as border disputes between nations, caste wars, racial tensions between Whites
and Blacks, Asians and Europeans, and communal rioting.

5. Sociology
Nowadays, sociologists and anthropologists are widely acknowledged to be related. As
anthropologist Kroeber has noted, the two sciences are really twin sisters. Anthropological
studies are extremely beneficial to sociology; Robert Redfield adds that "viewing the whole
united states, one sees that the relation between the anthropology and sociology is closer than
those between the anthropology and other social sciences." Sociologists must rely on
anthropologists to help them comprehend contemporary social issues through our
understanding of the past, which anthropology frequently provides. Sociologists have found
value in the studies conducted by renowned anthropologists, including Radcliffe-Brown, B.
Malinowski, Ralph Linton, Lowie, Raymond Firth, Margaret Mead, Evans-Pritchard, and
others.
Anthropological knowledge helps us understand sociological themes like The Origin of
Family, The Beginning of Marriage, Private Property, The Genesis of Religion, and so on.
Anthropological research has demonstrated that there is no connection between superior
mental faculties and physical traits. Anthropology has refuted the idea of racial supremacy.
Sociology has also taken many concepts from Socio-Cultural Anthropology, such as cultural
areas, cultural traits, interdependent qualities, cultural lag, cultural patterns, and culture
configuration. A sociologist must possess both physical and sociocultural anthropological
knowledge. Comparing civilizations, especially modern and primitive ones, can help us
comprehend society.

 Relationship between Sociology and Anthropology

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Anthropology is a general science like sociology. The word Anthropology is derived

from two Greek words —Anthropos meaning ‘man’ and logos meaning ‘study’. Thus, the
etymological meaning of ‘Anthropology’ is the study of man. Precisely, it is defined by
Kroeber as ‘the science of man and his works and behavior’. Anthropology is “concerned not
with particular man but with man in groups, with races and peoples and their happenings and
doings”.
It has made outstanding contributions to the study of man. Sociology, in particular,
has been immensely enriched by the anthropological studies. Anthropology seems to be the
broadest of all the social sciences. It studies man both as a member of the animal kingdom
and as a member of the human society. It studies the biological as well as the cultural
developments of man. Anthropology has a wide field of study. Kroeber mentions two broad
divisions of anthropology: Organic or Physical Anthropology and the Socio- cultural
Anthropology.
According to Hoebel, “Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in their broadest sense
one and the same”. Evans Pritchard considers social anthropology a branch of sociology.
Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies. The studies made by famous
anthropologists like Radcliffe Brown, B. Malinowski, Ralph Linton, Lowie, Raymond Firth,
Margaret Mead, Evans Pritchard and others, have been proved to be valuable in sociology.
Sociological topics such as the origin of family, the beginning of marriage, private property,
the genesis of religion, etc., can better be understood in the light of anthropological
knowledge. The anthropological studies have shown that there is no correlation between
anatomical characteristics and mental superiority. The notion of racial superiority has been
disproved by anthropology. Further, sociology has borrowed many concepts like cultural
area, culture traits, interdependent traits, cultural lag, culture patterns, culture configuration
etc., from socio-cultural anthropology. The knowledge of anthropology, physical as well as
socio-cultural, is necessary for a sociologist. An understanding of society can be gained by
comparing various cultures, particularly, the modern with the primitive.

 Methods of Inquiry in the Two Sciences

When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic
is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation.
Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of
behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic
research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive
perspective, sociologists have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed
industries, family patterns that have led to legislative changes, and education patterns that
have aided structural changes in classrooms.
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Quantitative
Methods:
Quantitative methods involve the collection and analysis of numerical data. These
methods are prevalent in fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology. Some
common quantitative methods include:
Experimental Studies: These involve controlled experiments where researchers
manipulate variables and measure the effects on other variables. The goal is to establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
Surveys and Questionnaires: These methods involve collecting data from a large
number of respondents using standardized questions. Statistical techniques are then applied to
analyze the data
Statistical Analysis: Statistical methods such as regression analysis, t-tests, ANOVA
(Analysis of Variance), and correlation analysis are used to analyze numerical data and
identify patterns or relationships
Quantitative Observational Studies: Researchers observe phenomena and record
numerical data without directly manipulating variables. This can include observational
studies in fields such as astronomy, ecology, and sociology
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Qualitative Methods:
Qualitative methods involve the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as
text, images, or observations. These methods are common in fields such as anthropology,
sociology, education, and literary studies. Some common qualitative methods include
Interviews: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with participants to gather rich,
detailed information about their experiences, perspectives, or behaviors
Ethnography: Researchers immerse themselves in a particular culture or social group
to observe and document social phenomena in their natural context.
Content Analysis: Researchers analyze textual or visual data to identify themes,
patterns, or trends. This can involve coding and categorizing qualitative data.
Case Studies: Researchers conduct detailed examinations of individual cases or small
groups to gain insights into specific phenomena or contexts.

 Relevance of Sociology and Anthropology

Within the social sciences, sociology and anthropology are two closely connected
fields that investigate human civilizations, cultures, and behaviors. They provide insightful
viewpoints on a range of facets of society and human existence.

Here are some salient features emphasizing its applicability:

1. Understanding Society: Sociology and anthropology offer frameworks for

comprehending the intricate relationships between institutions, social structures,
norms, and values in societies. Through the analysis of behavioral and interaction
patterns, they provide insight into the structure and evolution of societies.
2. Cultural variety: The study of cultures and cultural variety is a special focus of
anthropology. It aids in our understanding of the diversity, depth, and parallels as well
as divergences across human cultures worldwide. Promoting respect and cross-
cultural awareness requires this understanding.
3. Social Change: These fields study how societies change throughout time, including
how they adapt, evolve, and change. They investigate the effects on people and
communities of variables like economic development, migration, globalization, and
technology.
4. Identity and Difference: Sociology and anthropology investigate identity-related
topics, such as how people view themselves and are seen by others in respect to
various characteristics like race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, class, religion,
and country of origin. They aid in our comprehension of the ways in which social
interactions and experiences are shaped by identity.
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5. Social Problems and Inequalities: These academic fields study a variety of social
issues, such as discrimination, poverty, racism, sexism, and social injustice. They
support initiatives aimed at tackling these problems and advancing social justice by
looking at the underlying causes and effects of these problems.
6. Applied Perspectives: The domains of education, healthcare, development, law,
business, and politics can all benefit from the application of sociology and
anthropology. Policy-making, program development, community interventions, and
organizational management are all influenced by their observations.
7. Critical Thinking and Research Skills: Studying anthropology and sociology
develops critical thinking abilities, such as the capacity to assess evidence,
comprehend intricate social processes, and provide a well-reasoned case. These
disciplines rely heavily on research methods, which give students invaluable research
skills. Examples of these approaches include participant observation, interviews,
surveys, and data analysis.

When it comes to solving social challenges, understanding human civilizations and

cultures, and fostering constructive social change, sociology and anthropology are invaluable
fields of study. They are vital subjects of study in the modern world because of their
relevance in scholarly, professional, and everyday situations.
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CHAPTER 2
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Through centuries of human thought and investigation, the disciplines of sociology and
anthropology have developed alongside the complexity of society and culture. These fields,
which have their roots in an interest in social structure and human behavior, have influenced
how we see the world and ourselves. This essay explores the beginnings and growth of
anthropology and sociology, following their progression from early philosophical reflections
to modern diverse disciplines of study.
The History of Sociology
Amidst the Industrial Revolution's disruptive waves in the 19th century, sociology developed.
Scholars have been searching for systematic approaches to understand the rapid changes in
social structures, urbanization, and technology breakthroughs. The man known as the "father
of sociology," Auguste Comte, is credited with coining the term "sociology" and promoting
the use of scientific techniques in the study of society. Comte's ideas prepared the way for
later theorists like Émile Durkheim, who investigated the causes underlying social solidarity
and order. Durkheim's groundbreaking research on suicide showed how social context has a
significant influence on people's conduct. Simultaneously, the analysis provided by Karl
Marx about capitalism and class conflict shed light on the economic foundations of social
dynamics. Max Weber's studies on bureaucracy and rationalization enhanced sociological
theory by highlighting the significance of cultural values in shaping social institutions.
The evolution of sociology
The study of sociology underwent significant expansion in the 20th century, encompassing a
wide range of subfields such as the sociology of education, race, and gender. An rising
number of academics are using sociological approaches to examine current societal concerns
like social movements, globalization, and inequality. The discipline's toolkit has been
enhanced by methodological developments such as the use of quantitative research
methodologies and qualitative approaches like ethnography. Through interdisciplinary
collaboration, sociologists were able to get insights from other subjects, including political
science, economics, and psychology. This multidisciplinary approach promoted cross-
disciplinary discussion and allowed for a deeper understanding of intricate social issues.
The History of Anthropology

The study of human civilizations and cultures, or anthropology, has its roots in the European
Enlightenment and the encounters that colonists had with various peoples. The goal of the
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early anthropologists was to record and categorize the cultural diversity seen in non-Western
countries. People such as Franz Boas argued against the dominant theories of cultural
hierarchy, supporting the theory of cultural relativism and stressing the value of
comprehending cultures in their own environments. With his focus on ethnographic fieldwork
and participant observation, Bronisław Malinowski transformed the field. Margaret Mead
exposed the diversity of cultural norms and behaviors in her seminal studies on gender and
culture, which further challenged Western presumptions about universal human behavior.

The evolution of anthropology

The 20th century saw major changes in the subject of anthropology, with its subfields
expanding into areas including linguistic, physical, cultural, and archeology anthropology.
Academics adopted multidisciplinary methods, incorporating perspectives from the fields of
biology, sociology, and history. Because it allowed researchers to get fully immersed in the
everyday lives of the people they examined, ethnographic research came to be recognized as
a characteristic of anthropological inquiry. Anthropologists pushed for cooperative research
collaborations and challenged colonial legacies by becoming more involved with questions of
power, representation, and indigenous rights. With urgent concerns like globalization,
environmental sustainability, and cultural heritage protection, contemporary anthropology is
still developing.
BODY

The early history of sociology dates back to the 19th century, when the field was
founded in reaction to the societal shifts wrought by the Enlightenment and the Industrial
Revolution.

The following influential individuals established sociology as a separate academic discipline:

1. Auguste Comte (1798–1857): Comte is frequently recognized as the father of

sociology. He emphasized the scientific study of society and is credited with coining
the term "sociology". He promoted positivism, the theory that applies the same
scientific techniques to the study of society as they do the natural sciences.

2. Karl Marx (1818–1883): Marx's research centered on the interplay of politics,

economics, and society. He created the historical materialism theory, which holds that
social structure and change are fundamentally shaped by economic considerations.
His critique of capitalism and class conflict has greatly influenced sociological theory.

3. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917): One of the pioneers of sociology, Durkheim is widely

regarded. He underlined how institutions, norms, and values are examples of social
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realities that have a significant impact on how people behave. Durkheim also
investigated the division of labor in society and the phenomena of social solidarity.

4. Max Weber (1864–1920): Weber's research was on comprehending how society

became more rational and how capitalism, bureaucracy, and religion shaped
contemporary living. He presented ideas like ideal types and verstehen
(understanding) to the field of social action and cultural phenomena research.

5. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903): Spencer used evolutionary theory to understand

society and came up with the expression "survival of the fittest" in a social setting. He
stressed the value of adaptability and competitiveness, seeing society as an organism
that evolves from simple to complex forms.

6. Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936): German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies is well-

known for his contributions to the early sociological tradition. His work on
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, which translate to "community" and "society,"
respectively, is especially well-known.
The shift from traditional rural communities (Gemeinschaft) to contemporary
industrialized societies (Gesellschaft) was examined in Tönnies' influential work
"Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" (1887). Gesellschaft's social bonds are more
impersonal, founded in contractual agreements, individual interests, and economic
transaction, whereas Gemeinschaft's social bonds are built on personal ties, shared
ideals, and a feeling of community. The foundation for comprehending social
development and the influence of modernization on social structures was established
by Tönnies' differentiation between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. His work had a
significant impact on later sociological theory development and thought, especially in
areas like social difference, urbanization, and the influence of culture on social life.

7. Georg Simmel (1858-1918): German philosopher, critic, and sociologist Georg

Simmel made major contributions to the early sociological tradition in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries. Simmel, who was born in Berlin in 1858, studied society,
culture, individuality, and modernism, among other facets of social life. His distinct
viewpoints on social interaction and the structure of society played a significant role
in influencing the development of sociology. Numerous important theories and
concepts in sociology have their roots in the work of Georg Simmel, whose
multidisciplinary approach is still influencing sociological thinking today. For current
sociologists, his focus on the formal aspects of social life, the complexity of
modernity, and the interaction between people and society are still important areas of
study.
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8. Edward Tylor (1832-1917): English anthropologist Edward Tylor is more commonly

linked to the discipline of anthropology than to the early sociological tradition.
Nonetheless, his contributions have had a major impact on the advancement of
sociology and other social sciences. Tylor's contributions to the theory of cultural
evolution and the study of culture are what made him most famous.

Cultural evolutionism is the theory put forth by Tylor in his influential work
"Primitive Culture" (1871) which holds that human societies evolve from simpler to
more complex forms. He maintained that all societies go through comparable
developmental stages, from savagery to civilization, and that human intellectual and
technological improvements are what propel this process. Tylor's theories established
the groundwork for sociologists' and anthropologists' examination of culture. He
underlined the value of comprehending cultural variances and convergences among
societies, and his research opened the door for later researchers to investigate the
connection between culture, society, and behavior.
Although Tylor is more widely recognized for his contributions to anthropology, his
theories had an impact on the early stages of sociology as well, especially when it
came to the study of social institutions, cultural norms, and social change.

9. William Graham Sumner (1840-1910): William Graham Sumner played a big role in
the development of sociology in the early years. He was a political economist,
anthropologist, and sociologist from America who made a major impact on the
growth of sociology in the country in the late 19th and early 20th century.
The theory of social Darwinism, which extended Darwin's ideas of natural selection
and the survival of the fittest to human communities, is arguably Sumner's most well-
known contribution. He maintained that social advancement naturally required strife
and competition, and that any attempt to obstruct these processes would ultimately be
harmful to society. The growth of sociology in the United States was greatly
influenced by Sumner's theories and writings, and he was instrumental in making
sociology an independent academic field. It's crucial to remember, too, that his work
has faced criticism, especially in light of its implications for social inequality and the
role of the government in resolving social issues. However, Sumner is still regarded
as a key figure in the early history of sociology, and historians and sociologists still
study and discuss his theories today.

10. A. R. Radicliffe – Brown (1881-1955): Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (1881–

1955) was a well-known social anthropologist from Britain who had a big impact on
how social anthropology and sociology developed. Although he is more frequently
linked to social anthropology, his contributions to sociology had a significant
influence on the field's early traditions.
The structural-functionalism paradigm greatly inspired Radicliffe-Brown's
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sociological approach. He placed a strong emphasis on the study of social structures

and how cultures use them. Social solidarity, which describes the level of integration
or cohesiveness within a society, was one of his central ideas. He maintained that
social practices and institutions support this solidarity, and he made an effort to
comprehend the fundamental ideas and workings of the systems that support social
order. Radicliffe-Brown studied kinship networks, marriage customs, and other social
structures while conducting fieldwork in a variety of societies, mostly in Australia and
Africa. His comparative research assisted in demonstrating how some social
structures and roles are culturally universal.
His book "Structure and Function in Primitive Society" (1952), which presented his
theoretical framework and used it to analyze kinship networks and social organization
in traditional civilizations, is one of his most important publications. The structural-
functional approach in sociology, which emphasizes the significance of
comprehending social structures and their roles in preserving social order and
coherence, was made possible by the work of Radicliffe-Brown. Even though he is
perhaps better known for his work in social anthropology, he made a substantial
contribution to sociology that continues to influence the field today.

11. Friedrich Eagles 91820-1895): Philosopher, social scientist, and revolutionary

socialist theorist Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) is well renowned for his work with
Karl Marx. Although Engels' contributions to Marxist theory and his co-authorship of
Marxist texts like "Das Kapital" and "The Communist Manifesto" are what most
people remember him for, he also made a substantial impact on the early sociological
tradition.

Engels' sociological observations, which centered on the examination of social The

foundation for later sociological ideas, especially those in the Marxist tradition, was
established by Engels' contributions. Although he did not consider himself a
sociologist in the contemporary sense, the field of sociology has greatly benefited
from his theories and analysis. interactions, economic systems, and class conflicts,
were closely entwined with his Marxist viewpoint.

12. Horstein Veblen (1857-1929): American economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen
(1857–1929) was well-known for his important contributions to social theory and
institutional economics. Even though his name is more frequently linked to
economics, Veblen also made significant contributions to sociology. His research
established the foundation for the early fields of conspicuous consumption, leisure
class, and sociology of consumption. Important theoretical groundwork for
comprehending the interaction of cultural practices, social institutions, and economic
forces in forming society was established by Veblen's early sociological tradition.
Even now, sociology, economics, and allied fields continue to benefit from his work.
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13. Bronistaw Malinowski (1884-1942): Even though ronisław Malinowski was more
well-known for his work in anthropology than sociology, he nevertheless produced
important contributions that had an impact on sociology's early years. Malinowski is
most recognized for developing the idea of functionalism in anthropology and for his
pioneering fieldwork in ethnography.
Malinowski's focus on the study of social institutions and their functioning had an
influence on early sociology, even though his work is predominantly in the field of
anthropology. His method of viewing societies as networks of interrelated pieces
carrying out distinct tasks established the foundation for structural-functionalism, a
well-known sociological theory. "Argonauts of the Western Pacific" (1922), a detailed
account of Malinowski's research on the Trobriand Islanders, is his most well-known
ethnographic work. In this work, he underlined the usefulness of different customs
and rituals and stressed the significance of comprehending social activities and
organizations within their cultural context.
Malinowski's theoretical contributions and methodological innovations have
unquestionably shaped the broader social sciences, including sociology, by
highlighting the significance of fieldwork, participant observation, and seeing
societies as integrated systems. His direct influence on sociology may not be as great
as his impact on anthropology.

14. Pitirm Sorokin (1889 – 1968): Prominent Russian-American sociologist Pitirim

Sorokin made important contributions to the early sociological tradition. Sorokin, who
was born in Russia in 1889, studied social change, social stratification, and
sociocultural dynamics, among other topics in sociology.
Numerous further advances in sociology, especially in the fields of social theory,
cultural sociology, and the study of social change, were made possible by Sorokin's
work. Even though his theories have been subject to considerable criticism and
controversy, his impact on the field of sociology is still profound.

15. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979): One of the pioneers of modern sociology is frequently
regarded as American sociologist Talcott Parsons. The structural-functional approach
to sociology, which emphasizes how social institutions and structures operate to
preserve stability and order in society, was made possible thanks in part to the work
he did. Many important ideas and theoretical frameworks that still shape sociological
thought and study today were established by Talcott Parsons' early sociological
legacy. Even though his work has been revised and criticized over time, his
contributions to sociology have remained fundamental.
Other Pioneers in the Two Disciplines
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1. Franz Boas (1858–1942): Often referred to as the "father of American anthropology,"

Boas made important advances in cultural anthropology, especially with his rejection
of biological determinism and emphasis on cultural relativism.

2. Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942): Known for his fieldwork techniques and

functionalist perspective on culture, Malinowski is considered one of the pioneers of
contemporary anthropology. Many people consider his work on the Trobriand Islands
to be remarkable.

3. Margaret Mead (1901–1978) was a well-known cultural anthropologist who

specialized in researching gender and sexuality across cultural boundaries. Her
writings, especially "Coming of Age in Samoa," questioned gender norms that are
commonly accepted in the West.

4. Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009): By highlighting the fundamental structures of

human societies and civilizations, Lévi–Strauss was a pivotal figure in structural
anthropology. Generations of anthropologists have been impacted by his study on
mythology and family networks.

5. Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917) to be the father of cultural anthropology. His

research was on the study of culture, namely on the theories of cultural evolution and
the earliest religious belief being animism.

Development of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines

The Philippines' sociological and anthropological developments have been shaped by a

number of historical, cultural, and sociopolitical variables.

This is a summary of how they have changed:

1. Spanish colonization of the Philippines from the 16th to the 19th century had a
profound impact on the social and cultural fabric of the nation. Early ethnographic
research was made possible by the documentation of indigenous customs, beliefs, and
social systems by Spanish missionaries and bureaucrats.

2. American Period: Western social sciences, including as sociology and anthropology,

became more well-known after American colonists arrived in the late 19th century. In
order to investigate Philippine society and culture, American experts introduced
contemporary research procedures and theoretical frameworks.
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3. Foundational Studies: Early 20th-century Filipino researchers who did ethnographic

studies on indigenous groups, customs, and languages were Felipe Buencamino and
Pura Villanueva Kalaw. The field of Philippine sociology and anthropology gained its
academic start thanks to their contributions.

4. Institutionalization: Following World War II, sociology and anthropology

departments were established at numerous universities and colleges throughout the
nation. Notable contributors to the growth of these fields include the University of the
Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, and De La Salle University.

5. Focus on Indigenous Cultures: Filipino anthropologists and sociologists have

devoted their research to understanding the various indigenous cultures and ethnic
groupings that make up the country. They have contributed to the preservation and
enjoyment of indigenous history by documenting customs, kinship networks, belief
systems, and societal structures.

6. Urbanization and Globalization: The Philippines' society has experienced a rapid

transformation due to urbanization and globalization, which has presented sociologists
and anthropologists with new study questions and difficulties. Academic study has
increasingly focused on issues such urban poverty, migration, social inequality, and
cultural identity.

7. Interdisciplinary Approach: To solve complicated social issues, anthropologists and

sociologists are working with academics from other fields, including economics,
psychology, history, and environmental studies. This trend of interdisciplinary
research is on the rise.

8. Social Change and Advocacy: A large number of sociologists and anthropologists

from the Philippines are actively involved in social change and advocacy projects. To
combat social inequalities, advance human rights, and encourage sustainable
development, they collaborate with regional communities, non-governmental
organizations, and governmental organizations.
In the Philippines, sociology and anthropology have developed in response to the nation's
rich cultural legacy, colonial past, and current socio-political conditions. Filipino academics
are still making major contributions to these fields on a national and worldwide scale by
producing knowledge that advances social justice, informs governmental decisions, and
deepens our understanding of human cultures.

CONCLUSION
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Two separate but closely linked disciplines that shed light on human behavior, society,
culture, and the complexity of the human experience are sociology and anthropology.
Understanding human civilizations and cultures is a goal shared by all disciplines, despite the
differences in emphasis and approaches.
To sum up, sociology offers a methodical framework for examining the composition,
dynamics, and roles of societies with an emphasis on social organizations, social behavior
patterns, and social institutions. It looks at issues including social change, inequality in
society, and the interaction between people and the larger community. The goal of sociology
is to identify the underlying social processes that influence interpersonal relationships and
behavior.
Anthropology, on the other hand, explores the study of human cultures and society,
covering both historical and contemporary societies worldwide. Anthropology studies the
variety of human cultures, ideologies, customs, and behaviors in an effort to comprehend how
individuals interpret the world, adjust to their surroundings, and form social identities.
When combined, sociology and anthropology provide contrasting viewpoints on the state
of humanity that deepen our comprehension of culture, society, and the interdependence of
human existence. These fields address current issues and advance social justice, equality, and
cultural diversity in a world that is constantly evolving by examining the complex
relationships between social institutions, cultural practices, and human behavior.
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https://www.britannica.com/science/anthropology
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