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Astrophysics and Space Science Library 468

Rosaly M. C. Lopes
Katherine de Kleer
James Tuttle Keane Editors

Io: A New View

of Jupiter’s Moon
Second Edition
Astrophysics and Space Science Library

Volume 468

Series Editor
Steven N. Shore, Dipartimento di Fisica “Enrico Fermi”, Università di Pisa, Pisa,
Italy
The Astrophysics and Space Science Library is a series of high-level monographs
and edited volumes covering a broad range of subjects in Astrophysics, Astronomy,
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scientific professional researchers and advanced graduate students.
Series Editor:
STEVEN N. SHORE, Dipartimento di Fisica “Enrico Fermi”, Università di Pisa,
Pisa, Italy
Advisory Board:
F. BERTOLA, University of Padua, Italy
C. J. CESARSKY, Commission for Atomic Energy, Saclay, France
P. EHRENFREUND, Leiden University, The Netherlands
O. ENGVOLD, University of Oslo, Norway
E. P. J. VAN DEN HEUVEL, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
V. M. KASPI, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
J. M. E. KUIJPERS, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
H. VAN DER LAAN, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
P. G. MURDIN, Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, UK
B. V. SOMOV, Astronomical Institute, Moscow State University, Russia
R. A. SUNYAEV, Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Garching, Germany
Rosaly M. C. Lopes • Katherine de Kleer •
James Tuttle Keane
Editors

Io: A New View of Jupiter’s

Moon
Second Edition
Editors
Rosaly M. C. Lopes Katherine de Kleer
Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology
California Institute of Technology Pasadena, CA, USA
Pasadena, CA, USA

James Tuttle Keane

Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, CA, USA

ISSN 0067-0057 ISSN 2214-7985 (electronic)

Astrophysics and Space Science Library
ISBN 978-3-031-25669-1 ISBN 978-3-031-25670-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25670-7

Previous edition originally published in the series: “Springer Praxis Books in Astronomy and Planetary
Sciences” with the title: “Io After Galileo - A New View of Jupiter’s Volcanic Moon” under: Lopes,
R. M. C., Spencer, J. R.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2007, 2023
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Cover illustration: A montage of New Horizons images of Jupiter and its volcanic moon Io, taken
during the spacecraft’s Jupiter flyby in early 2007. Credit: NASA/JHU/APL. https://www.nasa.gov/
mission_pages/newhorizons/news/nh_jupiter_oct09.html

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Rosaly M. C. Lopes, Katherine de Kleer, and James Tuttle Keane
2 Understanding Io: Four Centuries of Study and Surprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Nicholas M. Schneider and John R. Spencer
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Discovery and Bulk Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Celestial Mechanics Drives Tidal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Tidal Heating Controls the Interior and Heat Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Heat Flow Generates Diverse Volcanic Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Volcanism Creates a Unique Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 Volcanism Sustains an Atmosphere Out of Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 Rampant Atmospheric Escape Fuels the Magnetosphere . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.9 Summary and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 Setting the Stage: Formation and Earliest Evolution of Io. . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
William B. McKinnon
3.1 Formation of Jupiter and the Galilean Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.1 Classes of Satellite-Forming Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1.2 Pebbles vs. Planetesimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.3 When Did Io Form? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2 The Protojovian Circumplanetary Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.1 Advantages of Gas-Starved/Limited Disk Scenarios . . . . . 52
3.2.2 Major Issue: Supply of Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.3 Major Issue: Central Magnetized Cavity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.4 Emerging Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.5 A Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3 Accretion of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.1 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.2 Did Io Accrete Wet or Dry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.3 Disk Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

v
vi Contents

3.3.4 Initial Thermal State of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.3.5 Core Formation and Io’s Oxidation State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.6 Spin State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.4 Early Dynamical Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.5 Summary and Prospects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.5.1 Future Spacecraft Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4 Tidal Heating and the Interior Structure of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
James Tuttle Keane, Isamu Matsuyama, Carver J. Bierson, and
Antony Trinh
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2 Theory, Part 1: Satellite Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.1 Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.2 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.3 Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2.4 Rotational Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.5 Tidal Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.6 Libration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3 Theory, Part 2: Tidal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3.1 Tidal Heating in the Solid Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.2 The Impact of Rheology on Tidal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.3 The Influence of Internal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.3.4 Tidal Heating in a Magma Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3.5 Heat Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3.6 Dissipation-Orbit Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.1 Long-Wavelength Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.2 Short-Wavelength Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.3 Gravity Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.4.4 Magnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.4.5 The Laplace Resonance and Astrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.4.6 Hotspots, Volcanoes, and Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4.7 Total Heat Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.5 Synthesis and Open Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5 Geology of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
David A. Williams, Paul M. Schenk, and Jani Radebaugh
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.3 Plains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.4 Paterae and Paterae Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.5 Lava Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.6 Mountains and Tholi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.7 Diffuse Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Contents vii

5.8 Structural and Tectonic Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

5.9 Large-Scale Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.10 Summary and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.10.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.10.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6 Io’s Thermal Emission and Heat Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Katherine de Kleer and Julie A. Rathbun
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.1.1 The State of Knowledge at the End of the
Galileo Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.1.2 Advances Since the Galileo Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.2 Hot Spot Observations and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.2.1 Earth-Based Observations and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.2.2 Space-Based Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.3 Volcanic Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.3.1 Persistent vs. Transient Hot Spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.3.2 Determining Volcanic Style from Thermal Emission . . . . . 185
6.3.3 Outburst Eruptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.3.4 Notable Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.4 Io’s Volcanoes and Tidal Heating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.4.1 Magma Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.4.2 The Spatial Distribution of Io’s Volcanism and
Heat Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.4.3 Periodicities in Thermal Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.5 Non-volcanic Thermal Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.5.1 Global Heat Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.5.2 Thermal Surface Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.6 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7 The Composition of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Laszlo P. Keszthelyi and Terry-Ann Suer
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.2.1 Magnetosphere and Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.2.2 Surface Mantling Volatiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.2.3 Lava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.2.4 Geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.3 Compositional Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.3.1 A Chondritic Model for Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.3.2 Exotic Compositional Models for Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.4 Future Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
viii Contents

8 The Plumes and Atmosphere of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Imke de Pater, David Goldstein, and Emmanuel Lellouch
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.2 Global Atmospheric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.2.1 Observational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.2.2 Timescales Relevant to Observations and Modeling . . . . . . 239
8.2.3 Atmospheric Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.4 Thermal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.3 Spatial Distribution and Temporal Variability of Io’s
Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3.1 Dayside Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.3.2 Eclipse Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.3.3 Auroral Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
8.3.4 Atmospheric Escape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.4 Plumes: Characteristics, Deposits, and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.4.1 Observations of Plumes and Their Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.4.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Plume Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.4.3 Models of Plumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.5 What Drives Io’s Atmosphere? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
8.5.1 Sublimation-Supported Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
8.5.2 Volcanically-Supported Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.5.3 Sputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.5.4 Dynamics/winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.6 Conclusions and Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9 Space Environment of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Fran Bagenal and Vincent Dols
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.2 Plasma Interactions with Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.2.1 Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
9.2.2 Physical Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
9.2.3 Atmospheric Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
9.2.4 Aurora at Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
9.2.5 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.3 Neutral Clouds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.3.1 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.3.2 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.3.3 The Mendillodisk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.4 Plasma Torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
9.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
9.5.1 Outstanding Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.5.2 Future Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Contents ix

10 Io as an Analog for Tidally Heated Exoplanets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Amy C. Barr, Ramon Brasser, Vera Dobos, and Lynnae C. Quick
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
10.2 Planetary Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
10.3 Orbital Configuration and Tidal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
10.3.1 The Galilean Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
10.3.2 Resonant Exoplanets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10.4 Tidal Heating and Interior Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.4.1 Tidal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
10.4.2 Convection and Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
10.4.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
10.5 Geological Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
10.6 Prospects for Future Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11 Outstanding Questions and Future Observations of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Alfred S. McEwen, Amanda F. Haapala, Laszlo P. Keszthelyi,
and Kathleen E. Mandt
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
11.2 Outstanding Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
11.2.1 Formation and Evolution of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
11.2.2 Tidal Heating and the Interior of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
11.2.3 Geology and Composition of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
11.2.4 “Hot Spots” and Thermal Emission from Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
11.2.5 The Plumes and Atmosphere of Io. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.2.6 The Magnetosphere and Plasma Environment
Around Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
11.2.7 Io as an Analog for Exoplanets and Exomoons . . . . . . . . . . . 356
11.3 Future Observations of Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.3.1 Telescopic Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.3.2 Future Spacecraft Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
11.4 New NASA Mission Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
11.5 Io Orbiter Mission Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
11.6 Summary: Top Ten Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Contributors

Fran Bagenal Laboratory for Atmospheric & Space Physics, University of Col-
orado, Boulder, CO, USA
A. C. Barr Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, USA
C. J. Bierson Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
R. Brasser Origins Research Institute, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth
Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
Katherine de Kleer California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
I. de Pater Department of Astronomy, University of California, Berkeley, CA,
USA
V. Dobos Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen,
The Netherlands
MTA-ELTE Exoplanet Research Group, Szombathely, Hungary
Vincent Dols Laboratory for Atmospheric & Space Physics, University of Col-
orado, Boulder, CO, USA
D. Goldstein Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, TX, USA
Amanda F. Haapala Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory,
Laurel, MD, USA
James Tuttle Keane Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, CA, USA
Laszlo P. Keszthelyi U.S. Geological Survey, Astrogeology Science Center,
Flagstaff, AZ, USA
E. Lellouch Laboratoire d’Études Spatiales et d’Instrumentation en Astrophysique
(LESIA), Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France

xi
xii Contributors

Rosaly M. C. Lopes Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,

Pasadena, CA, USA
Kathleen E. Mandt Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Lau-
rel, MD, USA
I. Matsuyama University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
Alfred S. McEwen Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tuc-
son, AZ, USA
William B. McKinnon Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and McDon-
nell Center for the Space Sciences, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO, USA
L. C. Quick NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and The Nexus for Exoplanet
System Science (NExSS), Greenbelt, MD, USA
Jani Radebaugh Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
J. A. Rathbun Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, USA
Paul M. Schenk Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, TX, USA
Nicholas M. Schneider Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, Univer-
sity of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
John R. Spencer Department of Space Studies, Southwest Research Institute,
Boulder, CO, USA
Terry-Ann Suer Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University,
Cambridge, MA, USA
A. Trinh University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
David A. Williams Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
Chapter 1
Introduction

Rosaly M. C. Lopes , Katherine de Kleer, and James Tuttle Keane

Abstract The Galilean satellite Io is a dynamic body in the solar system and a
prime location to study volcanism. We summarize the content of the chapters in this
book and provide a table of basic orbital and physical properties.

Io was discovered by Galileo Galilei on 8 January 1610 and has fascinated scientists
ever since. The innermost of Jupiter’s four Galilean satellites (Fig. 1.1, Table
1.1), Io is the only body in our solar system besides Earth known to have large-
scale active volcanism (Fig. 1.2). Io has an important role in our understanding
of the Solar System, as it is one world where we can observe extreme processes
in action, including tidally-powered volcanism, tectonism, and atmospheric and
magnetospheric interactions. Io’s heat flow is much higher than the Earth’s, its
interior may contain a magma ocean (Fig. 1.3), and its lavas may be hotter than
any erupted on the Earth today. Io’s intense volcanism makes it the best present-day
analogue for the early Earth and other rocky worlds, and likely for some present-day
exoplanets and exomoons.
Since the discovery of active volcanism on Io from Voyager 1 images in 1979,
our knowledge of Io has evolved considerably (Fig. 1.4). While the Voyager 1
and Voyager 2 flybys gave us a glimpse of a world that few had imagined, the
Galileo mission in the 1990s and early 2000s provided a much deeper knowledge
of Io and the Jupiter system. Despite complications with the mission, Galileo
revolutionized our understanding of the Jupiter system, including revealing the
tantalizing possibility that tidal dissipation not only fuels the volcanoes on Io,
but also supports subsurface water oceans beneath the icy shells of Europa and
Ganymede. The amazing findings of Galileo at Io inspired a previous book, Io After

R. M. Lopes () · J. T. Keane

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
e-mail: Rosaly.m.lopes@jpl.nasa.gov; James.t.keane@jpl.nasa.gov
K. de Kleer
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
e-mail: dekleer@caltech.edu

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

R. M. C. Lopes et al. (eds.), Io: A New View of Jupiter’s Moon, Astrophysics
and Space Science Library 468, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25670-7_1
2 R. M. C. Lopes et al.

Fig. 1.1 A schematic of the Jupiter system. The top panel shows a perspective view of the Jupiter
system. The relative sizes of the orbits are to scale, as are the relative sizes of the moons, although
the orbits and moons are not to scale with each other, nor is Jupiter to scale with anything. The
bottom panel shows a simplified view of the configuration of the three satellites in the Laplace
resonance (Io, Europa, and Ganymede) as a function of time. Thin, vertical dashed lines indicate
different conjunctions and oppositions of the satellites. Figure credit: James Tuttle Keane, NASA’s
Eyes on the Solar System (https://eyes.nasa.gov/)

Table 1.1 Io’s basic orbital and physical properties

Mean radius: 1821.6 ± 0.5 km
Bulk density: 3528 ± 3 kgm−3
Orbital period: 1.769 days (42.459 h)
Orbital eccentricity: 0.0041 (forced)
Orbital inclination 0.037◦
Orbital semimajor axis: 421,800 km
Rotational period: Synchronous (identical to orbital period)
Mass: (8.9320 ± 0.0013) × 1022 kg
Surface gravity: 1.796 ms−2 (18.3% Earth gravity)
Global average heat flow: >2.5 Wm−2
Core dynamo magnetic field strength: <50 nT
Geometric albedo: 0.62
Local topographic relief: <17 km
Number of active volcanic centers >166
Typical surface temperatures: 85 K (night)140 K (day)1000~2000 K (erupted lavas)
Atmospheric pressure: <10−9 bar
Source: Lopes, R. and D. Williams: Io after Galileo. Reports on Progress in Physics, Institute of
Physics Publishing, 68, 303–340
1 Introduction 3

Fig. 1.2 Images of Io and its dramatic activity. (a) A New Horizons view of Io and, with the
Tvashtar plume prominently extending above the limb. The left-hand side of Io is illuminated by
sunlight, while the right-hand-side of Io is partially illuminated by Jupiter-shine. (b) A Galileo false
color image mosaic of Io. (c) A Voyager 1 image mosaic of Io’s south polar terrain. The terminator
(line between daylight and night) runs diagonally across the frame. On the right is Haemus Mons, a
10-km tall mountain. Volcanic plains, plateus, and crater-like depressions (patera) cover the rest of
the scene. Figure credit: James Tuttle Keane, NASA, JHUAPL, SwRI, JPL, University of Arizona,
USGS

Galileo (Editors: R.M.C. Lopes and J.R. Spencer), published in 2007. That same
year saw new observations of Io and the Jupiter system from the New Horizons
spacecraft on its way to Pluto. The Juno spacecraft has been in orbit of Jupiter since
2016, and while the primary goal of the Juno mission is to understand Jupiter, Juno
has provided exciting serendipitous views of Io. Juno is expected to have several
close flybys of Io late in its extended mission. Simultaneously, ground- and space-
based astronomy has advanced rapidly: adaptive optics observations have provided
sharper views of Io, and synoptic monitoring is revealing intriguing patterns in the
cadence of Io’s volcanic activity. New observatories have enabled detailed views
of Io at wholly new wavelengths, including the Atacama Large Millimeter Array
(ALMA). The combination of observations have allowed great strides to be made
on understanding Io, and more recent models have gained us knowledge of Io’s
formation and interior.
This past decade of advances motivated the need for an updated review book
of Io, to build on and complement Io After Galileo. The scope, and chapters, are
4 R. M. C. Lopes et al.

Fig. 1.3 Schematic illustration of the possible interior structure of Io, and the various processes
shaping Io. Figure credit: James Tuttle Keane and Aaron Rodriquez

different from those of the 2007 book, as we have chosen to highlight the areas
where significant progress has been made since then:
In Chap. 2, Nick Schneider and John Spencer take a thematic approach to the
extraordinary discoveries made about Io, from early telescopic observations to
present-day telescopic and space-based observations. It complements the compre-
hensive review of pre-Galileo results in Io After Galileo.
In Chap. 3, William McKinnon discusses the formation and earliest evolution
of Io, reviewing the new models that have caused significant changes in our prior
understanding. Since Galileo data were acquired in the 1990s and early 2000s,
astronomical observations of protoplanetary disks, including those by ALMA, plus
advances in theoretical and numerical models have enabled significant progress in
our understanding satellite formation and evolution scenarios.
In Chap. 4, James Tuttle Keane, Isamu Matsuyama, Carver J. Bierson, and
Antony Trinh review the major advances in our understanding of Io’s interior
structure and the fundamental process of tidal heating evolution since the Galileo
era. Advances in geophysics provide the context for interpreting Earth-based
observations, which are often designed to interrogate Io’s interior structure and
evolution, and have seen tremendous advances in the last couple of decades.
1 Introduction 5

Fig. 1.4 Timeline of robotic and telescopic observation of Io. The left-hand side shows robotic
exploration of Io, and all spacecraft that have flown through the Jupiter system and observed
Io. The right-hand side shows a subset of ground- and space-based telescopic observations of
Io. There is an extensive history of ground-based observations prior to the 2000s, which is more
thoroughly detailed in Io After Galileo. All future dates should be taken as notional. “Extremely
Large Telescopes” include the European Extremely Large Telescope (EELT), Giant Magellan
Telescope (GMT), and Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT). Figure credit: James Tuttle Keane, and
references therein

In Chap. 5, David Williams, Paul Schenk, and Jani Radebaugh review Io’s
surface geology, which is unique in the solar system as it is completely dominated
by volcanic and tectonic features. Io’s extreme volcanism causes a resurfacing rate
that has effectively erased all impact craters from the surface, making Io the only
object in the Solar System on which no impact craters have been identified.
In Chap. 6, Katherine de Kleer and Julie Rathbun discuss Io’s thermal emission
and heat flow. Io’s surface shows many sources of thermal emission (hot spots) and,
although many of these were detected from Galileo data, our understanding of the
hot spots and heat flow, both volcanic and passive, has progressed substantially since
the end of the Galileo mission due to new telescopic datasets, continuing analyses
of spacecraft data, and improvements in theoretical models.
6 R. M. C. Lopes et al.

In Chap. 7, Laszlo P. Keszthelyi and Terry-Ann Suer review the many different,
but indirect, constraints on the bulk composition Io. The chapter focuses on bulk
composition rather than surface composition, since there have been few new
observations of Io’s surface composition since Galileo. In this chapter, the authors
use a detailed consideration of Io’s lavas to illustrate how decades of research have
bounded, but not pinned down, the chemistry of Io.
In Chap. 8, Imke de Pater, David Goldstein, and Emmanuel Lellouch review our
latest knowledge of the plumes and atmosphere of Io with an emphasis on research
conducted since the Galileo era. While the primary source of Io’s atmosphere is
sublimation of SO2 frost, volcanoes can have a substantial effect on the atmosphere
as shown both via observations and model simulations. Although considerable
progress has been made towards both a characterization and understanding of Io’s
atmosphere, there are some fundamental questions that are still unanswered.
In Chap. 9, Fran Bagenal and Vincent Dols review the major role that Io plays in
Jupiter’s giant magnetosphere and how, in turn, magnetospheric particles and fields
affect Io. They discuss the physical processes that shape the space environment
around Io and the impact from Jupiter out into interplanetary space. Since Galileo
observations, data from New Horizons, Hubble Space Telescope, the Japanese
Hisaki satellite, and the Juno spacecraft have made significant contributions to our
understanding of the space environment of Io.
In Chap. 10, Amy Barr, Ramon Brasser, Vera Dobos, and Lynnae C. Quick
discuss how Io can be an analogue for tidally heated exoplanets. The conditions
we see at Io—a rocky body orbiting close to its parent planet, in resonant orbit with
its sibling satellites and experiencing intense tidal heating, also occur in at least
one system of a star and its planets, TRAPPIST-1. The chapter discusses the use of
simple geophysical models, which reproduce observed behaviors of Io, to show that
the TRAPPIST-1 bodies may be in a similar geophysical regime as Io.
In Chap. 11, Alfred McEwen, Amanda F. Haapala Chalk, Laszlo P. Keszthelyi,
and Kathleen E. Mandt review the key outstanding questions and future observations
of Io, including future telescopic and spacecraft observations. The chapter reviews
what instruments and observations might be made by a future mission and why Io
is so important as a target for future exploration.
NASA’s long-term goals are defined by Decadal Surveys conducted by the
National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine. The most recent
Decadal Survey, Origins, Worlds, and Life: A Decadal Strategy for Planetary
Science and Astrobiology 2023–2032 prioritized Io science. Origins, Worlds, and
Life identified 12 priority science questions, and Io features prominently in the
majority—with particular strong connections to priority science questions related
to the evolution of solid body interiors, circumplanetary systems, and dynamic
habitability.
At the time of writing, we look forward to future spacecraft observations of Io by
NASA’s Juno spacecraft, currently in orbit around Jupiter, and the European Space
Agency’s JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE) spacecraft, scheduled to arrive at
the Jupiter system in 2031. Dedicated Io missions have been, and we expect will
1 Introduction 7

continue to be, proposed under NASA’s competitive programs, including NASA’s

New Frontiers 5 opportunity and Discovery.
It is our hope that this book will serve as inspiration for researchers and students
to familiarize themselves with the state of our understanding of the most extreme
and unique worlds in our Solar System.

Acknowledgements J.T.K. carried out a portion of this research at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (80NM0018D0004). R.M.C.L.’s work was done as a private venture and not in
the author’s capacity as an employee of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of
Technology.
Chapter 2
Understanding Io: Four Centuries
of Study and Surprise

Nicholas M. Schneider and John R. Spencer

Abstract We now know Io to be a world of superlatives among solar system

bodies. It experiences the strongest orbital resonances, exhibits the greatest volcanic
activity, sustains the most rapidly escaping atmosphere, and lies deep within the
most powerful magnetosphere. This chapter synopsizes the centuries of studies
that revealed Io’s remarkable properties, but highlights how the fundamental
interconnectedness between these distinct properties were revealed only in recent
decades. In fact, the revelation of links between seemingly unrelated planetary
phenomena placed Io in the position to revolutionize planetary science. Before Io,
who might have hypothesized that orbital peculiarities could drive volcanoes, shrink
moons and power aurora? Io’s example forces planets and moons to be studied
as coupled as systems, from celestial mechanics through interiors, surfaces, and
atmospheres to magnetospheres.

2.1 Introduction

The history of Io studies shows that many of its exceptional properties were quick
to reveal themselves through observation, but the connections between them took
time to appreciate. In the pages that follow, we’ll see repeated cases where the
“superlatives” of Io’s properties lead to the earliest discoveries of new planetary
processes, starting with its very discovery along with the other Galilean moons
(Fig. 2.1a). The trend continues to this day, establishing Io as the prototype for tidal
heating, atmospheric escape and many other processes. In this role it has inspired
explorations of countless other objects where similar processes may play out in less
dramatic fashion. Beyond our solar system, Io informs studies of planets around

N. M. Schneider ()
Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
e-mail: Nick.Schneider@lasp.colorado.edu
J. R. Spencer
Department of Space Studies, Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, CO, USA
e-mail: spencer@boulder.swri.edu

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 9

R. M. C. Lopes et al. (eds.), Io: A New View of Jupiter’s Moon, Astrophysics
and Space Science Library 468, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25670-7_2
Another random document with
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Title: Tom Swift and his chest of secrets

or, Tracing the stolen inventions

Author: Victor Appleton

Release date: January 8, 2024 [eBook #72659]

Language: English

Original publication: New York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap Publishers,

1925

Credits: Delphine Lettau, Greg Weeks, Cindy Beyer & the online
Distributed Proofreaders Canada team at
http://www.pgdpcanada.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TOM SWIFT

AND HIS CHEST OF SECRETS ***
TOM SWIFT AND HIS
CHEST OF SECRETS
OR

Tracing the Stolen Inventions

By
VICTOR APPLETON
Author of
“Tom Swift and His Motor Cycle”
“Tom Swift Among the Diamond Makers”
“Tom Swift and His Great Oil Gusher”
“The Don Sturdy Series”
Etc.

ILLUSTRATED

NEW YORK
GROSSET & DUNLAP
PUBLISHERS

Made in the United States of America

 BOOKS FOR BOYS
By VICTOR APPLETON
12mo. Cloth. Illustrated
————
THE TOM SWIFT SERIES
TOM SWIFT AND HIS MOTOR CYCLE
TOM SWIFT AND HIS MOTOR BOAT
TOM SWIFT AND HIS AIRSHIP
TOM SWIFT AND HIS SUBMARINE BOAT
TOM SWIFT AND HIS ELECTRIC RUNABOUT
TOM SWIFT AND HIS WIRELESS MESSAGE
TOM SWIFT AMONG THE DIAMOND MAKERS
TOM SWIFT IN THE CAVES OF ICE
TOM SWIFT AND HIS SKY RACER
TOM SWIFT AND HIS ELECTRIC RIFLE
TOM SWIFT IN THE CITY OF GOLD
TOM SWIFT AND HIS AIR GLIDER
TOM SWIFT IN CAPTIVITY
TOM SWIFT AND HIS WIZARD CAMERA
TOM SWIFT AND HIS GREAT SEARCHLIGHT
TOM SWIFT AND HIS GIANT CANNON
TOM SWIFT AND HIS PHOTO TELEPHONE
TOM SWIFT AND HIS AERIAL WARSHIP
TOM SWIFT AND HIS BIG TUNNEL
TOM SWIFT IN THE LAND OF WONDERS
TOM SWIFT AND HIS WAR TANK
TOM SWIFT AND HIS AIR SCOUT
TOM SWIFT AND HIS UNDERSEA SEARCH
TOM SWIFT AMONG THE FIRE FIGHTERS
TOM SWIFT AND HIS ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE
TOM SWIFT AND HIS FLYING BOAT
TOM SWIFT AND HIS GREAT OIL GUSHER
TOM SWIFT AND HIS CHEST OF SECRETS
————
THE DON STURDY SERIES
DON STURDY ON THE DESERT OF MYSTERY
DON STURDY WITH THE BIG SNAKE HUNTERS
DON STURDY IN THE TOMBS OF GOLD
DON STURDY ACROSS THE NORTH POLE
DON STURDY IN THE LAND OF VOLCANOES
————
Grosset & Dunlap, Publishers, New York
Copyright, 1925, by
GROSSET & DUNLAP
————
Tom Swift and His Chest of Secrets
 CONTENTS

I. A Crash on the Roof

II. Big Offers
III. Dirty Work
IV. Liberty Bonds
V. Ivan Barsky
VI. Fire
VII. A Hurried Exit
VIII. A Secret Listener
IX. Mary’s Message
X. A Queer Story
XI. A Double Peril
XII. A Ring of Fire
XIII. Just in Time
XIV. A Queer Attack
XV. The Trap
XVI. Bound in Darkness
XVII. Out of the Cistern
XVIII. Two Disappearances
XIX. Koku is Found
XX. Many Strange Clews
XXI. Scouting Around
XXII. A Strange Message
XXIII. The Blue Machine
XXIV. A Night Watch
XXV. The Round-Up
IN THE LIGHT OF LANTERNS TOM COUNTED FIVE FIGURES.

TOM SWIFT AND HIS

CHEST OF SECRETS
 CHAPTER I
A CRASH ON THE ROOF

There was a puffing as of labored breath, a shuffling of feet in

the hallway, a banging and clattering sound, and then a voice cried:
“Where you have ’um, Master?”
Ned Newton looked up from his desk and glanced across the
room at Tom Swift who was poring over a mass of blue prints. The
young inventor smiled at his equally youthful business manager as
Ned remarked:
“There’s your cute little giant Koku up to some of his interesting
tricks again! Sounds as if he’d caught Eradicate by the hair of his
bald head and was bringing him in upside down!”
“Plague take those fellows!” muttered Tom, a look of annoyance
passing over his face. “If they don’t stop this everlasting clashing to
see who is going to do things around here, I’ll get rid of them both!
That’s what I will!”
Ned Newton laughed—laughed so hard that a pencil he had been
using flew out of his hand and fell to the floor, breaking the fine point
the young manager had put on in order to work over the financial
affairs of the Swift Construction Company. Then Ned’s face sobered
as he noted his broken pencil and he exclaimed:
“Oh, soapsuds!”
“Why the giggles?” asked Tom a bit impatiently. He had been
buried in such deep thought that he resented the interruptions—not
only the interruption of the noise outside his private office, but Ned’s
laughter.
“Oh, I was only laughing because you’ve threatened so many
times to get rid of Koku and Eradicate. But you’ve never done it,”
went on Ned, “and you never will.”
“No, I never will, I suppose,” agreed Tom slightly chuckling.
“Though they are mighty annoying at times with their everlasting
——”
He did not finish the sentence, for again there came from the hall
those strange sounds and once more the voice asked:
“Where you want ’um, Master?”
 “It all depends, I should say, on who ‘ ’um’ is,” laughed Ned.
“It can’t be Rad,” remarked Tom, rising from his chair to go to the
door. “If it were he’d have let out a yell long ago. It’s got so lately that
he makes a fuss if Koku looks at him.”
“Afraid he’ll turn him white, I reckon,” chuckled Ned.
By this time Tom Swift had opened the door, revealing that Koku,
the jungle giant, alone stood there, waiting for orders. Contrary to
what Ned Newton had suggested, the big man did not have in his
grasp Eradicate Sampson, the old colored servant of the Swift
household. Between Koku and Eradicate there was an everlasting
feud, due to the fact that each one loved and wanted to serve Tom
and resented the other’s efforts in the same field of endeavor.
But Koku held something else—something that, when Ned
caught a glimpse of it, caused the young manager to exclaim:
“My word, Tom, what’s the idea of the treasure chest?”
For it was nothing less than that which the giant held up on his
shoulder—a great, massive oak chest bound with heavy strips of
brass. And, as if that were not enough to hold the chest together,
there were in addition two strips of wrought iron around either end of
it, the strips terminating in hasps which dropped over massive
staples, there to be fastened with heavy brass padlocks which
tinkled and clanged with a suggestive sound as Koku stood holding
the big box.
“Oh, Koku, I didn’t know this had come,” remarked Tom, and all
his annoyance at the interruption to his thoughts passed. “I have
been waiting for it.”
“Jes’ comed,” remarked Koku, whose English left much to be
desired, though he generally managed to make himself understood.
“Two mans bring ’um off truck. Want to fetch ’um up here. I laff an’
say Koku brung. Them mans laff say no can do. I laff two times and I
give mans push and bring ’um here. Here ’um am.”
“So I see,” remarked Tom with gentle sarcasm. “And I suppose in
refusing the offers of the truckmen who delivered my chest you
knocked them seven ways or more.
“Just cast your gaze out of that window, Ned, and see if you can
observe two huskies with fire in their eyes who will make a demand
on the Swift Construction Company for damages caused by personal
injuries from this little follower of mine. And as for you, Koku, how
many times must I tell you not to go about pushing! You aren’t
playing football, you know!”
“Where you want ’um?” was all Koku answered, still holding the
heavy chest as though it were but a pasteboard box. “I put ’um down
then I go bring up mans an’ show ’um I can do!”
“You let those men alone!” and Tom laughed in spite of himself.
“You’ve got me into trouble enough, as it is. But put the chest down
there, and then go and ask my father if he feels well enough to come
here.”
“Boss Swift no come, I carry him,” said Koku simply.
“None of that, unless he wants you to, Koku!” ordered Tom in so
sharp a tone that the giant knew he must obey.
“Aw right,” he murmured. He put the massive brass-bound chest
down in the middle of the room, the keys, which were tied to the
padlocks, jingling and clanking as he did so. Then, as the giant left
the room, Ned drew his head in from the window and remarked:
“There are two huskies down there, dusting off their clothes and
looking indignant.”
“Just as I thought,” groaned Tom. “I’ll have another demand on
me for monetary damages on account of Koku’s confounded zeal in
my behalf. Here, Ned, run down with these cigars, like a good chap,
and stave off the row, will you?”
“Sure, Tom!” The young manager grabbed a handful of cigars
from a box some one had sent Tom, but which the young inventor
never used, and hurried out.
Meanwhile Tom Swift, left to himself, walked over to the great
new chest, and, cutting loose the keys, fitted them into the locks,
there being two, and threw back the cover.
“This will hold the most valuable of my secrets until I can get the
concrete storage vault made,” he remarked.
He was still looking at and admiring the chest when Ned came
back. In his hand the young man still held the cigars.
“Wouldn’t they take them?” asked Tom quickly.
“I didn’t get a chance to give them the smokes,” was the answer.
“Just as I got down there Koku came out the back door, and you
should have seen those fellows make a dash for their truck. They’re
breaking the speed laws yet, I reckon,” and Ned sat down in a chair
and laughed heartily. “They seem to have had enough of Koku’s
pushes, Tom.”
“Hang it all!” muttered Tom. “Well, I’ll have to square those
fellows next time I see them. Maybe they won’t make any trouble.”
“Judging from the way they streaked it down the road, they won’t
come back here unless they’re hauled. But what’s the idea of the
treasure chest, Tom? Some new invention?”
“No, it’s just a plain, strong chest. I had it made to store away my
secret inventions—the formulae, plans, blue prints and so on—until I
can put them properly in a vault that I’m going to construct
underground.” As Tom spoke he began putting into the chest a
number of bundles of documents and drawings. “I had the chest
made in Mansburg, and I was just wondering when they were going
to deliver it when Koku brought it up,” he added.
“Those plans and blue prints must be worth a lot of money,”
remarked Ned, with an appraising glance at them.
“Well, yes, you might say that,” admitted Tom, though not at all
boastfully. “The tidal engine alone, when I get it perfected, ought to
bring in a pretty penny—that is, if dad and I decided to sell it.”
“When you perfect it!” exclaimed Ned. “Why, it works like a charm
now!”
“Yes, I know the model does,” admitted Tom. “But that doesn’t
say it’s commercially practical yet.”
“To judge by some of the offers you got for even a small interest
in it, I’d say it was a humdinger!” exclaimed Ned. “But then your
name goes a long way, Tom. Once let it be known that your company
has something new on the market, and you’re overwhelmed with
offers. Take that gyroscope air flier your father helped work out——”
“Not so loud, Ned!” cautioned the young inventor. “I’m not ready
to let the latest news of that get out yet. As you know, with the new
stabilizer, it works on quite a different principle.”
“Right! But there’s no one around here now to catch your secrets,
Tom.”
“You never know when some one is around,” was the cautious
observation as the young inventor continued to pack blue prints into
the chest. “It’s best to be on the safe side. We didn’t think any one
was listening when you and I discussed plans for the new turbine,
and yet we nearly got dished out of that.”
“That’s so—my error!” apologized Ned. “Are the plans for that
going into the new chest?”
“Yes; and for my new idea that may result in automatically
stopping railroad trains and preventing accidents,” went on Tom. “I
have great hopes of that and also of my new mammoth telescope.”
“Telescope!” exclaimed Ned. “You haven’t said anything to me
about that, Tom. What’s the idea?”
“Well, it’s pretty hazy as yet. But I have a notion that we haven’t
begun to reach the limits of telescope work yet. If by means of
present instruments we can bring the moon to within apparently forty
thousand miles, why can’t we double the size, or at least the power
of the telescopes, and make the moon seem only a few hundred
miles away? Then, by taking moving pictures and enlarging them,
we may be able to settle the disputed point as to whether or not the
moon is inhabited. Yes, I’ve got a lot of work to do on my telescope,
and also on the farm tractor. I’ve got a notion I can improve the
tractor, though I guess Ford beat me to it, and holds all the tricks, for
he can make them in such vast quantities that he could outsell me
and underbid me, even though I could better the machine a little.”
“Yes, I wouldn’t advise, as your financial manager, bucking up
against the Ford interests,” remarked Ned dryly. “We’re in pretty
good shape, have a nice balance in the bank, and all that, but I want
to see it stay there.”
“So do I!” laughed Tom, as he continued to pack into the chest
thousands of dollars’ worth of valuable patent papers. “I’m not going
into any wild schemes, Ned.”
“I wouldn’t advise it,” went on the young manager. “Especially in
view of what may happen soon,” he added.
“What’s going to happen?” asked Tom quickly and a bit
apprehensively.
“Why, I thought I might soon be requested to act as best man at a
certain ceremony in which the talented Tom Swift was a party of the
second part, and a certain Mary Nestor party of the first part
aforesaid in manner following, to wit, that is to say, and all the rest of
it!”
 “Cut it out!” laughed Tom, blushing slightly under his tan. “But if I
ever do need a best man you’ll be it, Ned.”
“Thanks. I hoped as much. Well, when you get all your
documents in that chest of secrets it will be worth a pretty penny,
Tom.”
“Chest of secrets!” laughed Tom. “That’s a good name for it, Ned.
Yes, quite a little fortune,” he went on. “I had the chest made secure
and heavy on purpose so it couldn’t easily be carried away. Maybe I
had it made a bit too heavy. Let’s see if we can shift it out of the
middle of the room, Ned.”
The chest, nearly filled with documents which Tom had taken
from his desk and the office safe, was not locked. The two young
men attempted to lift it, but it was beyond their strength.
“We’ll have to send for Koku,” remarked Tom. “Though I expect
him back any moment. I sent him to call dad here. He may have
some papers he wants to put in the chest.”
“Hark!” exclaimed Ned, raising a hand for silence.
Immediately thereafter a great crash sounded on the roof of the
building—a thundering, vibrating and nerve-racking crash, and
above the din a voice cried:
“Bless my steering wheel! I didn’t want to land here!”
 CHAPTER II
BIG OFFERS

Tom Swift and Ned Newton glanced at each other. In spite of

the apparent gravity of the situation the young men could not help
smiling. For well they knew that voice, and they could judge what
had happened.
“It’s Mr. Damon!” exclaimed Ned.
“And he must have made a forced landing from an aeroplane on
the roof above us!” added Tom. “Lucky for us he didn’t come
through.”
“Lucky for him, too, I should say!”
Ned made a dash for a stairway leading to the broad, flat roof of
the building that housed Tom’s executive offices and also one of the
shops of the Swift Construction Company. The young inventor
followed his financial manager. Others of the plant—workmen,
machinists, and apprentices—were also on their way to the roof.
Tom and Ned, going up a private stairway and through a scuttle,
were the first to reach the scene. There a curious sight met their
eyes. Seated in a small monoplane—a kind invented by Tom Swift
himself—was Mr. Wakefield Damon, a friend of the family, a very
eccentric but lovable character, forever “blessing” any and everything
that took his fancy.
“Hello, boys!” he greeted Tom and Ned, blinking his eyes at them
in a curious fashion.
“Well, for the love of spark plugs!” cried Ned. “What happened?”
“Are you hurt?” Tom asked more practically, though a quick
glance assured him that the plane was whole, though one landing
wheel was slightly out of true, and that the solitary passenger was
still in the small cockpit.
“Bless my porous plaster, Tom, I don’t know whether I’m hurt or
not!” answered Mr. Damon. “I came down so suddenly! I was aiming
to land in your regular flying field, but something went wrong with the
controls—it’s a new plane, I haven’t had it long—and I find myself
here.”
 “Mighty lucky you are to find yourself, I’ll say,” murmured Ned, as
a crowd of Tom’s men gathered about the plane on the roof.
“This smash,” remarked Tom, as he and Ned were helping the
odd man from his aeroplane, “reminds me of the first time I ever saw
you, Mr. Damon. You were riding a motorcycle.”
“And it tried to climb a tree with me! Bless my rubber boots, well
do I remember that!”
It was owing to Mr. Damon’s disgust over the accident to his
motorcycle that Tom had been able to secure it for a small sum. As
related in the first volume of this series, “Tom Swift and His Motor
Cycle,” the young inventor was started on his sensational career by
the possession of this battered machine, which he repaired and got
in running order. On it he had some exciting rides.
Tom was in his early manhood. He, and his aged and somewhat
invalid father, an inventor of note, lived in the Swift homestead in the
town of Shopton on Lake Carlopa. Tom’s mother was dead, but he
and his father were well looked after by Mrs. Baggert, an efficient
housekeeper. Of late years Barton Swift had not taken much active
part in the rapidly growing business, though Tom always consulted
his father on matters of importance.
It was at the suggestion of Mary Nestor, for whom Tom had a
very great admiration, that the young inventor engaged his friend
and boyhood chum, Ned Newton, to look after the business matters
of the Swift Construction Company. Tom never had reason to regret
that decision. For with Ned to look after money matters, see to
contracts, and the like, Tom and his father were left free to exercise
their inventive ability.
The Swift Company had gone into many lines of activity, from
building airships and aeroplanes to constructing submarines and
giant cannon for the government. These brought Tom and his
associates money and fame, and also hard work.
Just prior to the opening of this story Tom had developed a new
drill and a system of sinking shafts for oil wells, and when, as related
in “Tom Swift and His Great Oil Gusher,” he successfully
demonstrated how quickly he could get down to the oil-containing
sand, he made another big amount of money, not only for the Swift
Company, but for the Goby family as well.
 It was after this that he began to think of getting together in one
central place all his drawings, patent rights, secret formulae and the
like. To this end he had had constructed the strong chest, and he
and Ned had barely finished putting into it most of the valuable
documents when the crash on the roof came.
“He doesn’t seem to be hurt, Tom,” remarked Garret Jackson,
Tom’s shop manager, as he laid Mr. Damon on a pile of coats and
jackets which some workmen hastily spread on the roof.
“Hurt! Bless my doctor’s bill, I’m not hurt at all!” exclaimed the
odd man. “I’m shaken up, but I’m more worried about the plane than
about myself. Is it all right, Tom? I tried to avoid the chimney, but I’m
afraid one wheel grazed it.”
“Yes, that’s what happened,” replied the young inventor, as soon
as he had made sure his friend was not hurt and had had time to
inspect the craft. “You damaged it a little. But I can easily put on
another wheel. I have some spare ones for that model.”
“Have you, Tom? That’s fine! Put one on and I’ll fly off your roof.
You may charge me storage if I stay here too long,” and Mr. Damon
laughed in a way which showed, better than anything else, that he
had suffered no ill effects from the sudden ending of his flight.
“Are you going to trust yourself again to that plane?” asked Mr.
Jackson.
“Of course I’m going to fly again!” cried the odd man. “A little
bump like this doesn’t disturb me. I’ve been in worse smash-ups;
haven’t I, Tom?”
“Off hand, I should say you had,” was the smiling answer.
“Besides, I want to learn how to run this jigger!” cried Mr. Damon,
sitting up on the pile of workmen’s garments while the men gathered
smilingly about him, for they all knew him. “What did I do wrong,
Tom? Or is the steering gear out of order?”
“It seems to be all right,” answered the young inventor, who had
been looking at the mechanism. “Tell me just what happened.”
“Well, as I say, I was coming over to see you. Or, if I didn’t say
that before, I tell you now. I have a big offer for you, Tom Swift, a
most important offer. I’ll get to that in a moment. But I was coming
over in this plane, which I bought only yesterday, and I decided to fly
across your shop and land in the meadow.
 “But, just as I got here, I felt the machine dip suddenly. First I
thought I had struck an air pocket, but I didn’t have time really to
decide what it was before I came down with a crash. Luckily I was
able to straighten her out a little before I struck, so I made a slanting
landing. Otherwise I might have gone through the roof.”
“And right down on our heads!” exclaimed Ned. “Mighty glad you
didn’t!”
“So am I,” said Mr. Damon. “But what’s wrong, Tom? I want to
know so that the same thing won’t happen again.”
“I guess you forgot that you were in a monoplane instead of a
biplane, Mr. Damon,” he answered. “You banked too much on the
turn.”
“That’s it, Tom! I remember now! I was making the curve to head
straight for the meadow, and it was then a sort of side slip came.”
“Yes,” remarked the young inventor, “you spilled too much air
from beneath your wing tips. You see in a biplane, with two surfaces,
the air is held in a sort of pocket and you can afford to make a
sharper bank on the turn. But in monoplanes you must be more
careful.”
“I will, after this,” promised Mr. Damon, as he arose and walked
about, albeit a bit gingerly as though making sure he had no broken
bones or strained tendons.
“Here, Koku!” called Tom to his giant helper. “Hold up this plane
while some of the men take off the damaged wheel.”
“Sure, Master, Koku do,” was the reply.
“Go on!” cried another voice. “It doan need no big fat giant to lift a
li’l machine like dat! I’ll do it fo’ you, Massa Tom!”
An old colored man with a fringe of white hair around his black
pate pushed through the crowd of workmen toward the giant who
was already preparing to tilt the plane so the wheel could be
removed.
“You go or Koku push you!” warned the giant with a threatening
look at Eradicate Sampson.
“Huh! You go on!” was the contemptuous response, and there
might have been a battle then and there had not Tom interposed.
“Rad,” he said, “you let Koku attend to lifting the plane. It’s a bit
heavy in spite of its small size. You go down to the storeroom and
bring up the extra wheel.”
“Hah, you ain’t so smart as you t’inks you is!” taunted the colored
man as he departed on his errand, satisfied now that he could help
his young master.
“They’ll soon have the machine in shape for you, Mr. Damon, if
you insist on trusting yourself to it again,” said Tom, as he gave
instructions to his men. “And while you are waiting, came on down
and talk to dad. He’s always glad to see you.”
“All right, Tom, I’ll do that. At the same time I can attend to the
matter that brought me over here. Bless my Liberty Bonds, Tom, but
it’s very important! Big business, you know!”
“Ned and dad and I are always ready to talk business,” remarked
Tom, as he led the way to his office in which stood the new chest of
secrets. Mr. Swift was there, looking over some papers. At the sight
of the chest Mr. Damon exclaimed:
“Packing up to move, Tom?”
“No, just taking precautions so I won’t lose any of my secrets,”
replied the young inventor. “There are so many of these plans and
patents now that dad and I thought we ought to have them in one
place, where we could easily get at them in a hurry if need be.”
“That’s right,” chimed in Mr. Swift. “You know I’m not as young as
I once was, Damon. I can’t expect to live much longer, and I want
everything in shape for Tom when I go.”
“Nonsense! Bless my life insurance policy!” laughed Mr. Damon,
“you’ll be here for many years, Mr. Swift. And lest you may be losing
interest in life, listen to this offer that I bring you.
“Tom, you remember Mr. Blythe?” he asked, turning to the young
inventor.
“Surely! The man who got so excited when he found what my oil
well drill had done?”
“The same, yes. Well, he called on me yesterday. He introduced
some capitalists—big men they are, too, moneyed interests of New
York and all that. Mr. Blythe introduced them to me, and the upshot
of it was, Tom Swift, that they authorized me to make you a big offer
for certain rights in your tidal engine and mill machinery patents.
Now look here, Tom, there are millions in it for you—millions! Why,
bless my bank book, it’s the biggest offer you ever listened to, Tom
Swift!”