Electric

systems
Technology
Institute

Electrical
Transmission and
Distribution
Reference Book

ll ll II
ABB Power T&D Company Inc
Preface to the fifth edition

Fifiy~fivc years ago, the Central Station Engineering Group of

Westinghouse Electric Company first published a book focused on
the practical application of electrical engineering to the
transportation and delivery of electric power. The Electrical
Transrnission and Distribution Reference Book proved to be a
simple, practical, and useful reference book for electric utility
engineers as well as electrical equipment designers. Three
generations of power engineers have used what has become
popularly known as the “T&D Book” both as a core technical
reference and as a tutorial on the finer points of power delivery
system design and operation.
ln the five and one half decades between its original publication
and this latest edition, the T&D Book was revised and expanded
three times. In many ways, the T&D book’s growth and evolution
mirrored that of the electric power industry itself. The original
book focused almost exclusively on transmission systems,
addressing the higher voltages and longer lines then becoming
common, as well as the rapidly growing complexity of transmission
systems, particularly due to interconnection of individual electric
utility systems into large power grids.
The long-term trend, however, was toward an increasing focus
on distribution, that portion of the T&D system nearest the
customer. Subsequent revisions of the T&D book added sections
on power distribution systems, primary and secondary network
design, capacitor application, and voltage flicker.
This latest revision continues the trend of increasing attention to
the levels of the T&D system nearest the customer. Chapter 24,
Characteristics of Distribution Loads, focuses on consumer load
requirements and how they interact with distribution system
economy and reliability. It presents detailed guidelines and design
methods to identify the behavior of electric load on the distribution
system, and to address it with respect to the “two Qs” - quantity
and quality that consumers of electric power have comc to expect
the T&D system will provide.
 A more recent and accelerating trend in the power industry is
the growth through mergers and acquisitions of both power
companies and equipment suppliers into international companies
operating on a worldwide scale. Several enormous power
companies operate large power grids on three or more continents.
More directly associated with this book. what was once the Central
Station Engineering Group of Westinghouse Electric Company has
been absorbed into ABB ELECTRIC systems TECHNOLOGY
INSTITUTE, part of a global company with technical and business
resources vastly beyond anything the original authors of the T&D
book could have envisioned. ABBETI continues to maintain the
traditional, practical focus of the T&D book’s creators, but has
added research and development activities focused on meeting the
needs of the 21$‘ century with new equipment, designs, and
technology.
This latest revision does more than just talk about new
technologies. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference
Book, fifth edition, is available in the traditional printed format as
well as on computerized CD-ROM. The new format expands the
book’s usefulness as a resource for modem power engineers.
The material presented here is the result of research,
investigation and practical application by many engineers and
scientists, including cooperative studies with electric utilities,
conductor and cable manufacturers, communications companies
and industrial power users. it is not feasible to list here all of the
names of the companies and individuals who have contributed to
the body of knowledge covered in this book. These
acknowledgements are given in the individual chapters. The authors
gratefully acknowledge the hearty cooperation of all those who
worked to produce this book. In particular, we wish to thank Ms.
Kathy Hendricks, who tirelessly assisted in the preparation, editing,
and formatting of this fifth edition.

Enrique Santacana
Vice-President and Director

October I , 1997
 Contents
Origimil Author I and Rr»vi.s'z'ng Author

CHAPTER 1 General Considerations of Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page I

C A. P!)W(’ii I (7. A. Pnwel

2 Symmetrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page I2

J. E. Hohson I D. L. Whitehead

3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 32

Shenvin H. Wright and C. E Hal! I D. F Shtinkle and R. L. Tremaiite

4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 64

H. N. Mullen J2: I J. S. Williams

5 Power Transformers and Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 96

J. E. Hobsmi and R. L. Witzke I R. L. WiIC.t'<P and J. S. Wfiiittiris“

6 Machine Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 145

C. F ll/ragrier I C. F Wagner

7 Excitation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page I95

J. E. liurkic. Jr:

8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page Z33

A. A. .]r;l"m.s‘0r7

9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 265

G. D. :1/Irfrtriri I R. E Lawrr*nc'e

10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of

Network Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 290
E. L. Harder I E. L. Harder

ll Relay and Circuit Breaker Appiication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 342

E. L. Harder and J. C. Cunningham I E. L. Harder and J. C. Cumiingimm

12 Power-Line Carrier Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 401

R. C. C/reek

13 Power~System Stability/—-Basic Elements of Theory and

Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 433
R. D. [;'i'ar1.t and II. N. Muller, .11: I J’. Ii. Bur/t/t’, Jr; um! R. L. Treinuine

I4 Power-System Voltages and Currents During Abnormal

Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 496
R. L. Witgke I R. L. Wit:/ce
 ()rigi!m1' Ant/mr I and Ret’i.\‘i11g Author

CHAPTER 15 Wave Propagation on Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 523

C. F Wugitel" and G. D. /VI<‘(.‘rrm1 I C {'1 ‘A/rzgtier

£6 Lightning Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 542

(.7. F Li/'c:gr1er (mt1G. D. .M(‘C(1!??1 I C if 'Mzgue/'um1J. M. C‘/uylzm

I7 Line Design Based on Direct Strokes V . V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 578

A. C Monleil/1 I Ii. L. Hmfler um/J‘. M. (‘lmmn

I8 Insulation Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 610

A. (1 Wlrmleirit and H. R. \/Zmglmrr I A. A. .101’:/um:

E9 Grounding of Power-System Neutrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 643

S. B. (}t"i_s't:rm) I S. B. Gr'£.s'mm

20 Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 666

John S. l’ru1s*mz.v arm’ H. U. Barnett I Joim -5'. |D(H'.€()II.\' and H. G. Bartlett

‘Z1 Primary and Secondary Network Distribution Systems . . . . . , . page 689

John S. Pmirmzs and H. G. Burnett I Join: S. I’<rrs011.s‘ amt! H. G. Harriett

¥\.)R) Lamp Flicker on Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 719

5'. B. GI'i.&'t'rm: I S B. G1'is't‘0i1J

23 Coordination of Power and Communication Systems . . . . . . . . page 741

R. 1). El’(H'lJi I R. L. Wiiqke

24 Characteristics of Distribution Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 784

H. 1,. W1'!!i.s'
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 809

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . _ . page 838

 CHAPTER 1

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF TRANSMISSION

Original Author: Revised by:
Cl. A. Powel C. A. Powal

THIlOUG}I discovery, invention, end engineering a.p~ Barrington to its present size involving as it docs e. capital-
plication, the engineer has made electricity of con- ization in the privately-owned power companies of some
tinually grea.t.e1* to mankind. The invention of 17 billion dollars with an annual revenue of 4 billion rloliars.
the dynamo first made engine power many times more The growth since the beginning of this century in in-
effective in relieving the toil and increasing the opportu- stalled generating capacity of all electric power plants
nities and comforts not only of industry but also of the
home. Its scope, however, was limited to relatively short
distances from the power station because of the low voltage 1 M, M.» _‘._§f'i ,
Of the distribution circuits, This limitation, for economic ~ ii ‘I ' '~. it 5 . -ii: I»; 6 ii?” -
reasons, kept the general use of electricity confined to city
areas where n. number of customers could be served from Q . ., X 4 x hr ;
the some power station. The next step in the development n v-we u
1
1| l 1 t

of the present-day electric systems was the invention of the *»/. “a.~ert:-:5
1 v"‘;.q"
~'-'<‘i ~i'
transformer. This invention was revolutionary in its effect . :c=-._, ~i5 ‘Il1.§3'I cu_ 1.'~
X _jVi -Tl-.»"-i$'~. ~. ~
3:ifm
w...'.“ :4“.
W”;

on the electric industry because it mettle high voltage and '§: .a

long transmission distances possible, thus placing the
engine power, through the medium of the alternating-
currcnt generator, at the doorstep of practically everyone. -~;"<*r:
”
The first alternating current system in America using (R) (B)

tmnsforniers was put in operation at (lrczit Berrington in
Me.ssacl1usctts in 1886. Mr. William Stanley, Wcsting~
house electrical export who was responsible for the inst.:illo.—
tion, gives an account of the plant, pitrt of wliich reads:
“Before leztvittg Pittshtn-gli I tlesiglietil seversi.l induction coils,
or transformers as we now call them, for parallel connection.
The original wan designed in the early summer of 1885 and
wound for 590 volts primary and 100 volts secondary emf.
Several other coils were colistrncteti for experimental [Ju1"pu'e'en.
“At the north end of the village of Great B'arrit.1g‘l‘,0n W’-(LS an old
deserted rubber mill which 1 leased for it trifling sum anti erected
in it a. 25 hp boiler and engine that I purchnscri for the PIIFDOSG.
After what seemed an interminable delay I at lnSt lI1Sl)€l.li6d the
Siemens alternator that Mr. Westinghouse harl imported lrorn
London. It was Wound to furnish 12 einpercs of current with a
I1'lfi.Xll!1l.l{1"l of 500 volts. In the meantime I hurl strirterl the eon-
strnction of a number of transformers in the laboratory end en-
gagerl rt young man to canvass the town of Grout Barring‘:-on for
light customers. We built in all at Great B:n'rinp;ton 26 trons-
formers. 10 of which were sent to l’ittsliurgli to be used in n
demonstration plant between the Union Switch and Signal (Torn-
pany’s f:1ct0ry* and East Liberty.
“We installed in the town plant at Great Bnrrington two 50-
lighb and four 25—light- transformers, the rcmninricr being userl in
the laboratory for experimental work. The trnnsfrirmers in the
villa-ge lit 13 stores, 2 hotels, 2 doctors’ offices, one lzarlicr elm;-I,
and tile telephone and post otlines. The length of the line from
the laboratory to the center of the town was about 4009 feet.“
Our central-station industry toiiziy is, for all practical
purposes, entirely e.ltornating current. It can, therefore,
be said to have grown from the stnail beginning at Greet
*Ab0tzt two miles.
Fig. 1~(a) Gaulard and Gibbs transformer for which George
Westinghouse had secured all rights in the United States.
(bl First transformer designed by ‘William Stanley. The proto-
type of all transformers since built, it definitely established
the commercial feasibility of the alternating~current system,
i884—l8Sfi.
contributing to the public supply has been from about 1%
million lriloivntte to 55 million kilowatts in 1948. Of this
55 million lcilowafr-ts the privately-owned utilities account-
ed for 44 million kilowatts and governmentwiwned utilities
for ll. million kilowatts divided equally between the
federal government ztncl local governments. Thus, 80
percent of the generating capacity of the country is pri-
vately owned and 20 per cent government owned.
\Vith this 55 million kilowatts of generating capacity,
282 billion kilo\va.tt-liours, divided 228 billion ltilovvatt-
hours iiy priva.t-ely-oivncci generation and 54 billion public,
were §§t'3Il(>l'il»lI-Oil in l9»%8. The average use of the installed
oa.pacity for the country as a whole was, therefore,
2 2 l .
—85£—0~Q=5130 hours, and the capacity factor for the
country no t-1. whole 58.5 percent.
This capacity factor of 58.5 percent is generally con-
cetletl as lining too high. It docs not allow sufficient margin
to §)rovit.lc aullcqunte spare cztpixcity for inainternincc and
repairs. Fig. 2 illiistrzttes how the spare and reserve
en.p:i.ci'r.y has shrunk in the past few years. A. ratio of
instttlletl ciipacity to peak load of 1.1-5 to L120 is consiricred
ncccssary to provide a safe margin for emergencies. Such
 2 General Considerations of Transmission Chapter 1
400, "*,' ' .‘ l l l
The average cost of all electricity used for residential

“iv
l
Service has shown :3, steady duwnwurul trend since 1925
from 7 cents per kilowatt-hour to 3 cents in 1048. This is
OWATTG
_
N OO
J "W
;
1
\ fee all the more remarkable as since E039 all other items mak-
ing up the cost-of-living index have shown increases rang-
OFKL ing from 10 percent (for rents) to 121 percent (for food),
N5
69...‘ l l ._ l l
___fl~l
\ l
—4< the average increase of all items being 69 percent. The
so: »,—i,»— 1 ~ r——-,~ revenue from sales to residential customers accounts for

\
LO
1 l about 36 percent of the total utility revenue; to large
NIL so;~~—~ » W l Y power customers about 29 percent; to small light and
4Q[@_. L.*_ 4A_ K _ I __ power customers 27 percent, and to miscellaneous cue-
tomers (railroads, street lighting, etc.) 8 percent.
O
2
P
a/-l/ l " l
4 , 1. Sources of Energy
2° r_.~_lil‘____ 0/no . __ _- ...........\.n..._.._.....___.‘
The sources of energy for large-scale generation of elec-
l l ‘ l tricity arc:
1. Steam, from (a) coal, (b) oil, or (cs) nat,u1'al gas
S
ua
BO
ST
_5 0 *~—‘ 1 1 l
l . _. . . v.,Tr l ‘ ‘*7, —.. . .
2. Water (hydro-electric)
3. Diesel power from oil
6 \ ‘ ,‘ l l l Other possible sources of energy are direct solar heat,
windpowcr, tidal power, shale oil, and atomic energy, but
OWATT 4, none of those as yet has gone beyond the pilot-plant stago,
A» KILOWATT-HOURS m an.|_|o~s for the reason that coal and petroleum are still abundantly
8-TOTAL msm.1.eo CA?-MILLIONS or Ku.ow.u-"rs available. But as fossil fuels become scarcer and more
ONKL.
= 0- sum or non-comcuoanr osmrws— mtuous expensive, there is every reason to believe that all of these,
BLL 3; _ or KILOVMTTS as well as petroleum manufactured 1"rom vegetable matter,

M _lJ l W llll, 9lO I920 1930

YEAR
I940 I950 I950
may become useful and economical supplementary sources
of energy.
The estlmated reserves of coal and lignite in the United
States are about 3000 billion tons. This constitutes almost
99 percent of the mineral fuel energy reserves of the
Fig. 2 --Trend in production of electricity, installed capacity,
and sum of peak demands. country; oil shale, petroleum and natural gas amounting
to little more than 1 percent.‘
a margin in 1948 would have given a capacity-factor of By for 1.-he grealer part of the electric energy generated
about 53 percent, instead of 58,5 percent. in this country is obtained from fuel, the 55 million kilo-

TABLE 1~—~PREFERRED STANDARDS FOR LARGE 3600~RPM 3-Prmsn 60-Creme Cormnnsruo

STEAM TURBINE-GENERATORS
l Air~(1oolet?l H_vdrogt-n-Coolorl Generators

TL\rbine—generat0r rating, kw
.<E@"@m*<>r‘ ,_ _ _ _ - llml for Q-.1? P,§i@_l%,x§%r.9r@r .1‘.r@%;*;>"»2"=
11500 15000 20000 30000 0 40—000 60000 90000‘
Turbine capability, kw 12 050 16500 22000 33000 44 000 60000 99000
Generator rating, kva. 13 520 17 647 23 529 35 204 47 058 70 588 10-5 882
power factor 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 use 0.85
short»ci1'c uit ratio 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 as 0.3 o.s
Throttle pressure, psig coo 850 850 sso Is50‘=,0:{12s0} Issol M1250 1450101 1450 "
Throttle temperatum, F s25 900 900 900 leooj 950 wool 1 950 1000} 1000
Reheat temperature, F
Number of extraction Openings 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5
Sa.tu1-ation toulpemturos at let 175 175 X75 175 175 175 1s0 115
openings at “turbine»gen- 2nd \ 225 235 235 235 235 235 245 240
erator rating” with all ex- 3rd , 2&5 285 285 285 2&5 285 305 300
traction openings in serv- 4th ‘ 350 350 350 350 350 350 380 370
ice, F 5th 410 410 410 440 440
Exhaust pressure, inches Hg abs '15 1.5 is 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Generator capability at 0.85 power factor and
15 psig hydrogen pressure, kva 1 , 20394 27058 40588 54l17 81176 121764
Generator capability at 0.85 power factor and‘
W30 peighydrogen pressure, kva ‘ ,,,,,,, f I»; if 7 V .;_ _ M 132353 ii’
"5 10 percent. pressure drop is pea umed between the lwzlgh pressure turbine exhauat and low pressure turbine inlet. for the reheat, 1'n3,(:hi!1Q_
"These are two dlfierent units; th9 first for aregeoeratwe cycle operation, and the second a machi na £0: reheat cycle operation.
Chapter 1 General Considerations of Transmission 3

0 new *”: IIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIII

" I IIIIII
I 1 IIII
|i*iIII i I
" ~~ii~~o.I§.*1§MiIII
swaps §H‘-AFT L§mrs_
°‘5°*“’*‘p
__;
-’
U » 1-
I __ = swam FLOW 3
I. . ._
*__ 0 ,§: 1-!‘
II::III Illflfi
5-
OA O
O
Q
4.}—?pp
!p\“_ i:II::-:IIEIIIII renew H
""' ; ‘J. ! | 1
RATIMGMHAL
NG"O00RU uIWli__$!§Egg§5g§Eu"lllii

Fig. 3~——The first central-station turbo-alternator instailation

m
2000 l+ ::I
-H II
in the United Statesfl 2000-kw turbine coupled to a 60-cycle
generator, 2000 kw, 2406 volts, two-phase, 1200 rpm--mat the “'"'il.fI_.f_v.M
Hartford Electric Light Company, Hartford, (ionnecticut, ...-W..vo,§l
1900. This turbine was about four times as Iarg as any one _tEjW"
built before that time and caused much comment the world _ .,_ * 'V/
sr§3=»Lsnessuns__ I IL. . . . . .
over.
"°° 3 III“! ii‘ I E
l
"‘ l l i l l l l
ll I . . . . . ‘a—

Watts of installed capacity being mode up of approximately

38 million kilowatts of steam turbines and one million sou
kilowatts of diesel engines. Approxirnatoly llj million idio-
wa/L‘r.s of the installed rzapacity are in hyrlm-r_>.ler.',i,ric stelinns.
_,l
M —
“III-I
i
II
I1
l -J III 4
'—-l—~4-
. 1+“
TIE“
" |I""'
AI _ HRI L II
II
-I .
Of the 282 billion kilowatt-hours goncrui-ed by all means
in 1948, roughly 200 billion came from fuel; 76 percent
,m;- ‘ . . . J"
I
‘
i IIT =HIInuII
5
H . 1 _ _ ‘W
.

from coal, 14 percent from natural gas, and 10 percent

from oil.
III L ‘ I i ‘
2. Development of Steam Power
The modern steam-electric station can be dated from the TR
PRE1S'E|gUERflg-_P'1SuA
flg-F
Iluisn_n
0ii""""
'fi A "
IIIII
couozusms runsm: II.--I.
‘ '’»‘»A‘

i '
II El
- A
installation by the Hartford Electric Company in 1900 of nan air: ---‘t-.-
a, 2000-kw unit (Fig. 3) which at that time was a large
§r
''°°=5arIIII"I%~";=II"m;i.IIHIF '--5-5HIlI"H'li
. ‘"5"’I- §iI"1II:I:;!II I
machine. Progress in design and efficiency from than on R
OITU/KI

N!HEATQ
TU?!
has been continuous and rapid. in 1025 the public utilities I E Ii===n--SI-II
consumed in their fuehburning plants an average of 2 iagou :aIIi0 I920 ‘EAR I530 I940 W50

pounds of coal (or coal equivalent) per kilowofot-hoilr, ,5; D;

‘MEN? mo" AGE or ens? sins.-————>l-
no: or
ALLOY 5 I: 5
whereas today the corresponding figure is 1.3 pounds per Mifi 0!
kilowatt-hour. This average figure has not changed mate» SUPER ALLOYS

rially in the last £0 years. It would appear that the cool
consumption curve is approaching an asymptote and that
a much betier overall performance is not to be expected,
even though the best base~loa,d stations generate power
for less than one pound of coal per kilowatt-liour. The
very high eificiency in the best; base-load stations is
obtained at 2. considerable increase in investment. It can-
not be economically carried over to the system as 2. whoie
for the reason that there must be some idle or partly idle
capacity on the system to allow for peaks {seasonal and
daily), cleaning, adjustzments, overhaul, and repairs. How
much one can afford to spend for the improvement of sis.-
tion efliciency above “normal” depends on the shape of
the system load curve, the role of the station in that curve,
and the cost; of fuel.
Most of the credit for the ilnprovement in st-ea.rn eon-
sumption goes to the boiler and turbine manufacturers
who through continuous betterment 0% designs and ma-
terials have been able to raise steam pressures and t-ornp0ra~
tures. Between 1925 and 1942 the maximum tlirottle pres-
sure was raised from 1000 psi to 2400 psi and the average
from 350 to 1000 psi. In the some period the throttle tem~
perature was raised from 725 to 1000 degrees F. and she
Fig. 4’~Pr0gress in turbine generator design.
average from 675 to 910 degrees. Generator losses in the
meantime have been greatly reduced from about 6 percent
in 1900 Lo 2 percent» boday, but these losses never did form
2. large part of the total, and their influence on the overail
perfornlance of the station has been minor.
The increase in maximum size of 60-cycle, two-and four-
polc generating nnizs over the years since 1900 is shown in
Fig. 4. The roniarkable increase has been due to improved
materials and designs, particularly in large forgings, tur-
bine blziding, and generator Ventilation.
In 1945 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
and the American lnstitute of Electrical Engineers adopted
standard ratings for turbine-generator units. These were
revised in N<>v(2Ir:l>(:z* 1950 Lo include the 90 000 kw unit
and are listed in 'l’able l. The machines are designed to
moot their Tasting with 0.5 psi hydrogen pressure, but ex-
perience has sliown that between 0.5 and 15 psi the output
of i-he generator can be increased one percent for each
pound increase in the gas pressure witl1out exceeding the
temperature rise guarantee st atmospheric pressure. In
many iocntions operation at more than 15 psi gas pressure
4 General Considerations of Transmission Chapter 1

may be difiieult because of codes regulating operation of
“unfired pressure vessels" at grcutcr pressures, but serious
consideration is being given to operation at 30 lbs.
For a. hydrogen-air mixture to be explosive, the per-
eentageof hydrogen must lie between 5 and 75 percent.
The control equipment is designed to operate an alarm if
the purity of the hydrogen drops below 95 percent. The
density meter and alarm system is in principle :1 small
constzint-speed fan circulating at sample of the mixture.
If the density varies, the drop of pressure across the fen
varies and registers on the meter.
3. Development of Water Power
The great transmission systems of this country received
their impetus as a result of hydro-electric developments.
is preferred, in which at single combination guide and
thrust bearing is located below the rotor (Fig. 1, Chapter
6). Where the axial length of the machines is too great
an additional guide bearing must be provided. In this
case the combination thrust and guide bearing is usually
located above the rotor and the additional guide benrhlg
below the rotor.
The advzintuges oi’ the umbrella design are {at} reduction
in overhead room to assemble end dismantle the unit
during erection and overhaul, and {bl simplicity of the
single bearing from the standpoint of cooling and mini-
iiiili T” K l i will 1
I20 -—---- l
1 l

Forty years ego conditions favored such deveiopments,

and in the early years of this century water-power plants nol -~~ -i 1 .~-......l-:*~;-- _ _l-A i
---»-v£Rncn1_ TYPE . l . V l
costing $50 per kilowatt or less were common. Steam --»- HORIZONTAL TYPE l i , ;
stations were relatively high in first cost and coal consump- 5O
tion per kilowettt hour was three times as much as to-
day, and finally fuel oil was not readily available. As so--~ -pnevi --- --~-- 1.--1.
undeveloped w21ter»po\\'er sites became economically less l .
. ____,,i. i ___l_ _____ i, _
desirable, steam stations less costly and their efficiency G) O

higher, and as oil fuel and natural gas became more gen- KVA
orally available through pipe lines, steam stations rapiilly or -49 a I I

outgrew hyd1'o~clectric stations in number and capacity.

___ W _ _;___ __ 7‘ l__ _ _l_ _ _
Today very few \V2ltQt'—])O\\'(-El‘ sites can be developed at 0'! O

such low cost us to be competitive with steam stations in __

_u_ __.....__.___......l

economic energy production. For this reason hydro- H (J O

TOUSANDS
electric developments of recent years have almost all L""1
l l
been uiidei-taker; by Government agencies, which are in a. 40 ~ - if <

position to include in the projects other considerations,

such es, navigation, flood control, irrigation, conserva-
tion of resources, giving them great social value.
As the water—power developments within easy reach of
the load centers were utilized and it become necessary to
reach to greater distances for W;l.i,t3I‘ power, only large
developments could be considered, and stations of less
than 100 O00 kw became the exception rather than the
rule, as witness Conowingo with 252 O00 kw, Diablo with
I35 000 kw, Fifteen Mile Falls with 1.40 O00 kw, Osage
with 200 O00 kw, and many others. The developments
of recent years undertaken by various government agon-
cies have reached gigantic proportions, as for example
Hoover Dam with 1 000000 and Grand Coulee with
2 000 000 kw installed capacity.
A natural corollary to the increase in station capacity
has been a gradual increase in the size of the individual
generator units, the growth of which is shown in Fig. 5,
culminating in the Grand Coulee generators of 120 000
kw at 120 rpm with an overall diameter of 45 feet.
Most of the niulti-purpose hydraulic developments call
for large, slow-speed machines. For such conditions verti-
cal units are used to obtain maximum energy from the
water passing through the turbine. The rotating parts
are supported by n thrust bearing which is an integrci
part of the generator.
Two general types of generator design are used as dis-
tinguished by the arrangement of the guide and thrust
bearings. Where the axial length of the generator is
short in relation to its diameter, the “umbrella” design
so ~ -- -
29, W , ,l E ri___':_ **’*“L__;,
l
‘ l l l
-0- - --.;_-T" l- e ; l'” 1---,-~-. -l
"""“"i J l l i i 1
O if __,_ l i
I900 I910 I920 I930 l94O I950
YEAR
Fig. 5--Trend in maximum waterwheel generator ratings.
mum amount of piping. The design also lends itself
readily to a. totally-eneloserl recirculating system of
ventilation, which keeps dirt Out of the ma-chine and facili-
tates the use of §ire»eXtinguishing equipment. it also re-
duces heat and noise in the power house.
4. Combination of Water and Steam Power
There are very few locations today where an important
market can be supplied entirely from water power be-
cause of seasonal variations in river flow, but in most
cases at saving wili be realized from combining water
power and stcuni. The saving results from the combina-
tion of low operating cost of Water-power plants with low
investment cost of steam stations. Moreover, hydro-
electric units in thernselves have certain valuable ad-
vantages when used in combination with steam units.
They start more quickly than stenrmdriven units, pro-
viding 2. high degree of standby readiness in emergency.
Chapter 1 General Considerations of Transm-iss-ion 5

They are well adapted to maintenance of frequency, and
also lo proviiling Wattlcss energy at times of low wa.l',cr
flow. .=\n(l finally, hy<;lro~pondage can be dmwn upon to
relieve steam plants of short-l.ime peaks to save banking
extra boilers.
To vrhzit extent 21. water-power site can he developed
economically involves EL ihorough investigation of indi-
vidual cases. An economic balance must be struck be-
tween the steam and water power to give inaxirnum
economy. One might install enough gcncrziling capacity
to take csxrc of the nmximum flow of the river during :1,
short period. The cost per l{il{)\\'{1i-i- ill><ll1ll(3(l woulrl he
low but the use made of the equipment {capacity factor)
would also be low. Or one mighl, put in only enough gen-
erating capacity to use the minimum river flow. ln this
case the cost of the development per l{_llO\\.'£1.'£t insmlled
would be high, but the capacity factor would be high
M — 7 T
— —— — 700*"
144
N O
JAl 4?‘f¥_
l— »
__
*7"-4 _
ll
xLOWAT-HOUR
‘-
mission). The latter group in this particular study was
about $70 per l<ilo\\'ol.t.
Curve A givvs: the ’r.ot,:il cost of energy per kilowatt
hour for u modern $5l,(‘.£l.ET1 plant costing 3595 pcr kiloix-"act;
with fixed cli:u'g<~s at I2 percent. and coal at $4 ll ton.
Curve ll give»: the total (:0.~a€- of energy from the water-
power plant lniving the capital cost indicated in (‘urvc C.
To obtain such :1 curve it. is necessary Lo Kittitifllllilli Llic
arnounb of encrggy zwniluible at the ‘various ezipaicity fac~
tors, the £lS:€l1li’1}')'Ll0l'\ l')0ing msulo that all liymlro capacity
installed is firm capucityi, Llmt is, {hail t-he system load
can absorb all of the ciiorgy ggericralcrl.
Curve B sllows the lypiczilly high cost of hydro-electric
energy conipnrccl with sicaun at high capacity factors
and its low cost at low capacity factors.
5. Transmission Liability
in :1 liyriro-nleclric (low-lopnicnt ihe fmnsmlssion be-
~ 800 comes a llU’,Q,'(‘: l'uct,or of expense and in coinparing such
(l(:\-‘elopmeills with equivzilent stezun plants, it» is necessary
to include the l.r:1n.<niission as a ch;1rg.';c agzguinst the liy<lr0—
AT
cleclric plant. Figures of cost publislzed on llic lloover
o
Darn-l.os An;z,clc:§ 287-kv lino indicate that» this trails-
iii KLOW
_ ~11 soc mi.'~:sion c(>.=:l.r% over $90 ii. l<ilo\\'z1ti~, and other lines con-
l.QTIlplQ.L(?ll will probably show higher costs.
__, WOO
9
Umlcr certain conditions it may be more costly to trans-
S
oO mit clcctrimil energy over Wires than to transport the
cqiiivulcnt lucl to the steam stuLi()n. It has been shown“
l R:0
M Q ER
DOL AR
Q thol the 005$ of electric trnnsmission for optimum load
and voliagcs can be expressed as 2. linear function of
I00 power and <li.»~tunoc, as follows:
.
For 50% load factor: mills/lax‘-hr = 054+ 0.? l 'l

P£R
CENYS
AAXY Z H1 X %
9
r" fi=
o Mu‘ J/‘,_ T’
if l4l _l
,4“A M7
°cT’:id 20 so 40 so so ro ac so lO0
GAPkClTY FACTOR" PERC£NT
Fig. 6--Cost of energy at various capacity factors of steam
and hydro-electric pianzs.
also. Obviously bemoan t-hose two extremes lies an
optimum value. The ratio of installed wa£er»po\ver ca-
pacity to the peak load of the system iliat gives the mini—
mum zuinuzil cost of power supply has been rcfcrrcil to
as the “economic hydro ratio," and it can he <lctcr—
mini-<1 without great dillicully for any pLLl‘Ll(3ul2.lt' set of con~
clilions.
In £1, paper? presented before the American Society of
Mccbuniciil lilngincers, Irwin and Justin <liscus-seal in an
interesting and gmpliicul manner the importance of
incremental costs on the economics of any proposed dc-
velopment. Fig. 6, taken from ihcir paper, shows in
Curve C3 the capital cost per kiloimtt of installation for
various capacity factors. The costs were segregated in
iicms t;l1a*:. would be the same rc§>;211'tllcss of install-ut,ion
(land, water rights, dams) and those that vary with the
amount of installation (pmver house, machinery, trans-
. , 0.35 , il
For 90% load factor: I'11lllS;’l{\V-l’lI'={l.30-l-* ~i—>é'gi—?§
IL was also shown that fuel transportation can be cx~
pressed 21.53 :1, linear function of energy and distance, thus:
"4‘1
R:-iilroacl rates on coal
$1 .Z(l+-5% mills pct milc
Pipe--line rates on criulc oil
5B5.(l(l--{-4 cc-nl":~: per milc pcr 109 barrels
For pipe-line mics on nuiiiml gas two curves were
given lm‘ CSlll¥12llCtl minimum and maximum inter-
ruptiblc commcl mics
$0 +12 coins per mile per million cubic feet
$530+ l2 cents pi-r mile per million cubic foot
The nullmrs point out tlml, a comparison l>el,\\“ecn trans-
missizin cost-s alone for gas, oil, and coal are likely to be
misleullilig l)()(L1LLl2<(1 there is 11 wide <lil'fcrence in the costs
of the liucl.~: at their source. There is also a considerable
variul-ion in E.l1O tr-omsportotion costs above and below the
nvemge.
‘l“l‘“irm C:zp:zcit_v” or “Firm Power” in the case of am individual
stlntirm is the csipncity inlemlml loo be nlivays-; o.vnil;zl>le even under
cinergoncy conditions. “llydro Firm Capacity” in lhc case of com-
bined steam and hydro is the part of the installed capacity that is
czigmblc of doing the some work on that part of the load curve to
which it is assigned as could be pcrforzxzcncl by an alternative steam
plant.
6 General Considerations of Transmission Chapter 1

The equivalence between the fuels is given as:
1 ton of coal . . . . , . . . . . , . . , . . . . , . .25 U00 UOU BTIJ
1 barrel of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .6 250 O00 BTU
1000 cubic feet of gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 000 O00 BTU
6. Purpose of Transmission
Transmission lines are essential for three purposes.
9.. To transmit power from a water-power site to a market.
These may he very long and _lll-Sl-lllflll l)8C£§.IIS8 of the sub-
sidy aspect connected ivith the project.
b. For bulk supply of power to loud centers from outlying
steam stations. Those are likely to he z'el:1.tively short.
c, For interconncction purposes, that is, for transfer of
energy from one system to zmotlior in case of emergency or
in response to diversity in system peaks.
Frequeni attempts liave been mode to Set up defini-
tions of “t.i'21nsmi.<sion lines,” u<ll5ll'll'llltlOl1 circuits” and
“substations.” None has proved entirely .<sulislaoLory or
univer.'>':1lly applicable, but for the purposes of accounting
the l“erlnrn.l Poxver Commission £l.Y1<l various state com-
missions have set up definitions that in essence read:
A t-ransmission system includes all land, conversion structures
and Ollllllllllfinl» at £1. primary source of supply; lines, su-'itcl1ing
and conversion stations between .1 ;_{cncr:1l.ing or receiving point
and the entrance to :1 distribution center or wholesale point, all
lines and equipment \\ll()5(,’_ primary purpose is to augment, inte-
grate or tie together sources of power supply.
7. Choice of Frequency
The St&n(l£lI‘(l frequency in North America, is GO cycles
per second. in most; foreign countries it is 50 cycles. As
a general-purpose distribution frequency [30 cycles has an
economic advantage over 50 cycles in that it permits a.
maximum speed of 3600 rpm as agziinsit, 3000 rpm. \-Vhere
a large number of dist.ribu%;ion l.1-nnsfoi-mors 'n.1'e used 2,
considerable economic gain is olitziincil in that the saving;
in materials of (30-cycle transformers over 50-cycle trans-
formers may amount to l0 to 15 percent. This is because
in a transformer the induced volt-ulgc is proportional to the
total flux-linkage and the lrei 11ll.‘!1C_\/. The higher the
frequency, therefore, the smaller the cross~scotionnl arcs.
of the core, and the smsiller the core the shorter the length
of the coils. There is a. saving, therefore, in both iron and
copper.
The only condition unclcr which any frequency other
than 50 to 60 cycles might be considered for a new project
would be the case of a long tr:in:s1nission of, say, 500 or
601) miles. Such long l3I'£l1’l-‘.a‘T11lEiSlOI1 has been dirscussocl in
connection with remote liydro-electric developments at
home and abroad, and for these zi fmqiioncy loss than GO
cycles might be interesting because as the frequency is
decreased the inductive rcnctnnce of the line, 21rfL, dc-
Long-<li.~;£ance direct-current transmission has also been
consi<lcre<l. It offers aclvn,ntag1;es that look attractive, but
present limilul-ions in conversion and inversion equipment
make the prospect of any application in the near future
unlikely.
In many industrial applications, particularly in the
macliine-tool industry, 60 cycles docs not permit 2. high
enoiigli speed, anal frequencies up to 2000 cycles may be
necessary. Steps are being taken to standardize frequen-
cies of more than (ill cycles.
8. Choice of Voltage
Transmission of nltcriinting-clirrent power over several
miles claws from 1886 when ft line was built at Cerchi,
llnly, to lrunsniit l5ll hp 17 miles at 2009 volts. The
volizigo has progressively increased, as shown in Fig. 7,
until in 1936 the l'l{)OV0l‘ Dam-l.os Angeles line was put
in service at 287 kv. This is still the: higlicst opcmlillg
v0li,np:e in use in the Ynitcd States today, but consi<iora.—
tion is lining given to higher vnluoe An investigation was
begzun in El}-l8 at the Tidil Station of the Ohio Power
(Iompuny on an experimental line with voltages up to
500 lw.
The cost of transformers, switches, and circuit breakers
lI'l(!I'l‘£lS£‘S rapidly with increasing; voltage in the upper
ranges of transmission \’(>lt&g;cs. ln any invcstigmtion in-
volving; voltu,e;es above 230 000 volts, therefore, the unit
cost of power tmnsmittezl is subject to the law of diminish-
ing, rclurns. Furtlicrsnorc, the increase of the react-once
of the terniinzil tnmsiorzncrs also tends to counteract the
gain ol>tctino<i in the transmission line from the higher
voltage. There is, therefore, some value of voltage in the
range licinp; iiivc-slignlnil beyond which, llI1(.l§‘,I‘(1XlSLiI1g cir-
cumstanrses, it is nncconomical to go and it may be more
prolilalile to give rronsiclcmtion to line compensation by
means of capacitors to increase the economic limit of
360* , ~ r
I
35QM.cc l , . ,-,,.,,_W_"_,o
._ __\
l
l A__
zoo -- i
LT
0s 59
_KLOV ll _l_1 i c cl,e4_ e,.e4
mo -W-V -_ ‘~1****' ---- -- - - W

crcascs and the capacitive rosloimieo, 12556, increases,

_i___L___i_MA,
resulting in higher load limits, l,1'Zl11S111l:$5lUIi ellicicncy, and U I
l

better regulation.
Full advantage of low frequency can be realized, how- -,‘?,_ __c. “‘,._.--_‘.
ever, only where the utilization is at low frequency. If the l, l _.,i ~_.i
low transmission frequency music he converted to 60 igso moo isuo I920 Z5 U,_O 1940 1550
fiyclcs for utilization, most of the advan’rnge is lost because YEAR
of limitations of terminal conversion equipment. Fig. 7—Trend in transmission voltages in 60 years.
Chapter 1 General Considerations of Transmission 7

TABLE 2—FoRM or TABULATION roe DETERMINING VGLTAGES AND CONDUCTOR SIZES

Based on the Transmission of 10 O00 Kva. for IO Miles at 80 Percent Power Factor Lagging, 60~Cycle, 3-Phase
VOL'£‘~ V()1,T 3*
AGE CONIJUCTORS DROP A
ZN KV _ _ ;Fi:i.i, 1,0‘ragct FIRST COS’? ‘ OPE1?-l:11;lE‘géL(J0ST
l i L .,
"1 W" 2 ‘ T”
‘l Total UR Loss

10 (100 2 500‘
Kva Kvu rs stcrs st rcer-t
in000 Ear
Ohms
n
uh s___ _,_,_,,‘ re
rfl
1c t
:0.

;
Oi‘ in
ght 30sat1IrJL'£Il(l :n Kwhr.
)\'3i'
ear IRcc R or rs seaat
ct -D543| tcake0 I
5 U53
Cior
rcu B {O
stzznce '1i_. y. Kw Ar
tning Fir
restonP6
est1
1'7.‘ C
1-st Les Ce
it
S Mis L:1 1 ' an usfor nersKva
'(100 est
st,0
KVn in
RV Pounds Hours in
ss Iuoent .Ho'r PL? sl M inPore_ (lea re 2 Eel
0"
Stil C .
L
F (3 crc
1 l
BetConwdueenctors l\€euiTora Ampercs W_iH\"\'!1 3&2 TotU.
“'0 Ras Kwlur
U Lo l.(\for
-i To Ress 1?2£<:§eL4 IX
Hoseonce Peregual
cent ien Condo Q-0 (Y Big 'J‘oie Into ix
iorcla I915 ‘feta
liq‘ one 000 1; 1410: Q A ‘JZL -10:3 _— M,“ 1170 §§'l£"'i'£5<5 lire eon .59. 21 sou l$
25 1 {§1UC~fJ0 ‘.75 ‘{§icW§i>iils?
iln so §E?.5;5?<;“m<> Y5 iziiisie
22 '12 1 202 woo 1 szioo I -5|) 7211} <1 oz 4):' ssuocoo 14.0 24 nun l ii‘) I301] 9 .300 40 J-in 1068001 mm 161380; 28 000 4'., roe1
go 51000 ‘.1~,4J)—‘ .55 l HG us‘ ri 4520000 - »—- ]>‘> I4 0 11 1 15501)‘ some 9 .1001 2 E; ._.- Si Q7 ‘PDQ ii Sill) ll 770 l 4:! 200 60 830
§_
"'iT{{6_ "F5566 TE 4G5 l\3 5/'1 1 l3li)(l()0 .- 9 Tool 2 min‘ 10540:)‘ ea zssu 10 sir; in moi $2 070
33 19.1 175 #2 325noi 332 Ell) iu 1; 51 ll 226 UUO ons- (,a-»go._;~.- woo,_ 2 -1001 |Q& menial 57-101 £1560 322110 47 sou
#4 20 200 £140 1 25111 lb' 11 S1 15 12800 .9‘ 55 ~r:>:= amt“
-At» $5-Q '3-
~<;w'JQ mac o~|¢.1 QEQ ‘~1“~l\J !)70()g 2-[Dill 2 EZQQ 91000: 15 520: 9190 51200: came
PIi N72U15 -21.1 ~:$4: >-2 1"" "'55-;-oz; 1'3;
Q‘:_»k€a 1 16000 17.7
4.1.5 ."v.7‘
Q10 ll '1
2s lisooooo
57 i3Gl()0{J() § - 0:J1 §_§° 1F”
=aA'or F’ l"7_
74 401]
in: gillQ5 74 M30
inoooi zs-wool am 5555'Eco 10! +00
I0 'J00 I '5. - loll I 3 U Oi } {V3 51]?)
coco
5 790 ‘
i0 :40
9 G50 X 36 I00
18 non 34 230
51 5-10

TABLE 3—QI11CK-Esriu-mus DATA on rue LOAD Cnnarme

Careers“; or TRANSMISSION Lmnsi power transmission than increase the voltage much above
present przictiee.
E KW Which Can Bo Delivered Based The husic principles underlying system operation as
on 5‘;-Q ltegulation and 90% 1’8§{&1'(lS voltages have been set forth in 2. report‘ which
Delivered Line Voltage Power l"n.ctnr lists the \‘()ll.&t{2,(!3 in common use, the l't)(JUII1!I18IlLlU(l limits
of voitego spread, and the equipment voltage ratings in-
Distance in Miles
——' 7~— ; 1 —‘.“_ __ __ ____ tended to fulfill the voltage requirements of the level
13.2 kv———3-foot spacing 5
l
10 15 20 for which the equipment is designed. The report should be
Stranded Copper carefully stmlicil before any plans are made involving the
4 950 490 330 245 adoption of or change in e system voltage.
2 1 400 700 4 70 350 In selecting; the trzmsmission voltage, consideration
4/0 3 000 l 500 1 006 750 should he given to the present nnrl Drolmble future voltage
l.
of other lines in the vicinity. The advantages of being
33 kv~——4~feot spacing 10 V20 58* l 40 able to tie together arljoining power districts at a common
Stranricd Copper voltage frequently outweighs a choice of voltage based on
1 5000 2 500 1 700 1 250 l0\\'Ul-él) iiiiiriizlliaite cost.
2/0 6TGO 3 350 2 200 ‘ 1 700 If the conternplotecl transmission is remote from any
4/e 8350 4 189 2 800 2 100
300 U00 existing system, the choice of voltage should result from a
11500 5 750 3 800 2 900
complete study of all liietors involved. Attempts have
66 kw/-8-foot spacing 20
!
40 60 80 been mzule to determine by mathematical expression,
Straniied Copper based on the well-known Kelx/in’s Law, the most eeonomi~
2/0 12 500 l 3140 6 256 4 180
cal transmission voltage with all factors evaluated, but
4/0 16 000 1 3090 8000 5 320 these are so numerous that such an expression becomes
300 000 1 18400 4590 Q ESP; 6 120 compliee.l.e(l, difficult, and unsatisfactory. The only satis-
factory way to determine the voltage is to make a complete
‘ Kw Which Can Be Delivered Based study of the initial and operating costs corresponding to
on 10% Loss and Equal Voltage at various tLSSLl11'l(3Ll transmission voltages and to various sizes
1 Sending and Receiving Ends of conductors.
Distance in Miles For the purposes of the complete study, it is usually
unnecessary to choose more than three volt-ages, because
132 kv--16~foot Spacing l 40 80 l 120 161) a fairly good guess as to the probable one is possible with-
Stranded Copper out knowing more than the length oi the circuit. For
4/e us 000 ‘ as 000 39 500 30 100 this preliminary guess, the quick-estimating Table 3 is
300 000 112 000 so 000 58 800 44 800 useful. This table assumes that the magnitude of power
500 000 . 20? 000 150 one 1 O1 O00 77 100 transmitted in the ease of voltages 13.2, 33, and G6 kv is
80 FWMEGH 240 320
based on a regulation of 5 percent and a. load power factor
920 kv 1 24-foot Spacing
of 90 percent. In the case of 132 and 220 kv, the table is
Hollow Copper
500 000
based on a loss of 10 percent and equal voltages at the send-
425 000 219 O00 £51 000 119000 ing and receiving ends of the line. The reason for this and
ACSR—i 95 U00 417 000 216 000 1 49 000 i113 500
the bases of the ealcuiations are given in Chapter Q.
tom obtained from F1 E3 19 and 22 of Chap.9. A representative study is given in Table 2. It is assumed
8 General Considerations of Transmission
that it is desired to transmit over a single-circuit ten miles
long 8000 kw (10 O00 kva) at 80 percent power-factor lag-
ging for 1.0 hours st day followed by 2000 kw (2509 kva)
at 80 percent power-factor for 1.4 hours. The preliminary
guess indicates that 23, 3-4.5, or 46 kv are probably the
economical nominal voltriges.
spacing and the number of insulators are as given in
Tobie rt. Conductors of hard-clrnwn stranded copper are
TABLE 4 —CONSTRUCTION FEATURES or TRANSMISSION
LKNES IN "run UN ETE o STATFS"
4
Lin‘. Length in “Hes 1'Iguiv:ilc1it
volmgt, f W f i V jlltitflllg M
i“ KYI Av. Min. ixiax. 'Typc** Av.
13.8: .. SCJY
34.5 .. SC-W
25 100 SCVW
25 100 SC-W
i¢9'—‘C5OUWO .r. >l>©-w6301 25 l-10 SC—W
|—l)-4
IO O5 O >.- O»;@ I 45 260 SC-LH"l‘ I
employed, the resistance being tniren at 25 degrees C.
The s1ep—up and step—do\\'n trzinsforrners are assumed as
2.5 X 10 000 kvii,12 500 kvc. at either end, and high-voltage
circuit-breakers are used in anticipation of future addi~
tionul circuits.
The costs of the pole line, right.-of-xvay, buiicliog, and
real estate are not included as they will be practically the
some for the range of voltages studied.
Assuming that the cost figures in the table are correct, a
34. 5()()~volt line with No. U0 copper conductor is the most
economical. The transmission loss will be 5 percent and
the regulation 7 percent at full load, which is deemed
satisfactory. The voltage is suiliciently high for use as a
sulitmnsinission voltage if and when the territory de-
veiops and additional loud is created. The likelihood of
early growth of ti load district is an import-ant inctor in
selection of the higher "voltage and larger conductor where
the annual operating costs do not vary Loo widely.
9. Choice of Conductors
"fhe preliminary choice of the conductor size can also
he limited to t-wo or three, although the method of selecting
will differ with the length of transmission and the choice
of voltage. In the lower voltages up to, say, 30 kv, for
at given percentage energy loss in transmission, the cross
section and consequently the weight of the conductors
required to transmit at given bloclr of power varies in-
versely as the square of the voltage. Thus, if the voltage
is doubled, the weight of the conductors will be reduced
10 uIu>—fm11'tl1 with approximutcly a corresponding reduc-
tion in their cost. This saving in conducting material
for at given energy loss in transmission becomes less
as the higher voltages are rcuclied, becoming increas-
ingly less us voltages go higher. This is for the reason
that for the higher voltages at least two other sources of
*This table is based on information [)lll)liSl10(l in Electrical World
and in Electrical Engineering. While it docs not inciuele all lines, it
is probclily representative of general pI'zl.Ci,i(;c in the U.S,A_
**f5C»\V “Single-circuit wood.
SC~STfiSing1e*eircuiL steel.
Chapter 1
loss, leakage over insulators and the escape of energy
through the sir between the conductors (l~:no\\'n :18
“corona”-—see Chap. 3) a.ppr=.n.r. in zidrlition to these
two losses, the charging current, which increases as the
transmission voltagge goes higher, may either increase or
hlrgiiivziicnt conductor (lG(§I'£‘.Z1S0 the current in the circuit depending upon the
power-factor of the load current and the relative amount
of the lending and lagging components of the current in
the circuit. Any change in the current of the circuit will
conseriucntly be accompanied by :1 corresponding change
in the PR loss. In fact, these sources of additional losses
l?’umIbcr may, in some cases of long circuits or extensive systems,
nsu utors W mat-eriully contribute towurrl limiting the transmission
Av. Min. Max. voltage. The weight of copper conductors, from which
their cost can he calculated, is given in Chap. 3. As an
.. .. ..
|-F-03 .. ., ..
insurance against breakdown, important lines frequently
8 5 , S
are built with circuits in duplicate. In such cases the cost
17 7 O'>\4> V<~4 >-
of conductors for two circuits should not be overlooked.
18 10
31
10. Choice of Spacing
..- En “- >i>ClJ mm $10
Conductor spacing depends upon the economic con-
sirlerntion given to performance against. lightning surges.
If m€!.XlIT1‘dI"Il reliability is sought, the spacing loses its
relation to the operating voltage and then a medium
voltage line assumes most of the cost of a high-voltage
transmission without the corresponding economy. (Sec
(limp. 17) In general a compromise is adopted whereby
the spacing is based on the dynamic voltage conditions
with some allowance for reasonable performance aguirist
lightning surges.
Table 4 shows typical features of transmission lines in
the United States inciuding their "equivalent spacing”
and the number of suspension insulators used. By equiva-
lent spacing is understood the spacing that would give
the same reactnnce and capacitance as if on equilateral
triangular sirrangement oi conductors had been used. It
is usually impractical to use an equilateral trizmgular ar-
rangement for design reasons. The e§1_ui_valent spacing
is obtained from the fO1‘1l1ui3 Dw\‘/ABC where A, B,
and C’ are the actual distances between conductors.
11. Choice of Supply Circuits
The choice of the electrical layout of the proposed
power station is based on the conditions prevailing Eocally.
It should take into consideration the character of the
load and the necessity for maintaining continuity of
service. it should be as simple in arrangement as prac-
ticable to secure the desired flexibility in operation and
to provide the proper facilities for inspection of the
apparatus.
A review of e:-zisting installations shows that the appar-
ent combinations are innumerable, but an analysis incli-
cntes that in general they are combinations of :1 limited
number of fLlI'l(.l£i.ll'lBl1l.LLl schemes. The arrtuigements
vary from the simplest single-circuit layout to the in~
volved duplicate systems installed for metropoiitun serv~
ice \\‘here the importance of rnaintaining continuity of
service justifies it high capital expenditure.
The scheme selected for stations distributing power at
bus voltage differs radically from the layout that would
be desirubie for a station designed for bulk transmission.
Chapter 1 General Considerations of Transmission 9

In some metropolitan developments supplying l1n<'iE1‘- large that it is necessary to use current-limiting reactors
ground cable systems segregated—phase layouts have in series with the generator leads or in series with each
been and are still employed to secure the maximum of feeder. Sometimes both are required. Sketch (e) shows a
reliability in operation. However, their use seems to be double bus commonly used where reactors are in series
on the decline, as the improvement in performance over with each gcricrntor and each feeder. Bus-tie reactors
the conventional adjacent phase grouping is not suffi- are also shown that, with all generators in service, keep
ciently better to justify the extra cost, particularly in the short-circuit currents within the interrupting ability
View of the continuing improvement of protective equip» of the breakers. These bus~»tie reactors are important
rnent and the more reliable Schemes of relaying available
today for removing faulty equipment, buses, or circuits.
Several fundamental scheiues for bus luyouts supplying
feeders at generator voltage are shown in Fig. 8. These
Vary from the simplest form of supply for a small indus-
trial plant as shown in (a) to a reliable typo of layout for
centrahstation supply to important load areas shown in .3.
ill
{c} and (f) 1'. -L-L
Sketch (a) shows several feeders connected to it oom-
mon bus fed by only one generator. This type of con-
struction should be used only where interruptions to
._EH:“'“L
iii?‘
service are relatively unimportant because outages must
exist to all feeders simultaneously when the bus, genera~
tor breaker, generator or power source is out of service
for any reason. Each feeder has a circuit breaker and a
disconnect switch. The circuit breaker provides protec-
tion against short circuits on the feeder and enables the
feeder to be removed from service while it is carrying
load if necessary. The disconnect switch serves as eddi-
tional backup protection for personnel, with the breaker
open, during maintenance or repair work on the feeder.
Tlie disconnect also enables the breaker to be isolated
from the bus for inspection and maintenance on the
breaker. Quite frequently disconnect switches are ar-
ranged so that when opened the blade can be connected
to u grounded clip for protection. If the bus is supplied
ill iii
by more than one generator, the reliability of supply to
the feeders using this type of layout is considerably in-
creased.
With more than one generator complete flexibility is
@uiil *E
‘l"l:iWt
+;
obtained by using duplicate bus and‘ switching equip-
ment as shown in (lo). It is often questionable whether AUX. BUS
the expense of such an arrangement is §ustified and it
shouid be used only where the importance of the service
warrants it. One breaker from each generator or feeder Bl:-if:
-\_Q§lQ;-S
6_ "2
Q9 ”{3/'\—-o—\n-.
can be removed from service for maintenance with com— (el
plete protection for maintenance personnel and without
$YN€HRONIZ|NG 31.33
disrupting service to any feeder. Also, one complete bus "1 l ' ' * '7"
section can be removed from service for cleaning and nonin-
tenance 01' for adding an additional feeder without inter~
fering with the normal supply to other feeder circuits.
There are many intermediate schemes that can be utilized
that give a lesser degree of flexibility, an example of
which is shown in (c). There are also several connec- w /morn /-Cl-OA-—l:/n-gp\__'_____i /*U'
-'—*=—.0n$z+-/-Ci-\.(i ) [:‘*
Tl“
2/
rm“/‘G—lO3~\
tions differing in degree of duplication that are inter»
mediate to tho three layouts indicitterl, for inst-mice in
(cl). An analysis o£ the connections in any station layout
usually shows that they are built up from parts of the
fundamental schemes depending upon the tlcxibiiity and
reliability required.
The generating capacity connected to a bus may be so
‘INELA. Publications Nos. I64 and 278-20-~Elec. App. Comm. Fig. B-Fundamental schemes of connections for supply at
give a number of station and substation layouts. generator voltage.
10 General Considerations of Trarzsmission Chapter 1

because they not only limit the current on short circuit
but also serve as a source of supply to the feeders on a.
bus section if the generator on that bus section fails.
Each feeder can be connected to either the main or auxil-
iary bus through what is cailed a selector breaker. A
selector breaker is similar in every respect to the feeder
breaker and serves as backup protection in case the feeder
breaker does not function properly when it should open
on a feeder fault. The bus~tic breakers can be used when
one or more generators are out of service to prevent volt»
age and phase-angle differences between bus sections
that would exist with the supply to a bus section through
a reactor. The phase angle between bus sections becomes
important when a station is Supplying a network system
and should be kept to a minimum to prevent circulating
currents through the network. For a network suppiy at
Feast four bus sections are generally used so that the net-
work can still be supplied in case one bus section should
trip out on a fault. Sketch (e) shows only three bus sec~
tions, the main and auxiiiary buses serve as one bus for
the feeders connected to that section.
Sketch (f) shows a more modern design for central
stations with the feeder reactors next to the bus struc~
ture, in contrast with (e) where the reactors are on the
feeder side of the breaker. This arrangement is possible
caused considerable trouble by electrocuting themselves
in accessible bus structures.
With stations supplying transmission systems the
scheme of connections depends largely on the relative
capacities of the individual generators, transformers and
transmission circuits; and whether ail the generated
power is suppiied in bulk over transmission lines or
Whether some must also be supplied at generator voltage.
The simplest layout is obtained when each generator,
transformer and transmission circuit is of the same ca-
pacity and can be treated as a. single entity. llnfortu»
nately, this is seldom the case because the number of
generators do not equal the number of outgoing circuits.
Even here, however, some simplification is possible if the
transforrncrs are selected of the same capacity as the
generators, so that the combination becomes the equive.—
lent of a high~voltage generator with all the switching on
the high-voltage side of the transformer.
In Fig. 9, (a) shows the “unit scheme” of supply. The
power system must be such that a whole unit comprising
generator, transformer and transmission line can be
dropped without loss of customcr’s load. The station
auxiliaries that go with each unit are usually supplied

._._.i.
because of the proven reliability of reactors, circuit break-
ers, and dust-tight metalclad bus structures. Con~
tinuous supply to ali feeders is provided through reactor
ties to a synchronizing bus should a generator fail. Bus—
tie circuit breakers are provided to tie solidly adjacent
bus sections for operation with one or more generators -~]»-\-c:i--/
out of service. Stations of this type would be expected
to have four to six or more bus sections especially if the
station supplies network loads. The synchronizing bus { (<1)
also serves as a point where tie feeders from other sta-
tions can be connected and be available for symmetrical
power supply to all feeder buses through the reactors.
Tliis is not the case for station design shown in (e) where
a tie feeder must be brought in to a particular bus section.
F0!‘ any type of generating-station design proper cur»
rent and potential transformers must be provided to sup-
ply the various types of relays to protect all electrical
parts of the station against any type of fault. Likewise,
current and voltage conditions must be obtained from
current and potential transformers through the proper
metering equipment to enable the operating forces to put
into service or remove any equipment without impairing
the operation of the remainder of the station. A ground
bus must be provided for grounding each feeder when it
$30mi
is out of service for safety to personnel. A150 a high-

A-i -Oto/ease “fig

ii“
-+»@% <>
as
potential test bus is necessary to test circuit breakers,
bus work and feeders, following an outage for repairs or
maintenance, before being reconnected to the station.
Fire walls are generally provided between bus sections
or between each group of two bus sections to provide
against the possibility of a fire in one section spreading to
the adjacent sections. The separate compartments within
/-“Elm.
?—*1a.En0.\_§ L£,U:\;. —@j
/“Cl-*\

the station should be locked and made as tight as possible .—[/-‘QR '.""\ _“\
for protection against accidental contact by operating .—{:/"‘l3"\
F,‘ §
personnel either physically or through the medium of a Fig. 9—Fundamenta1 schemes of supply at higher than gene:-~
wire or any conducting material. Stray animais have ated voltage.
Chapter 1 General Considerations of Transmission 11

through a station transformer connected directly to the

generator terminals, an independent supply being pro-
vided for the initial start-up and for subsequent emer-
-1-I-9- E-Le -_e./he-»
gency restarts.
Sketch (b) shows the case where conditions do not per-

e.
i . . F if“
mit of the transformers being associated directly with the
generators because, perhaps, of outgoing feeders at gen-
erator voltage, but Where the capacity of the transmission
lines is such as to give an economical transformer size.
Here it may be desirable to include the tiensformer bank
as an integral part of the line and perform all switching
operations on the low-voltage side. Sketch (lo) shows the
extreme cl simplicity, which is permissible only where
feeders and lines can be taken in and out of service at
-+-»- -+-E-T "F
will, and (c) shows the other extreme where the feeders
and lines are expected to be in service continuously.
Sketch (d) shows an arrangement which is frequently ap-
plicable and which provides 2. considerable flexibility
with the fewest breakers.
ls.‘
l >-Q-"Is-<
Figs. 8 and 9 include fundamental layouts from which
almost any combination can be made to meet local condi-
tions. The choice depends on the requirements of service
continuity, the importance of which depends on two fac-
tors, the multiplicity of sources of supply, and the type
of load. Some industrial loads are of such a nature that
the relatively small risk of an outage docs not justify
duplication of buses and switching.
The same ergumerit applies to the transmission line

itself. Figure 10 shows an assumed transmission of 100
miles with two intermediate stations at 33 miles from
either end. Sketch (a) is a fully-sectionalized scheme
giving the ultimate in flexibility and reliability. Any sec-
tion of either transmission circuit can be taken out for
maintenance without the loss of generating capacity.
Furthermore, except within that part of the transmission
where one section is temporarily out of service, e. fault on
any section of circuit may also be cleared without loss of
load. Sketch (b) shows the looped-in method of connec-
tion. Fewer breakers are required than for the fully
scctionelized scheme, and as in (a) any section ot the
circuit can be removed from service without reducing
power output. IE, however, a second line trips out, part
or all of the generating capacity may be lost. Relaying
is somewhat more dlfficult than with (a), but not unduly
so. Flexibility on the 1ow~voltage side is retained as in
(e). Sketch (c) is in effect an extension of the buses from
station to station. The scheme is, of course, considerably
cheaper than that in (a) and slightly less than that in
(b) but can be justified only where a temporary outage
of the transmission is unimportant. Relaying in (c) is
complicated by the fact that tics between buses tend to
equalize the currents so that several distinct relaying
steps are required to clear e fault.
A proper balance must be kept between the reliability
of the switching scheme used and the design of the line
itself. Most line outages originate from lightning and a.
simplification and reduction in the cost of switching is
permissible if the circuit is built lightning proof. (Sec
Chap. 13.) On the other hand, if a line is of poor construc-
tion as regards insulation and spacing, it would not be
good engineering to attempt to compensate for this by
/Q- _e.lfilt@
‘ll
-+\—--+- -+—--[E- -l:i-/1»\c3/+\~o-
is ll.
Gi”“"_”“t“-es» es so
<ee-D-J;
(0) (bl (C)
Fig. 16--Fundamental schemes of transmission. (a) Fully-
sect-ionalized supply. (I2) Looped~in supply. (0) Bussed supply.
putting in an elaborate switching and relaying scheme.
Only a few fundamental ideas have been presented on
the possible layout of station buses and the switching
arrangements of transmission circuits. The possible com-
binations are almost infinite in number and will depend
on local conditions and the expenditure considered per-
missible for the conditions prevailing.
REFERENCES
1. Briefing the Record, edited by J. J. Jaklitsch, Mechanical Engineer-
ing, February 1948, p. 147.
2. Economic Balance Between Steam and Hydro Capacity, Trans-
actions A.S.M.E., Vol. 55, No. 3. Also Electrical World, August
so, 1932.
3. Economics of Long-Distance Energy Transmission, by R. E.
Pierce and E. E. George, Ebasco Services, 1:10., A.I Transac-
itO7'L8, Vol. er, 1948, pp. 1089--1094.
4. EELNEMA Preferred Voltage Ratings {or A-C Systems and
Equipment, dated May I949. EEK Publication No. R-6. NEMA
Publication No. 117.
 CHAPTER 2
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Original Autlwr:
3. E. Hobson
HE analysis of a three-phase circuit in which phase
N voltages and currents are balanced (of equal mag-
nitude in the three phases and displaced 120° from
each other), and in which all circuit elements in each phase
are balanced and symmetrical, is relatively simple since
the treatment of a single-phase leads directly to the three-
phase solution. The analysis by Kirchoff’s laws is much
more difficult, however, when the circuit is not sym-
metrical, as the result of unbalanced loads, unbalanced
faults or short-circuits that are not symmetrical in the
three phases. Symmetrical components is the method now
generally adopted for calculating such circuits. It was
presented to the engineering profession by Dr. Charles L.
Fortescue in his 1918 paper, “Method of Symmetrical Co-
ordinates Applied to the Solution of Polyphase Networks.”
This paper, one of the longest ever presented before the
A.l.E.E., is now recognized as a classic in engineering liter-
ature. For several years symrnetrical components re-
mained the tool of the specialist; but the subsequent work
of R. D. Evans, C. F. Wagner, J. F. Peters, and others in
developing the sequence networks and extending the ap-
plication to system fault calculations and stability calcula-
tions focused the attention olf the industry on the simplifi-
cation and clarification symmetrical components offered in
the calculation of power system performance under un-
balanced conditions.
The method was recognized immediately by a few engi-
neers as being very useful for the analysis of unbalanced
conditions on symmetrical machines. lts more general
application to the calculation of power system faults and
unbalanccs, and the simplification made possible by the
use of symmetrical components in such calculations, was
not appreciated until several years later when the papers
by Evans, Wagner, and others were published. The use
of symmetrical components in the calculation of unbal-
anced faults, unbalanced loads, and stability limits on
three-phase power systems new overshadows the other
applications.
The fundamental principle of symmetrical components,
as applied to three-phase circuits, is that an unbalanced
group of three related vectors (for example, three unsym-
metrical and unbalanced vectors of voltage or current in
a three-phase system) can be resolved into three sets of
vectors. The three vectors of each set are of equal magni-
tude and spaced either zero or 120 degrees apart. Each set
is a “symmetrical component” of the original unbalanced
vectors. The same concept of resolution can be applied to
rotating vectors, such as voltages or currents, or non-
rotating vector operators such as impcdances or B.(l1nit-
tances.
Revised by:
I). L. Whitehead
Stated in more general terms, an unbalanced group of n
associated vectors, all of the same type, can be resolved
into n sets of balanced vectors. The n vectors of each set
are of equal length and symmetrically located with respect
to each other. A set of vectors is considered to be sym-
metrically located if the angles between the vectors, talrcn
in sequential order, are all equal. Thus three vectors of
one set are symmetrically located ii the angle between
adjacent vectors is either zero or 120 degrees. Although
the method of symmetrical components is applicable to the
analysis of any nnulti-phase system, this discussion will be
limited to at consideration of threzrphaso systems, since
three phase systems are most frequently encountered.
This method of analysis makes possible the prediction,
readily and accurately, of the behavior of a power system
during unbalanced short-circuit or unbalanced load con-
ditions. The engineer's knowledge of such phenomena has
boen greatly augmented and rapidly developed since its
introduction. Modern concepts of protective relaying and
fault protection grew from an understanding of the sym-
metrical component methods.
Out of the concept of syiumetrlcal components have
sprung, almost full-born, many electrical devices. The
negative-sequence relay for the detection of system faults,
the positive-sequence filter for causing generator voltage
regulators to respond to voltage changes in all three phases
rather than in one phase alone, and the connection of in»
strument transformers to segregate zormsequencc quanti»
ties for the prompt detection of ground faults are interest-
ing examples. The HCB pilot wire relay, a recent addition
to the list of devices originating in minds trained to think
in terms of symmetrical components, uses a positive-
scqucncc filter and a, zero-sequence filter for the detection
of faults within a protected line section and for initiating
the high speed tripping of breakers to isolate the faulted
section.
Symmetrical components as a tool in stability calcula-
tions Was recognized in 1924-1926, and has been used
extensively since that time in power system stability
analyses. its value for such calculations lies principally in
the fact that it permits an unbalanced load or fault to be
represented by an impedance in shunt with the single-
phasc representation of the balanced system.
The understanding of three-phase transformer perform-
ance, particularly the eilect of connections and the phe-
nomena associated with three-phase core-form units has
been clarified by symmetrical components, as have been
the physical concepts and the mathematical analysis of
rotating machine performance under conditions of unbal-
anced faults or unbalanced loading.
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components 13

The extensive use of the network calculator for the a2: (£1120) (ejlilfl) = 61240;: |
ciotcrminution of 5lit)I'L-(fl{‘(fUll\ currents zmtl voltages lLIll.'l
for the application of circuit breakers, relays, grounding;
transforniurs. protector tubes, etc. has been furthr~.ro<i by As shown in Fig. 1, the resultant of a? operating on a
the development of symmetrical components, since catch vector V is the vector V” having the some length as V,
sequence n0t\\'o1'k may be set up indcpcn<.icntly as at single- but located E20 degrees in at clockwise direction from V.
phiisc Systern. A ininiziture network of am emensivo power The three vectors 1+_y'0, ct’, and a (taken in this order)
system, set up with tlircmplmse V0lt:t§__;t:S, sepm-ntc im~ V'= 0V
[')Qll££I1COS for Q£1.Cl’L phase, and mutual inapedanccs between
plizises wo11ld indeed be so large and cumbersome to lmnclle
to be prohibitive. In this connnection it is of interest to
note that the not-work calculator has become on indispen-
sable tool in the analysis of power system p(:rf()rmu,n£:t: and
\
in power systoln design. V
Not only has the method been an exceedingly valuabie
tool in system analyses, but also, by providing new and
simpler concepts the understanding of power system be-
havior has been clnrifieti. The mctliorl of symmetrical
couiponcilts is responsible for an entirely tlilicrcnt manner
of opproncll to predicting and analyzing power-system
V”=n2V
performance. Fig. 1———Rotation of a vector by the 0pe1‘fl1£0!' ll-
Syinmotrimil components early earned a. rcputa,tion of
being complex. This is unfortunate since the mathe- form a l32Ll£].DC(?(l, symmetrical, set of vectors of positive-
matical intinipulzitions attendant with the method are phase-sequence rotation, since the vectors are of equal
quite simple, requiring; only ZS. knowledge of complex vector length, displziccil equal angles from each other, and cross
notation. It stimds somewhat unique among; 1’I1l1.§,llGIT\1Llr tho rcforoncc line in the order 1, a2, and a (following the
icztl tools in that it l1&S been used not only to 0Xpl;l.iI1 exist- l1S\_l£ll convention of counter~c§oc.k\vise rotation for the
ing conditions, but also, as pointed out 2i.l)()V(‘-, the physical
concepts arising from at knowledge of the bztsic principles TABLE 1~-PROPERTIES or rnr: Vscroa GPERATOR “a”
have led to the development of new equipment and new 1 = 1 "l-JIU = 0°
sciiomes for power system operation, protcction, etc. 1 . -3 .
an w_§+J.l/_§Z=E;1:|e
Timings rncn some to know lose their mystery, and so it is
with this irnportant tool. . /3
as: __%__J.§!_,:2.:,fi;2~:u
Inasmuch as the theory and applications of symrnotrical Ga“; 1.+J,‘Q:tin
components arc fully <liscussed ClSE?\\’l1()1'€ (see references)
the intention hero is oniy to siimmnrizc the impor- G}-_=(g,=‘
1 .\/3"5161!-ZD
.
tant equations and to provide a convenient reference for
<t .2 éiuo
as $62 2 M ,, MJ,__..:2
those who are al.re:trly somewliut familiar with tile sub- KG,-
jest. a+o“~+1:O
41+!-1”” ~—1'"l".i9*~¢’l.*°
11*": =9+.i \/3 W \/'fi="'"“
I. THE VECTOR OPERATOR “a” a*~~ii==0—j\/'l§=\/Sam”
1__ Q =g__\,_‘ei."g -_~:J'a/2 \/ff ,_, X/§€;s-so
For eorivenicncc in notation and mrtnipulzition 2. vector
operator is introduced. Through usage it has come to be 1 _u'= =1 3+1}./g = _-3}“/§ = \/Egan
known as the vector a and is defined as
Q-1= ~§+.;-*1} ma/§=\/'§=1==»
a= -%+;i!g= om (1) out = -~i2l»~;'l/-5 =ja\/3= \/3'-rm"
This indicates that the vector a has unit length and is .’i§ .
1+cc== """412="lJX.;“¢’5°
oriented I20 degrees in at positive {countor-clockwise)
direction from the reference axis. A vector operrtt-ed upon 1+a:2 may ___J‘_I2;e1so0 <.
IO»-10>-4
by a is not cliziuged in magnitude but is simply rot:1t-ed in (1 -l—czl (1—l—c:?)~=1+j0=e?°
position 120 degrees in the forward <liroc1.ion. For mum- (1 -11) (1-07) 13-l-j‘Q=3c"°
plc, V’=aV is 21. vector linving the some length as the
vector V, but rotated 120 degrees forward from the vector
}_'l'_“_,=a_.= ,__.
,_ _L. gr-# |_\Q
a--l
+ ‘Q.
l4%=Eiue

V. This l‘OlLLtl()!1Sl1lp is shown in Fig. 1. The square of l—tl __ _ _“.}“/j_ .

the vector a is another unit vector oriented 120 degrees i"1ii"" *‘*"" 1 2“*”°° [\:.?~*

in a negative (clockwise) direction from the reference (1+ti)==a= ~»»%+;>‘i% 2 ¢='**='

axis, or oriented 240 degrees forward in a positive direc-
(]_.+_a2):_.;azm _,,%,,,_]'}4%;£i24u
tion.
14 Symmetrical Components Chapter 2

vector diagram). The vectors 1, a, and o’ (taken in this

order) form a baliinced, symmetrical, set of vectors of \
R Efl°,Eb°'E°°‘E° 7
nogative—phese-soqucnco, since the vectors do not cross
the rcicrence lino in the order named, keeping the some
Fig. 4——Zero-sequence components of the vectors in Fig. 3.
4-@344’? ma? a<-094-lg
/X T R *-- E1 is the positivessequence component of E2, written
/ \-.
/ \.
as I531. The positivesequencc component of Eh, EN, is
equal to o2E=,i. The positive-sequence component of Ec,
\ Ea, is equal to oEM. EM, Ei,1, Ed form :1 balanced, sym»-
0-i / u / ""i‘*"‘"-\_—u! we?
motrieal throe~ph:ise set of vectors of positive phase se-
/ , l - \ quence since the vector Ea; is 120 degrees ahead of Eb;
/ 1‘ \ and 120 degrees behind Eel, as shown in Fig. 5.
1 /
-.
\ \
1 .1".
Q H50 5ci'°5: E ‘E
\__kf__
/I
if / \
‘ _/ \‘+*_____i,‘¢

0!-i \ 0
1 “-__, ._ /
4° /,
/1-a

\\ » ,//

1:‘!-a-\fi“
\\eiM//
07--0 02-u+\lԤ
Em‘ “la!
Fig. 2—Properties of the vector operator 0.
Fig. 5»--Positive-sequence components of the vectors in Fig. 3.
convention of counterclockwise rotation, but the third
named follows the first, etc. E2 is the negative-sequence component o§ Ea, written
Funrlamental properties of the vector e are given EM. The negative-sequence components of Eb and Ea
in Table 1, and are shown on the vector diagram of are, reepectivcly, mike and a2Ew, so that E32, E52, E82
Fig. 2. token in order form a symmetrical sot of ncgativmsequence
vectors es in Fig. (5.
II. RESOLUTION AND COMBINATION OF All three of the zero-sequence-component vectors are
VECTOR COMPONENTS defined by En, since E,;;=E'w=Ec{,. Likewise, the three

1. Resolution of Unbalanced Three-Phase Voltages Ebffifig

A three-phase set of unlmlanccrl voltage vectors is shown
in Figv 3. Any three unbalanced vectors such as those in Eofsz
Fig. 3 can be resolved into three balanced or symmetrical
sets of vectors by the use oi the following equations:
E0 :%(E|&+Ell+' E0)
E1=%(Eo+@Eb+G2Ec) 5:2‘ $52
E2“%(Es+¢I2Ei>+0E¢) Fig. 6-Negative-sequence components of the vectors in Fig. 3.

positivesequence vectors are defined by E1, since E'$1=E1,

Eb,ma2E1, and EC,“-:aE;. Similarly the three negative-
can I//' sequonce vectors are defined by E1. Thus all nine com-
ponent vectors of the three Original unbalanced vectors are
completely defined by Eu, E1, and E2; and it is understood
that 150, E1, and E2, are the zero-, positive-, and negative-
sequence components of E, without writing Em, etc. The
three original unbalanced vectors possess six degrees of
freedom, since an angle and a magnitude are necessary to
Fig. 3—Un balanced vectors.
define each vector. The nine component vectors also
possess six degrees of freedom, since each of the three sets
E9 is the zero-sequence component of Ea, and is like- of component vectors is described by one angle and one
wise the zero-sequence component of Eb and E0, so that magnitude; for example, the three positive-sequence
En=E»i>=Ei><r:Ec@. This set of three-phase vectors is vectors E31, Em, and E01, are defined by the angular posi-
shown in Fig. 4. tion and magnitude of E1.
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components 15

Note that all three sets of component vectors have the

same counterclockwise direction of rotation as was as~ 5, £6
sumecl for the original unbalanced vectors. The negative
sequence set. of vectors does not rotate in a direction oppo- 5::
_____ _ . .___
9 Ea
site to the positivwsequonce sot; but the phase-sequence,
that is, the o1'(lor in which the nmximum occur with time, Em
of tho ncgetivemsoqucnee set is s, c, b, :1, and therefore
opposite to the a, lo, e, a, phaswseqlienco of the positive- L20 3°‘ 22' 216200‘,9o_
sequenee set.
The unbalanced vectors can be expressed as functions of
the three components just defined:
Li 6
‘if-4Q?";"
rnm>.€.4,s~ I70‘

Ea=EnG+-E_"n1+Eu2:EO+El+E2

Eb=Eto+Eb1"l'Eb2=Eo+<12Ei+(IE2 (4) "'6'on l I 28

'*r '"¢"r
:58; i\‘\l51?“ /49.4,- i_ i

Ea:E¢0““l“E¢1'l‘E¢2=Eo'l“C'/E1‘l"!12E2

The combination of the sequence component vectors to "° 290 41‘,Wi ‘ ' ‘Q1;
,
‘Iii ,5},-»j
form the original unbalanced vectors is shown in Fig. 7. ‘$1.3 Loo ,__3o0'
In general a sot of three unbalanced vectors such as
those in Fig. 3 will have zero-, p0sitive~, and negative-
1
*2:.pnv=:=§.=
o_,6;gAg,‘E;§2/,;...‘;g-f‘§,r.-. to
W"

0.92 "9llQ€%%l|\‘§'*.'9¢>2'sfl
.
Eco E“ E02
use -350 UNBALANC
E“ 50:
0.84 1 20,3” 50. ' FACYOR
3»!
ANSELE =
Ev 0.8 l
Em 880' 0.88 0.96 L04 LIZ L20

Eb:
-is
£0

Fig. ‘l——Comb1nation of the three symmetrical component Fig. 8——Determination of unbalance factor.
sets of vectors to obtain the original unbalanced vectors in
Fig. 3. negative sequence voltage whereas the phase voltages are
of course more readily measured.
sequence components. However, if the vectors are bal~
anced and symmetrioalwof equal length and displaced i2U 2. Resolution of Unbalanced Three-Phase Currents
degrees from each other-“there will he only a positive-
sequence component, or only at negative-sequence cem- Three line currents can be resolved into three sets of
$}’n1m€l;1'l(3zLl component vectors in a. manner analogous
ponont, depending upon the order of phase sequence for
the original vectors. to that just given for the resolution of voltages.
Equations (3) can be used to resolve either line-to— Referring to Fig. 9:
neutral voltages or line—to~line voltages into their oom-
I0=Iu.0:" Ia+Ib"l"Ic)
ponents. Inherently, however, since three delta or line- 11:1“-“*"~‘“ Ia"l"GIb'+'G2]g)
to—line voltages must form a closed triangle, there will he I2”"‘Ia‘z:“‘ ;,_, . w»-Iwr-I _,.\/—\Ia.“l_a2Ib‘l‘a'Ic)
/~\
no zero-sequence component for a set of three-phase line~
to~1ine voltages, and Ewfigs (E,,b+Eb,+Ec,,)=0. The
1
subscript “D” is used to denote components of delta Q 11* i J"3:g"'_—fl:_ _ _ —
voltages or currents flowing in delta windings.
In many cases it is desirable to know the ratio of the In
negatives» to positive-sequence amplitudes and the phase u— <1"
angle between them. This ratio is commonly called the
unbalance fact-or and can be conveniently obtained from Q ::;_*_~.!f:‘£;l!!‘::: . . . - - ' ——

the chart given in Fig. 8. The angle, 6, by which EM

Fig. 9--Threwphase line currents.
lfifldfi En can be obtained also from the some chart. The
chart is applicable only to three-phase, three-wire systems,
since it presupposes no zero-sequence component. The The above are, respectively, the zero-, positive-, and
only data needed to use the chart is the scalar magnitudes negativesequence components of Ia, the current in the
of the three lino voltages. As an example the chart can be reference phase.
used to deterznine the unbalance in phase voltages per- In“]m+In1"l"Ia2*Iu+Ii‘l*I2
missible on induction motors tvithout excessive heating. In=Ibo+Ib1+Ii>2=lo+021T1"l"®I2 Q6)
This limit has usually been expressed as at permissible I¢=1’¢0+I¢1"l""I-=2*-=Iu+11l:+<12I2
16 Symmetrical Components Chapter 2

Three delta currents, Fig. 10, can be resolved into com- Ia‘3o’{{*12
ponents:
I0D“'_ [x+Iy+]:>
Im-= IX-l—aI,+a“I,) (7)
O

b
1=~ _. _ _ . . _

;b¢1G+o§,+ Qla ZO

I¢1~_>= w§-»<»=Iv-'w- ,- /~\/'—~ L.-l—a2I,,—l—aI,) E

°° z¢ 2;,
Where I, has been chosen as the reference phase current. I¢*I¢+ nl, +131
C
0 ‘Egg

*
€
1/ w 0 Iq‘1g'P!¢+Ig
(cl

...._E9.....
Z9 "I

Eb
Fig. 10-Three-phase delta currents. b 1:>‘lo*"*l:"-‘la Z9 b,

Three line currents flowing into :1 delta~connected load,
or into a dolta—connected tx'ansfoz"nier winding, cannot
have a. zero-sequence component since I3+Ib+I,, must
Obviously l)(! equal to zero. l.ilm\visc the currents flowing
into s star-connected load cannot have a zeioscquonce
component unless the neutral wire is returned or the neutral
point is connected to ground. Another way of stating this
fact is that zero-sequence current cannot flow into e. dcltc~
connected loud or transformer bunk; nor can zero-sequence
current flow into 9. star-connec ted load or transformer bank
unless the neutral is grounded or connected to a return
neutral wire.
The choice of which phase to use as reference is entirely
arbitrary, but once selected, this phase must be kept as the
reference for voltages and currents throughout the system,
and throughout the analysis. It is customary in symmeh
ricel component notation to denote the reference phase as
“phase a”. The voltages and currents over an entire sys~
tem are then expressed in terms of their components, all
referred to the components of the reference phase. The
components of voltage, current, impedance, or power
found by analysis are directly the components of the refor~
once phase, and the components of voltage, current, im-
pedance, or power for the other phases are easily found by
rotating the positive-or negaficive-sequence components of
the reference-phase through tho proper angle. The am-
biguity possible where sta.r-delta, trzmsforman.-ions of volt-
age and current are involved, or where the components of
star voltages and currents are to be related to delta volt-
ages and currents, is detailed in a. following section.
3. Resolution of Unbalanced Impedances and Ad~
mittances
Self Impedanceswlinhalanccd impodanccs can he
resolved into symmetrical components, although the
impedances are vector operators, and not rotating vectors
as are threcphase voltages and currents. Consider the
three star-impedances of Fig. 11(e.), which form an unbal-
anced load. Their sequence components are:
Zfli %(Za+Zli+ZO)
Zlm “Z5 .| G3“. aazc)
Z, = % (.Z,,+o*Z;,+aZ,,)
..___&__.
¢
1c-I..+=1,+==*I= Zc c
,
{hi
Fig. li——-Three unbalanced self impedances.
The sequence components of current through the im-
pedances, and she sequence components of the line volt»
ages iuiprcssed across them are ixitclrelatcd by the fol-
lowing equations:
E0 = §~(E,,g+Ebg+Ecg} = IgZo+.(1Z:”l'IQZ\
E1:%(Eug+aEbg+a2Ecg)“"':I0Z!"l"'Il‘Z0"‘l"'Z-‘.122
E1 § (E,,a+a2Ebg+aE’n,;) =IqZ;+I1Z,+I2Z,
The above equations iliustrate the fundamental prin-
ciple that there is mutual coupling between sequences
when the circuit constants are not symmetrical. As the
equations reveal, both positive- and negative-sequence
current (as well as zero-sequence current) create a zero~
sequence voltage drop. If Z,,mZb=Z,, the impedances
are symmetrical, Z,mZ,*=O, and Z,,:Z,. .1701‘ this eon-
dition,
Ea=IoZo
E1=I1Z,, (10)
Eg*I2Z°
and, as expected, the sequences are independent. If the
neutral point is not grounded in Fig. l1(a), I<>=0 but
Eu=I1Z,+1,;Zl so that there is s. zerosequcnce voltage,
representing 2. neutral voltage shift, crested by positive-
and negutivwscquenoe current flowing through the un-
balanced load.
Equations (8) and (9) also hold for unsymmetrical
series line impedances, as shown in Fig. l1(b), where E0,
E1, and E2 are components of EB, Eb, and E0, the voltage
drops across the impedances in the three phases.
Mutual lmpedances between phases can also be re-
solved into components. Consider Zmbg of Fig. 12(a), as
reference, then
Zmn = %”(Zmbc'l" Zmca+ Zmab)
(8)
Zm1='?5”(Zmhc+aZmun+a2Zmub)
Zmz : %(Zmbc“l"‘ azzm nu+ azmab)
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components I7

=1-I» I tive~sequence voltage drops, etc. Fortunately, except for

q.¥a ° Ll‘,-._ __¢' uiisyuunetrical Eoads, ulisyninielmical transiornier c0n~
I Zmab zmco neetions, otc., the Llxrcc-phase systems usually encountered
b ,:F£fir<> N are symmetrical (or balanced) and the sequences are in-
dependent.
Zmbc
Admittances can be resolved into symmetrical com-
O ? _? _ cl
ponents, and the components used to find the sequence
(0) components of the currents through e. three-phase set of
la‘ 1o*3:*Ie Z4 , line impedances, or sto,r~connected loads, as functions
u of the symmetrical components of the voltage drops
Z '5 Zmco across the impeclances. In Fig. 11(a), let Y,,w21-—, Ybfiil“;
Q _.__b___.... b bl
E Z
L b

Yse 2%, then

0 “"9-'“"' 0'
Ya ='” Ya+ Yb+Yc)
lb) Y,:— Y5+aYb~i~az}",) (15)
Fig. 12 Y, == ¢Jl*-'w\~¢wI~‘ /\,-—\/—\ l',,—l~a.2Yb~l-aY,,)
(a) Three unbalanced mutual impedances. and
(io) Unbalanced self and mutual impedunces. Io: E0Yo+E1Y;+ EsY1
I1: E@Y,+E1Y,,+E2Y, (16)
The components of the three-phase line currents and I2=E@Y,+E1Y,+E2Y,,
the components of the threc~phase voltage drops created Note, however, tliat, Y, is not the reciprocal of Z0, as
by the mutual impcdances will be interrelated by the defined in Eq. 8, Y‘ is not the reciprocal of Z,, and Y,
following equations: is not the reciprocal of Z2, unless Zé,-=Zb=Zc; in other
words, the components of admittance are not reciprocals
E0 = %(Eaa'+Ebb'+ Eng’) = 2I@Zm,, ""'* Lzm, _ Igzmi
E1 : %<En.a'_l"aEYbb'”l”a2-Eco’) = ”' I0zm;‘”"I1zmn“l"'21.T2Zmg
of the corresponrling components of impedance unless
tho three impcdances (and admittances) under consid-
E2 = %(b,Aa'+a2Ebb'+aEcc’) E — I9Zm2+2I1Zm1 '_ I2Zm||
eration are equal.
If, as in Fig. 12(1)), both self and mutual impedances
are present in s. section of a three-phase circuit, the sym~ 4. Star-Delta Conversion Equations
metrical components of the three voltage drops across the if 0. delta arrangement of impcdanccs, as in Fig. 13(a),
section are: is to be converted to an equivalent star shown in Fig.
E0 = l§(E1as'+Ebb'+Ecc')
13(b), the following equations are appiioable.
e1uZr+2Zmo+1nZ,-zmg+1nzr-zmg Z = _1_ :__ Zeb X208-
E1m%<Eaa' l“‘aEbb'+a2Ecc')
“ Ya Zsb"l'"Zbc"l" Zea
=I°(ZiMZ~nI}"l’I1(Zo""“Zn-io)“l’I2(Zz"l'"2Zmz) (13)
E2 = ll (Eaa'+a2Ebb'+aEuc') Zb-xi-—:m+-i’aJ32<~—M»W»—-W»-A
Yb Zab+Zbc'l'Zcs
on
= I9(Z2“ Zuni!) 2Zm1) "l" I2(Zq"- Zmo)
Z =_ _u];_:: Zbcxzm
Again, if both self and mutual impedances are sym-
metrical, in all three phases, G Yo Zab+Zbc'“l"Zn§

E9:I9(Zfl“'l"'2Zm0) =IoZo
E1“I1iZo“Zms)=l1Z1 (14)
E2=I2<Zo“‘Zmo) “I222 Z
2 cu zub 0
Where Zn,/Z1, and Z2 are, respectively, the impedance
*1? _?@1"°"» I}0_Sl’0iVe-, and negative-sequence. For this c0n-
dltlon positive-sequence currents produce only a. positive- Zc Zb
Sequeme "°1mgB dT°P, em Zn, Z1, and Z2 are commonly
referred to as the zcro~sequence, positive~soqucnce, and Zbc
negative-sequence impedances. Note, however, that this (07 (D)
IS not stnctly correct and that Z1, the impedance to
positive-sequence currents, should not be confused with Fig. 13-—Star-delta impedance conversions.
Zn the positive sequence component of self impedances.
Since Z0, Z1, and Z2 are used more frequently than Z,, When the delta impedances form a three-phase load,
Zn and Z2 the shorter expression “zero-sequence im- no zero-sequence current can flow from the line to the load;
pedance” ls usually used to refer to Z0 rather than Z. hence, the equivalent star load must be left with neutral
For a circuit that has only symmetrical impednncos, both ungrounded.
self and mutual, the sequences are independent of each The reverse transformation, from the star impedances of
Ofiher, and positive-sequence currents produce only posi- Fig. l3(b), to the equivalent delta Fig. l3(a), is given by
18 Symmetrical Components Chapter 2

ZRZQ, TABLE 2
z.b=z.+z.+-EM on”..-jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj- . . . . fie
Positive-Sequence Linc-to—Line Voltage
Reference Phase
z1.¢=zi.+z.+-'75?’ <18) Line-to-Line Voltages
As a. Function of Positive Sequence
I,iric-to-Neutral Voltage

Zea-“1Zc'l'Z'a“l_'-5%?‘
Z¢Za MAB " E11):-Enbz \/3E1@"3° E (1 “QZJEK
130 Eii2=Em-‘*"'“j\/§Ei“(fl2‘*QlE1
CA EmE.E¢aI\/§Ere1"50=(t1~l}E‘1
An equivalent delta for rt st:ir~connected, three-phase BA Em=En=~%En"m=or—UEi
load with neutral grounded cannot be found, since zero~ CB E1;;=E,_‘b=_j~\/l§E;=((I-CLZIIEL
sequence current can flow from the line to the star load AC E,;;#Eu=\/$51: ”°=(i—l1)El
and return in the ground, but cannot flow from the line
to any delta arrangement. If Eu, Eh“, and EC“, form a negative-sequence set of
vectors, the vector diagram of Fig. 14(0) illustrates the
III. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEQUENCE relation hetivccn Eg:E,,g, and Em, the negativwsequence
COMPONENTS OF LINE-TO-LINE AND component of the line-to-line voltages. Again, the al-
LINE-TO-NEUTRAL VOLTAGES gebraic relation expressing Ego as a, function of E2 will
depend upon the line»to-line phase selected for reference,
Assume that Eng; Ehg) and l'i‘,,;, are at ;_vositivc-sequence as illustrated in Table 3.
Bet Of line—to-neutral vectors in Fig. 1~l{2.). The line~to-
line Voltages will also form a positive~sequcnoe set of TABLE 3

of Wig’. .. . . Negative-Sequence Line-to-Line Voimge

Reference Phase As a Function oi Negative Sequence
Egg I Eflb ECO Line-to-Neutral Voltage
b i » — —— —— —— —;————_—__——1T**— f _ __

Eta lib: AB Ew~E,,.,fl \/3_E¢€1l°=(1~--11)E'¢

BC E2n=Eh.~“j\/§E2=(f1“02lE-1
CA Ew=Em=~€E“”mwof*UE,
Egg=Ebn=-\/3E'geil5o=((l"-1)E1

on En>"*E¢i=“ -";i\/§E'z={<1'~<1)E’z
la) AL‘ Em=E,=\/f§H'q:i“°=(l—a2)E,

Eu;
Since the line~to-line voltages cannot have a zero-se-
quence component, E<,D=O under all conditions, and E0
Eco Ecq Eab Ebq is an indeterminate function of Eon.
The equations expressing E19 as a function of E1, and
E23 2. function of E2, can be solved to express E1 and
5,, ea“ E2 as functions of Em and Em, respectively. Refer to
Table 4 for the relationships.

TABLE 4
gbq Eco Eco E00
Rcfvrnncc
Phase
Eb: . E _ _ M 9
lb) (oi AB . E1 =;%€"’°=£§gEio E2=%e’3°=L':£'E2D

Fig. 14-—Relationshipa between line-to-line and line-to~ .17] »~ Y 1 E9 ‘-

neutral components of voltage.
BC’ . E1 £12‘/l§=€'"§"g'JI‘/in E2: "];:;g =%EzD

, E . “Ml If-3 l, —1
(b) Positive-sequence relationships. CA B1”"jrg¢""‘°=g-3""Ei§> E2“:/fi€""°‘-‘q‘*34E2D
(c) Negativesequezioc relationships.
BA
E . -1,
El=:;i._§e;1so=€l_3__.lLm F; _.2159:?-__-3.._-‘E'2D
Ezmf/fie *~1
vectors. The relationship lwetiveen the two sets of three-
phase vectors is shown in Fig; l@'l( b). Although Em (the
cs ~E~@~¢j§m1§fEm
‘ F:
EwwV%=gE£Em
‘ED __ 2

l
positive-sequence component of the line-to-line voltages) E . I— 9
l Ei="\7l>2e’3°=TaEiii
E2 - 1"
E2”7gEE_"3°”"%IEzD
AC
will he numerically equal to \/l*iE1—E1 is the p0sit.ivo—
sequence component of the line~Lo~neutr:il voltages (which
is equal in this case to EM); the angular relationship bo- Certain authors have arbitrarily adopted phase CB as
tween E1 and Em depends upon the line-to-line voltage reference, since the relations lietwoen the lino~t0-iine and
taken as reierencc. The choice is arbitrary. Table 2 gives line-to-neutral components are easily remembered and
t-he relation between Em and E, for various line~to~line the zingnlar shift of 90 degrees is easy to carry in com-
phases selected as reference. putations. Using this convention:
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components 19

upon the phase selected for reference. L. is taken as refer-

E1D=J\/3-E1- ‘” 1'
E1: -J
1
ence for the lino currerits. Ruler to Table 5.

11,D= WW513, A ,7—

13,=3‘-~-F’
w 3
/-i (19) PTABLE 5

E@i;>=O E0 is not {L function of EM; l)elt:§. i 1

Helen-iire Fig. l4(l>) Fig. 1-§(c)
The equations and vector diagrams illiistrato the inte-r~ Currviil 3
fiwmw W ‘ K K,
esting fact that the IlU1I‘1€l‘i(?£Ll rclzit-ion l)(%l.\\‘(_‘.£‘i1 the line~ l V l .
I1 ‘ Yin :Izfl';"'.'%[i.€:a° 1z:>EI==‘\"/';§ize"“'°
to-line and line-to-neutral posit.ive~seq1ienc:e <-orriponents
is the same as for negative-scqilcncxc; hut l.l'1€£l» the ungiilzir 1,, 1,.]:1,:§-=?§11 r:,,=1,,:»\»j—§I,
shift for I10g1],l.lVQ*S(2q11(311C8 is opposite to th:.t$; for positive»-
seqncnce, rcgarrlless of the delta pliasc ;<cl<‘('.tc(l {or refer» L [EU IL ;_;.:€/.....%j'Ie7'l5l) l fan in 5 W\%;2¢~;isu
once. Also, D. connection of power or rep;iil;iting l,l'i1flS<-
formers giving 9, shift of 5 degrees in the tmnsforinution ‘-1: I1l)E”*1:I""F1'Y.';Il€-‘hm I20: """I;“%{~z¢m°
V»
for p()Sll»l\"G-S€(]l1€3D()(} voltage and current will give zi. shift
of — 6 (legrccs in the transformation for negaiivc—set;uence »-1,, I Im=-I,=:fqI, l I19:-"I,-='\7T?§'I';
voltage and current.
W ‘-1; ll Iii)-'—‘*L»1"']-.'|lie_l“°
V».i l’ Iz0**L"1TI2€“°
Va
IV. SEQUENCE COMPONENTS OF LINE AND
If the Purreni (~— 1,.) is taken as reference, the relations
DELTA CURRENTS
are easily rememl>cre<l; also, the operator is convenient
The relation existing hci.\vec1i the positive»scqucnce to use in U.I11Ll_\'b'lh'.
component of the rlelta Cl1l'l'CI1l,S and the [Jllfi-iil~i\'\3—Ht‘l[l.1Ulll36
component of the line currents flowing into {L <li:ltu- load I1!>='\j.E'g-[1 ]1*‘“'_fI‘\/31,10
or delta-connected trzuislonner ‘\\'lI1(lil1;!,, and tho 1‘€3lILlZi0I1
existing for the Il€g£ti,l\'O~S(!qU(}I1C€ components of the cur- I21, E Q-gr, 12 =j\/3131) (20)
rents are given in Figs. 15(§>) and 15(0). Aliliniigli the
components of line currents are \/3 times the li(fl1Zl. phase
selected for reference, tho angular rel:.ttionship depends V. STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS OF
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
In
u"_“' Each scquerarc coinponcnt of voltage and current must

C gt. »/ \» he hillowcd sepsim-i.oly through the transformer, and the

angnls-i.r shift of the scqimncn. will rinpnnd upon the input
and output plmses 2u'l)itr:1.rily selected for reference. In
Fig. ll3(z1.), the winiling ratio is n and the overall trans-
‘"17
I formation ratio is NE Line-to-line or line»~t0~neutral
\/' z.
t “"9"”
(cl
vulmgirs on the delta side will be N limos the correspond-
ing voltages on the star side of the transformer (neglecting
irnpedztnce drop). If the transloriner windings are sym»
metrical in the three gnhuscs, there will be no interaction
1c between sequences, and each sequence component of vult-
agc or current is irzmsforined iiidcpendcntly.
To illustrate the sequence trunslormutioiis, phases o and
I! Iy In a’ have been selected {LS reference phases in the two circuits.
Figs. lfilb), (cl, (ill, and lo) give the rrrlationships for the
thrcc plia.scs with our-.11 component of voltage and current
1, it considered scparzlt-ely.
From the vector diagrams
h E1’ =i'\"l*§1ej3°
1’ 10 1: 1 .
I1, E 33116330

Eg’=A?E2E_§w
Tc 1 .
1 2: = ;i\l;]2e“J30
lb) (C;
Fig. I5-—-Relationships between components of phase and Regardless of the phases selected for reference, both
delta currents. ])OSitlV€3-S8(§llL’1'kC8 current and voltage will be shifted in
(b) Positive-sequence relationships. the some dmcrmn by the some angle. Negzitzive-seqiicnce
(0) Negative-sequence relationships. current and Voltage will also he shifted the some angle in
20 Symmetrical Components Chapter 2

Iq IL 1
0 ' a’ late around the delta such that Ix = I, z Z, = I“, = :11}.
E@ The zero-sequence Iine-to-neutral voltages, Eu and En, are
1» ~ 1,1 5 b’ entirely independent-; each being determined by conditions
in its rcspcciivc circuit. The transformation charac tcristies
c I
“_"" \‘l‘ 'II' - c‘ for the three sequence currents and voltages, and the sc-
qucncc impedance cl1ai‘acl;crist.ics, for common connections
Ecq E'cq of power and regulating transformers are given in Chap. 5.
The aciuon of a transformer bank in the transformation of
(<1) zc:'o~sc{;ncncc currents must he given particular atiention,
Elm ' Io
since certain connections do not permit Zero-S(3(;119n(:C cur-
\ rent. to flow, others permit it to pass through the bank
\
wit-houll ti'anslornial.io11, and still others transform zero-
Eco \\ Eng Eab Ii: 1: rq‘li sequenco qiiantilies in the same manner as p0sitive— or
l Er t 0 negativmscqucnce quantities are transformed.
Egg Ea ‘E? El 1 I ‘I
__ ____’_ E at O I
VI. THREE-PHASE ¥’OWER
' Iy
The total th1'ee—phase power of a circuit. can he expressed
1,‘ Ebq n=\['§- in terms of the symmetrical components of the line cur-
I rents and the symmetrical components of the line-l:o~
K neutral voltages.
elm Eb: In 1,
‘ u P“3(EgIn GUS 6g+E1I1 COS 61+EgIg COS 62)
lb) (cl Where 60 is the angle bet-ween E0 and I0, 81 the angle
between E1 and Il, 62 the angle between E1 and I2. The
, abs lb I‘9
equation shows that the total power is the sum of the three
Ebu
‘\
components of power; but the power in one phase of an
\\\ I
unlvalancod circuit is nolc one—l,hir(l of the above expression,
Em E50 n'lr$’ ly since each phase will contain components of power resulting
from zero-sequence voltage and posit.ive~scqucnce current,
Eq ‘Eg“__M_Egc Xx ]a‘12 etc. This power “between sequences” is generated in one
phase and absorbed by the others, and docs not appear in
the expression for total three-pliasc power.
Only positivemscquencc power is developed by the gone-
Eco /I E cg EG u Ia I1 ruila .
ratorsi. This power is eonvertorl to negative-sequence and
I
I
zero-sequence power by circuit dissymnictry such as occurs
Ben
1' I
° from a single line-to-ground or a line-to-line fault. The
unbalanced fault, unbalanced load, or other dissymmetry
id) (cl in the circuit thus acts as the “generator” for negative-
Fig. I6~—Tranaformation of the sequence components of cur- B€Zq11(§l1CG and ZCI'O*SCqLlCYlCO pO‘vVOI‘.
rent and voltage in a star-delta transformer bank.
(la) Rclzitionsliip of positixesequcnce liflfi-tO'flE\1U'8.l and line-to~ VII. CONJUGATE SETS OF VECTORS
line voltages.
(0) Relationship of positive-sequence currents. Since power in an alternatingmurrcnt circuit is defined
(d) Relationship of negativclsequcncc lino-to-neutral and line- as ET (tho veci.ol~ E times the conjugate of the vector I),
l»0'line voltages. some consideration should be given to conjugates of the
(e) Relationship of negative-sequence currents. symmclricai—component sets of vectors. A system of
positive-sequence vectors are drawn in Fig. 17(2),). In
one direction, and the negative-coqiicnce angular shift will
be equal to the positive-sequence shift but in the opposite .1
lb:
d1I?"ccéiI0n. As previously stated, this is a general rule for all
ICU <~\
connections of power and regulating transformers, wher-
evcr phase shift is involved in the lrarislorniatirin.
10: \
Since zero-sequence current, cannot flow from the delta
Winding, there will be no zermsequonce component of I,1’. f _ V =-
If the star winding is grounded, [Q may liave a 2§0r0~sc- ‘ex
quencc component. From the star side the transformer
bank acts as a return path for zcro-sequence current (if the
h
neutral is grounded), and from the deita side the bank acts I m ‘cl cm
as an open circuit to zeroecquence. For zeroecquence bl
current; alone, I,l=1b=IF1 .1, and a current will circu- Fig. 17--Conjugates of a positlve~aequence set of vectors.
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components
A tained for the balanced part of the system. The advantage
Icz
lb: ‘X
la: \ The entire sequence network can often be reduced by sim-
l
la:
(bl
lb:
I112
lo}
Fig. I8AConiugates of a negative-sequence set of vectors.
accordance with the definition that the conjugate of a given
vector is a vector of the same inagnitude but (lisplaeed the
same angle from the reference axis in the o1)pos2'tc direction
to the given vector, tl1econji1gai.es of the positive-sequence
set of vectors are shown in Fig. 17(b). N(>te that the con-
j11galr:sl.o apositive-soqucncesetof vectors: formanc;;ative~
sequence set; of vectors. Similarly, in Fig. l8, the con-
jugates to a negative-sequence set of vectors form a posi-
o= Ibo: I60
_ lair j 7 l}I‘iLIl(tll to get the total current in any hranch after the
r _ ___.
/‘ 4 _-‘\ _A
(b) I0o"Ibo"lco
Fig. 19---Conjugates of a zeroesequence set of vectors.
tive-sequence set. The conjugate of a zero-sequence set of
vectors is another zero-sequence set of vectors, see Fig. 1'3.
VIII. SEQUENCE NETWORKS
5. General Considerations
One of the most useful concepts arising from symrnet~
rical components is that of the sequence rietu"orl<, which
is an equivalent network for the baliuicaeil power system
under an imagined operating condition such that only one
sequence component of voltages and currents is present in
the system. As shown above for the case of balanced loads
(and it can he readily shown in general) currents of one
sequence will create voltage drops of that sequence only, if
9. power system is balanced (equal series impcclanccs in all
three phases, equal mutual impednnees between phases,
rotating machines symmetrical in all three phases, all
banks of transformers symmetrical in all three phases,
etc). There will he no interaction lictareen sequences and
the sequences are independent. Nearly all power systems
can be assumed to be balanced except for emergency con~
ditions such as short~cirmiit_s, faults, unbalanced load, un-
balanced open circuits, or unsymmetrical conditions arising
in rotating machines. Even under such emergency unhal—
anced conditions, which usually occur at only one point in
the system, the remainder of the power system remains
balanced and an equivalent sequence network can be ob-
21
of the sequence nctworli is that, since currents and voltages
of only one sequence are present, the tihrovphase system.
can be represented by an equivalent single-phase diagram.
ple maziipulatioii to a single voltage and a single im-
pedance. The type of unbalance or dissyrnmetry in the
circuit can he represented by an interconnection between
the equivalent sequence netxvorks.
The positive-sequence network is the only one of the
three that will contain generated "\f()lfi-EL{.;(!S, since nlternators
can he assurncd to generate only positivemsequence volt-
ages. The voltages appearing in the negative- and zero-
SQ(;lJl3nCQ networks will be generated by the unbalance, and
will appear as voltages impressed on the networks at tho
point of fault, Furthermore, the [JOSltlV0~SQ£]llEBHC6 net-
work represents the system operatingz, under normal bah
anccd conditions. For short~eircuit studies the internal
voltages are shorted and the positive sequence network is
driven by the voltage appearing at the fault before the
iztult occurred according to the theory of Superposition and
the (‘-ompcn.~:ati<n1 Theorems (see Clizipter 10, Section ll).
This gives exactly the increments or changes in system
quantities over the system. Since the fault current equals
zero before the fault, the increment alone is the fault cur-
rent total. llowcvcr, the normal curlcuts in any lirarich
must be added to the calculated fault current in the same
fault occurs.
6. Setting Up the Sequence Networks
The equivalent circuits for each sequence are set up “as
viewed from the fault," by imagining current of the partic~
ulur sequence to be circulated through the network from
the fault point, investigating the path of current flow and
the impedance of each section of the network to currents
of that sequence. Another approach is to imagine in each
network :1, voltage impressed across the terminals of the
r1etworl~:, and to follow the path oi current flow through
the net-work, dealing with each sequence separately. It is
particiilarly necessary when setting up the zero-sequence
network to start at the fault point, or point of unbalance,
since zero-sequence currents might not flow over the entire
system. Only parts of the system over which zermsequeneo
current will flow, as the result of a zero-sequence voltage
impressed at the unbalanced point, are included in the
zero-sequence network “as viewed. from the fault.” The
two terminals for each network correspond to the two
points in the three-phase system on either side of the un-
balance. For the case of shunt faults between conductors
and ground, one terminal of each network will be the fault
point in the three-pliase system, the other terminal will be
ground or neutral at that point. For a series unbalance,
such as an open conductor, the two terminals will cor~
responrl to the two points in the three-phase system im~
rnediately udlacent to the unbalance.
7. Sequence Impedances of Lines, Transformers,
and Rotating Machinery
'i_‘he impedance of any unit of the system——sueh as a
generator, a transformer, or a section of line-H»-~t0 be in~
22 Symmetrical Components Chapter 2

sorted in a sequence network is obtained by imagining unit distribute through each network in accordance with the
current of that sequence to he circulated through the distribution factors found for unit current. This follows
apparatus or line in ell three phases, and writing the equa- from the fact that within any one of the three networks
tion for the voltage drop; or by actually measuring the the currents and voltages of that sequence are entirely
voltage drop when current of the one sequence being in~ independent of the other two sequences.
vestigated is circulated through the three phases of the Tliese points will be clarified by detailed consideration
apparatus. The impedance to negutivrnsequcnce currents of a. specific example at the end of this chapter.
for all static non~rote.ting apparatus will be equal to the
impedance for positivesoqucnce currents. The impedance
IX. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE
to uegziLive—scqucnce currents for rotating upparattls will
in general be different from the impedance to positive
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
sequence. The impednncr->. to zero~sequonce currents for all As discussed in Part ll, Sec. 3 of this chapter, smy un-
appnrutus will in general be dilierent from either the im- balance or dissyrnrnetry in the system will result in mutual
pedzmce to positive-sequence or the impedance to negative»- action between the sequences, so that it is to be expected
scquence. The sequence impedance characteristics of the that the sequence networks will have mutual coupling, or
component parts of a. power system have been investigated possibly direct connections, between them at the point of
in detail and are discussed in Chaps. 3, /1, 5, and 6. unbalance. Equations can he written for the conditions
An impedance in the neutral will not appear in either the existing at the point of unbalance that show the coupling
positive-sequence network or the ncga.tive~sequence net- or connections necessarily existing between the sequence
work, since the three-phase currents of either sequence add networks at that point.
to zero at the neutral; an equivalent impedance equal to As pointed out in Sec. 5, it is usually sufficiently accurate
three times the ohmic neutral impedance will appear in the to reduce :1 given system to an equivalent source and single
zero--sequence nctxvork, however, since the zerwscqucnee reectancc to the point of fault. This in client means that
currents flowing in the three plizises, [Q add directly to give the system is reduced to 2. single generator with a fault
2, neutral current of 310. applied at its terminals. Figs. 20(u) through 20(e) show
such on equivalent system with the more common typos of
8. Assumed Direction of Current Flow
fa.ult>~: applied. For example Fig. 2(l(u) is drawn for a three-
By convention, the positive direction of current flow in
—vuuu.J'- X
ouch sequence network is taken as being outward at the Eu °,__m_,_ I--50‘ _____ F;
faull.e.d or unbalanced point; thus the sequence currents are ,, E» r,=. llr I
assumed to flow in the sumo direction in all three sequence Ea <1 -—-—->
10 NEUTRAL El?
F... ————————— ---— N§
networks. This convention of assumed current flow must '-' Ic Eef ~‘ X3
be carefully followed to avoid ambiguity or error even (1) on. *2
though some of the currents are negative. After the cur» EQUlVAL£NT srsreu I” E l
rents flowing in each network have been determined, the l'_i'___~_EnT3u-_3'_ N2
sequence voltage at any point in the network can be found X0
by subtracting the impedance drops of that sequence from cw. F0
the generated voltages, telling the neutral point of the not“ lo:
work as the point of zero voltage. For exzunple, if the iro- m q| _.. h.;. l I _.N.§.l_3.lI§'-__. No
E0:
pedamces to positive-, negative-, and zcro~sequonce be- GRQUND Go
tween neutral and the point in question are Z1, Z2, and Z9,
respectively, the sequence voltages at tho point will be 1,; I (2)
9 POSl'l'lVE—, NEGATIVE-, AND
E1*E.u“1iZ1 zseo»s|zourncc omsrums
r-"on srst£M(n("u' Pause)
E2m_I2Z2 (23)
E0“ '\*"1|).2.Q Fl‘! Q.’
Err-Ear-Ear»
Where En is the generated positive~sequencc voltage, the 12:-Jo! '9
positive-sequence network being the only one of the three
having a generated voltage between neutral and the point
for which volt-ages are to be found. In particular, if Z1,
Z2 and Z0 are the total equivalent impedenccs of the net~
works to the point of fault, than Eq. (23) gives the se- EC! it
quence voltages at the fuull. ‘N
Z
O
(4) 0---0Q-
95;‘
5-9‘
;_“
0-§O - O
Distribution Factorswlf sovcml types of unbalance VECTOR DUXGRAM SHOWING VOLTAGES
are to be investigated for one point. in the system, it is AND OURRENTS DURING FAULT (3)
convenient to find distribution factors for each sequence SHORTHAND REPRESENTRTION
current by circulating unit sequence current in the ter- OF POSITWE-, NEGATIVE-,
minals of each network, letting it flow through the not- AND ZERO-SEQUENCE NET"
WORKS
‘Work and finding how this current distributes in various (5)
branches. Regardless of the typo of fznllt, and the mag- Fig. 20.
nitude of sequence current at the fault, the current will (st) Three—phs.se short circuit on generator.
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components 23
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24, Symmetrical Components Chapter 2
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Fig. 21-—Connection of the sequence networks to represent shunt and series unbalanced conditions. For shunt unbalances
the faulted point in the system is represented by F and neutral by N. Gorresponding points are represented in the sequence
networks by the ietter with a sequence subscript. P, N, and Z refer to the positive-, negative», and zero-sequence networks,
respectively. For aerie unbalances, points in the system adjacent to the unbalance are represented by X and Y. Nia again
the neutral.
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components 25

phase fault on. the system. Part (1) shows the equivalent IF*‘\/gill-‘ (31)
system (2) the corresponding positivo- nogative- and zcm- ., _ E3‘|_ZQ
sequence diagrams, and (3) the shorihand representation E1F-135.1"-(1FZ1-Z1+Z2 (32)
of the sequence diagrams. Part (4) is a vector diagram Eu Z9
showing graphically the relationship between the various E2F=- _[2FZ2 =Z—i'T;_Z; (33)
voltages and currents. In the zoro~scq1:cnce diagrains of
(2) and (3) a distinction is made between “neutral”, N, 12. Double Line-to-Ground Fault—Fig. 20{e)
and “ground”, G. ln the positive~ and noga(ivo»scqi_1<_=.ncc
networks no such distinction is necessary, since by their I E ..ۤ,;_=_ Ecificzgl (34)
definition positive- and negative-scqllence quantities are ‘F Z +§izL Z1Z2+Z1Z¢,+Z2Z°
balanced with respect to neutral. For example, all poa- ’" Z2+Z0
itivo— and negative-sequence currents add to zero at the I =__fiW%)w*[ 2 _ZUEa1
system neutral so that the terms “neutral” and “ground” ’F zg+z@ ‘F z.z.+Z.Z@+Z¢Z0 (35)
are synonymous. ZBI‘0-S€q11GI1(Z9 quantities however, are I W Hm Z2 [ x '_ ZZEM
not balanced with respect toncutral. Thus, by their °1"_ ZFFZU ‘F Z‘ZZ_§....Z1Zu.+.ZzZ0 (36)
nature zero-sequence currents require a neutral or ground
return path. ln many cases impedance exists between Z2ZOEs1
E“’"E“‘“I“”Z“‘ z.Z.+ z.z..+z@z., (37)
neutral and ground and when zoro»scqucnce currents flow a
voltage drop exists between neutral and ground. There- ZQZOEA!

fore, it is necessary that one be specific when speaking of E" " "("22 _ 212..+z.z@ (38)
lino-to-neutral and line-to-ground zero-sequence voltages. , W 2,202..
They are the same only when no impedance exists between E°‘“"" “(°‘°““"z,z2+ziz.+z1z@ (39)
the neutral and ground.
In parts (3) of Fig. 2()(a) all portions of the network 13. One Line Open~—Fig. 2l(n)
within the boxes are balanced and only the terminals at E al {Z 2 +7)
JG
the point of unbalance are brought out. The networks as (40)
shown are for the “a.” or reference phase only. In Eqs. (25) I1F_»§lZ_2+"ZlZO+Z2Z0
through (29) the zero-sequence impedance, Z.,, is infinite
for the case of Fig. 2€)(b) and includes 3X@, in the case of
1,. E Z1Z2‘i'Z1Z0+Z2Z0
-~~»- »~--W»- W Z0Ea§
(41)
Fig. 20(c). Fig. 21 gives 9. summary of the connections Z E,
required to represent the more common types of faults 1.. = -- — -- ----— _'

ZXZ2+ZlZ0+Z2Z0
2 41
(43)
encountered in power system work.
1 1 1 ’ r ZQZOEQI
Equations for calculating the sequence quantities at the
("*‘(”‘*""’“‘_(‘“"“z.2l+z.z@+z.Z<, (43)
point of unbalance are given below for the unbalanced con-
ditions that occur frequently. In l.l'1I.'fE5€ equations E1?’ E __E _._[ Z=u.._.l2,_Z,‘ii€%*_‘a..
(44)
Ema, and E9? are components of the line-to-neutral volt» "* 2“ 2* ’ z.z.+z1z@+z2z.
ages aiz the point of unbalance; Iw, I21?‘, and I01.» are com- Z2Z0Ea1
ponenls of the fault; current Ir; Zi, Z2, and Z6 are imped-
ancos of t-he system (as viewed from the unbalanced
E““Em‘“ “"M"‘lZZ2}7i5Z;‘2Ji?2";Z; (45)

terminals) to the flow of the sequence currents; and E1, is 14. Two Lines Openm-Fig. 21(p}
the lino-to-neutral positive-sequence generated Voltage. Eal
(IF ""‘ I21? '- [OF ‘““ Zn (46)
9. Three-Phase Fault-~Fig. 2(}{a)
Ea!
Ir*=-la“3Iu1-* (47)
I11* =1F =—— E:;1<Z2+Z0)
Z1 (24)
Ek“E1y“Ea1“IlFZ1*Z1+Z2+Z° (43)
10. Single Line-to-Ground Fault-Fig. 2001) and 20(c) , Z2Ea
E21-E2;-= -'I2F152= (49)
Ea!
I1F“I2F"I0F—2T'_‘i'_";;5W;:'_‘i"Z0 (35) 4441 » W M-_Z:1-'31
E“““E°*(”WI“”"°““ Z.+Z-2+2.» (59)
IF=I1F“i"I2F"i"rc1==3(o1= (26)
(27) £5. Impedance in One Line--Fig. 21(s)
‘l 2 D
EalZ2 111:: *{c(1'?€<'2:l:o7<_€’:2i"3Z@Z2)-- (51)
E
"
Z m__.__. .__.m...
“F 2 z.+Z.+z° (93) Zzzzcd‘-i'“ZZ1Z2+3ZiZ2Z0+ZZ2Z0

E01-" @=—IOF Z=-~—»~—

Exxlzfi
~-W-—
I __ ZE?§c_- , (52)
c Z1+Z2+Z° (29) “F” zz.z.,+zz1z2+sz..Ziz0+Z222.
11. Line-to-Line Fau1t--Fig. 20(6) I _. __ ___,__ ___,___ _._.___
. . .,__,,,,,
“F” ZZ1ZQ+nZZ}Z2"'i“3Z1Z2ZO‘+"ZZ2Z0 (53)
E. ZZ2ZnEa1 (54)
III“ '""I2F2_*;"
Z1+Z2 (30) E“*’*'1='”E*"""(“'21“Z2120#4-z>ri2;l§;?;%Z2‘;»?2?5; -7
Mg
25 Symmetrical Components Chapter 2

connections will have to be made through phase—shifting

is 55 transformers. The analysis in the oases of simultaneous
E*"'E”"“1232+zzlzg,+zz,Z2+sZ1Z2Z@+ZZiZ@ ( ) faults is considorabiy more complicated than for single
E ~E=w——— ~ Z%@E“~ ****" 5Q unbalances.
ax by Iggzg=ZZ1Zo"I"ZZ1Z2'i“3ZzZ2Zo"i"ZZ2Zo No assumptions were made in the derivation of the rep-
If two or more unbalances occur simultaneously, mutual resentation of the shunt and series unbalances of Fig. 21
coupling or connections will occur between the sequence that would not permit the application of the same prin-»
networks at each point of unbalance, and if the unbalanoes ciplos to simuit-a,ne0us faults on multiple unbalances. In
are not symmetrical with respect to the same phase, the fact various cases of single unhaiance can be combined to

' I X -(
u _ F W __ , n E '< D

D ‘ b b

‘ C __ C _
C —— _ 1 —— _
P4
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X2 I I X2 Y2 OI N
ii F2 Fl
N P
“z N1 N2 I"2
1:1 ‘ ‘I-11:!
0 X9 Yo X0 ,0
I F0 F0
0N0 Z OND
i
i
Z ONO
Go
Z 0N0
~ (D 0
Z
1*‘

I Q.!<
o..'< —o1\_<QmQ§s>.1;/— Go
1 1 IDEAL ‘1 ;
‘ 1§LQl
1J\_9L_QiQ_LUQ»"6/WW‘
75i$A/“ 'l3'l5'0"
‘ ____ i IDEAL. ' ‘
TRANSFORMERS TRANSFORMERS
5!MU€.TANEOUS SINGLE LlNE~TO-GROUND ; SIMULTANEOUS SINGLE LINE‘-?O"'GROUND SIMULTANEOUS swat: u~a~'ro-enouuo
ON PHASE A AND L€NE"TO"LlNE BETWEEN FAULT AND OPEN CONDUCTOR ON PHASE A, 1 THROUGH IMPEDANCE AND OPEN GON-
PHASES B AND c. oucma ow moss A.
(a}_ _ (b) (cl

q Z Y n X Y O xzv
b EL b Z 1

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‘ Z I102
1 1 x‘ Y| ‘ 0 X‘ vi W Wj ‘
z<
1 P " P ‘U $3.9./*"
9 NI ‘ I N; 1 '

1:: ii \ “,2 -3 F.1

I X: Y2 1 *2 Y2
2
N
1
N . Na 1
xN N .6
O Ng Z
1-II: 1 1;; N2 1
1
x Y' - X
e n _ z+sz6 H
Z ouo ; Ono
[ I"omwa“
“'"oIro'\ N D
0!
50 ‘ ° Q-<o x, vo
went ; IDEAL éz ow,
TRANSFORMERS ‘ TRANSFORMERS $90
IDEAL
' mausroiiidéns
SIMULTANEOUS SINGLE LlN€~T0-GROUND SIMULTANEOUS SRNGLE L.§NE—-T0-GROUND 1
5 5lMULTANEOU5 SINGLE LINE—TO—GROUND
FAULT ON PHASE
ON PHASE A B AND OPEN CONDUCTOR FAULT ON PHASE C AND OPEN CO?'10UC?OR 15 PAUL;-5 ON PHASES A AND 8 A3. NFFEREM}.
on PHASE A. LOCATIONS. s
_____________, m <61 __________ m is m j
Fig. 22-Connections between the sequence networks for typical cases of multiple unbalances.
Chapter 2 Symmetrical Components 27

form the proper restraints or terminal connections to rcp- 25000 KVA 20000 awn
rescnt multiple unbalancos. For example, the representa- “i x=:o*z ls” X=9%
tion for 21 simultaneous single line-to-ground fault on phase E? U 40 MILES-HO Kv. %§§
“a” and a line-to~iine fault on phases “E1” and “c” can be
13.8 KV E35 KV
derived by satisfying the terminal connections of Figs.
21(d) and 21(f). Fig. 21(d) dictates that the three net-
works be connected in series, while Fig. 2l(f) shows the
positivev and negative-sequence networks in parallel. Both ,g e, ‘taste it
- r --_-l_
of these reqtiirements can be met simultaneously as shown
2,} ?\5t.G
in Fig. 22(a). Simultancoixs faults that are not sync»-
25000 KVA '”‘“'LT K‘/A 15000 KVA
metrical to the reference phase can be represented by sim- K*8% V A_ ___ lfll ><g‘ll*
= <-"0
<1-»~ §lQ X=3'-Q _ _
ilar connections using ideal transformers or phase shifters 777 7 7-F--O
to shift the sequence voltages and (:Ll1‘I‘t‘[1l$ originating in :-1 5'" |o'
all of the unhalances except the first or reference condition. <>-|4‘¢?- a4'~o <>-no‘ -<?~|o'~¢
The fault involving phase “rt” is usually taken as the
reference and all others are shifted by the proper amount 45' 45'
before making the terminal connections required to satisfy
that particular type of fault. The positive-, nc§r,z2.tiv@~, and
m HO KV LINE ~ 65 KV LINE
zero-sequence shifts, respectively for an unbalance that is CONDUCTOR 4/O CU. CONDUCTOR 4/O CU.
symmetrical to phase “a” are 1, 1, 1; “la” phase a2, 0., 1; ALL. GROUND WIRES 0.375 EBB STEEL
to “c” phase a, a’, 1. A few multiple unhalances that may (bl _ iifi flirii
occur at one point in a system simultaneously are grivon in
Fig. 22, which also gives one illustration of simult..u.neous csssmwos cs, GENERATOR G2
faults at different points in a system with one fault not
50,000 KVA 37,500 KVA
symmetrical with respect to phase a. Ni-ZUTRAL cR0uN0E0 moons:-1 4% REACT. NEUTRAL UNGRQUNDED
To summarize, the procedure in finding voltages and Xd=100% X¢ = E3073
currents throughout a system during fault conditions is: X‘4= 2$% X'd= 25 I
(1) set up each sequence network as viewed from the fault, X"¢= I27!» x"¢= I“? %
(2) find the distribution factors for each sequence current X1: lays X3 3 l 7 %

throughout its network, (3) reduce the network to as sim- X°= 6% xo = 5 %

(cl
ple 8- circuit as possible, (4) make the proper connection
between the networlrs at the fault point to represent the Fig. 23—Typica1 system assumed for fault calculation.
unbalanced condition, (5) solve the resulting single-phase
circuit for the sequence currents at the fault, (6) find the la) System single-line diagram.
(la) Lino construction.
sequence components of voltage and current at the desired
locations in the system. The positi\-'0-sequence voltage to
(<1) Titlaulation of generator constants.

be used, and the machine impcdanccs, in stop (5) depend

upon when the fault currents and voltages are (lesire<l; if
immediately after the fault occurs, in general, use sub»-
transiont reactances and the voltage back of suhtransiont
reactance immediately preceding the fault; if a few cycles
after the fault occurs, use transient rcactallces and the
voltage hack of transient reactance immediately before the
fault; and if steady-state conditions are desired, use syn-
chronous reactances and the voltage back of synchronous
reactancc. If regulators are used, normal bus voltage can
be used to find stcariy-st-ate conditions and the machine
reactancc in the positivmscqucnco network taken as being
zero.
X. EXAMPLE OF FAULT CALCULATION
16. Problem
Let us assume the typical transmission system shown
in Fig. 23(0) to have a single. lino-to-ground fault on one
end of the 66 kv line as shown. The line construction is
given in Fig. 23(b} and the generator constants in Fig.
23(0). Calculate the following:
(2.) Positive-sequence reactnnce to the point of fault.
lb) l\'egative~scquence reactomco to the point of fault.
(c) Zero-sequence reactance to the point of fault.
(<1) Fault current.
(c) Lino currents, line-to-ground voltages, and line-to-
line volttnrcs at the breaker adjacent to the fault.
(Y) Line currents, llIlC»~lJU*~gI'()U[l(l voltages, and linc-t0-
line voltages at the terminals of G’.
(s) Linc currents, line-to-ground voltages, and linc-t0-
line voltages at the ill) kv breaker adjacent to the
25,690 kva transformer.
17. Assumptions
(1) That the f cult currents are to he calculated using
transient reztctanccs.
(9) A base of 50,000 kva for the calculations.
(3) That all resistances can be neglected.
(‘-1) Thztt. a \-"oltagc, positive-sequence, as viewed from
the fault ufj 100% will be used for relcrellce. This
. .6(‘,00O
IS an assumed voltage of 3 volts between
line “<1” and neutral.
(5) 'l‘lm.t the reference phases on either side of the star-
delta transformers are chosen such that positive-
scqucnce voltage on the high side is advanced 39° in
phase posit-ion from the positive»-sequence voltage on
the low side of the transformer.
28
18. Line Reactances (Refer to Chap. 3)
P0sitive- and Negative-Sequence Reactances of
the 110 kv Line.
For 4/0 copper conductors x,,=().497 ohms per mile.
I1'§d=%(lU,_1 for 14 fcctiwcd for 14» lceL+x4 for 28 feet).
w %,—(O.320+O.320+(l/104) 0.348 ohms per mile.
x;=:c2=:c.,—l~xdw()/l97+O.3--18=O.845 ohms per mile.
Positive» and Negative~Sequence Reactances of
the 66 kv Line.
a¢.,:0.497 ohms per mile.
xtiwfi-(rd for 10 feet~}—a:d for lOl'eeL+;r.1lor2{)fcet)
2-;?;(O.279—l*~O.27'9+0.36—l) —{).30? ohms per mile.
x1=z2::r;..+a:4=0.49? +O.3U'7=O.8()4 ohms per mile.
Zero~Sequence R€actance.§‘—Sinee zero-sequence
currents flowing in either the 110- or the 66-kv lino will in-
duce a zero~se.c;uenee voltage in the other lino and in all
three ground wires, the zcr0—sequence mutual reactant-es
between lines, between each lino and the two sets of ground
wires, and between the two sets of ground wires, must be
evaluated as well as the zero-sequence self rea.cta.nce>:. In-
dccd, the zero--sequence self rcactonco of either the ll9—
or the 66-kv line will he affected by the mutual coupling
existing with all of the ground wires. The three conductors
of the 110-kv line, with ground return, are assumed to form
one zero-sequence circuit, denoted by “a.” in Fig. 24; the
two ground conductors for this line, with ground return,
form the zero-sequence circuit denoted “g”; the three con-
ductors for the 66-kv line, with ground return, form the
zcroesequence circuit denoted “a”’; and the single ground
wire for the 66—l<;v line, with ground return, forms the zero-
sequcnce circuit denoted “g’.” Although not strictly cor-
rect, we assume the currents curried by the two ground
wires of circuit “g” are equal. Then let:
C':i:-Y) ~'I:{€}>
._-‘A-...........-__-_.._.______._\ ,....__....-----.----...._.. _....
(0 a o 0‘) "'o
.__“*____‘_____________,,' \‘_______________________
Fig. 24—Zero-sequence circuits formed by the 110 kv line (0),
the 66 lav line (0'), the two ground wires (g), and the single
ground wire (g').
Eu=zero—sequence voltage of circuit a
E,umzero~sequcnce voltage of circuit gmli, since the
ground wires are assumed to be continuously
grounded.
Er/=zero-sequence voltage of circuit a’
Eghmzero-sequence voltage of circuit 5/=0, since the
ground wire is assumed to be continuously
grounded.
I9mZCl‘O"S(}(]U.€1'1CC current of circuit a
Ig= zero-sequence current of circuit g
I0’=zero—sequence current of circuit a’
I¢'=zero~scquence current of circuit g’
It should be remembered that unit In is one ampere in
each of the three line conductors with three emperes re-
Symmetrical Components Ch?!-W91‘ 2
turning in ground; unit Ig is 3/2 a.111pe1'es in each of the
two ground wires with three ornperes returning in the
ground; unit I0’ is one ampere in each of the three line con~
doctors with three amperes returning in the ground; and
unit lg’ is three ampercs in the ground wire with three
ampcres returning in the ground.
These quantities arc inter-related as follows:
Ea E [clam Jr Iigzfllagl +[O,z0(aa’l + I§Zne»=’>
Egfl i I0zOl:1g) + I|;I;zO(g) + I0,zU(a'gl + IgIZ0(gg'l = O
1519’ m 11130149’) "l'" 1gZou1.'g) “l” I(}’Z0(a'l + I:;z£!(e'g“)
Ego -"-"~ lcZc(iig’> "l“IgZeu;g'> + 1n'Zu'g'> -lr"-7»;’?oo;'> w 0
Where
zm; =zero—sequcnce sell reactrince of the o circuit
w:za+:z:B~—§r(a:d for 1/1 feet+a:.; for 14 fect—%-std for
28 loci.)
=0./197+2.89~—2(O.348) @269 ohms per mile.
am’, =zero-sequence self reactance of tho a’ circuit
==:r.,+u:.,-~§(;cd for 10 feet—I-33¢ for 10 fcet+.-ad for
20 feet)
===l).4l)7—}-2.89~—2(0.307) =27? ohms per mile.
20¢, wzero-sequence self reactance of the g circuit
~'m"%1Ya+'£17c-~%(3?¢ for i-1.5 feet)
=3-(2."r9)+2.89~3~(o.32<i) =o.59 ohms per mile.
znrgq =zero-sequence self rcaetance of the g’ circuit
wgxu l’ xe
==3{2.7U)+2.S9=l 1.26 ohms per mile.
zmg; =zero~scquence mutual reactance between the a
and g circuits
==-=11e--»§-(rd for 12.06 feet-§—md for 12116 fcet+a:d for
1235 fee-t+xd for 12.35 feet+~xd for 23.5 feet
+1.1 for 23.5 feet)
==2.89~»-3{0.3303) : 1.90 ohms per mile.
z;,<,,_.;) =zero~scquence mutual reactance between the a
and of circuits
===a;,,—- -i-§-(rd for 60 feet—l-I4 for 50 feet+ard for 70 feet
+:r¢ for 46 fcet+xd for 36 fect+:c.; for 56 feet
0 0‘ Q ~| cod for 74 feotlsztd for 64¢ feet +2.1 for 84 feet)
=2.89-»3(O/£93) M l.4l1l ohms per mile.
2g(5g')‘=Z(3I“0—SOQ1lCI1CG mutual reactance between the a
and g’ circuits.
===:re---§(md for 75 feet+:rd for 62 feet+:rtd for 48 feet)
==2.89——3(0.1£98) = 1.40 ohms per mile.
Z9(,,',;';=ZCT'O-S6C}U61'lC6 mutual reactance between the a’
and g’ circuits.
I-=a:c-Q?-(ad for I5 feet+xd for 18.03 foet—|—:1sd for
18.03 feet)
==2.89W3(0.344) = 1.86 ohms per mile.
Similar rlofinitions apply for Z0<,;g> enrl ZN“-,. Tn each
case the zero-sequence mutual rczwtance between two cir-
cults is equal to use minus three times the average of the
lids for all possible distances between conductors of the
two circuits.
The zerrrsequenee self reaetance of the }.lO»kv line in
the presence of all zeiosequence circuits is obtained by
(jhapter 2 Symmetrical Compzmenis 29

520% mt 122.5%
letting L,’ be zero in the above equations and solving £0r —...wv*__ -wv 111111 _
1 §I2% .043 122%.
1%. Carrying out this rather tedious process, it will be
U
found tlmi» -765 '-M19, E52
€0=2.05 ohms per mile. W W. .1 "2 H W ,
U
356.5%
The zcrmsequence self rezictrmce of the G6-kv line in 1:2»: "55 122.71
the presence of all zero-sequence circuits is obtained by
. . E’ 55; pea j63.6'£ 3%
letting I0 be zero in the 0q1121t§OI1S and solving for D It
ass ‘Di P, .252
will be found that _,, IN,‘ ,,
I

% 12.25 ohms per mile; grzx 522.1%

0 IQ fl’
The zermseqaiencc mutual re:1ct:1.n<:e between the 66-
.125 6%’ #6 .215
and the 110-kv line in the presence of ail zero-sequence
LO‘ 31.5%
3&1/L iwn 522.5% P:
<__‘VV\/‘ —’V\/\/‘
I211: .oea 32.5.31, ....._, T"=
14912
En cu -A
Q’ _ WW‘ 53333‘ if/iii‘ 35 i5 }75%
.152 l.Oi :\ "_
.248 ‘ d___ L -P-
1.0
_i
_;..:**** ,_ Q. .725
.--~<--------Q“:
356.5%
521% ~—-
‘.068 -
133-3% “om j2l.O‘7¢
-0» P2
_6—-84 116% gsasx, -f \
ZN
152 I-0lP,'24a l
, b b IN‘ . Zg'i2I.O%

@ 52% q. 333.3% 0 Fig. 26-—Reduction of the negative-sequence network and the

___.,_ /6‘ 9,, }|o0% negative sequence distribution factors.
.684 ‘st '\‘*'€’ ,3|5

in‘ 1 1.51. kva base and the networks set up as viewed from the
. pl fault. lllusir-a.tlv0 examples of expressing these react-
ances in percent on 2, 50 000-kva base follow:
1% 1!!__, ___ ____ .
5 591 '1 P0sitive~sequence reacflance of G2==

@ d.684
. . . ...,_
——-\-
I-0
Pl (25)
(50 O00)
Z 33.3%

”””" »—<>u‘ Positive-sequence reactancc of the GO-kv line=

@ ;2s.4x
_,_ P: 51-8°‘? <*@@.>. <5_°92'L> ._
i ! |.o
. Q‘
ms} (00) (10) — 369%
Positive-sequence reactance of the 110-kv linew
Z |* i2.6.4$
@§~4.§) (40) (50 0001 = Mm,
Fig. 25-~Reducti0n of the positive-sequence network and the
positive-sequence distribution factors. (110) 4110) (10) ’°
Zero-sequence mutual reuctance between the 66~ and the
circuits is obtained by letting I0’ be zero and solving for 110-i{V line. for the 30 mile se0ti0n=
E' . . . . (9.87) (30) (50 O00}
When this is clone, 1t \\"lll be found that
0 -——— ~~~ Wi;-W—-~-— =18
(110) (60) (10) %
E' . E .
-Ilqwlih
o
1.,'=0) =»;2(w1@11
0
Igmo) $0.81 ohms per mile, The distributiefl factors are shown on each sequence
network; obtained by finding the distribution of one am-
19. The Sequence Networks pere taken as flowing 0u% at the fault.
The sequence networks are shown in Figs. 25, 26, and Each netw0rl< is finally reduced to one equivalent im»
27, with all I‘63.Cl.2111CQS expressed in percent on a. 50 O00- parlance as viewed from the fault.
30 Symmetrical ‘Components Chapter 2

j207~ 133.97. 1 j22.5% 20. Voltages and Currents at the Fault

L .039 Hsi 15% ._, The sequence nefwori-is are connected in series to rep-
resent fl. singin line-tr»-;_;mL1n<1 fzmlt. The total 1'uac(.a.m:e
nae: inst 325.6% 12$.-m of the rcsuh ing sin§;1c.~pha.s-0 network is
"'\!'\/\’“_Q ‘_ '\/\/V‘ "__ ’\/\/\/1
1, .859|.o ‘I .141 .0101 j5O% .01: u Z1”/b'¥'3’52’7§r§-Z1-'.'/bM26-*1%+25-9%+13~7%“51-1%-
Po

1~~ ‘
rlhfgfl,
_ __ j10()% fi
IQp:I1F=Igp—j6“in';'It]/gm1.63? p.Ll.

;16_<n;, Since norrnal current for the 66-kv circuit (for a. base
__‘,, ‘ *7 kva of 5U (J00)
.039 H81» Hm
jl6'JL $11.5‘: 352.5% = ~5§q..0Q() e= 437.5 amperes.
~y—~\M.~___ —~——— A ____ wvv \/3 X G5
.ase qua .07: In = I1 = I2 = <1.(s37>(4:s7.5) = 715 amperes.
_ "Q Po 5501
No ..% The total fault current:
I .010
I<,+I1+],-=4.€)1] p.u. = 2145 amperefl.
The sequence voltages at the fault:
;7o.4%.
E1= EB,—[1Z1=jk{)O%—j(i.(i37)(26.4)%=j56.9%
‘ gray, .0388 is‘? :j2l 700 volts.
316% 177.5% 146.5% 5532 E,= -{A2, = —j(L637)(21)%= -13-m%= -313100
.559" .7-Tu‘ Ifiw V0 ts.
id pa
j50%
E0: -— I.;.Z0m ~j(1.637}(33.7)%= —j22.5%w -—jS 600
.. .. \f\/V‘ vulbs.
1"” .070
Eng: l§(;'*-E1+E2=O
EM 2 En + a?I;'L+ ah‘? -1 30 200 —jl2 900
= 32 R90 volts.
j'I'0.4'K
Ia? Egg *= Is], —‘+—rz19’; +r:.’[5T;; »~= ~30 200-312 900
mes 2* i283‘-76 2 32 800 volts.
112% EM, = Ia',,,, —1¢';.g = —3() ZOO +312 9G0 = 32 800 Volts.
_ 316% 51151 .E>'I2'2 EM = 12'1,,_. - Ii“, = (30 -100 volts.
-q... -.___ EQ,.= l€l'(gg_"‘FJ13_g: -30 200 —j.12 900 = 32 800 voits.
1 .859 M-I
:.o¥ Po
21. Voltages and Currents at the Breaker Adjacent
\ 1N° to the Fault
Using ihe distribution factors in the sequence net»
i55.I2% Works at this point:
\ .0353 iZ0-93'-G I1-{11.752)(1.637):1.231 p.21. =5-i0 arnperes.
I2:({J_7(i%$)(1.[537)=1.258 p.11. = 550 ampercs.
116% j82.2‘i£, 1932
I@=({}.85S})(l.(337):1.407 p.u.;615 amperes.
.855“ PO J4!
10
*1» LL: [@+]1+l-1": 1705 ampercs.
11, = [=1+ r1'"'[1-‘P012 = TUWY:-j8.l3 »""= 70.5 amperes.
I¢=10+uI1+a’I2=’I’0 —_j8.G=70.5 ampcrcs.
jl5.2% The IiI§c—t<)-{_.{r01m¢i and line-so-line voltages at this
FT point are equal to those calculancd for the fauft.
316% 382.2%
22. Voltages and Currents at the Breaker Adjacent
35'9" Po TH to Generator G1
1.0} no
The lmsc, or normal, voltage at this point is 13 800 volts
line-to-line, or 7960 volts iine~t0-neutral.
The base or norm:-11 current at this point is
H3-7% ’ ’ ~/II >< 13.8
.555’ Pu 7“
E u 15%;-O '=20€30 amperes. Since a standelta transformation is
1.0} N N inv0lvc<i, there will be a phase shifé in p0sitive- and
o o negative-.~;equ0z1ee quantities.
I1 = (O.!‘>84){1.(337) (2090) e'"53° = 2340 amperes
Z°=ji3.7%
#2030-jll70.
Fig. 27*-Retiuction of the zern-sequence network and the Ii = (O12-5) (1 .637) (2U90)e+5“" = 248$ amperes
zero-sequence distribution factors. == 2150 +ji2%O.
Chapter 2
,IQ?.0~
I.=I@+]1~+~I;»=418O+j70=4l80 amperes.
I112 Iu"l-Ct2[1+(I1fz2 &l'l'lp€l‘e5-
Ic=1@+aI1-l-a*l2= -jl40= 140 ampercs.
The sequence voltages at this point are:
E. = (110091, M10524 ><2l X15379/'O)€i’*°= »~a*76.5%
m 3()»15+j5270 volts.
E. = ( —_1'0.?2s>< l2>< l.c37%)w"= ~—a1-4.2%
I 565 —j98O volts.
E9
Em. == E1 + Z5’. W 3610-+ 14290 m 5000 volt-s.
Eb. = a2E1+aE2 =1 solo ~14290 _~= 5000 volts.
E.,.:@1;,+<#E. = -7220 1 7220 volts.
E... = +j8580 2 8580 volts.
1;..,.,:10 830-911290 =21. 650 volts.
E...= -10 s30 -34290 =11 650 V0lLS.
23. Voltages and Currents at the 110-kv Breaker
Adjacent to the 25 000 kva Transformer
The base, or normal, voltage at this point is 110000
volts line—Lo-line; or (53 500 volts line-L0-neutral.
The base, or normal, current at this point is
e= 262 amperes.
The sequence currents at this point are:
I1 * (""~0.068){1.637)(262) = —29.2 amperes.
I2: { -0.0~13)(1.637)(262) =w -18.4 alnperes.
I@= (0.039}(1.G37) (262) = 16.7 amperes.
l,=I<,+11+I2== ——-30.9"-=30.9 amperes.
Symmetrical Components 31
Il>~—=1'.,-!—a2T;-l~aI2-= 40.5+j9.35=41.6 ampercs.
I.,=I0+aI;+a’l1=40.5—j9.35=~11.6 amperes.
The sequence voltages at this point. are:
E';=j100% --j(0.G8l)(1.637)(21)%
__j(__O'068) (L63?) (2Q>% __=j78_7%
=j50 O00 volts.
E2“ -—j(O.725){I..63?)(12)%
——j(W().l}-9l3)(l.(§37)(2O)%m —~jl2.8%
= ——_j8l3O vol£s.
E 0 mj(0.039)(l.63T)(20)%m —jl.3%1 -j825 volts.
Z E. + E1+E2 :94! 000 = 41 000 volts.
El. = En+a2El +aE. = 50 300 —~j21 750 = 54 800 volts.
I E"+aE1+a@E. E W50 300 -1'21 750 == 54 800 volts.
E... = -50 3(){}+j62 750 = so 400 volts.
El... x 100 coo m zoo coo volts.
E..= -50 300 --j62 750» 80 400 volts.
REFERENCES
l\’[ct.hod of Symmetrical Coordinates Applied to the Solution of
Polyphasw I\'z:L\vorks, by O. L. Fortoscue, A.I.E.E. Transactions,
50 O00 V. 37, 1’a.ri. II, 191.8, pp. 1027-"1140.
Sg;:m1m!l~:'ml (“:21/rlponerlts (sl. book), by C. F. Wagner and R. D.
Evans, Mcfiraw-llill Book Coxnpzwy, 1933.
Sequence Network (‘.onn<~ct-ions for Unbalanced Load and Fault
(iomlilimls, by E. I). Ilarrlcr, The Electric Journal, V. 34, Decem-
hor E937, pp. 4Rl—~l8S.
Simultaneous Faults on Three-Phase Systems, by Edith Clarke,
A.[.E.E. ’I’ransacl-ions, V. 50, March 1931, pp. 919-941.
Applicalirms <9" Symwwlrical Compolwnls (a. book) by ‘N. V. Lyon,-
Mcflraw-llill Book Company, 1937.
 CHAPTER 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF AERIAL LINES

Original Authors: Rcvziscd by.‘
Sherwin H. Wright and G. F. Hall D. F. Shankle and R. L. Tremaine

N the design, operation, and expansion of electrical i""" '

‘I
I power systems it, is necessary to know electricai and
physical Cl1fl,l‘fl.Cl16l‘lSll(;S of £!O11L"lllCl‘-Ol‘S used in the coir»
1 l
strucrtioii of aerial distribuiaion and transinission lines. _ . ‘_ "' ~....*§..,__".M “_h'__' . k

This chapter presents a description. of the common i-ypcs

of conductors along wiili 'i,3.l)1li§Ll ions oi their importzmt
electricai and physical chamctcrisliizzs. General formulas
‘..\ =.4
a1-eprcsented with ahcir derivation to show the basis of the E.
i

tabulated values and as an guide in calculating data for Courtesy of Gemual Cable Corporation
other conductors of similar shapes, dimensions, composi- Fig. INA typical stranded conductor, (bare copper).
tion and operating conditions.
Also included are the more commonly used symmetrical-
component-scquence impedance equations that arc applic-
able to the solution of power system problems involving
voltage regulation, load flow, staliilily, system ciirronts,
and voltages under fault conditions, or other system prob-
lems Where the electrical cliaractoristics of aerial lines arc
inv olvcd .
Ad(.llLional formulas are given L-o pcmiil, calculation of
approximate cu1'rent-carrying capacity of conducoors
taking into account such factors as convection and radia-
tion losses as influenced by £Lml)l£)I1l. iempcraturc, wind
velocity, and permissible temperature rise.

I. TYPES OF UON¥)UC'I'()RS Courtesy of Aluminum Company of America

Fig. 2——A typical ACSR conductor.
In the elcctriwpower field the following types of con-
ductors are generally used for high-voltage power transmis-
sion lines: stranded copper conductors, hollow copper con~
ducsors, and ACSR (aluminum cable, sl-cel reinforced}.
Other typos of conductors such as Coppcrwcld and Cop»-
perweld-Copper conduciors are also used for transmission v . Q;-M I
r __ A .‘

and distribution lines. Use is made of Copperweld, bronze, A 2-H ¢~:.,_~4,=‘ - ‘ - _ -- '- 4 ,_, _ "';j
M ." “T7 l '>-**..'J ‘c '* V ‘
copper bronze, and steel for current-carrying conductors \ ~ _
on rural lines, as overhead ground wires for transmission Courtesy of Aluminum Company of America

lines, as buried counterpoises at the base of tralisniissluu Fig. 3-—~A typical “expanded” ACSR conductor.
towers, and also for long river crossings.
A stranded conductor, typical of both copper and steel
conductors in the larger sizes, is shown in Fig. 1. A strand-
ed conducior is easier L0 handle and is more flexible than a
solid conductor, particularly in the larger sizes.
A typical ACSR conduct-or is illustrated in Fig. 2. In
this type of conductor, alliminnm sl,rc.nds are wound about
a core of stranded steel. Varying relationships betavecn Courtesy of Anaconda. Wire and Cable Company
tensile strength and Cl_1}‘I‘&I'Jl)-C2.I‘I‘ylHg capacity as well as Fig. 4——A typical Anaconda Hollow Copper Conductor.
overall size of conductor can be obtained by varying the
proportions of steel and aluminum. By the use of a filler, duel-or is known as “expanded” ACSR and is shown in
such as paper, between the outer aluminum strands and Fig. 3.
the inner steel strands, 2. conductor of largo diameter can In Fig. 4 is shown a representaibre Anaconda Hollow
be obtained for use in high Voltage lines. This type of con- Copper Conductor. it consists of a twisted copper “I”
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines 33

ors as shown in Fig. 7. Different relationships between

current-czn‘rying capacity, out-side diameter, and tensile
strength can be olitainerl by varying she number and size
of the Coppcrwelol and copper strands.
II. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
AERIAL CONDUCTORS
Courtesy of Clmeral (l'<1Z'/le Corporalinn The following discussion is primarily concerned with the
Fig. 5-A typical General Cable Type HH. rlevelopment of eiectrical ehameteristics and constants of
aerial conciluctors, particuleriy those required for analysis
% I of pom-.r~systeni problems. The constants developed are
§ part-i(.?lll€Ll"l_Y useful in the application of the principles of
i=.iy;n111(:l.ri<:nl i:0n1p011c11ts LO the solution of p0Wer~s)/‘stem
problems ixwolvingrg positive~, negative-, and zero-sequence
nfi" i.mpc<l:1n{'('s of Lrnnsxnission and distribution lines. The
i basic quantities needed are the positive», negative», and
(.’au.rtesy of Fcipgzcrurielzl S'te;cZ Company zero-sequence resistances, inductive rcaccances and shunt
Fig. 6-—-A typical Copperweld conductor. capacitive rcnctancos of the various types of conductors
.
and some general equations showing how these quantities
are used.
'- —~<~~M~-~—»> -_--»»-<T¢;.a.<».¢¢s...._..... ..,
;_»m--»- ..im»— -
W
;_M;,,m'- I \ 1. P0sitive- and Negative-Sequence Resistance
The resistance of an aerial conductor is affecteé by the
— -__ ; .. . ,;;_m.....w..__ 1 e three factors: temperature, frequency, current density.
> Pra0l.ica.l {oi-mules and methods will now be given to take
1 into nccmml. these factors.
I
Temperature Effect on Resistance——~The resistance
of copper and aluminum conductors varies almost di-
rectly with tempemtiirc. While this variation is not strictly
linear for an exlreiiiely wide rungs of teinperalures, for
¥ practical purposes it can be considered linear over the
-'7'?,—-=»-‘Y-*“~‘~ ' 1' N.-‘ ‘::~7—_- _ ~ *
:=\..l.
." :, '
1s~'<“i:"_“"W
—‘ ,
" '
_ W,
" '
"-P‘-'
* ~ 3-9' range of Lcmpomlnres normally encountered.
W . - M __ ‘ W ~‘W r ‘ I _ _”,_.»-»- ___ ..s-3.;-1‘; ‘_'
é _~_~uj_;_;;;,,. _ 6 " ..-:-»~"‘_' _ I _,,,,¢-i _ ,5 When the d-c resistance of a conductor at s. given ten»-
perziuire known and it is desired to find the cl-c resistance
at some other temperature, the following general forinuia.
k .
('01u*iesy of (74-ppe:r1:'<><’r! Steal Company
nmy be used.
Fig. 7-“Typical Copperweld-Copper conductors Rm ll’['"l“ £2
(ii) Upper photograpii-~TypL‘. V Ru Mil/1+ lii (1)
(h) Lower pliotogmph Typo F whore
beam as a core about which strands of copper wire are Rfl:d—c resistance at any temperature ta degree C.
Wound. The “I” beam is twist-crl in n Ciireci-ion opposite to Ru H rl-c resismn no >1 t any other tempera.i.urc ti degree C.
that Of the inficr layer of strannls. M’ m a constant» for any one type of conduclcor 1na.terial.
Another form of hollow copper CUI’1(ll1Cl-O1" is shown in -=~inlcrrcd absolute zero temperature.
Fig. 5. Known as the General c8.l.)l{3 Type il ll hollow cop- -'= 234.5 lor LLIl110£il6Cl 100 percent conciuctivity copper.
per con<iucl.or, ii, is made up of scg;mcnml seciions of cop- ==2/11.5 for ll2LZ‘(l drawn 97.3 percent conductivity
per lnorliscd into ouch other co form n sell'-suppmting copper.
hollow cylinder. Hollow copper comluctors result in con~ ==228.1 for aluminum.
diwiors of large diameter for :1. given cross. seriion of copper. The nliove formula is useful for evaluating changes in
Corona losses ere therefore smaller. This noiistruetion also Cl-c rcsistzuzco only, and cannot he used to give a-c resist-
pro<l11ce:~1 a reduction in skin effect as well as i11(lu(‘l,;1n(:(3 as ance V§.Ll‘l{ll.l()I1S unless skin effect can be neglected. For
compzircd with straiicled conrluctors. A (list?-ilsslilll oi large small concluelor sizes the frequency has 2. negligible effect;
diamelor conductors and Lhcir (Jl1iL!‘LL(5l-t5i'l:5Ll(3S is given in on 1‘(:.~;is1.=i1icc in Llic £i~U to 60-cycle range. This is generally
reference 1. true for conrliurlor sizes up to 2/0.
(fopperwcld conduc‘cors consist of <li§'forcnt milnlzers of The V2LI‘l2l.l,iOl125 of resistance with temperature are usually
coppcr~(:rm.te¢i steel strands, n t._\;pi<:-ul conductor being illus- unimpr>rlonL liecauso the actual ambient temperature is
traLc(l in Fig. (3. Strength is pl‘0Vltl0il by the core of steel in(i<:linil.c as \\'0ll as var-izible along £1, transmission line. An
and protection by the outer cootin;: oi ('0pp€!l‘. illustmtion ol percentage change in resistance is when tem-
“When high ci1r1‘oIit-carrying; cza.pu<titics are (l0Sl1'0(l. as p<:i'u.Lu1'o varies from winter £0 Sunimcr over a, range of
Well as high tensile strength, copper .<<t.r:.ir1ri.-1 are used with O degree (F £0 -$0 degrees C (32 degrees F to 104 degrees F)
Copperwcld strands L0 form iioppci-wel<l~( ‘upper conduct- in which case copper resistance increases 17 p@1~@@n1;_
34 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

Skin Eflect in Straight Round Wires» The resist- 57-955-0;-5‘ 5 . 3‘

14 \ ~. Grade-Ordinary Seven‘
10-45
ance of non-magnetic conductors varies not only with tem- IO-I sewhd ¢..n;%5’¢,§Z§" rs *F_
, \.5_;:»d§able,'EFLy: :8;
-Z .- J l ‘re cm '““",‘“‘ ‘ "
perature but also with frequency. This is due to shin effect. ‘gig-3 R.- ~ “*],i_§1I¥'\1 ',"n.<=/;.»mer” w".§
Skin effect is due to the current flowing nearer the outer
surface of the conductor as a result of non-uniform flux
“' lg-4
__C _
$105
Q4,'
. a:%=
‘>. __&
,_
. I.
Sm ' "_
in . ..
_.-.g‘i.B 4 J 1 _____m,,,;§
distribution in the conductor. This increases the resistance 3 '04’ l - 3 E 7 1: §
of the conductor by reducing the cffcctivc cross section of
3'0" v-~ —!i@@! T *°'.
=
0 ‘O 9 Q K5 0
the conductor through which the current flows. 6 ' . ,_.- : 5 20:14.2
I min __.»_s;,¢,zn
4 5 4 ' lo $-
,B \ 1 1 ~** _ ‘ ' W45 0
The conductor tables give the resistance at commercial J: IQ-w
g q
_.- , mm . 1
___ 9/3:21
.9 3 _
3 w ,¢|,|y-
--3'*<i:_% 1'}.
‘P
;
|D~l{a :>
frequencies of 25, 50, and (30 cycles. For other frequencies .10"? »-.
‘Ema,’ Fiffzfance V \ 3
" ‘ W,‘ f
2;; ;
_-.
=.u::‘mne-_»» » \~§ ~
T ‘> ,.0476
.A_,c
the following formula should bc used. ' 10-r4 M" i~ lb’, 0 ° M ' J .1” I W8
0 no 20 so "-40- so an - ' 4‘ 0 wl0"°
r;=Kr.1c ohms per mile (2) Arnperzs pcr Cable
F5
29 30 O Q
Am P |zr2§ p er Cable
5 10
.4
rpdc E B.5|zven-§+_r_u_gd H IE , G d E , S _S+ d H3
where ‘ Co=bla.6_cCy::ies _ .. {3_g,,J<»k F“ 5O‘ 5‘ 6- ggnC l :5"°"‘ we
r1=the a.-c resistance at the desired frequency Feel- ‘
‘n -Q + .
555
' :-‘-r 1:-'-
._Q
“LY gt?“
-
..

’ . e
_ _ __

, I2 .
all \~§'-< 6‘ M" R ' --. ’/r'.._{fi’Q7Q‘e;r_,
-
i. — Fe
""
(cycles per second). .- .. »> _ M 9mo L -
rdc==d-c resistance at any known temperature. ‘ a
-E 9 . ‘ \

K-va.luo given in Tobie 5. gm-9 ' 4*”

~10-n .
n “Z-_ M __ r r-ma
In Table 5, K is given as at function of X, where ~ 5
>.L-A-war
‘~. /32 inI
\. .._r @¢
- fig ._-.-
I.
. .4 ‘—
X=.O63598 I cf (3) Gt-!umcl‘r'¢M
~_M..:AH\
5? s.-;!wmԤ\ ml \(\
P 0 R e < . s ‘ + c m c e .
NJKI'*U’\GI'\-I3 : “‘—“ _’ <3:lZm' I Getn
ousmei“+r'=:.MeanRod
t ‘ =""”"q“\_‘ ‘lb, — d\\|u-¢I\]t0l{5GV\
. . _. 1/ .
T mile 55:5. =1anm
35 xci m 4m.
0 no 2o so“'&o 50 O 0..
5
'°.‘?°. °.‘€°.a>‘=;¢.° <?" ¢?>a:-1=>5‘_“Q5'‘i4:o¢7"5~\Tv:

fwfrequency in cycles per second. J\mperesperCv|l>l¢ O

3- 310 ~o$I‘ '1
tfieréibiaso 6 $_.-—- /'-— .-\¢<~4-

p=~**permeability = 1.0 for nonwmognotic materials. _ "19 H7

I ‘WEat
Sevuv-Sfrnn
dz it
F?
G:-uai¢E.B.B.5evan _ Wjl
7' mile = d-c resistance of the condurrtor in ohms per mile. bl _ [gt W ‘ _ gift‘ not Cqbtgjiftie
Q3
/F R k *I—'cr!"‘
Table 5 (skin eiiect table) is carried in the Bureau of __ 2‘ ~~"”'*°"' "He/-,.,_5- ':~/'5‘-”:§i;'7”.=/tr.
1: _, __ _
_ L. ‘ ~—--— "
Standards Bulletin No. 169 on pages 22£l~8, to values of
X= 100. To facilitate interpolation over a small range of
l w4 »“$-(ix;
Eiiii
' r..1lg.
4
lk
S
.§
_T_
5 5 5 5 5btg,2:
gnw
r~|-u1 Raolr\F0ci
us ’
<=>~e6:a msagvhfie
.$:»~=GSaEI|E5

5 -iii; 'C1'*‘"@ i
E5:6SE'<': 5oq§
the table, it is accurate as well as convenient to plot a curve Painomns"
Feel --,_;,.>a,4.se-+ < (_ VI
of the values of K vs. values of X. . L 1"”, 1+’ ~
<n~:n-a ¢ ..
’
Combined Skin Efiect and Temperature Ejffect ' 5’ z ' . 1"/ U*{'§\JQ'l\ s'si'omce,0n
.I’=..i” -— r——; ‘rm I
on Resistance of Straight Round Wires‘-—When both Mer lc .E?5‘? ? 5. ?-*1 1:. ;.w§<
Geemul am.
_-
_, . H
_,4.__._. "‘ - - -' C?e0me|r:.Meom
E3$3XGT:
VII ‘?€' ‘ ‘/11: \ Q A:
temperature and skin effect. are considered in determining 5:6 -2
conductor resistance, the following procedure is followed. 0 no 20 so 4a so i av 5 5 5 5 5“'53:5
N")]\;—Q
55:5

Ampflfi PW Cub]? 0 U Amiarastgefrénbie

First calculate the d-c resistance at the new temperature rinary Sim: Ninltaen Strand‘: ,,
cab,“ fiocjdu ll rmory ea wnatnn rand
HSing Er]. (1). Then substitute this now value of (l~c rc-
“Tl .1" llEU IW,q .112-=-.192-Z§r;1=$ _
sistance and the desired frequency in the equation defining 1 *1-W“ _ -—7—' _ r» M
M15
X. Having calculated X, determine K {torn Table 5. ‘Then - i......___. -

iiil‘1|,3lii
0'5.1:M’
using Eq. (2), calculate the new 3*‘: resistance r{, using the
new d~c resistance for me and the value oi K obtained from
0'? _:..
XID-4
g‘*1<5
If!in
9-0
Ohms
12¢
per -
PMllll
._ “*1!
l‘
W if .fMY
gIkw
$ Cr
of

QQQZQ @8éééc2‘
Table 5. ~w~:- mica, Nbl
Eflect of Current on Resistance~~ ~ ~ ~ ~-The resistance of
magnetic conductors varies with current nu:-1.gnitudc as well
Tinovs-and
éfifi
E‘:8
2<3 ll alll
°ll
l.l “I i 3.
Ikmperes pcr Cable
Z0-—
Ressi'
$3..’
Thowscmd
50
Arnpenzs per Gabi:
100 150

as with the factors that affect non-magnetic conductors
{temperature and frequency).
Current magnitude determines the flux and therefore tho
iron or magnetic losses inside magnetic conductors. The
presence of this additiomil factor complicates the determi-
nation of resistance of magnetic conductors as well us any
tabulation of such data. For these reasons the eficct of
current magnitude will not be analyzed in detail. llow»
ever, Fig. 8 gives the resistance of steel conductors as a.
function of current, and the tables on magnetic conductors
such as Copperweld-copper, Copperwcld, and AUSR con-
ductors include resistance tabulations at two current carry~
ing levels to show this efiect. These tabulated resistances
are generally values obtained by tests.
Zero-Sequence Resistance The zero-sequence re-
sistance of aerial concluctors is discussed in detail in the
section on zero~scqucnce resistance and inductive react»
once given later in the chapter since the resistance and in-
Fig. 8——Electrical Characteristics of Steel Ground Wires‘
ductivc rcstctoncc presented to zcro~sequencc currents is
influenced by the distrilaution of the zcr0—scquencc current
in the curth return path.
2. Positive- and Negative-Sequence Inductive Re-
QICCEIQCE
To develop the posit.ivc~ and negativc~sequencc induc-
tive rcoctoncc of three-phase aerial lines it is first ncccssury
to develop :1 {cw concepts tlmt greatly simplify the
problem.
First-. the total inductive rcactancc of a conductor carry-
ing current will he considered as the sum of two com-
poucnt-st
‘This figure has been taken from Symmetrical C‘0mP0'l¢"'7'§‘ (*1 b°0k>
by C. F. Wagner and R. D. Evans, .\'IcGraW~Hill Book Company,
E933.
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial L/fines 35

(1) The inductive resistance due to the flux within a radius of

one foot from the conductor center, including the flux

r
inside the conductor.
(2) The inductive reaotance due to the fhix external to a
radius of one foot and out to some finite distance.
This concept was first given in Vilegner and Evans book on
Symmetrical Components? and was suggested by W. A.
Lewis.“
It can he shown most easily hy ennsidering It two-eon-
doctor single-phase circuit with the current. flowing out in

;
one conrluctor and returning in the other. In Fig. 9 such 21. cir-
cuit is shown with only the flux produced by conductor E for
/
simplicity. Conductor 2 also produces similar lines of flux.
The classic inductance forniuln for a single round straight
wire in the two—conductor singiephzise circuit is:

L=g+2 In Pi” ahhcnries per cm. per conductor. (4)

r
Where
p.= permeability of conductor materiat
rzradius of conductor.
D12=dist:1nC8 between conductor 1 and conductor 2.
D1,, and r must be expressed in the some units for the above
equation to be valid. For practice-l purposes one foot is
used as the unit of length sinfle most distances between
aerial conductors are in feet. in cable circuits, however,
the distance between conductors is less than one foot and
the inch is a more common unit (see (fihnp. 4).
. . b between conductor 1 and euuduetur 2.
From derivation formulas 2. general term such as 2ln E
represents the flux and associated inductance between
circles of radius a and radius b surrounding 2. conductor
carrying current. (See Fig. 10).
Rewriting liq. (4) keeping in mind the significance of the
b
general term 2ln 3,
L=g+2h1%+2En!l3 abhenries per cm. per com
Fig. l0—Inductance due to flux between radius a and radius b
{2 In Z abhenries per cm.)
where %= inductance due to the flux inside the conductor.
Zlni = inductance due to the flux outside the conductor
r to a radius of one foot.
D .
Zln~1i3=1nduotence due to the flux external to a one foot
radius out to D,-1 foot where D12 is the distance
From Fig. 9 it can be seen that it is unnecessary to in-
oiude the fiux beyond the return conductor 2 because this
flux does not iink any net current and therefore does not
affect the inductance of conductor 1.
Grouping the terms in Eq. (5) we have:
1 abhenries per cm. per c0n—
L""g+21nr+21n 1 duetor. (6)
K.-_-......xr-_.__/‘

Ldueto L due
cluctor (5) flux out to flux

t_\ \\
to a one external
ft. radi- to 21 1
us ft. ra-
dius out
'iIOD|2fi].

Examining the terms in the first bracket, it is evident

that this expression is the sum of the flux both inside the
c:>~0uc;T;i\ c0Nnuo1'oR 2
conductor and that external to the conductor out to

/7/, a radius of one foot (2111:) Furthermore this expression

contains terms Lliut are st:-iutly a function of the conductor
_ I FT RADIUS characteristics of permeability and radius,
The term in the second bracket of Eq. (6) is an expres-
sion for inductance due to flux external to a radius of one
foot and out to 21 distance of D11, which, in the two-con-
duetor case, is the distance between conductor 1 and oon~
duetor 2. This term is not dependent upon the conductor
characteristics and is dependent only upon conductor
‘I i ‘ ‘I spacing.
Fig. 9—A two conductor single phase circuit (inductance) Equation (6) can be written again as foilowsz
36 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

M 1 D12 abhenries per cm. per (7) Solid round conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 0.7798.
Full strandirig
L_2InE§§/'l'15{+21n 1 conductor. 7 O 7262.
GMR in the first term is the conductor “geometric mean 19. . . . , . _ . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.758a
radius”. It can be defined as the radius of a tubular con- 38.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0.768a
ductor with an infinitesiinally thin wall that has the same (31 0.7722;
external flux out to a radius of one foot as the internal and Q1 (177421
external flux of solid conrluctor I, out to a radius of one 127 O. 7765.
foot. In other words, GMR is a mathematical radius Hollow stranclcd mnductors and A.C.S.R.
assigned to at solid. conductor (or other configiirntion such {neglecting stool strands)
as stranded conductors), which describes in one term the 3D-two la._Y|'I' . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q-B2681
‘2(i~lwo iayer . . . . . . . . . r . . r . r . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . 0-3098-
inductance of the conductor due to both its internal fiux
54-l:hrccla\vcr,....,.... . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 0.8108.
and the external flux out to a one foot radius (2in~f;). Singie layer ."\.C§H~li . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1.359.-{}70a
Pr>iu‘(- \'s'it.liin circle to circle . l . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘ . . , . . . 8,
GMR therefore makes it possible to replace the two terms Point outside circle to circle . i . . . . . . . . . . distance to center of circle
Rcctaiiguiar section cl sides a and £3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.2‘235(v:+5)
(54-Eng) with one term which is entirely cle-
CIRCULAR TUBE
pendent upon the conductor characteristics. G)/IB. is
expressed in feet. 1.00 W7 if 7 \ *
Converting Eq. (7) to practical units of inductive
reactance, l ‘ € /

$20.2"/eiélgj lflglo Gal“; 1 0.279%) log“, 1% Q95 _,_ \ ‘t.

ohms per conductor per mile
Where fwfrequency in cps.
{8)
l ’ * /
0.90 5 T t
GM R=conductor geometric mean radius in feet.
D;2’—""’dlSt€lX1CC between conductors I and 2 in feet. R/u Y
If we let the first term be called tea a,n(1 the second term ‘ ‘ ‘ l/‘ _ '_?__
zed, then
:r:=xa+a:d ohms per conductor per lnilc (9)
0.65
/ll x
where
:z:,,=inductive reactanee due to both the internal
0.80 will o A!/, l _ __
flux and that external to conductor 1 to a radius I 1 l_ l ______n____
of one foot.
:n¢ w inductive reactance due to the flux surrounding
__ ___ ___ §_ e J4 l
0150 0.2 0.4 0.6 D.B 1.0
conduct-or 1 from a radius of one foot out to a.
INNER RADIUS
radius of D12 feet. RATIO
OUTER RADIU5
For the two-conductor, single-phase circuit, then, the or I/2 OUTSIDE DIAMETE R
totai inductive reactance is Fig. 11~»~—Geometric Mean Radii and Distances.
xe 2(a:a+:ed} ohms per lniie of circuit (10) PHA$Eo
since the circuit has two conductors, or hoth a “go” and |° r ,7 r,_ ';,”do_ii V k
“return” conductor.
Sometimes a tabulated or experimental reactance with so dob °"‘=*
I foot spacing is known, and from this it is desired to cal»
culate the conductor GZVIR. By derivation fr0m_ Eq. (8) I “bu
PHASE <= ¢ °° PHASE b
(Z In
1
GMR—;,mm Reactanceivith 1 ft spacing (60 cy-:les)fBet' (E1)
Og19—— V wfi e
0.2794 X00 la
When reactance is known not to a one-foot radius but out *3 ’ ' ‘\/V\/“
to the conductor surface, it is called the “internal react~
ance.” The formula for calculating the GMR from the H 352:, _-°- lei» Xoc i

“internal reactance” is: xcc ic }xbc '

En ¢ 'vvv~e ~— e ~ so
G1»/in = P§Ysi°;§_£€*<““S _ 1-In ‘l f Eb
Amilogm “Internal lieaetanhr-cl’ (60 cycles) feet (12) ac £5
0.2794
The values of GMR at (30 cycles and 1,, at 25, 50, and
60 cycles for each type of conductor are given in the tables Fig. 12--A Three-conductor three-phase circuit (symmetrical
of electrical characteristics of conductors. They are given spacing).
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines
in these tables because they are a function of conductor
characteristics of radius and permeabiiity. Vaiucs of $4
for various spacings are given in separate tables in this
Chapter for 25, 50, and 60 cycles. This factor is de-
pendent on distance between conductors only, and is not
associated with the conductor characteristics in any way.
In addition to the GMR given in the conductor char-
acteristics tables, it is sometimes necessary to determine
this quantity for other conductor configurations. Figure
E1 is given for convenience in determining such Values of
GMR. This table is taken from the Wagner and Evans
book Symmetrical Components, page I38.
Having developed as, and sad in terms of n two-conductor,
single-phase circuit, those quantities can be used to de-
termine the posiit.ive- and negative-sequence inductive
reactance of a three-conductor, three-phase circuit.
Figure 12 shows a three-conductor, three-phase circuit
carrying phase currents Ia, Is, Ic produced by line to
ground voltages Ea, Eb, and EC. First, consider the case
whore the three conductors are symmetrically spaced in a
triangular configuration so that no transpositions are re-
quired to maintain equal voltage drops in each phase along
the line. Assume that the three-phase voltages Ea, Eb, E,
are balanced (equal in magnitude and 120° apart) so that
they may be either positive- or negative-sequence volt-
ages. Also assume the currents Ia, Ii), I, are also balanced
so that Ia+Ii,+Ic=O. Therefore no return current flows
in the earth, which practically eliminates mutual effects
betxveen the conductors and earth, and the currents Ii,
lb, 1., can be considered as positivo- or negative-sequence
currents. In the following solution, positive- or negative
sequence voltages Ea, Eb, EC, are applied to the conductors
and corresponding positive- or ncgative~sequence currents
are assumed to flow producing voltage drops in each con-
ductor. The voltage drop per phase, divided by the cur-
rent per phase results in the positive- or negativewsequence
inductive reactance per phase for the three-phase circuit.
To simplify the problem further, consider only one current
flowing at a time. \Vith all three currents flowing simul-
taneously, the resultant effect is the sum of the effects pI'0-
Cluccd by each current flowing alone.
Taking phase a, the voltage drop is:
En“ Ea, = [aIx:.a"'l'“ Ib3:o.b""i"'"Icra.o
where
ma,=self inductive reactance of conductor a.
:l13i,=mutual inductive reactance between con-
ductor <1, and conductor b.
mac-=»»mutual inductive reactance between con-
ductor o and conductor c.
In terms of 2:. and sud, inductive reactance spacing factor,
xaam$a'i 5-"d(ak)
Where only I, is flowing and returning by a. remote path 6
feet away, assumed to be the point k.
Considering only It flowing in conductor b and returning
by the same remote path f feet away,
Zeb =$d<biii —$<i<im>
where xii, is the inductive reactance associated with the
flux produced by I1, that links conductor a out to the return
path f feet away.
37
Finally, considering only I, flowing in conductor sand
returning by the some remote path g feet away.
1/‘ac = 13d(ck) _'$d(ca)
where ma, is the inductive reactance associated with the
flux produced by 1., that links conductor 0. out to the return
path g feet away.
With all three currents Ia, lb, In flowing simultaneously,
we have in terms of xa and std factors:
Euf Ea, m 1,a(517:i"“i"-'rd(rslr)) +Il>{$d[iak) — xd(ba))
"l'I=(37d(¢l<l ’$d(¢~\>)- (17)
Expanding and regrouping the terms we have:
Ea—Ea’ 2 In-311/"""'Ib$d(ha) “mic-rd(c:x)
"i"i1i-l'=1om"i*]ii:l1iiu>ir; +I¢$<s<@k>l- (13)
$ince I, = —I,,— 11,, the terms in the bracket may be
written
Ia(-2<3(ak) — Zd(ck)) +[b(Id(bk) "'" xd(c'k)} -
Using the definition of ad, 0.2794 g—Olog~[%,thisexpression
can be written
_ f
1.. UQJQ-1;»-l dim)
an +1 (0.2194--l
- f dtbkl)
W .
so °g drqk) " co ‘lg cw‘,
Assuming the distances dam, dick), and dam to the remote
path approach infinity, then the ratios €Z-5-’~‘k—’ and (El-bi)
dick) dwk)
approach unit)’. Since the log of unity is zero, the two
terms in the bracket are zero, and Eq. (I8) reduces to
EaMEa!m]axa"'Ib-Ti1(l1s)"""Ic5Ud(¢§)
since
itdiba)mx=1{ca)'“"‘$d(hc)=17d, and [am —-Ii,—I,,,
Ea“Ea’:Ia(-37a+17d)~
Dividing the equation by Ia,
Eafligal .
2:; = 3:2 H wz.,+:c¢ ohms per phase per mile (21)
where
;|;afll1’1(1Ll(ii,l‘fi-’(i* react-ance for conductor a due to the flux
out to one foot.
mdminductive reactance corresponding to the flux ex-
ternal to a one-foot radius from conductor c out to
the center of conductor b or conductor c since the
spacing between conductors is symmetrical.
Therefore, the positive- or negative-sequence inductive
rcactance per phase for a three—phase circuit with equi-
lateral spacing is the Same as for one conductor of a single-
phase circuit as previously derived. Values of xi for vari-
ous conductors are given in the tables of electrical char-
acteristics of conductors later in the chapter, and the
values Of Ia are given in the tables of inductive reactance
spacing factors for various conductor spacings.
‘When the conductors are unsymmetrieally spaced, the
voltage drop for each conductor is difierent, assuming the
currents to be equal and balanced. Also, due to the unsym~
metrical conductor spacing, the magnetic field external to
the conductors is not zero, thereby causing induced volt-
(15) ages in adjacent electrical circuits, particularly teiephone
circuits, that may result in telephone interference.
To reduce this effect to a minimum, the conductors are
transposed so that each conductor occupies successively the
38 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

Ia Ic 1!! Expressed in general terms,

do #1: ‘er ‘:1 x.§= -§<0.2794%)(l0g d(12;-l-10g d;2a;+10g Olga»)

I; lb In
@ a 23 ”””” la In
°:z ”®
1c
:I;d=";ir 0.279‘?-';)% l0g d;gdggd31

lsl SECTION 206 SECTION 37¢ 5ECT|0N

:v.;=0.2794€j%
J
log ~“/dmdada
lo ‘
:7-* I 1‘
-*' 1
i
:§.__:7_2
HO
M. 2_”_ ____
0-1 O
2
:r:,; = O.2?94é»'% log GMD
a 1 where (§il\/ID (geometrical mean distance) = ‘l/d12d?;id31; and
_1£. :_ Z ...'.Z. 3 ____s
13 mathematically defined as the nth root of an n-fold
an :5 ac» Ed" product.
For a three~phase circuit where the conductors are not
7i/7/T/7///////777777???/77%?’/////////////77/7/77777//////// symmetrically spaced, we therefore have an expression for
Fig. l3—A Three-conductor three-phase circuit (unsymmet- the positive~ or negativesequence inductive reactance,
rical spacing). which is similar to the symmetrically spaced case except rd
is the inductive—reactance spacing factor for the GMD
same positions as the other two conductorsirftwo successive {geometric mean distance) of the three conductor snpara»
line sections. For three such tmn:-zposcd line sections, called tions. For rd, then, in the case of unsymmetrical conduct-
a “barrel of transposition”, the total voltage drop for each or spacing, we can take the average of the three inductive-
conductor is the same, and any electrical circuit parallel to rcactnnce spacing factors
the three transposed sections has a net voltage of very low :rd= §’(1§;1(12)"+”.'Ed(23;+1'd(31)> ohms per phase per mile
lllagnitucle induced in it clue to normal line currents.
In the following derivation use is made of the general or we can calculate the GMD of the three spacings
equations developed for the case of symmetrically spaced V: (ll1gdg;;d3|_ ffifit
conductors. First, the inductive rcactance voltage drop of
and use the inductive-reactance spacing factor for this
phase a in each of the three line sections is obtained.
Adding these together and dividing by three gives the distance. This latter procedure is perhaps the easier of the
avcmgc inductive reactanco voltage drop for a line section. two methods.
2:, is taken from the tables of electrical characteristics of
Referring to Fig. 13 and using liq. (19) for the first line
conductors presented later in the chapter, and xd is taken
section where I, is flowing in conductor 1,
E=- E Bl = In-731"“ Ib33d(12)_Ie13d(13)» Itflflbfi "°’
.,_.-._._c@er- R lining
II_fl_ll No.5
NM
In the second line section where 1,. is flowing in conductor 2,
m_ lnzlu
E,’ ME,” m I,:n.--Ib:c.m8, -~ Iqxdgl}. a um
e 0
In the third line section where It is flowing in conductor 3,
0
E,” — E,’” m fax,“ I1,:|:m;,1,- Icxdw. 00,000
Taking the average voltage drop per line section, We have 00,000
(Ea— Eu’) + (Ea — 1&1") + (E’.t" —-EJ”)
Em = ._..______.5......................__d_____ EQII I I I§I%§!E I§B%L§I2I 4 5 0,000
Qé0,ooo,o0o
tr: ale-'17a._ 1~b($d(12; +1*d§_as; “l“11'd;§i1_))
HM =11
.0
. 4_z4r.4rzi¢_.
%"1‘fi?.¢ . fihn._._\.I
‘_.
in
3
L-(JU¢|<w)+ramz; +1101
3 " '%%$‘§9¥*' 1 4 A_, >
' ' ' _‘-_;_’) +IlN pd
-1
gt r%§?7iIi'
3 1' wfiuizilIQ‘\¥li§»!h‘SRNb1\&i'fllN_I=lh$s‘k*IR_r!Ifl|RKINIM]I i
i_ l’ AMHVV IIIIII :11!
mmnas na i
Since
E ‘my 1,; _(1b.{ I )i“?51<‘*>'i”$**f"’*'lIfl§£*.$?.£>l_)
BY H K 3 3

0o
9iv /i2~eé£!:::::::- IIII\IRI§I&8I§!¥IN!u\I!_IRL‘§
Ia+Ib'i'Ic=0; Ia-_"""(Ib_l_-Io)
RM
LOSPER
£XL‘X“
ACETANCE
' I
_
Em= ]a(1;B+§$L<.Lil‘_’ii§§9f’”d@1>)_ °" I
Y
Dividing by Ia, we have the positive— or negative-sequence
inductive reactance per phase
Q
| 2
1 I
3 4 5 1 IIIIIUHBIR5
NIQNHQHI IBI 20 30 40
-J-5:
1.m§!€S§%ls!uEwHm§Eulu!ml‘§uEsl l u
:c1=:1:¢= (:1:,,—l—:cd) ohms per phase per mile aoumvatzur counucron smcane-rest
Fig. 14 -Quick reference curves for 60-cycle inductive react-
where
ance of three-phase lines (per phase) using hard drawn copper
xaw§(x.1m,—i-xd¢=,;,—§~:cd<31,) ohms per phase conductors. For total reactance of single-phase lines multiply
_ per mile. (22) these values by two. See Eqs. (10) and (11).
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines 39

3 £2 COPPERWELD
:.o ‘C5 I
' lnvsamss cunazmsi l::I-
226,800 _ I _
l .
“III I
IIII‘I-I
336,400 H III I
I¥
MI YI mwannnnnf411000 ‘5/:ca:suo.§o I
__ 795,000
| | |<9| | | | | |,‘I
&4L'IIIIIH:
<°.
‘IIIIIIIII- . 1,192,500 E 3,731 3 no.3 I
3-‘? sums,%§§“
III.' l&sI¥§§.
3*5
5 ~ ~ 1,590,000 _ 1 I ll E’
1/gar-s~o.s\
PQRMLE
‘mI I I m‘\ ‘\I I I I IR T __ I

i.\=2ii».Iii!
‘I.I I Il3QlI‘'\I. IflIL‘L1I!IY\‘\ -Ii-R!\‘ \“
1
nII§?=§'II
NOP-EMS 2 Ills0I%II\'E>,*s,».Isn:§ ‘ias.
‘I.
1
I \ L‘I zczéazsn
liar ‘ 1J“-i"i
I

¥
III IIHL
Ul

n
4‘(fl
''{F.!i‘=§ l
‘1=§¥-l
II II-

lIH%§¥§.*;t* lILK\, Il lh.‘H

.--ll} ‘\
‘ Q‘.
.I‘!
L. I
§II
I _ib'q.
-I
1‘!‘

= as
“Q -i§§¥§§%
9
P.-0
W
(D
Inp'iuI‘ in‘|:isI
\\NqmglA l
I
1‘

llll
II
IIIIQ
33
* slII“
um; IIIIIIII
PERasr.
owns
asx"X04-Xd K
I
It
X01-ACTAN>CE<¢XL‘
Q
l// \‘_hS‘+*0-_ -II
IiI—IIII
#-
I II
LE
I RIE;
A45
RE Y IIII EIII III-IIIII CE
,’/// i Ill! i III III Q ‘*1
_ ‘ i\ Il_c_._l I ; I IIIIII I
0.4
V
// 3 z ::I 1
l I , I “
l
<
III
"5 III
V
‘\
| 2 3 4 5 7 no
zouuvamrr cououcmn SPAcm6—
20 so 40
ran
REAOTAN
0.6 .
' /<7,”
W4 ..:::
li

T 1
! i

L ‘I. I
.
I-III

Fig. 15»-Quick reference curves for 60~cycle inductive react-

ance of three-phase lines (per phase) using ACSR conductors.
Fer total 1-eactance of single-phase lines, multiply these
values by two. See Eqs. (10) and (21). 0 ' 5 li 2
ii l ll ii?
3 4 5 7 IO 20 30 40
IIImiIIIImeIIPII5- :5..
RIHRIqI II EIIIIIIIIQ\I I -QIIIE
Ii
IYIQIlH!I
"'1QI-§5I-I\%§ §Il
-I‘
I-IIE
:IIII

EQUIVALENT CONDUCTOR SPACING-FEET

9-1/20
M cor>¢snws|.a covren -- HI ac Fig. £7-—Ouick reference curves for 60-cycle inductive react-
All
an GA ance of three-phase lines (per phase) using Copperweld con-
(Average Ourrenls) ail‘.
__lI ,I ,_ __1l ll IIII
IIII
I .25
in ‘“‘
2A
ductors. For total reactance of single-phase lines multiply
these values by two. See Eqs. £10) and (21).
Ill!’ ~ 2.I w

u
to
'
—IIll;5:a;5 .212: III!
4 .4
I
I 4/0 EK
from the tables of inductive-reactance spacing factors.
Geometric mean distance (GMD) is sometimes referred to
as “equivalent conductor spacing.” For quick reference
—IIEi:::;¢ ' the curves of Figs. (14), {l5}, (16), and (17) have been
plotted giving the reacizance {nod-11,1) for different c0n-
—‘,§%?z5§IZ ‘‘.
Ilkfln ductor sizes and “equivalent conductor spacings."
""-""?""}?”%?§?'”.I,¢rI
1 ‘ ' ‘ mini minus: Since most three-phase lines or circuits do not have con-
ductors symmetrically spaced, the above formula for posi-
' wI'i 6575' III: " tive- or negativescquence inductive reactancc is generally
%‘zviia‘"‘*=i'"'-ii‘:
I Irma IIII
Irina I II used. This formula, however, assumes that the circuit is
transposed.
/. /r
/ l/
IIII
IIII
l
3 ,_
IIIlnauIIIII.II When a single-circuit line or double-circuit line is not
/l/ III l l transposed, either the dissymmetry is to be ignored in the
A
9P<"-17! \
.°
Q ‘
ll l Ill calculations, in which case the general symmetrical com-
ponents methods can be used, or dissymmetry is to be con-
PERMLE
ON
REXi}X¢*'
HMS
ACYANCE Xd §\
\\\ "* sidered, Lhus preventing the use of general symmetrical-
components methods. In considering this dissymmetry,
0.5 \\\%

ss-
ms
‘\4 \ II unequal currents and voltages are calculated for the three
__ I L ____c‘\
L\ , M1
j\1

0.4 _____"L l _
I‘WIIW
Il
:iIII
E l III
III‘I‘
‘Z:
Ihln‘aIQII: :::~
untIl%II IIII:
sIQIIIIIILNIIINIIQLI_QIILflIYIL-§IYI.IQIIMQlII,NKI__\Yr_I 1 I
I
I
II
phases even when terminal c0nditi0ns are balanced. In
most cases of dissyimmctry it is most practical to treat the
circuit. as transposed and use the equations for 21 and 1;;
I 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 so 40
EQUIVALENT cououcroa smcnne-rest derived for an unsymmctrically-spaced transposed circuit.
Some error results from this method but in general it is
Fig. 16-Ouick reference curves for 60~cycie inductive react-
ance of three-phase lines (per phase) using C0pperweld-
small as compared with the laborious calculations that
Copper canductors. For total reactance of single-phase lines must be made when the method of symmetrical compv
multiply these values by two. See Eqs. (ill) and (21). nents cannot be used.
40 Characteristics of Aerial I/ines Chapter 3

Positive» and Negative-Sequence Reactance of 00 O0‘

Parallel CirCuits—'Whe1i two parallel three-phase cir-r
cults are close together, particularly on the same tower, the
effect of mutual inductance between the two circuits is
not entirely eliminated by transpositions. By referring to so Ob’
Fig. 18 showing two transposed circuits on at single tower,
the positive» or negativoscqucncc reactancc of the para}-
leled circuit is: :0 0:‘
~/’dli Fig. 19-—~Arrangement of conductors on a single tower which
”"“”"=”°‘m‘% 1"“ <T€»iF17i:Zi;'}I;iIi materially increases the inductance per phase.
._ Al} 1 nuns ._W__.n._c__
((i:li1')d(_(Il1l.J):)2

‘E °g‘° (dc.-)1<d..->ca.')(a.-)1 ductors results in five to seven percent greater inductive

ohms per phase per mile.
in which the (iistancos are those hetweon conductors in the
first section of transposition.
The first term in the above equation is the positive- or
negative-sequence reactance lor the combined circuits. The
second term represents the correction factor due to the
n c'
Oil
(24) reactance than the usual arrangement of conductors. This
has been demonstrated in several references.“
3. Zero-Sequence Resistance and Inductive Re»
actance
The development of zero-sequence resistance and in-
ductive rcactance of aerial lines will be considered simul~
tancously as they are related quantities. Since zero~se-
qucnce currents for three-phase systems are in phase and
equal in magnitude, they flow out through the phase con~

0-».
b0

A. .
‘ed °
1: doctors and return by a neutral path consisting of the
earth alone, neutral conductor alone, overhead ground
Wires, or any combination of these. Since the return path
often consists of the earth alone, or the earth in parallel
with some other path such as overhead ground wires, it is
necessary to use a method that takes into account the re-
IIO Oc' sistivity of the earth as well as the current distribution in
the earth. Since both the zermsequence resistance and
b0 Q9‘ inductive-reactance of threemhase circuits are affected by
these two factors, their development is considered jointly.
=0 00' As with the p0sitive- and negative—sequence inductive
FIRST SECTl°N
reactance, first consider a single-phase circuit consisting of
a single conductor grounded at its far end with the earth
co on‘ acting as a return conductor to compiete the circuit. This
permits the development of some useful concepts for cal-
°O Q0’ culating the zero-sequence resistance and inductive re-
actance oi‘ three~phase circuits.
Figure 20 shows a single-phase circuit consisting of a
90 On‘
single outgoing conductor a, grounded at its far end with
$ECONl> S£CTION
the return path for the current consisting of the earth. A
so Qu‘ second conductor, b, is shown to illustrate the mutual
effects produced by current flowing in the single-phase cir-
cuit. Tho zero-sequence resistance and inductive reactance
=0 0:’
of this circuit are dependent upon the resistivity of the
earth and the distribution of the current returning in the
co ob’
earth.
THIRO SECYION
This problem has been analyzed by Rudenberg, Mayr,
Fig. I8~—-Two parallel three-phase circuits on a single tower
showing transpositions.
"1/v '}¢
mutual reectancc between the two circuits and may reduce “ab
the reactance three to five percent. The formula assumes H
transposition of the conductor as shown in Fig. 18. /7 r 7-7 1 ' ‘I ;
The formula aiso assumes symmetry about the vertical
axis but not necessarily about the horizontal axis. i;\.RT"
As contrasted with the usual conductor arrangement as If ?
shown in Fig. 18, the arrangement of conductors shown in Fig. 20-A single conductor single phase circuit with earth
Fig. 19 might be used. However, this arrangement of cori- return.
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines
and Pollaczek in Europe, and Carson and Campbell in this
country. The more commonly used method is that of
Carson, who, like Pollaczek, considered the return current
to return through the earth, which was assumed to have
uniform resistivity and to be of infinite extent.
The solution of the problem is in two parts: (1) the de~
termination of the self impedance Zg of conductor a with
earth return (the voltage between a and earth for unit cur-
rent in conductor a), and (2), the mutual impedance Zgfn
between conductors a and b with common earth return
(the voltage between b and earth for unit current in <1 and
earth return).
As a result of Carsonis formulas, and using average
heights of conductors above ground, the foliowing funda-
mental simplified equations may be written:
z,=r.,+0.00l59f+j0.004657j' logic W
ml?
ohms per mile (25)
zm m 0.00159f+j0.004657f logm
216»/i
d simplified equations. Calling the zero sequence imped-
ab
ohms per mile (26)
where
rs“ resistance of conductor a per mile.
f =frequency in cps.
p=earth resistivity in ohms per meter cube.
GMR= geometric mean radius of conductor a in feet.
dabmdistance between conductors a and b in feet.
A useful physical concept for analyzing earth-return
circuits is that of concentrating the current returning
through the earth in a fictitious conductor at some con-
siderable dcpth below the outgoing conductor a. This
equivalent depth of the fictitious return conductor is rep-
resented as De.
For the singlemonductor, single-phase circuit with earth
return now considered as a single-phase, two-wire circuit,
the self-inductive reactance is given by the previously de-
rived j0.2794$ logm éPK—jI5~fi (See Eq. (8)) for a single-phase,
two-wire circuit, or j0.004657f logm $ where De is
substituted for Du, the distance between conductor a and
the fictitious return conductor in the earth. This exprcs~
sion is similar to the inductive-rcactancc as given in
Carson’s simplified equation for self impedance. Equating
the logarithmic expressions of the two equations,
. De, .
jU.UQ¢§57fl0@c =]0.004657flOg;;; GMR
or De = 2160\j§ feet. (27)
This defines Dc, equivalent depth of return, and shows
that it is a function of earth resistivity, p, and frequency, f.
Also an inspection of Carson’s simplified equations show
that the self and mutual impedances contain a resistance
component 0.00l59f, which is a function of frequency.
41
Rewriting Carson's equations in terms of equivalent
depth of return, De,
. D
zgwr.,+0.00159f+_70.(]O46.57f log”
ohms per mile. (28)
zg,,,=0.90l 59f+j0.0()4657j'logm‘?9 ohms per mile. (29)
b
These equations can be applied to multiple-conductor
circuits ii re, tho GMR and dab rcfcr to tho conductors as a
group. Subsequently the GMR of a group of conductors
are derived for use in the above equations.
To convert the above equations to zermsequence quan-
tities the foliowing considerations must be made. Con-
sidering three conductors for a. tl1rec~p11ase System, unit
zero-sequence current consists of one ampere in each phase
conductor and three ampcrcs in the earth return circuit.
To use Eqs. (28) and (29), replace the three conductors by
a. single equivalent conductor in which three ampercs flow
for every ampere of zero~sequence current. Therefore the
corresponding zero-sequence self and mutual impedances
per phase are three times the values given in Carson’s
ances zs and 20,“, we have:
. D,
Zn 3Tu+(l.(lfi477f+3O.Ol397flogm GMR
Ohms per phase per mile. (30)
am =0.00477f+j€J.01397f Iogm Sli-
ohms per phase per mile (31)
where f==-frequency in cps.
rc=resistance of a conductor equivalent to the three
conductors in parallel. 3n therefore equals the
resistance of one conductor for a. three-phase
circuit.
GMRmgcornetrio mean radius for the group of phase
conductors. This is different than the GMR for
a single conductor and is derived subsequently
as GMR.=m.,o-
d,h#~distance from the equivaient conductor to a
parallel conductor, or some other equivalent
conductor if the mutual impedance between two
parallel three-phase circuits is being considered.
For the case of a single overhead ground wire, Eq. (30)
gives the zero-sequence self impedance. Equation (31)
gives the zero-sequence mutual impedance between two
overhead ground wires.
Zero-sequence self impedance of two ground wires with
earth return
Using Eq. (30) the zero~sequcncc self impedance of two
ground wires with earth return can be derived.
z<,=3re+0.00477f+j0.0l397f logw (-3-335%
ohms per phase per mile (30)
where r.,=resistance of a single conductor equivalent to
the two ground wires in parallel. (r, therefore
r . .
becomes 5 where rs, 1S the resistance of one of
the two ground wires).
42 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

GMR=gcometric mean radius for the two ground transpositions. The expression for self impedance is then
wires. (GMR therefore becomes converted to zero-sequence self impedance in a manner
~'/co-1~IR>u...,....,. do or 3/<GMR><dw> analogous to the case of single conductors with earth
return.
where d,,, is the distance between the two conductors Consider three phase conductors a, b, and c as shown in
av and y.) Fig. 21. With the conductors transposed the current
Substituting for T. and i/<oMR><e,,> for GMR in Eq. .1.
(30), the zermsequence self impedance of two ground
3
0
wires with earth return becomes
dub ‘ac
311. .
zo-?+O.00e1.77f~l~_7O.0l397f logm _""—““"""""“a
(GMR) wt"Y)‘
De
1-
3 b 69° c
~2-
ohms per mile per phase. (32)
"L.
3
Zero-sequence self impedance of n ground wires with earth a __--»»-c- _
return
Again using Eq. (30), the zeroosequence self impedance b_i
i
of n ground wires with earth return can be developed.
e eeeeeeeeeeeee~
.,4..l
. De
l0gw am

ohms per mile per phase. (30)

Since Tc is the resistance of a. single conductor equivalent to 777.777///r////////////////Z’?7779777/77*
.,M._
n ground wires in parallel, then r.,=§ where 1'. is the I
T1

resistance of one of the n ground wires, in ohms per phase Fig. 2!---Self impedance of parallel conductors with earth
return.
per mile.
GMR is the geometric mean radius of the n ground wires
divides equaily between the conductors so that for a total
as a group, which may be written as follows in terms of all
current of unity, the current in each conductor is one third.
possible distances,
The voltage drop in conductor a for the position in-
oMR== ‘§l<oMR>" <d<...i,d<....,—d<;.;.> i i i i dicatcd in Fig. 21 is
(d(mc1)d(cz2a)““““”d(Kzzn) (d(caz1)d(asa==)P'md Lllsim) Zea Zeb zao
(d(s»zi1d&znIz)“‘—d(hzs~1) feet- ':'§""+'ii"""+ 3
This expression can also be Written in terms of all possible For conductor 6:
pairs of distances as foilows. znfb Zeb Zbs
11‘ ' 3 + 3 + 3
GMR = V H fififlfimtflr ldicxmldlkldfl}; d€81fln))2
(diva) " d<m:-2)” (diam): foot. (33)
and for conductor c:
ii" 529. E31’.
The equation for zero—sequence self impedance of n ground 3 + 3 + 3
wires with earth return can therefore be obtained by sub-
7"
in which 2“, zbb, and an are the self impedances of the
stituting i for T. and Eq. (33) for GMR in Eq. (30). three conductors with ground return and 2.11,, zsc, and z,,,
are the mutual impedances between the conductors.
Self impedance of parallel conductors with earth return Since conductor a takes each of the three conductor
positions successively for a transposed line, the average
In the proceeding discussion the self and mutual im- drop per conductor is
pednnces between single cylindrical conductors with earth
return were derived from which the zero-sequence self and %(5as+"3bh+5eo+23ab“‘l“23bc'l'2zac)-
mutual reactancos were obtained. These expressions were
expanded to include the case of multiple overhead ground Substituting the values of so-If and mutual impedances
wires, which are not transposed. The more common case given by Eqs. (28) and (29) in this expression,
is that of three-phase conductors in a three-phase circuit
which can be considered to be in parallel when zero-se~ z, = g [3r.,—|-9{0.0015Qf) +j0.004657f(3 1<>g..,_1)-°-
Grl\/IR
quoncc currents are considcrod. Also the three conductors
in a. three-phase circuit are generally transposed. This +2 10E1o 93+? l0g1o %'l"2 10810 Pi
dab dbe den
factor was not considered in the proceeding cases for mul- ohms pcr mile.
tiple overhead ground wires.
In order to derive the zero—sequence self impedance of ¢,, =-=1 1-,,§+o.0o15ef+;0.0o4c57f
. D.
logm \/, ———-—i-. . . . . .»-(GMR)3dBb2db°2dca2
three-phase circuits it is first necessary to derive the self
impedance of three-phase circuits taking into account ohms per mile. (34)
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial I/ines
The ninth root in the denominator of the logarithmic term
is the GMR of the circuit and is equal to an infinitely thin
tube which would have the some inductance as the throe-
conductor system with earth return shown in Fig. 21.
GMR¢1mmg = ‘1y(GMR)3conducLor dfibzdbvadfiflg feet“
GMRCif0U§fi= ~/“<o1~1R>x.,mw, (dB-bdbVd°fl)2 eo-
GMRcuculi= \3/G ];{conduct.or(\i/dgbdhcdg )2 fe-fit.
By previous derivation (See Eq. (23)), Gl\/IDm,_,,t,,u
H V, dabdbcdm foot.
3 “v7'_‘WW'7 7 7
Therefore GMRim1i~ \/(GlVIR)w,u.mr(G1\'113) separation
7 if
fcot.
Substituting GMRUWH, from equation (35) in equation
(34),
¢,=’l§+0.o0159j
+ 0.004657 if)
D6
l '——'—l""" e»
" I gm ~‘/come)m,i.i,<or»11>>=u,..,i.i,.
ohms per mile.
In equations {S4} and (36), '1', is the resistance per mile of
one phase conductor.
Zero-sequence self impedome of three parallel conductors
with earth return
Equation (36) gives the self impedance of three parallel
conductors with earth return and was derived for a total
current of unity divided equally among the three con-
ductors. Since zero-sequence current consists of unit cur-
rent in each conductor or a total of three times unit current
for the group of three conductors, the voltage drop for
zero-sequence ourrenss is three times as great. Therefore
Eq. (36) must be multiplied by three to obtain the zero»-
sequence seif impedance of three parallel conductors with
earth return. Therefore,
2g=?‘¢-1-Q.0Q4?7f
+'0.c13e7 1 D6
,i.iiiw_i_ii.iiW__i_i_ii~ii..w_ii.c——
—~
’ohms perI phase
°g‘° ~/o1\»11ii0.mm<<1MD>sum
per mile
Where 3 GMRoonduomor(GM%}2sepmaLion is the GMR-elrcuis de“
rived in equation (35) or v(GMR)3w,,m,m, zimidhfidij
Zero-sequence mutual impedance between two circuits with
earih return
Using a simiiar method of derivation the zero-sequence
mutual impedance between 2 three-phase circuits with
common earth return is found to be
mm, =0.0047Tf+j0.01397f log“,
ohms per phase per mile
where GMD is the geometric mean distance between the
2 threephase circuits or the ninth root of the product of
the nine possible distances between conductors in one
group and conductors in the other group. Note the simi-
larity between Eq. (38) and Eq. (31)
43
Zero-sequewwe self impedance of two identical parallel cir-
cuits with earth return
For the special case where the two pareliei three—phase
circuits are identical, following the some method of
dcrivoiiou
De
z@= T~§+O.OO47I"f+j0.D1397f logo
ohms pcr phase per mile (39)
in which GMR is the geometric mean radius of one set of
conductors, (\i'(GMR)mnumi(G1TD)’s».mns), and GMD
I
is the geometric mean distance between tho two sets of
(35) conductors or the ninth root of the product of the nine
possible distances between conductors in one circuit and
conductors in the other circuit.
This equation is the some as %[zg+z@(,,,)) where Z1) is
the zero-sequence self impedance of one circuit by cquzv
tion {S7} and am, is the zero-sequence mutual impedance
- e
between two circuits as given by Eq. (38). For non-
idcntical circuits it is better to compute the mutual and
self impedance for the individual circuits, and using
(36)
?,+(z[,+z[,4,,,,) compute the zero-sequence self impedance.
Zcrmscqucmzc mutual impedance between one circuit (with
earth return) and n ground wires (wéih eméh return)
Figure 22 shows a. three-phase circuit, with n ground
E: 9
z 9
2
9 ‘E ‘Z
'7W77W7
Fig. 22-~A three-conductor thi-ee—phase circuit (with earth
(37)
return) and n ground wires {with earth return)
wines. Equation (31) gives the zero sequence mutual im~
pedamce between two conductors:
em = 0.00477f+j0.0l397f logm £1’
ab
ohms per phase per mile (81)
Wi\(§!‘G dab is the distance between the two conductors. This
equation can he applied to two groups of conductors if
dab is replaced by the GMD or geometric mean diszance
between the two groups. In Fig. 22, if the ground wires are
considered as one group of conductors, and the phase con-
ductors a, b, c, are considered as the second group of con-
(38) ductors, then the GMD between the two groups is
= at/gisg1dbg1dcgl“““dagndbgndcgn feet
Substituting this quantity for dab in Eq. (31) results in an
equation for the zelosequence mutual impedance between
one circuit and n ground wires. This awn) is zma).
44 Characteristics of Aerial I/mes
Zmm) 3
D.
+j0.01397f log
in Vdagldbgldcgl"'*%d$8ndh8°d¢¢n
ohms per phase per mile.
Zero-sequence impedance of one circuit with n ground wires
(and earth) return.
Referring to Fig. 20 the zero-sequence self impedance of
a single conductor, and the zero-sequence mutual im-
pedance between a. single conductor and another single
conductor with the same earth return path was derived.
These values are given in Eqs. (30) and (31). As stated bo-
fore, these eqiiat-ions can be applied to rnulti—c0nductor
circuits by substituting the circuit (23/IR for the conductor
GMR in Eq. (30) and the C¥l\/ID between the two circuits
for dab in Eu. (31).
First, consider the single-conductor, single-phase circuit
with earth return and one ground wire with earth return.
Referring to Fig. 20 conductor a is considered as the single
conductor of the single-phase circuit and conductor b will
be used as the ground wire.
Writing_4the equations for E, and Eb, we have:
E,,=Z8Za,-,+fbZm
Eb = Iaflmd-IbZbb.
If We assume conductor b as a ground wire, then E1,=0
since both ends of this conductor are connected to ground.
Therefore solving Eq. (42) for Ib and substituting this
value of It in Eq. {~11},
2
Ea = 1,(za,—3z—’5-).
Zeb
To obtain 2., divide E, by 1,, and the result is
2,02
Zia: Zea“?
Zeb
The zero-sequence impedance of a single-conductor, single-
phase circuit with one ground wire (and earth) return is
therefore defined by Eq. (43) when zero-sequence self im-
pedances of singlemonductor, single-phase circuits are sub-
stituted for 2,3 and zbb and the zero-sequence mutual im-
pedance between the two conductors is substituted for am.
Equation (43) can be expanded to give the zero-sequence
impedance of a three-phase circuit with n ground wires
(and earth) return.
2 follows:
Z0 = 20;») — £2459
30(2)
Where z@=zero-sequence impedance of one circuit with n
ground Wires (and earth) return.
zo(,,,=zero-sequence self impedance of the three»
phase circuit.
z.;<g,=zc_ro~sequence self impedance of n ground
wires.
z0.;,,_;;= zero-sequence niutual impedance between the
phase conductors as one group of conductors
and the ground wire(s) as the other conductor
group.
Equation (44) results in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 23
for determining the zer0—sequence impedance of one circuit
with n ground Wires (and earth) return.
Chapter 3
General Method for Zero-Sequence Calculations
-—Thc preceding sections have derived the zero-sequence
self and mutual impedances for the more common circuit
arrangements both with and Without ground wires. For
(40) more complex circuit and ground wire arrangements a
Zulql‘Zo(oq1
zole}'Zo{aq)
E0
777/ /// /////////// ///////’ 777:
Fig. 23-Equivalent circuit for zermsequence impedance of
one circuit (with earth return) and n ground wires (With earth
return).
general method must be used to obtain the zero-sequence
impedance of a particular circuit in such arrangements.
The general method consists of writing the voltage drop
for each conductor or each group of conductors in terms Of
zero-sequence self and mutual impedances with all con-
(41) ductors or groups of conductors present. Ground wire
conductors or groups of conductors have their voltage
(4:2)
drops equal to zero. Solving these simultaneous equations
Eu
for -}- of the desired circuit gives the zercrsequence im-
c
peclance of that circuit. in the presence of all the other zero-
sequence circuits.
This general method is shown in detail in Chap. 2,
Part X, Zero-Sequence Reactances. Two circuits, one
with two overhead ground wires and one with a single over-
head ground wire are used to show the details of this more
‘ general method.
Practical Calculation of Zero-Sequence Imped-
ance nf Aerial Lines-—ln the preceding discussion a.
number of equations have been derived for zero-sequence
self and mutual impedances of transmission lines taking
into account. overhead ground wires. These equations can
be further simplified to make use of the already familiar
quantities 23,, 2:5, and rd. To do this two additional quan-
tities, re and we are necessary that result from the use of the
earth as a return path for zero~sequence currents. They
are derived from Carson's formulas and can be defined as
(411)
r.,=0.00477f ohms per phase per mile.
:1r.,=0.006985f log“, 4.6655><10“%ohms per phase per
mile. (46)
It is now possible to write the previously derived equations
for zero-Sequence wlf and mutual impedances in terms of
r,,, an, std, 11,, and xe. The quantities 73,, 05,, and are given
in the tables of Electrical Characteristics of Conductors
and inductive lteactance Spacing Factors. The quantities
re and we are given in Table 7 as functions of earth
resistivity, ,0, in meter ohms for 25, 50, and 60 cycles per
second. The following derived equations are those most
commonly used in the analysis of power system prob-
lems.
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines 45

Zero-sequence impedanccwovw circuit (with earth return) Z8TO-8€Q'!t£2?'LC6 self impedancew/n ground wires (with earth
but without ground wires T@i'W‘")

Z“ “’"@+°-“Owl zm, = 31-,+0.00477f+10.01397; logw ;R

- - De 7
+30'Ol39’f will°\y('GMifl;;;;E¢M5)3$;;;;;; Ohms per phase per mile (30)
ohms per phase per mile, (37)
where H mg ohms per phase per mile.
z<,=;»,+@~,,+_;0.0069sf Iogw 4.es5a><10fi§
GB/[R 5 ‘:1 (G “cun;ei;(ds;1e2}2ele:3 ' ' “ dxlenj ldzizldzglig
+jQ_2794& logw I "- - d:;1s_:1~)(dg3e1ds3s2 " - - dew») (dsnsldxnzfl " *' ’"dsne(=>-1>)
J, C Mll"*>'*““°‘°' gm, m 512+ 23, +311, +j;(0.22'94) 6% log“) 4.005 x10“?
-—j2(O.27946~6 mg“. G31Dsm,&,,0n) " ,,
.3 1
+1 -- (6.219/l)(%O l0g1o
20 = r,+re+.?'(:::,,—}—a¢a — 21¢} ohms per phase per mile (47) * “C011 ucwr

where rd = §(Id(>1b}+3!':d(bc1“i"$a<ca)) '" *(0.279¢;).:l..10gm \:(,1m2,Jm3_..-dg,sn)(dgmdm,

6%
N)
and a:d<31,;=rd from Table 6 for spacing a to b, etc. {*0 2

_ -~-d H d, d --~d,n dn d ---an .._ '5

Mutual zero-sequence impedance between twa circuits (with K2“ M “M “M M X E Z1 “K2 8 3‘ “)1
ear aha
re urn) bi
u wt‘chou 1! groan.d~'
aircs 3 . 3,“ 3 -1
20(8)$;.a_§_,.c+J($e+Wg__%lxd)
.. - W7 De
zmm,“Q00417j'+_7().01391flogm6@ ohms per Ohmg per mile pm phase (51)
phase per mile. (38)
p where x¢=—(%T>(sum of xd-5 for all possible distances
_ - . _ n L-
2°‘”"‘l_T°+“T0'0O6985f log“) 4560x106 f between all ground wires.)
—-j0.006985f 10;-he GMD2 2 . . A
z0(m)=7'e~{Wj(_q;e—-31d) Qhmg pgr phagg pm‘ O1‘ $.1=%-:_T)(sum Of $11‘; §0l‘ {Ill pOSS1bl8 C11St-3.11068

Where we is étxma»,+a:dm.,;.+x,,(,,.,,+;1¢d(,>n.,+xd(,,,,,, between all possible pairs of ground wires).

"i"?-7d(bc’) 'l'x11(cs') '+'xd(cb') +-1'd(cc')}

Zero-sequence mutual impedance between one circuit (with

Zer0—sequence self ‘impedance—0ne ground wire (with earth earth return) and n ground wires (with earth return)
return)
.
zm,=3rc+0.00477f—§—y0.0l397f logm z°“"" = 0D . 004'"?
’ f De
_ ~i mnduzctnr 1Og10
ohms per phase per nnle. (30) \/ dagldbgldcw _ _ dwldbgndm
ohms per phase per mile. (40)
M, W3r,,+re+jU.OO6985fl0g104.6655X 10*-git
1 em, Z r,,+j0.006<;>s5j log“, 4.6s5s>< 10'“;
+a.006Q85j‘10g1g""?-----W-
%=3ra+~+i<xe+3xa> ohms phase per
.
<GMRl’¢»nd=¢wr
, _
<4» 1
=]r@+J'(1¢eiJl3f25ul>l€n\“<1{s “;;:;‘d hd:;e~»~»dpe;:;;r;'d *d°tf%i>’
—*0.00s9s* 1

Zerorszfiizgce self zmpedancemtwo ground wzres (with earth when m%3n(xdw81)+xd(bgu+wd(cgn

zm) "L" +0.00/L77f+J_0'01397f ;Ogm€2__(T\;i_&___m_ - - - +a:<1cm>+x<m>¢»>+z<1<=gn>).

_ ( i R)°°“““”‘“'d°“' Zero-sequence impedance—-One circuit with n grounai wires
Ohms P9!‘ Phase Per Rule‘ (32) {and earth return)

2%,, w%»i~re+j0_006985flogm 4.6s56><10@‘% z0=2m) _ Elise (44)

0.83821 1 0.8382 aw z°‘“’
'1“ 2 08 2108 1 where z@(B,=zero-sequence self impedance of the three-
3ra _ 3 3 phase circuit.
lam=*§~+T@+.7(1‘@+§9:a—§:r:¢) z0(,,=ze_r<1~sequence self impedance of n ground
. . wires.
onms per phase per mile (50) 2%,, = zero-sequence mutual impedance between the
where three~pi1ase circuit; as one group of conductors
17a=I¢ from Table 6 for spacing between ground and the ground wire(s) as the other con-
Wirfifi, dXy~ ducbor group.
46 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

4. Positive», Negative-, and Zer0—sequence Shunt
Capacitive Reactance
The capacitance of transmission lines is generally a
negligible factor at the lower voltages under normal oper-
ating conditions. However, it becomes an appreciable
effect for higher voltage lines and must be taken into con-
sideration when determining efficiency, power factor,
regulation, and voltage di.st.ribution under normai oper-
This equation shows the work done in moving a unit
charge from conductor 2 a distance D12 meters to the sur-
face 0? conductor E through the electric field produced by
g1. Now assuming only conductor 2, having a. charge qt,
the voltage between conductors 1 and 2 is
V12= 1s><10@ qt in L volts. (55)
D32

ating conditions. Use of capacitance in determining the This equation shows the work done in moving a unit
performance of long high voltage lines is covered in detail charge from the outer radius of conductor 2 to conductor 1
in Chap. 9, “Regulation and Losses of Transmission a distance D12 meters away through the electric field pro-
Lines.” duced by go.
Capacitance effects of transmission lines are also useful With both charges q, and (I1 present, by the principle of
in studying such problems as inductive interference, light- superposition the voltage V12 is the sum of the voltages
ning performance of lines, corona, and transients on power resulting from qt and Q2 existing one at a time. Therefore
systems such as those that occur during faults. V12 is the sum of Eqs. (54) and (55) when both charges Q’;
For these reasons formulas are given for the positive-Q and Q2 are present.
negative, and zero-sequence shunt capacitive roactance
1"or the more common transmission line configurations. The V1@= 18><1O9(q1 ln E4-gs in -1-) volts. (56)
case of a two~conductor, single-phase circuit is considered 7' D12
to show some of the fundamentals used to obtain those Also if the charges on the two conductors are equal and
formulas. For a more detailed analysis of the capacitance their sum is zero,
problem a number of references are available. 2-*5.
In deriving capacitance formulas the distribution of a qi+q.=:=0 or Q2: ——q1
charge, q, on the conductor surface is assumed to be uni- Substituting —g. for qt in equation (56)
form. This is true because the spacing between conductors
in the usual transmission circuit is large and therefore the V12 = 36 X 109g; ln % volts. (57)
charges on surrounding conductors produce negligible dis»
tortion in the charge distribution on a particular con- The capacitance between conductors 1 and 2 is the ratio of
ductor. Also, in the case of a single isolated charged con- the charge to the voltage or
ductor, the voltage between any two points of distances 0:
and y meters radially from the conductor can be defined as 54;" Co = —-—-1—~D— farads per meter. (58)
the work done in moving a. unit cliaige of one coulomb from ‘“ sex 10* ln -3
point P2 to point P1 through the electric field produced by T

the charge on the conductor. (See Fig. 24.} This is given. The capacitance to neutral is twice that given in Eq. (58)
because the voltage to neutral is half of V12.
P| Pg
C11 = M-——-l—}—)— farads per meter. (59)
X 18 ><10‘—* in 71-’
+qt y “Qg
The shunt-capacitive rcactance to neutral (or per con-
--~ D12 --— .
ductor) is mm’: r r
1 . . .
or in more practical units
21rfC
UOKDUWOR I cououcroa 2 xm =0.0683-j-_- logm T megohms per conductor per
Fig. 24—A two conductor single phase circuit (capacitance).
mile. (60)
This can be written as
by ro log... -1-n+0.0es37
mm =0.0es3v:? 1 so l0gw—lE
1)
V1, =18>< 10° Q ln g volts (53)
megohms per conductor per mile (61)
where q is the conductor charge in coulomhs per meter. where Dig and r are in feet and f is cycles per second.
By use of this equation and the principle of superposi-
liq. (61) may be written
tion, the capacitauces of systems of parallel conduc Lore can
be determined. zen = r,{+:rd’ megohms per conductor per mile. (62)
Applying Eq. (53) and the principle of superposition to The derivation of Filllllili-F5{~l.§1)23.(!il.lVf3 reaotance formulas
the two-conductor, single-phase circuit of Fig, 24 assurning brings about terms quite analogous to those derived for
conductor I alone to have a charge <11, the voltage between inductive reactance, and as in the case of inductive react-
conductors 1 and 2 is ztnce, these terms can be resolved into components as
shown in Eq. ((52). The term ma’ accounts for the electro-
I/a=1s><10@ q. In % volts. (54) static flux within a one foot radius and is the term
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial I/fines
0.0683 %~i~l0g10}~ in Eq. (61). It is a function of the Con-
r 23¢’ F-Y
ductor outside radius only. The term xd accounts for the
electric flux between a one foot radius and the distance
D12 to the other conductor and is the term 0.0683 (59 logo
Q53 in Eq. (61). Note that unlike inductivareactance
where the conductor geometric mean radius (GMR) is
used, in capacitance calculations the only conductor radius
used is the actual physical radius of the conductor in feet.
Zerwsequencc capacitive reactance is, like inductive»
react-ance, divided into components rt’ taking into account
the electrostatic flux within a one~foot radius, rad’ taking
into account the electrostatic flux external to a radius of
one foot out to a radius D feet, and xe’ taking into account
the flux external to a radius of one foot and is a function
of the spacing to the image conductor.
12.30 . Shunt Capacitive Rcactcmce, me, of Single-Phase Circuits
x’e=—};-W logm 2h megohms per mile per
conductor
where h=cnnrluctor height above ground.
fm frequency in cps.
, .
av, 1s given in the tables of Electrical Characteristics of
conductors, sud’ is given in Table 8, Shurztllapacitive
Reactance Spacing Factor, and zce’ is given in Table 9,
Zero-Sequence Shunt»Capacitivc Reactance }"<‘act-or.
The following equations have been derived in a manner
similar to those 1"or the two-conductor, single-phase case,
making use 0? the terms 51:3’, zed’ and ace’. They are surn-
marized in the iollowing tabulation.
Shunt-Capacitive Reactance, mo, of Three-Phase Circuits
(Conductors a, b, c)
(2.) Positive (and negative) sequence x...
x1’ m 41:2’ W x,,’ +x¢’ megohmsjper conductor per mile. (64)
I .
x¢'=§(surn of all three x4’s for distances between all
possible‘ pairs).
l ,
=2 5($a ab'l"ZdIg¢‘+“‘.'Cd, 5.). See Table (S) (65)
(b) Zero-Sequence are of one circuit (and earth).
:c<>'<¢)"~w:J+:c,.‘ —2a:d’ megohms per conductor per
mile. ((35)
:v.1'=vaiue given in Eq. (65). Table (9) gives $22
(c) Zero~Sequcnce re of one ground wire (and earth).
x@’<,;>=3x,’<,>+:c.,'(g, megohms per conductor per
mile. {GY}
(d) Zero-Sequence xc of two ground wires (and earth).
3 3
at Jwm §z..'<g,+:ce'¢,;;»»»»§x.1' rncgohms per conductor per
mile. (53)
a:.{=xd'[,1¢2> mas; for distance between ground wires.
(e) Zero Sequence xe of n ground wires (and earth).
, 3 —l
11o'm = xe +;$J“~§~£%-dzcd’ megohms per conductor per
mile (59)
47
where
(sum of all a:,;’s for all possible distances
n(n~1)
between all possible pairs of ground wires)
or x,{= --film» (sum of all xrfls for all possible distances
n(n*1)
between all ground wires).
(f) Zero~Scquencc so, between one circuit (and earth)
and n. ground wires (and earth)
:=:J(.,g, 11$--31¢’ megohms per conductor per mile. (70)
1 I I I
56¢’ fi §‘;L(x<1(ngI}+-il:dI{bg1)+:l¢(§(c£1)' ' ' "‘l'1'd(agu)
+xdf (bgn) + xvi’ (cgrn),
(g) Zero»Sequoncc are of one circuit with n ground wires
L‘
' 2 .
:00’ = nu,’ M, —--"¥“’— megohms per conductor per m1le. (71)
$0 cs)
(Conduczfors a and £1)
(h) 20,. of single~phase circuit of two identical conductors
x'=2(:t,,’+xd’) mcgohms per mile of circuit. (72)
xd’ =2; for spacing between conductors.
(i) are of single-phase circuit of two nomidentical con-
ductors a and b.
rc’=xJ<s>+x,’(b,+2x.,’ megohms per mile of circuit. (73)
(j) 22., of one conductor and earth.
x’=ar..’+~§~.r,,’ megohrns per mile. ('74)
In using the equations it should he remembered that the
shunt capacitive roactance in mcgohms for more than one
mile decreases because the capacitance increases. For more
than one mile of Eine, therefore, the shunocapacitive re-
actance as given by the above equations should be divided
by the number of miles of line.
5. Conductor Temperature Rise and Current-
(larrying Capacity
In distribution- and transmission~line design the tem-
perature rise of conductors above ambient while carrying
current is important. While power loss, voltage regula~
tion, stability and other factors may determine the choice
of 0. conductor for a given line, it is sometimes necessary to
consider the maximum continuous current carrying capa-
city of a conductor. The maximum continuous current
rating is necessary because it is determined by the max-
imum operating temperature of the conductor. This tem~
perature affects the sag bet-ween towers or poles and de-
termines tho loss of conductor tensile strength duo to
annealing. For short tie lines or lines that must carry
excessive loads under emergency conditions, the maximum
continuous current-carrying capacity may be important
in selecting the proper conductor.
The following discussion presents the Sohurig and Frick‘
formulas for calculating the approximate current-carrying
capacity of conductors under known conditions of ambient
temperature, wind velocity, and limiting temperature rise.
The basis of this method is that the heat developed in
the conductor by PR loss is dissipated (1) by convection
48 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

in the surrounding air, and (2) radiation to surrounding IUOO ———! W

objects. This can be oxprcssetl follows:
eoo
aooz ~
PR : (W.,+ W,)A watts. (75) 100
60
where I =conductor current in amperes.
_ __
R=e0nductor r<:si.<t:1m'v per foot. 50
WC» mitts per square ineh tllSSlI12LtCd by convection.
VV,= \s'zLLts per rsquure lIl(,‘ll (iis.-siputod by mdiation. 1 2/o~ 7 —
A mconcluetor siir-{nee .‘-l.2‘£‘.LL in S<]ll£Li‘(3 inches per foot-
of length.
The watts per square inch dissi]1al.e<'i by convection, H76, IIIE
v»>9» @flfi .*~
1:mP’!A Mt»”__,“ *A._;_.
can be determined from the following equation: D3
Q
T - —” r~
.oi 28 \/M
l'l7.3=Q;~~ *—*—;p:-iiA\t watts per
1iao.122.\/d square
.
inch (76)
._ ;.-_.-
_ T_ ,_ i

{iii
7"

,
fl’
3é i»
. . 7
R

*
T i _
Where p=pressuro in atmospheres (p= LO for atmo-
spheric pressm-(1.).
'v-=\'olocity in foot per second. A
'000
O0
so
PPRUXMATE5U:9UCT°5LCUR%ENT ll-
inI ._ . 4 ;Wi
_. -_ lLӤ
"""*""1 a , ff -:
zmlemu qmlflu ni!
so ~ ‘

'M”lIi MflI
T,,=((leg;1‘ees I{el\'§n) itvz-mpge of absolute temper- 70 "W " ‘
atures of eon<iu<*tor and air. 60 _-; _f_
"7.

5
d= outside diziincter of ('l)i'l{i\l(:lOI‘ in inches.
At= (degrees (,‘) ternpei":1~1\,2re rise. sof Tl *— ~ —— —
,, l- "~r" ‘—"“r" _ J , _ _rTJ___-_ _._ Wi~.w
This formula is an approximation applicable to con- 400° 6O 20' 30' 40' Ul Q l. u inI‘Z
i I‘ I I ISI
ductor rliamet-ers rmiging from (1.3 inch to 5 iIl(fl1€3§5 or more AMBIENT TEMPERATURE ‘C
when the velocity of air is higher than free convection air
currents (0.2 ~0.5 ftrrsec). Fig. 25~-(10pper conductor current carrying capacity in Arn-
The watts per s<;i1uro inch <1issip:ited by radiation, WU peres VS. Ambient Temperature in °C. (Copper Conductors at
can be determined from the following equation: 75 “C, wind veiocity at 2 fps.).
T 4 /11 4
= . E —-~ - -~-~55
W‘ 368 K1000) (1000)]
we.i:t.s per S(.1L£2lI‘€ incil 1000; K _ _ —~~—— — ~*
soo-
where E'==reletive emissivity of conductor sizrface eoo _ _ — — — *—
{E =10 for “l,>l:iek burly,” or 0.5 for average "foo
oxidized copper). so ” ’ W ’ i
T = (degrees Kelvin) ztbsolute temperature of con- -._ 336; 0 *’ P
ductor. so 69 '%96/7 L.._..
T0"-= (<.legrees Kelvin) ll-l)SOil1l.-G temperature of sur- O0 C". 26 /7 r -I.
I
roundings. “Q

By eaieiiinting (ll,(;+lVr)> /1., and R, it is then possible 300

to determine I from Eq. (T5). The value of IE to use -is the
sec resistance at the conductor temperature (ambient _ @
temperature plus temperature rise) taking into account v.
skin effect as discussed previously in the section on pos-
itive» and negzitive—sequence I‘0SlSl.£tI1C(‘.S.
This inetliod is, in general, ilp]3liC:ll.)l<3 to both copper
and aluminum conductors. 'l'est.~1 have shown that alum-
inum conrl1mtor.~: rlissipzztn heat. at about the same rate as _ ___ __ 3-1-_ 1

i .0.0.,i
5*/’
“WI!” ».
copper conductors of the some outside (liameter when the APFEIOXMATE00P:9UCTORCU!iRENT
temperature rise is the same. Where test data is available
On conductors, it should be used. The above geneml 7° _ jj _; i t ‘

i:;o1. :Iisl' t-V ill

method can be used \\-'llC‘Il test data is not available, or to

:r3fflF1nq|lI_;__.l,I...I1
._ _, ._._._-liZ_L-°’_%_ _,_tl_I1°I’‘+
1“._,___;.i”
check test results.
The effect of the sun upon contlmtl-or teniperaturc rise is H ‘A:-it,“
__._.___l_l_. .__i I,1
_____oT_‘IIIIIIII I HI I I I
generally neglected, being some 3° to 8°C. This smell L"?.
<2 40" 507 i3 3
41
efiect is less important under conditions of high tempera.- AMSIENT ram=s:RA"ruR£ '0
ture rise above ambient.“
The tables of Electrical (.,‘h:imctei-istiirs of Conductors Fig. 26—Aluminum conductor current carrying capacity in
Amperes VS. Ambient Temperature in °G. (Aluminum Con»
include tabulations of the approximate maximum current~ ductors at 75°C, wind velocity at 2 fps).
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines 49

TABLE 1-"CHARACTERISTICS or COPPER C-ONDUCTORS, HARD DRAWN, 97.3 P1-mcrznr CONDUCTIVITY @

1 ‘ 1 l -7511
1
_ Size of , l l A1)» Ta l 33:1. Shunt Capacitive
l Dian» 1 prnx. Geo: Renistnnce _
Conductor lmiuctivc Rcaetnnce Renrmnce
rni rls 1 91451‘ l Oat“ ‘B k livegght CUT" 1 qliziflfi Ohms per Conductor per Milo Ohms per Conduct or Megeliins per
_ o si e rea imz _ rent . eon W_____W__M M _>__ §‘or Milo Cm id u 1: [Or
Iridi~ Dis.m~ Strength l,';:‘;;,d” Cafmry-1 Rnriius 1 "‘ 1 A1: I Ft. Sp acing Per Mile
giidugl Eetir P<>1mds, M1,. (QLRES 25°C. (1"I°F.) arm. (122"F.> At 1 Ft. Spinning
Y3!) S HG Q5 I 1 Mill‘ ‘YT . 1
Circular l1 h~~. . '1 * F .t ‘*é““““*"““'“"“""““""“'_"—' """'“*“””" ”“""“""""”"""""""""*"”'
i\-1 E ls
Qt.ujxhelaf M (“$1
13.&S. iiiiips. GO i 25 so on d 20 00 (‘-0 2-'5 50 GU 2.1 5'>0 1
(‘(3
A.Wor.G. Z "G 1 cycles (‘ye-Ira rryrlcs ‘cycles cycles cycles -cyvlvs .cyclt~$ cycles
_W._.._. .. 1 .__. .1 d‘° zfiyclofi 1 cycles cycles
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O 01531 r .3 ‘F0.
0 0118 3 ">1 0 .333 0. 4 00 0.21“
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41 740 1 . G 20¢ 1 9'F0 001 170 00603 l -303 O. 10 609 0 .339 {E 1697 lo 1415
33
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1 00
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1
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59 1
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529 ‘
1 :30
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ii‘0 623 0 .332 B llifli 10
0 .3-18 10 r 72ago
I384
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26 1*’5 3 0.093510. 201 1 205 424 330 ‘0 09568 :0»-‘. . 10>-~i~.1w >-‘iv->L1\l 0 41 (J. NM$3C"O3.n(7w r\sC>7>,a OQ35"'c_w-
lag23 628 0 .341 G . 1103.30 1419
26 2.50 1.. ......0. £6203
.,....:0.;-143
1 280 420 120 10 00520 ‘2 IS 1 39 0. 265 .0 531 10 637 (J . 356 10 .i'1"I9l 0 1483
10
20 320
1 6 -5 1 U‘; mwm»
wmw~wqowwww Hp- 1 . . . . ..50.:2ss
1 O30
826
333
264
1 L0
90 10
l](?-16125 2 7:3
00-117 3 4'1’
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U. 2'51
0. 277
542
554 it _o
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(351 ‘ 0 . 364
665 .372
.1321;0 1517
18622 0 1552 0 i8
* For ttouductor at 75“C., air at 25°C., wind 1.4 miles par 119111» (2 it/sen}, [mqu oncyfi [SD cycles

carrying capacity based on 50°C rise above an ambient of perature may be obtained that approaches 100°C, the con-
25°C, (75°C total conductor temperature), turnishcri sur“ ductor manufaotiiror should be consulted for test data or
face (E =05), and an air velocity of 2 foot per so1:on1l.'Fho.=1e other more 11.1-.1f.'i1ra.i..r>. information to onndizctor tmnpnra-
conditions were used after discussion and agreement with ‘sure liniitiitions. Such data on copper conductors has been
the conductor manufacturers. These thermal limitations presented rather thoroughly in the teclinical litBratu1'e.7
are based on continuous loading of the conductors.
The technical literature shows little variation from these III TABLES OF CONDUCTOR
conditions as line design iimitsi The ambient air tem- CHARACTERISTICS
perature is generally assumed to be 25°C to 40°C whereas The following tables contain data on copper, ACSR,
the temperature rise is assumed to he 10°C to 60°C. This hollow copper, C‘¢oppor\veld-copper, and Copperweld con-
gives a. conductor total temperature range of 35°C to ductors, which along with the previously derived equations,
100°C. For design purposes copper or ACSR conductor permit the dot-orniination of positive-, neg?-.tive—, and zero~
total temperature is usually assumed to be 75°C as use of sequence impodanocs of conductors for use in the solution
this value has given good conductor performance from an of power-system problems. Also tabulated are such con-
annealing standpoint, the limit being about 100°C where ductor cliaiac-to1'isT,ics as size, weight, and current-carrying
annealing of copper and aluminum begins. capacity as limited by heating.
Using Sohurig and Frick’s formulas, Fig. 25 and Fig. 26 The condu<:tor data (ra, :03, xi’) along with inductive and
have been calculated L0 show how current-carrying capa- shunt-cnpamive reac-tance spacing factors (xd, :01’) and
city of copper and aluminum conductors varies with am— zero-sequence resistance, inductive and shunt-capacitive
bient temperature assuming 0 conductor temperature of re:acl.1i.nm>. f111~.:.<1r.< (re, mo, re’) permit easy sul'>st.itution. in
75.C and wind velocity of 2 foot per second. These values the previously derived equations for determining the sym-
are conservative and can be used as a guide in normal line metrical componont sequence impodances oi aerial circuits.
design. For those lines where 9. higher conductor tem- The crosswectiona-1 inserts in the tables are for ease in
 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

i% TABLE 2-A———CHARACTERISTICS OF ALUMINUM CABLE STEEL REINFORCED

(Aluminum Company of America}
1
l rt, 33¢
Aluminum‘ Steel 1 ‘>- 1J- Resismnce 33¢ Shunt Capacitive
Circular 1 . gopper ‘w_h G007 C
DTOX. Ohms per C011duccor net Mile Inductive Reactance _ Reaemncu
‘ q,u1va~‘ » exgt meme‘ ur- Ohm: per Conductoy per Mlle M egohms per
Mils lent‘ gE::;m::‘P0unds Mean l rent at l Ft. Spacmg C01-1611:_ bur
or C1rcul:>.rlP $1 per Radms Uarryl 25°C. l7?"F.) 50°C. (122‘F.) All Currents ‘ yer MI le
A.W.G.
511.1- 1/01101 °““ ‘ Mile =1 60 1 "11lg ‘ Small Currents 0urrent Approx. at l Ft. Spacing
chea A.W.G. C cle:§\Capac~‘_. Z.5!"/G E§.%I=*§.=l.Y¥_
mmum 1'2] :1Enehea
2-E
54
In as E...
1 My?
1Ampa d-:2
; 50
25 60 as ‘ so so 1 as l so Si)
§i
(,2 1
M§§-. K/J:15:
Q02 Strand DE OnlsldeQialmetmerlr r _ l
cyclesl1 cycles eye] as cl-c cycles lcyeles in meg; 25 cycles 1 Sflcyslwsl 66 cycles lcydes “flea cycies
‘i l
‘ 1
w 1710 0 1000 >- km!- 000000 56 006 :4. 0 ll *0f55§0 H4§s07b.0ss10 nssx 0.0500 H0591 0 064$ Q 10 05150.00:11! 0.299 0.359 6. 0 . 09?’! l0.03£4
5073 G. 1004 950000 53 200 D . D507 1 340 IJ.06lS 0 0619 0 . 0021 U 062 0680 00110§0.012rl 0.302 0.362 (3 .0986 0.0321
O50 102$ .0. cm": 1 990000 50 400 0. U493 1 300 9.0652 0 . 0653 00055 9 955 01' 18 :0 0710.0.0vs0 0.804 0.365 0. 0995 0.0530
‘:1:
ssszl 0. 0040 B50000 4? BOD D . U-£79 is 250 0.0691 O 069200094 O 069 07 63 0.07020 D803 0.30? 0.369 0 1906 0.0838
1535 ll D921 1 B00000 44 SDI} .D.l}=i65 11 200 lU.U73-1 U 07a:;u.0?s? (1.073 D . U50 5 1 .054Ull.ll851
‘O 0 319 0.372 .0 1lJi50.UB4T
. 0 0. 0092 . -4»-1.p ww-v-uwc-gwmcnraiumr.\:-¢=-u mga‘ 750000 43 100 0 . I]-35%} 5 100 .0 DTB3;0 0704010700 O 078 G . 0862 mcc c Qccoccz:<:n'-a-g
-1,-_na ruc .-u:r><.7= 0.0S‘34l].€)9l]fi CQOQQQ :a:a‘~ (DPIQBJWCH 0.314 6.376 0 10280.08?!
l l
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idhd>-.»-u.-» (11221 1321 l. 2-£6 37 U30 .l).M20 1 080 D. D903 0.0967 0000 0 1005 0 .1603 I132] 0.385 0 3053 1] . 0878
1320 1329 l. 196 34 200 l}.l}4D3 1 019 l0. D979 0.0981 1015 D 1088 . 0 1524 0.325 0 390 0 1 068 O . 0890
1291 1291 l. 182 32 300 6.0391 Q70 0. I04 H.104 peso 1145 D l 155 0 1639 0.328 0 393 O 1078 O. U593
0.1213 9. 1273 L 146 31 400 9.0386 950 ll}. 10? 0. ll)? O. 1178 U 1153 0 1545 U329 9.395 G 1683 0.0903
§§§§§§
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l
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'?95 000250 U 1628 Tll. 140 35 400 0.0393 9lU l3 1203 U 1288 0 .3288 0. 128 0 1637 0 327 1085 0.0904
7X5 500 54 <0 ll5l W4M“@é l. U36 25 300 ‘D U349 ‘ 830 I? 1442 0 1452 0 .l472 0. 1482 0 .1697 0.339 lll9 0.0932
715 50026 O .1659 1. 051 28 100 0 0355 510 U 1442 0 1-H2 0 .i~l-ll 0. 1-N2 0 .1687 0 33? QQQO 1114 0.0923
71550030 Rauenuw: mw mcnwuw 0 l5~l~l ._. . .-.-.>-. .- 0 1412 U 144210 H421 0. l-l-12 0 .1664 1104 0.0020
BB6 $0051 0 1111 soco o¢>a€> ‘ E§§E§F’3i9l_¢7"“ l. 000
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0.333
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1
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030 000 20 ll .156-1 12100. 990 400 000 25 000 4 610 (3 B335 780 \0.m 0 141 5: >-,- -mu. -JW \0.141 0 1618 0, I633 O .1718 0 344 0 412 0 0946
030 000 301 0 .1455 .- 05741. 019
605 00054 0 .1059 :*_'£_-1\vQ. map 953
005 00020 0 .1525 7"] 11200 966
Z$C3 400 OW 31 500 5 213‘0.lX55l
380 500 22 500 4 109 0.8323
380 500 24 100 Pl 3911}. U327
780
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0.14?
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0 . 154
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0 155
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ass 500 140 nawawxozowM.° .3463 71'}. 1100 50. 92? 350 000 $52 400 =1 U390.03l3 730 0.168 U 105 10.1025 .165 U 1849 CQSOQD ._-,. >_¢.- nu-z:a>m- u~z ;>- *1» u:l;>.<ncu ¢-7:. U 1859 campus . _. _. $3212 5?¢;_>5un 2=> 0.1151 1 O 350 0.421} mwag.
swmwnure:.'>§x~\.n2-a$u_-L4
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556 500 0 236? ?l0 1002 ‘ 0 953 aw nool 27 200 la 6.0328 730 0 ms 0 158 0 1849 I) 1050‘ 0 .1ss00.1s:»e 0 .1728 U 346 0.4l5 0 1149 0.0957
500 O00 66 0 1291 vle. 1291 O 904 311500 24 409 0.0211 690 0.187 U 18? 0 206 0 1754 0.351 0 421 0 1.167 0,0973
-1177 000 0. 2355 710 10510. 858 1 000 000! 19 430 0. 0290 570 0 we 0 196 U 216 O 1790 0 358 0 430 0 1186 0.0988
477 000 0 1261 7l0. 12010 BB3 1 300 000; 23 300 ‘ H0 0304 670 0 100 ll 195 9°?‘ 35$;=7=a ~$Ofl _c:c<:$5555
>0‘T 0 §3=§'—I% 218 0. 1100 0 353 0.424 0 1176 9 (3980
397 500 0 .2236 7.0. 0001 0 783l 250000 16 190 0. 0265 590 0.225 Q $59 0 .1836 0 367 0.-H-I 0 1219 0 IUE5
397 500. 3§‘é=’&’¢$ 0 .1151 70. 1151 0.506 2w0w 0.235
336 400 0. osss 4/0 14
! l9 Q80 wnwwa :¢.~ao<u,a> -u qmwou-am ->m-mum O . 0278 .
050 2 442
600
530 0.278
Same as d .~c 0. 259
0 300
Same as d-c U .1812
0 .1872
0.362
0.376
0.435
0.451
o ocvcoc§o~:nz\0=wo}c>o?§}ua4D:€\$ci>os ¢=»-iw w za kur-: s>¢2 0
o022050

0 250 0
1208 0.1008
1
1248 0 1039
336 400 1050 4/0 17 040 l 2 774 530 0 278 0 306 ‘ 0 .18-55 0 371 0 445 0.2$8 0 1238 0. I032
300 O00 G. ems 1%1m* 12 650 2 173 496 "1311 0 342 0 .5903 G 382 0.458 0 254 0 1269 0.1057
300 000 P‘=‘_‘.=‘°’ mmuzazotorakalota YOl51000 188 700 15 439 2 473 500 9 311 0 342 . 0 1883 0.377 0 452 0.252 0 1258 9.19%
$66 800‘ wwiiww lo 6<:>_o ‘_o >-,_~\-. 0001--a»v-<02-l~<Q0n -=_, 1_ -1 0. 0753 OQOOQ oqmw $8835 3/0 11 259 1 936 ooopo c 103333>-a»6-¢F~0~$-X>-*Qg:>§ . $60 l0 350
-.1 10. ass
T... 1 0.1935 U 38? U465 0 258 0 1269 0.1074
For Single Layer Conductors
Our»
rent
' Current Ap-
An» Small Currents grout. _75%
PHJX. apacltyt
75%
Cig- 5 02$ (9 es 5
paclty 2 59 ’C.€S 64 59

l
I cycé 0! cycl. .2
266 800% 0.2109 ll. 070303. 633 9 645 1 Si]2(}.0O6S-1 460 0Tss2 é7ééE’m”4* ‘*1 1 Z l.38@01;.6@1.52¢f.0.@i.aa@.2.. O. 1294
4/0 D _ 1878 ll. 1878”) 563 no: \.*~_ Q? 3 -120 1 5l2(§.00S§-1 346 flxi-$5 O 4 as 5 ifllli .-=.= >9-$ 60‘ 3°: -. =<:> cc; $25 w.n 0.437 .524 o 242 .4840. 5s1‘0
‘ _ 2 57 11.1336‘
3/0 0.1022 0. 1fii'210. 562 1/U 6 G75 1 223300500 306 l0.500 lo 012 £ 6 [Q18>U‘ 450 540 ca 9 .511 .a21.0.215 10.13711
‘Q C”

am £1 149?] NWO H7 1 5 345 010 ll B05l0 270 in 700 0 77.2 1 0.4020554 1 0.5340. 04110 21:4 *0 um
1/0 0.1221 0. 132?0 39$ 4 ‘E80 :09 5.09446 230 :.=w<:r=>.- m -n.;»- 0 ens 0 974 l 0.4730 562‘ 541 .0s1§g.292 10,1100
1 0.1122 11520. 355 3 480 51£)[>.[5(l4l3 200 11.12 123 ‘ 06:2 !\§Ni&#0300 i\‘d~¥4.¢ 0.4sa0.ss0 !\.7i\D\¢ -l~307 —1:.> 00510.00. .s0010.1s00 90669; _ _ - “$5333S@numm
‘:=§=<=
1052 10520. 316 484 8.004% 180 11.41 0.4030022 0.1542 131285
.U9Y4 129910. 325 1 565 l).UU5ll~1 180 11.4]. 0.4930 592 QQ 21..‘.03‘
3W“‘ff GDg
§cydes £1.
fii O5(A!GO 0.1503
u. 1532 (3. 1276 @CI)
.0937 Q. 09300. 281 384 6.00-130 H50 1.18 @C‘PIK12G1 ‘-IQJIQQXINJIQIWIQCF 503 .504 0.1320
.0834 0.08840. 250 304 0.00437 190 2 21 Iwkilr-'l5z0‘-fibia}:-anlfli“‘tnwraw 0 514fl.fil1l 0.1027 0 . 1:55
G772 9so 0:> 102%. 25? 3559 00452 MU 2.24 1 no ca0: :r.9 :‘ 5l"a€@w“?»-.55
W. 0.5l50.6l8 13.1515 0.1846
.6743 O. 07130. 223 1 241 0.00156 l2lJ we i;:€‘>“_G©w-->lJ-Qaé:x.i>m_O'c>n#0023
£6i o>.;'.;>.w@ ‘Q l8 @ @ @¢ !Ql\‘ l@l\7$l\J O>1‘JiU!C)\|€~>5~iQ~3~l\D\E—J 0.5250.630 .1666 0 . 1383
\'>!\ l')r-1»-IE‘ 0 'gQ$)Q1[Q.~:\-I-sQJ»AI--al(wfii»o-\€I-'->i:.L—vJggxg la 50
”.“m'F17". ‘ '.- "'r*‘=:;.%°=$‘ @0_§.
@2 1 as |s 05 0.5300 “@202‘ggmco wcewur»: .»:.-2wu>w- wmu
¢m»>unm D1m0!-IQnsAmQvAa-Qth3: TI l._,-».>-_»,.- ,-. _=:o_cG661
:‘o1:rc:o . -, .¢- .1- . -.1 0. 06610. 198 M-I<0O>Q¢-7BhPB3~J=~ v->!€|>4l¢\Cn€O 1‘3$‘°£‘°.fiZ§ 191 0.00394 100 c.»1:-~50U2w.5»0>‘.-0an-1u0w‘-uo1e:-a1wol=-»x.:lsn~,zl-nm» ._-mwow;-0 c-»a:~->wv:o>-<,¢—:~=G m>w—mon-Jauns:-awna>zo-ht>Ofi>—»-m zam m :10- !§6©6‘ O8Q@I@i\’I>~l'-d‘-* <0.-1»s.<n=:~<.v= !\?G—l>~lCi\GS\€Ji <.a —I 9 1-.1 m on fi-131oo_0o_<:2 a>g:u-g|oun\u:-4 90.0057 <:><:>o <:=a
oooaa monan 10.17080. 1-1%
wwwww‘. so~l-an-.1 . : fiS£§:°‘
' Based on copper 97 percent, zlunfinum Bl percent corlductivity.
fF'or conriur-l.or at 75°C , mr at 25°C., wind 1.4 miles per hour [2 ft/sec), l1'equency=6O cycles.
$“Curren§ Approx. 70% Capa0ity" is 75% ol the “Apprmi. Current Carrying Capacity in Amps." and is approximately the current which will produce 50°C. conduclor temp. {25°C. riae ) with
25°C. an l.emb., wand 1.4 ixuies per hour.

TABLE 2-B~CI~IARACTERISTICS 01* “EXPANDED” ALUMINUM CABLE STEEL REINFORCED

(Aluminum Company ofilillmerica}

Alumi mum St eel l Filler Section AP

_
>1"a 16¢ Za I
Clrcplar Alu- Pa- Copper Ge“? 3“'°"- R‘*$'“m“°9 . Inductive Reactance Shunt Capacitiva
Mala IIMI) Ll Ill PQF E0011» Weight'me§r1fl Cu;-~ 7 i Qms per Colqucéor per_M1le Ohms pm. Qonductor Rgawmw
or alent Piffsliélfiggl 25°C. (1r'*1".> M Ci§l;°,‘,§;,§{P°§§,. 8f,Ip;{.hé1]':EieCl!1Q Coggfiiglrnfiarglilu
A.W .G. Ci:_cul$r
fil)i:>mel/er mg
filu»
Inchea.
d Inches M lls or l M318 E,-.125 capag WSmall, Curlems 1'5 L pp
_W_”___,_ _”_”“3fqWig§@i‘»yWW:_ Al1C1ments
__W _ at I, Fl. ~ Spac1n.g
ID] [2 um
ands andInches KW. G.
.2 a. Uh’! ch ‘Feel’ "Y . E- 2.: i so E 00 50 l so 25 F so [ 00 25 | 50 so 25
Layers Strand Q $51300; D. ide
(J St1,
1
rmatengthe Pounds if _*_ d C Ecycl 93115161
' ' es §f9L1§.§ld C lcyclesmycles cycles cycles cycles cycles cycles pycleqkyelea
-*
(F 015 $17513:Layersno, salsa-1
.J_"_ *>“ 000485 an 1 200l
if
.. !\3I\3 °.° . . . |§§$11)‘ 190 :. ":. _W. E» 5‘“|‘24 000l-11 000! 0 070 (2; I ll) (U (1) (ll (1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
M Strands<7) ca "¢ l- Cal umQ .19l0Sttrzm3
$5“megQflfl 2
;__ D12C-=0Q St: >>-l»a 5845Sir
l_.L- 291:1: T-"lnol: £'°. .f*j’ &§ IT; ?5‘840 000149 21sl11§0l _ 7___ W
(1) Electrical Clmrscleriatlcs not available until 1abo:a1.01-y measurements are completed.
Qhapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial I/ines 5].

TABLE 3»A-"-CHARACTERISTICS 011' ANACONDA HOLLOW COPPER CONTDUCTORS

{Anaconda Wire & C:11>1<> C<>mr>a1\y)
_ 7 ' 7' '7" ' '7' V 7 I 4
1 1' 9?
1 ¢ 1 Rx:si.~‘ lance
a Ia
Shunt Capacitive
a
Wlres Ohms {MIT Cnnductor Induciive React-anc 8 Reactance
Geometric gm: M110 Ohms gwer Conducto I‘ Megohms Per
Size of 11 ean
Approx.t 11 per Mile Ccuducmr
Conductor ‘ Ouiside 1 Breaking \Nci;zhL Radi us
Curran ) at 1 Ft. Spa cing per Mile
Design Circular Diimnetc r Strain Pnunds Carryin E 25°C. (?7“F.\i5l)°C. U22” I? at 1 Ft. Spacing
at (EU Capaa-Ely
|
N umber
‘
-
M115 or 1 \:um_ D1am—
A.W'.G. C10!’
nches Pounds per Mill: Cycles
Feet
Ampsl
dd:
W"---":r;"a""=
r |*||~s: BY}! 1051 25 1 '30 60 25 50 60
51>" 1
. bet Inches
, 1 1 25
<~y1~ie's
31,0 1' <‘Y(‘§99
’ 00 .cy¢1¢$11 c y cies cycles cycles 1; cycles c y ales
1 1 " cyulusi ' rryclvfl 1 ’ __
1 _____ _ 1 _____ ___ WW1, .. . - . *-- ~ r
9 06 890 -300 28 '0 .1619
* 1611
. 7') as 0 U0 11 085 0 .0408 . ()6 12 1195
.
1100
1 0 01571 0 001010. 071410
1 0 0730 S G 070119 113110 : 0..0719‘ : 0 . 1412 0 1&2 0 32.0 0 '1907
O86 u 0 . 1017 0 32 rs 3.133 3 518 1 0
O .090"; O. 0794
10801 '- O. 0090
96R l 750 D00 42 0 . 1290 1 155 1 3-1 200 11> .325 0 . 1 0201 0 .0308 1
931] (150 006 50 0 . 1097 1 120 1 20 5 00 1 10 701 0 . 0406 1000 j 0 011119: 9 0111550. D004 0. 10015.0. 1621 3%?‘ 059510 .0921'
360 R I I190 000 1 50 0 .1053 1 I001 21 .00
'5 0 9G5 0 .0387 10g0 0 .008-1» D 0001 0 1077 1 0. IDS-1 D . 164‘! km )9 0 39} O 224
<
221 (1510
93 S 550 GOG 56 0 .1009 1 0:zr . 25!\ 200 ) 0 103 0 .0-Z711
‘ . 010
I 0 1976 1 D. 1081 O 117710 11:43 0 1663 0 2
3'0 O 40 4 0 226 1 9. ()0 32
O. G943
4 R5 510 000 56 0 111171) 1000 4.“.110 0 sass). 0 .0300 901 0 1173 0. 1 17?? F1 1283;!) 1"B -.0 0 1681 03.2rD39i022l
892 R3 500 000 '1 I8 10 1558 1 .080 1 21400 11213 1 0 .6394
‘ 000 0 1173 0. 1184 ‘U
' 1 0 1443‘0 1448? 0 1630 0 30
l28€P§0. 1296 0 . 0 2» 0391 0 221 H_~Hfl H_ _ O©@j@¢vF'~>-4%.! O. (>929
. 1630 0.
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. . cum liily 0 333 0 333 3 ggg 3 1130
. - _ . > - , >9 111110. . 0. 004 2
0958
wncac: 1113 7740
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1 0 338 3421 M7 0 11950. 1
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00:02:
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1849: . 1850 '1 331104403230
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1
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035 , 300 000 5 18 05 1 0839 131)0( 4034 . 389°
~307 0'/0 0 1980 0 11185 0 21010211 0 176 0032 0 0 4 2a02;9 4,0
K 0995
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178112 E 000 12 1507 0 750 . 1:10.'10 4 02? 0 0266 1'150

. E0 .1104‘ O 1969 0 21 5 10 -10 =1 0 18'3'$= .. 0 srfr ) 0 4 40 0 241' 0 122610 12344) I 028
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24R: Q O00
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{For con ductor at. 75°C., air at. 25°C., wind 1.4 1'11}"fr: S pm‘ I 10111‘ (2 ft,’ S0 0), fr 65001103/= G0 <.y
- cl OS. average ta Tl‘-Nb
“h 9 d $1-l rffl 9 9»

TA BLE 3~ BWC HARACTERISTICS 01" GENERAL CABLE TYPE HH HOLLOW G0 PPER Com) UCTOR3
(General Cable Corporation)
1 r
Ap~ $0
prux. 1 Tu 170 Shunt Capacitiva
Conduc- Gem -1 Cur- Resislance Incfucfive Reactanc B 1 Reactan C6
tor Out- W's.1l V@'eigh£1 Break me|- 1 rent, Ohms per Conductor per Mile Ohms per Conduc- 1\'Ieg0hm6 {JET
Size side‘ D
D111 m- Thick- 1’0ur|.ds1_ mg 110 :;m'y~ C tor per Mile an
1 Foot. Spacing
Conducto r per
M 11¢ at Foot
Circuiar I13-$5 per 1-!§t1'engt11 Moan mg 25°C. (77°F-1 50"C. (122°F.)
M 11>; or 61$?
Inches 1 Mile Pounds Radius Capac- Spacm Z
A.Y\'.G. Inches Feet ‘ Ry"! 1 G0
_ 2.’) 60 60 25 50
naps 1 A 1 d~¢;'25
cycles 50 1 cycles
cycles 00 Vdc ' 2.1 ::ycles1nycles
cycival 00 1 00 1cyeles cycles c YES
c1 eye 10 s ‘ cycles 1 cycies
. —— — 1
150* 16 160 0 .0833 1g20 0. U576 G576|0 9577 0. 0577 0 .0630 0 .0630 Q.77065110. 003110. 1257 O 302 1734 £0. 0867 )0 . 0722
1 000 000
1
2 103 U 43 190
D50 800 2 O35 0 147* 15 350% '11 (130 0 .0805 1 @130 0.060120. 0606 O 6607 0. 0607 0 .0663 £1 . 0604 0. 0664 <<< Q 000410. 1274 O 306 §D 1757 10 .0879 0732
900 000 I 9 66 0 144* 114 540 38 S70 0 .0778 1 1 505 O. U640 13.0640 0 9641 U. 0641 0 .0700 0 .0703 0. 0701 3 0. 010110. 1291 O 310 §O . 1782 Y0 .0891 0742
850 E100 1 . 90 1 0 140* 113 T30 36 711) 0 .0751 1 450 0 .0677 0.0678 0 9678 O. 0678 0 .(J'1'4l 0 U742 0. 0742 0. 074210. 1309 U 314 E0 .1805 0 .0903 0 0752
E 1 390 0. 0720 0.0720 0 0720 0. O72! 0 .0738 O .0783 0 01851111. 010810. 1329
890 000 . S20 550 |12 020 34 E0 . U722 319 0 .1833 0 0917 0 0764
79$ 000 .650 120 I12 760 34 0 0646 1 335 U .0729 0.U72tJ u 0730 0. 0730 .0?!-17 0 .0793 (3. 07.0910. 019010. 1385 332 O .1906 0 0953 10 0794-
750 000 750 390 112 120
Q‘:-*4 'I*-9-<1? 32 0 0091 1 325 0. 0768 .0 .0768 0 U768 O. 0769 |3 .0840 O .0840 0. 05413}. 054110. 1351 324 0 .1364 0 0932 I0 0777
700 000 ,.m» »¢ 686 . _U-,4>- OGQSDJBJ 0* 11 310
Z30 30 10 0665 1 265 0 .0822 0 .0823 O 0823 0 0823 lo . 0900 0 .0900 O. 000110. 000110. 1370 "~l\l\l@OS1L\I7X4~Z»WH-CQU"H“'-"I‘O) opoo 329 O .1891 0 0045 10 0783
126* 10 500 1 200 0 .0836 0.0856 0 .0886 0 .0887 .0969 0 .0970 0. 001010. 0010.0. 1394 79 0 335 0 .1924 0 0962 0802 I0.
651) 000
(300 0001
1 610
I. 558 ' OQOQSQ 123* ‘J $02
070
25 £110
28
13 .. 0635
0615 1 1 ~10 0 .0050 0.0960 O .0960 O .0960 '3 1 1050 O . 105 1 1 O 105110 1051 0. 1410 21¢?
OQOQQQCJCDDED
BQBJDJPIOOLMIOQIQ
O 33 B 0 1947' (1 M14 0 081 I
5 50 000. 1.478 0 119* 8 884% 23 750 10 usss, 1 O75 0. 1047 U. 1043 0 1048 0. 1048 0 1146 0 . 114610 114". 10 1141.0. 1437 O 287 0 345 0 1985 0 0092 O .0827
51 2 0003 1.400 0 115* 8 2701 '22 110 =1) O55 I . 1 (120 O .1124 0 1125 0 1125 O. 1125 0 .1230 0 . 123011 1231 10 1231 0. 1466 0. 293 0 352 0 202 0 1012 0 0843

1
1
590 0001 1 390 21 8 0761 590 .054? 1005 . 151 50. 1151 152 3° 1.152 0 . 2259 19 .1200‘ 0 120010 1200 0 1469 O 294 0 353 6 . 1014 0 0845
500 O00 1 208 355 21 8 0141 590 .0494 978 . 151 11-12 152 0. 1152 1 0 1 12511 1) . 12210 U. 1217010. 1261.0 1521 0 304 0 365 0 .104’? O .0872
500 000 1 100 >-—.4 £00»--A‘Q2012»
21 —_1:-+l- S 0081 590 0 .0420 937 1 1151 »~r->- 152 0. 1153 0 . 1258 0 12:10 0 12600 120011. 1603
. -_.>_-._ 150 $0. U 321 0 385 S83 . G . 1.098 0 0915
500 000 1.020 4T 8 21 oea‘ 590 0 .0384 915 .1150 10.11.10 1152 0. 1 152 0 1 1258 0 .1259. 0. 1200 U. 1261 O 1648 0 3110 0 390 . KGPOMND 25 0 . 112-1 0 .0937
4 50 000 1 317 -_-_- 11* 7 19 203 430 0 0518 9130 .1279 10.1280 oqoop 222:0 0. 1280 0 . 1400 0 140110 1401 0 1401 0 . 1496 0. 299 0 359 .20? 1 O £033 0 086 1
4 50 000 1 [S8 .1051 7
‘=5¢>?=>.<= 1'3 200 430 10 .0462 Q10 .1278 0.1210 0 1210 0. I280 0 . 1399 0 1400 0 1400 O 1401 0 . 1554 0. 311 1 (1 373 .214 O £070 0 0892
4 00 000 1 218 0106* 15460 17 270 10 .0478 B64 .1439 0 1-MU 0 1440.0. 1440 0 1575 10 .1510? 0 1576 0 157610. 1537 0. 307 1 0 369 OOQOOQO .219 9 1031 I0 0884
400 [100 1 [G3 n mm 1134514 17 271] 0 04281‘ P138 ‘5?56C:>o oc> .1433 0 . 1439 9 143010. 1440 0 157-1 ‘.0 15751 D 15750 1fi76'0 1593 0. 319 0 382 .219 10 O 1097 0 O9 14

350 000 102* 10 0443 7110 0. 1644 0.1045 0. 1045 0. 1645 0 .1709 ISDGE O 1800 O 1800 0. 1576 O 315 0 378 .918 10 1089 0 0907
350 000; QC 0961“ 68111O03 >_-,_- O0 0 0393 7154 (J 1644 0.10-as 10. 1045 0. 1646 U .1799 10 .1809 U 1800 0 1802 0. IG37 O. 328 0 393 D .225 1127 0 0939
$00 0001 0.096‘ >¢~CI!()' ®>‘-7>C: 4.5 >_-._>. 1\7U¥U\ 950 U 0399 709 10 .1918 G. 1010 10. 1910 0. 1919 0 .210 210 U 210 0 210 0. l62S 0 326 0 391 1 O 225 1124 0 0937
10.0011- 543; 1917 10.1010 0. 101010. 1919 O .210 10 .210 0 210 0 210 0. 1688 0 . 233 1162 0 0968
025 1ag-.230 0.230 10 230 0. 230
300 O00‘ Q 12 950 U [1355 637 O 338 O 4105
250 000 w~*:c~O—- >_4. ¢;< ,. -{Q 1-F~=;"O->09 0091* 4 oar; 10 790 0 .0357 1 .252 =0 _ 202r O 252 O 252 0. 1655 D 337 O £04 0 233 1163 0 0970
250 000 QQQ-- 1 .818 0.0301 4 use 10 ‘F90 O . 03 3 5 I 110$ O .230 0.2110 10 230 :0. 230 .252 10 252 0 259 0 252 0. 1748 0 350 0 420 O 241 1203 0 1 002
250 000, 0.766 0.0941 4 034 10 790 0 .0202 504 ~0. 230 0.2-50 0 230 =0 230 .25? O 252 0 252 O 1787 0. 357 0 429 U 245 1226 10 102 2
214 0.650 10 0011+ .1 450 9 265 0 G243 524 10. 208 0 268 0 268 Eu 268 QODD ION’<02“ 9520 F55 293 0 293 0 29-1 0 1879 0 376 0 451 O 257 “<5@=< .@5§=I¢ 1285 10 1071

0 733 0.0821 3 415 0 .0281 539 .272 272 .272 0 .297 . 297 0. 298 9 298 0. 1806 0 433 .24 8 ‘O 1242 U 1035
0 603 10.0301 1 2 107
10.0301 1 2 1461
0 .0230 .
4-'14 3
1 _ 343 10.
10
343 343 0 .376 37 5 U. 375 1) 375 0. 1907 O30) MO? »--
4011 1
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0 483 0 i 21¢:
0 1378 0 1149
-':°doc
5*.’f.* 0 500 U\\I=O KIQOH L‘\1i>J— GOO U .0186 382 1 0 .432 »¢~o>r-1ca.»-1 mam»: COO .432 _<5“5"c">"'”" 432 U .472 sec“. 4? 3 0 473 9 473 0. 201 COO

Notes: *'lE'1zickness at edges 01' interlocked segments. ffhickpcss u:1if0rm Lhrox1g11out._ _ V ‘ _ _ _ _

(E) Conducnors 01' smaller dia_meLer for givgn c.r0ss—s0<-twnai area also svalkablu; 1n the nauglu. sues, some addutwual dmmeber expnusmu m lJ05filb~1e>
(2) For c0m1ucw1r\a.t. 75°C., an at 25°C.. vauml 1.4 xmlea per hour (2 ft./sec), [:equenr:y=60 cyclea.
 Characteristics of Aerwlai I/fines Chapter 3

TABLE 4-A-~CHARACTERISTICS oz" COPPERWELID-CGPPER Cownvorons

§% Size of Cusnduvwf
(copperwciri Steri Company}

Copper Rated ‘ Geog _ ~ T“ csistance R T“ ‘1 <1 ' 3:1?

1 n uchve eactunce mpacltxve r‘ $37‘
meme Anpmx
("\ll'!'*‘l1l Uh msRcmmme
pm Cnncllictor ()?¥l11i# perr > 0i111rs;w1€‘7fi1d11ct»11r Rea<:La.:(15:e .2?»-.g<:}1ms
F<]]:[|\‘:a' Break- Number anti Dianwlcr Mwm (‘arr.\'i*1K per Mih» at 25°(‘.(77°F.J pen ze at ,. . ; per 1 1e’ per -nnjlctor
ing ‘ Rad] us (7fll11>\‘5 if 1 Small (‘.urn:ms Current Approx. 75'}; of 1 One it. $PO<:mg gm Mde
Nominali °E wiws Outside 2'1 1r1:u!:u' Load 5150 1 ilapacitg,” ‘ Average (‘urrenls One it-. Spacing
Desjig- 1 Diz1n'1~ 1 3-[Us or Lbs at 00
fllitlflfl ‘ I \ e :-(‘ f A.W.G.
Cyeles f‘_\><'1<‘s . 1 . W "' ' "’ ***
l Copper» Copper Feet Amps“
‘ d_c .
25 ; 51% fifi 1 (LC 25 1\ 50 50 25 50 60 25 50 60‘
In chéii
. wehi 0eght
Lbs. Mie
per ¢y<'I¢:$§1‘y1‘£e~§ <'y<:i\::\ cycles cycles rye]:-a cyclrs cyrlt-s €_}'€lQ5 r_\'<:l<:s tytiwriqy-:l=.s

350 E 711 157;’ 12:; .1510 ” I] T38 350 O00 3'2 -$20 7 -{U0 0.0220 B00 0 1658 0 112a§0 0 1.7210 15412 0 1812 =0 201 0 204 0 E920 0 ass 0.403 ‘O 2-13 G 1215.8 101'!
350 EX 11: 1470” 15x .1110" 0. T35 350 (J00 23 350 5 536 0 0215 6!-30 0 1058 0 |ax2|0 n 12'00 1705 0 1812 .0 IETS 10 1382 0 2875 0 315 0.450 0,243 0 12113), 1034
350 '1' 3x 1751” 9! .1893" U. 754 Z550 000 23 450 5 5Z8 0.0226 050 1') 1655 0 11250 0 1800 1828 0 1300 can >-. . ¢ =a:n<:, 1-4-, 1 202 30 205 0 1915 0 333 01500 0 21§ 0 12321 0. 1027
300 E 711 H50" 012x . 1459" 0 72!-I 300 O00 27 T70 5 351 0 . 0204 600 0 1034 (1 200 0 201' lo 200 0 211 10 ‘Z22 _ _ _ §¢nv- 10 235 0 1969 0 391 0 . 473 0 219 0 I244 0 . I03?
300 EK 4x 11501" 115x I301" 0. [590 300 000 izu 000 5 002 0 . 02 ‘Z? 5 10 0.191%} i (1 105$ 0 N7 E: 0 19:61 0 2H [U 215 10 Z10 0 191 1| U ass 0. 400 0 251 0 1200 ,0 H157
300 V 32. 1021” Bx I752” 0 008 300 O00 .2u 730 5 039 0. 0209 590 0.1030 EU 200 0 208 0 2¥0 ‘ 0 211 0 3'22 <2:sec: l\:a1\:|\:a ca»-w wxu: 10 237 0 1954 0 30; U . 409 p 252 0 1250 '0 . 1050
1‘ 1
1
250E . ?x 1332" I2); 1332” 5 292 0 03859 0.232 11 239 0 2 $5 0 o in 4113 0 255
25:11:11 1 -1‘ I2-X2" I52: 1212" 4
1
ass
use
0.0207
5-10
5-10 0.232 23510
ll ‘Z30 0 237
248
:3 205
259 0
275
261
279 0 202 0
10 251 0 1950 0
0 , 481 0 1210 0 10611
0.171 10 260 0 I301 0 108$ sue
250 V 3; 1150" fix 1500" c>c>c1 .~,:=-aw-1,45: (Qt-9“;UIOIO1 - -M~.T|—.|o.: $1.2 : M_.m DOG 0.0i!3§Il 530 ll 232 3311 10
E] 2 50 0 245‘ co. .“ ‘u 204 0 270 10 231 0 200 0 400 0 . 480 0 155 0 1292 0. I077
TX
‘ 2):
1 4x
1225" 12x
1n11" ‘ 514
1113" ‘L511
1225”
104-4"
§l<lii"
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583
11
20 130
I5 610
15 310 951
.§=0
0
0
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OM00
015303
480
400
-I00
0
0
0
271
1'73
27$
0 231 0
ll fix; 0
U :7? 0
237 0 200 ‘ mamum8€)"€Jl$'J¥
304 0 298
27 H 0 275
20']
300
+111 312
31$
304
.0
=0
0
323 in 326
330 10 342
307 10 308
0
0
0
41: 0.493
431 .9 51:
101 J 481
%
zas
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01109
00 |0.10as

31
la
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§ 172”
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‘ ggg 12 200
0°C:"f“'f‘f"'f65656 ¢Jb>OJ>$»;.>
Ti 0
~,.:-<.;c>~u\~12Z; 0
03750
02558
470
470
0
0
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273
[1 9&1 0
in 2&0 0
280 0 2131 ‘
285 0 2*§7 1 53313:?C733use
1 0 3131
n
u
311
300 0
0 333
318
338
322 12 COGCO
10
E§§“§o-' cw-o» 10
409 0 49
421 0 50
261
1
0.1I01
0. zoe <>¢<: >=? - . _‘>~ wwwww >A-Q9: >-N)-~ 0.1120
7x 1091" 1001” 515 3,/0 10 ml 0.01521 420 0 310 <1353 (1 350 .0 391 0 402 0 '10? 0 ‘J12 lo
13-12% 0.1123
3:1 18511" 1351” 3/'0 10 170 0.01150 410 [1 3&1 0 Ii 50 O 35? n .372 sow -a~-x: -_-1>:2» 30 308 (1 419 0 128 0 225 $0 9'30 I3-H 0.1118 0
2:1 1731" H31" 3/0 12 800 0.02254 400 ll 341 (I3551 0 365 0 3159 37
.;-. 10 397 0 416 0 423 0 22! . 1273
_)_l 1305 0 113'!n
W
P! 4x 101%" 1018” T1 21 5."Q-‘:5-"4./ 1.» 3/0 12 370 -I 1 0.0169? 4'20 0 3"} 1| 3 IR 0 350 n 351 I 30 332 0 380 0 306 0 200 II ..I l3T2§(}_ H430
31 1311" X311” 3/40 12 2?0 0 01566 410 0 3&5 0 -352 0 360 u 30? 10 390 0 403 0 408 0 210 10 13!i3;(}. U36
» »_»s»w»>_:.»‘\-.~_-.w.r,.-.\"~>w.oac-<coco:
n.w-_o.-c.o "‘I1<3E"-‘.f’QG€“‘QPl‘3~'J Ix 1032" .» Ezr><.=< $032"
<>.<=@>\1-=><A CQCDCO 23 3/0 0 930 uw wu-zw a. -.¢,;~_1q| -umwbwm 0.03388 410 0 344 (I 331 0 350 0 3-‘)8 ~;_ 388 0 30? 0 401 0 216 Ocoz co 4»;-.:4> .-:» c>ar<>_.4-u=awczxaw-1:.-1 oco oa €g3$2gwmoh._ w ~13: 0 1385111135

2/0 K 41: 17250” fix I780" 0 53% IT 000 0.0091‘? 300 0 434 450 .0 4:10 U 11." 10 0 499 0 535 l'I 237 0 475 D .570 O¢¢=5 5" ;§¢ siu 1129
2/0 .I 3:: 1018” 4x I018" 0 -10 I 13 430 0. 01029 350 U -131 *0 -157 \0 ~16? 0 H5 10 49 S 0 530 0 231 0 453 '0 ass C 50 H52
2/0 G 2x 1512" fix IF: 11!" 0 $515. 10 510 0.01110 350 U.-131 0 115 in -156 0 450 1 10 49? 0 525 0 2’-27 0 454 0.5-15 ego. 1171
2/0 V 314 1050” 0:1 5101'” 0 I115 0 9-Hi 0. 01395 300 0 -135 0 H2 $0 454) 1'32 10 439 10 509 0 210 0 432 0 5lS one HYO
2/0 1‘ Ix 1-I5-I" fix I I54" 1| 43:3 wwwww _\_‘\“_0-\2:2: S 004 0 01235 350 El 1131 0 111 in -1 {IS 2:205:ochaw"
scaz 1h»:-4 v»:- __;_|-.;:_-:4a-u_\ ~u.|32-4 487 *0 501 El 222 0 444 0.533 60:: nz<-uma:z1o :m~e>
;x:an~ Ur»->-»- QQOQQ - - -§ ;. n_- m OUJtoQ1 1;.0;»; ;o. 1180
1
4x 1535” U! ss" 0 -{T5 If!) 0.00812 310 573 O 560 Q2 10 025 004 0 243 0 487 0.53-1 0 2?!) 0 zaeflo 1104
3x H57‘ .-<. 11?" 0 H0 IEO 0.00917 310 570 0 559 so ‘O G24 650 0 237 (1 41'-X 0.569 0. ‘Z85 (I. 142310 1136
2x 13711” 1313" 0 I12 1,10 0 00906 310 0 509 559 a1 30 6211 051 0 233 0 405 0 559 0 289 0 1117|0 1205
-~_ \ \ QQQQ 1$“% lx 1291*‘ I304” U .383 l,»0 0-005$ ¢,.¢,;.=:.» 4-J-S’-;':>as-=<: >_@ 0 .0§09§ 310 ': /'20: cnulcnv w ao o U F15-1 E0 5.50 czar:2Lvwnlmlz v14..:n-4>
1—»-12:-r.:1 =u:an 006:: .QPU\U'U’l mmmwmoww U 012 ¢36000
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*:B"‘5£°d °“ 9' °°"‘5lLC§°' W“f""'="""‘ °f 7-39‘-T 3'14 8" arnbiqni "5 25°C-. Wind 1.4 mihrs per hour I2 it/s<~c.), F1-equency=fiE] c:_vclvs_ averapze tarnished surface.
R1§5s|s}ar1r'c§a§_50 I . bola] tvzxlperajuro, basad on an :¢rnb=ent of 25°C‘. plus 25°F. rise: due to hvaling effect of current. The approximate m1sgn|tude of current nee CSEQPY to produce the
2° (H fl“ 15 I501: 0! the "A;)pt\>7uma.tu Current Uarrying Capacily gt 59 g;_y(;|(3§_"

finding the appropriate table for 21 particular conduct-or. Aluminum Cable Steel Reinforced, represents stremded
For these figures open circics, solid circies, and cross- papen
hatched circles represent copper, steel, and aluminum c0n~ The mltlwrs wish to acknowledge the cooperation of the
ductors respectively. The double cross hatched area in. the conductor manufacturers in supplying t-he inf0rma,ti0n for
insert for Table 2~B, Charactelistics of “EXPANDED” compiling these tables.
Chapter 3 Characieristics of Aerial Lines 53

TABLE 4~B--CHARACTERISTICS OF COPPERWELD CONDUCTORS

(copperweld Staci Company)

Rated f
. T
Bresmng ‘Geomeme Appnm Oh Rssisgamg m 1 Inductive117“
Reiggancg
Reactanee
33¢
Capacitive
Area 01 Load Pounds‘ v . Mean
. * (‘u|-my ms per ‘Q11 uctor zms pvr ‘on uctor Uhms Der (‘onductar Reacianlsfl Megohma
Nominal Nulnfier Outside C‘-on» at régffisps l"arry_i|ig P§l"M}_1f° _ 191:!‘ Milt‘ at 75°F. (l67:°F“? pvr Mile per Conductor
Con- ; and Sm: Dim'n~
ef/or
ductor Strength ‘ par M5 (‘apamp 21125 I: (If 1'.) (.urrent_App|‘-ox. ?5",‘,_. of One FL Qpzcing pnr Mile
dugtor 1 of Wires Inches Urcular Mile Average A;-ntps Smali ( urrents ( apacny-» Average Currents One FL. Spacing
Sue Mala _ 3
High ‘ Ema ‘ (‘figgts $0 (‘files d 25 511 . til) 1
d-:: ‘
J5 [ 5U ] IJU as so 1 so 25 5|] hi!
‘ High '0 cycles cyrles ir.yrle.= icyvlrs ‘1‘§‘1!1E‘S gryvies cycles ‘cycles lcynles C!/files "SMWWycles cyciea

30% (‘unduclivity
?/8” 0 910 628 900 55 576 as 911] 9 34-1 1 U .U075R 1 620 10‘ sun 0 316 O 325 I) I19 0. 4'26 0 4139 11.261 U.-1!]-'3 U. 592
O. :0. ]l65 0 . 097!
l3fE6" O. 0 810 498 S00 45 S31} 55 531] 1? H1] 1 I] 110675 E 540 was 9 . 3516 (1.406 0 513 O 530 0 605 D Z67 U 595 U. fiflfi ,- 1206 0 1005
23;32" - vmvw 0121 395 500 37 7-31} as 850 58?? U D0601 E 410 0.430 0. -196 0 506 coo 33$ coo cu-w »-1&3 U 643 0. 710 0. 731' 0.273 U.-517 U. 621 I248 0 I 040
21/32" O. as 313 700 31 040 37 G90 In 410 ‘ U.fi 13O. 623 0 633 0 635 O 72% U 799 0. 37? D. 902 (1.279 U. G35 1239 0 I07-1
9;’ E5" 0 248 800 25 500 313 610 w»- sen 0 77 3 0. 783 {I ".-93 O FQR D Q1? D Q95 I 075 I. 106 ll .295 0. $49 1330 fl 1 I [39
5,-"8" mwm cop @011‘: . . ..F4715?,, 292 200 24 78!) 29 431} @555 co: T.as'E§II,“ 410 0 656 11. 66$ E1 672 U 676 U 778 U 824 U. STD D SR? ‘ 0.281 cc»: uvanzn wuucm-= U. 640
‘j<c:>‘c¢<>:?> §§¥
“.8” .1396 0 . I088
9,-'16” O $116 231 700 20 470 Z<i U50 3 429 ll . 1N3-155 aw u.x 27 0 R255 U R43 0 S27 U SR1 1 030 1.080 U .257 H.545 U. 554 10 269 0 .1122
1 /2’ 0 0.186 183 800 lfi S90 20 -1150 2 H9 ll U1)-105 am 1n 12 1 O50 105% 1.052 1 23? I 290 1.343 0 293 0.557 0 668 50 213 fl I157
7/16” »: nw= 0. 433 1-15 T00 13 910 16 890 2 15? ll . 00361 270 I 3 15 1823 1 331 I 335 1 560 I 617 1.675 I] .299 0.569 0. 683 jo zsa 6‘54oD5“féé5“5> 0 .1191
am’ 1 .0 IE5 S00 >- - 13 890 1 712')
1 U 00321 230 ozso 1 O6? 0 . 305 U . 581 0. 697 0 .1225
1}/32" O 91 650 0:1: I I 280 I 356 0 002146 200 ‘ 248 0 31 l 1| . 592 1) TH O l?69
5,/E6" 72 680 -1<a- _&>§,3’;
_ 9 196 I 076 ll 00255 170 1 com‘,- mac» .3»: Nam row 313 mum mum 'c4:cno.
n.-5*“?32%
fO 0 316 LI. 604 0 ."r25 opt: U10-3% _.3». 635 H1.“_.v.-:_c“w~o,“eaw-~:r‘(N3-1'5va1!.r>)--\¢0- 1294
3 N0. 5 0 9 262 I1 860 1 467 U 001157 220 19 ?6 avan 2 35 U 239 (1.545 U. 554 0 293 O 1465 0 322!
3 No. f1 O T B39 1 9 754 I ‘I63 I1 l'N'|4l}7 190 2 46 2. 95 D 295 G 556 0 663 0 301 0 . 150$ O 1255
3 No. 7 gww~|:»a- ops
ooc 9-YQICM¢A7G-703 O-4-1n¥01OI\') m-maz-a ncz §§§ fi 291 7 922 922 4 U 017363 160 3.0 6 z-no mwwL-new :,: \3I\; MmOI
-dram:*4»-<8
5'~I‘*~ 3. 71 0 BB1 11] 568 0 G82 0.310 0 . 1547 0 1289
3 No. 8 0 S 0.277 49 530 5 17-1 6 282 T31 5 U 00323 ‘H0 0.: C2-W6\?-<-0<Ihag
->110:0: www ‘1 65 4 . 65 0 301' 0 580 U 696 0.318 O 1 589 O .1324
3 N0. 9 9 fl 247 39 286 >1 250 5 190 530 1 0 (F0238 120 ‘-1-: sow ww>-11-¢-amm.. <24-:xx>-13>33r.1:--.-V-‘: w~awn$€w
co5%
- UI_'. ‘S 85 5 S6 0.313 1) 591 0. '1' 10 0 396 U I 629 0 .1358
3 No. 10 9"-43-':.0JI3-'\9I-T‘I8CfiblfioiZZZZZZ
ZZZ‘ E; 0.220
ZZZ2oO2:2_o00
:Z=~:24 31 151) 3 509 1 4 16b 150 0 O 0025? Hi] cs: >_- »¢-~10: ow- - :1:;Q1‘\§ cu- Pxm
c»p
w~m C7lIx“~I“~10-E:Ul>4\I
4&8
Z4 ~: (Qan
A-G
ta~us-v2-e:>-=-mac 1?
wxa.3or 36 733 0.319 daoa in 124 0.331 0 1511 O .1392

4 0% Conductivity
7/B" 19 Nu. 5 0.910 fi2$ 900 so 240 O 011175 690 0.239 0.239 0.249 0.254 321 0.371 éu.sm 0.236 0449 0,539 0 233 0 1165 0 .0971
13,/lfi” 19 N0 R 0 S20 498 80!] 41 B00 0 01046 610 0 2 so 0.299 O 309 0.314 cg. 396 0.150 U. -172 0.241 0.401 0.552 O ‘Z41 O .1200 U .1005
23/'32” 19 N0 7 0.721 395 500 3-1 390 <21-was scat»:~1-.1. "ID0- 0 00931 530 0.365 0.1175 0.385 0.390 ‘ c cbén. -590 9.549 0.573 §0.247.0. 473 ‘ 0 55¢" 0 250 0. 1248 0 . I0-10
21/'32" 19 No 8 0.642 313 5'09 32s ssn ~1 BBO 0 00829 479 0 4 6 0 0.410 ,0 4 30 0 .672 0.698 0.253 0 4&5 0. 582 0.258 0 . 1289 . 074
9/16" I9 No 5) 0.572 2&8 809 sea 3 696 U f)0?'39 410 0 580 0 590 .0 600 0 S26 0.853 0250 0.496 0 595 0.266 10. 1330 . 109
6/W’ 7 No. '1 0.633 292 200 ~22 am 4 324 0 00?H2 4711 U.-1 9 2 0.500 u 508 02¢ uv-aus:v -mm-ml4».oawac-~.|mmum. m—1:.': Nan:|s><:=:z 8 554 0.659 0.255 om 0. 537 0.26% 0 . 1306 ace: . \. .¢-1 088
0/15" No. 0.546 231 700 gs am 0 OOFO5 410 0 620 0 . 628 1 0 .636 0 736 0 261 0. 601 0 269 fl . 1317 0 .1122
1/2" No 0.486 183 800 315 330 0 00523 350 O 7 8 2 O T90 3U|'98 0.923 0.257 11). 615 0 . 278 U. 1 383 0 .315?
7/lfi” G 432 M5 T00 312 mu t-Mcu . ~_.; ,. o- Iv -nu:-'4> O . £10559 I310 0. 9 8 s 0991 3 1.002 5515,-co 5°5333*‘
>:~aO 1.170 1 GOG\-~¢>Q 53"¢§§o60:0
olama ac‘-.:=\=..},'_Y., 0. 273 $360 1'2? 10. 629 11.286 U . LL29 G 1191
3/3” 115 E00 110 +60 1 710 0 00197 2'30 1. 2-14 l 252 1.264 1 5311 0 279 ifl 536 O H71 [3 !22$
11/32" 91 651] 1 B ma 1 356 [LOO-I43 230 1. 565% 1 5?G I 1,53?! .1 919 0 2:45 1 D .548 .0 1512 1! . l2!§(3
5/'16” -x~x~a~1—a-x a0Do6:?/§0
-I¢Q' 99° mamou_an mi’-IUI T2 6219 j F 1:21 1 076 0 00395 200 I. §?8 l H815 I ,.. <4:'¢v\'<24\2a.-mm =4-.;-c 1.9518 i\1 2 41 ow 0 291 gn. 551! 0 1553 0 1294
3 N0. 5 3 N0. 5 0.392 99 31$ 1 s an 1 -161 0 00521 250 1. 4-15 ‘L450 ‘I. £55 1.457 >a>-~22 _ _ H cn bHé Inac»- .-.-1-._-Q H.269 ‘U. 514 QQ*-‘Z 10 1455 0 1221
3140.6 3 No. 6 [1 3-19 78 751! 6 {J34 was V 0 ()0553 220 I R2i 1 826 I .2131 1.533 D 275 U. 526 \0. 1506 (F .1255
31%.? 3 N0. 7 0.311 B2 450 5 T3? 922.-1' 0.001192 590 2 31} 2.30 2. 31 2.31 L0N ._,_.~.'UHOC0 MN -EN-,»-.<I:n>o-vz-~1_u3:>u mu 11.281 U. 531 C100cc: 212:»:2~:4=1.-&>b>~.,»>-UI\->'—7~7-—KJ n 600was wwmwwu53¢»,-40:5 10 154? 0 .1289
3330.8 3 Nu. 8 H.277 '19 536 4 731) ?31.5 Q §60 ‘ ‘téi
Mo; 3 50 0.5-as ‘0. 559 0 313 O. 155$} 0 .1324
3 510.9 3 Nu. 9 0.247 39 280 3 898 586. 1 i-10 Q-¢> 1. 40 G ifil ‘(I 157'; ‘O 326 0. H129 0 .1358
3N0.10\ 3 N0. 10 0.220 31 150 3 221 -11313.6 999 §§% E20 >4-w~s =»‘:.-=‘;> paw :>':n§:,-:n:> ,a-um =\: :>ma-1 -a-wra 1:- 1= scan..- 1;- <:,-.:Vo-<u-».¢>~-ac=|:um:-=w»-Jwe:-F an-‘=.a: &'$5'i=‘3 D. 53 @119;' ~mg‘Q-_u=-.—‘;_> , H031 :>:~c wwm<:>:-m ~sl%-71 0.572 50. 58¢
;08%
@-I-ZIP'~Et\‘l'-FC/‘I3N>@Q9 0.33% 0. £671 0 .1392
3 3'0. 12 3 Xu. 12 0.1H 19 590 2 236 289 3‘ 11.00275 90 T. 32 '4‘ . 33 ‘F 53 F31 ‘X 69 S T3 8. 77 18.78 0.310 (1 596 I 0 ?15 0 351 0 1754 \‘:1 H62

'Bas§2d on conductor !Bn1?)eralurv of 125°C. and an urnbwut of 25°F.

"R£5i$tanQe at T5°C. iota tempera ture, based on a n :n|\hivu 1. of 25°F. plus 50°F. rise du e to hrmting efl'=:ct of mnrrzmt.
'§‘be sppmniuaale magnitude of cu rrent necessary Y- 0 pruduce me 50°C. rise is 7-5% of Lh e “Approxmmte (Iurrwn Partying Capamty ai 60 Cycles."

TABLE 5—SKI N Envmcr TABLE

X K X K X I K X K
11
00000 . 90519 CD l D7816 1. 31 809
00009 D0758 >-~ 1 011375 1. 35 102
P9?’ N»-O 00001 »-»-~>- [Or-Q .0l0'?l IQIQEO 1 1 1126 1. 38504
1
0.3 00004 .Ul~1»7U 1 I 3069 I. 41 999
0.4 00013 . 01969 1 1 5207 1. 45570
0.5 1 00032 1 .02-382 IOKQM Own“I6-N 1 1 T538 1. 49202
I. 09067 . 03323 O’; 1 20056 879
1 03124 . 0-1205 ~1 I 22753 5 587
09212
I
\ i
1 . 052-10 1 25620 1 \ D314
.°.°<.-.;o°~1°o> 1 09346 P_1‘*1\-l—-I)-|>_3§—' <<;o o-~vIcb-> ha . 06-440 wmwro 1.7511 I ZSKH4 wwwwcwwwocoa: <ml:o ~4o-=cQ;m:~Z:»a »— |-4>—‘1>—\ D51
C‘»C?»Ulb"l J»“IO
54 Characteristics of Aerial I/inw Chapter 3

TABLE 6——INDUCTIVE REACTANCE SPACING FACTOR (mg) Ozms 1-1012 0011000700 PER MILE
25CYCLES

SEPARATTON

7 7 7 INCHES W
Feet
0 ‘ 1 2 5 s]7se|10;11 3 4
31.1250 -0.0000 00701 00555 -0. 044:1 -0.0ss0‘~»0.027§ »0.
mam 0205 ~0.0I45V -0.0002‘~0.0044
W .0106 .0329 xr, at FUNDAMENTAL
O
0 0350
0 0555
1
1
0.0040
0.0271
0.0500
9.0078
0.0391
0.9583
U .0113
0 .0410
0 . 0505
G .0145
9 .0428
0.0600
O .0176
0 .0446
0.0621
0
O
.0205
.0403
0.0633
0
Q
.0202 0.
.0-10010.
0258
0496
0.0645‘ U. 0657
0.0283
0.0511
0.0668
"12
0.0527 .0141
0.0070;0 0600
25 cycles
30.1 041 d *
0 0701 ‘ 0.0711 0.0722 O .0732 0.0741 0.0T§1 0.0700 0.0770 0. 0779 0.0788 0.0197; 0.0005 ze:1t=seD;r&£i|E§:oieet. Z1‘ = 2:2 2"‘ ra (xv '1" xii’)
0 :0R14
U. 0000
0.0322
0.0913
0.0830
0.0920
0. HR?
..8
0.6927
0.0846 G.0B54
0.0933 0.0940
11mm2
0.0010
00mm 0.087?
0.0053 0. 0959
0.0884
0.0965
0.0s02\0.0a90
0.0072; 0.0078
z., = r.,+ r. +1’(r..+ x. -2x..)
0 0984 0.0990 0.9996 U .1002 0. 1007 0.1013 0. 10101 0.1024 O. 1030 0.1035 0.1041;0.1040
0 1051
G309-%¢hCI\O¢bO>¢C5 0 1111 fi)CYCLES
20 0 1104
It 0 1212
12 0 1200 SEPARATTON
13 0 1297
14 0 1334 Inches
15 0. 1300 F891. 7 WW 77 flu“
16 0. 14°?‘ 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 s 0 10 11
17 0. 1432
18 U. 1461 3—0.18i2 -<0.1402—O.1111-0.0885—0.0701——0.0545 43.0410 . -0.0088 Zh ab
19 0. 1489 1
10. 1515 1
O32 81 0.0156 0.0226 0.0291 0.0352 0.0410 0.0465 0.0517 O0 . P-onCl-7lF' 0.0058
50 cycles
20
21 0. 1539 0.0701 .=>.=>.=> D
0.1111 0.1139 0.1166 0.1192 0.1217 0.1242 0.1267 0.1291 0.1314 0. 1337 0. 1359 0.1380
\'2J@"“ O05 23235353 0.1082
N1 742 0.0732 0.0320 0.0857 0.0392 0.0927 0.0960 0.0992 O. I-QC!O. 1=E§§§
:c¢=0. 2328 10310 <1
22 0. 1563 .1402 0.1423 0.1443 0.1463 0.1483 0.1502 0.1521 0.1539 0.1558 0. 1576 0. 1593 0.1610 d=sep9.r9.!.i0!1, Ieeh
23 0. 1 555 .1627 0.1604 0.1661 0.1677 0.1693 0.1708 O. 1724 0.1739 0.1754 0. 1709 0. 1783 O.1?98
24 0. 1607 oo.1312 0.1826 0.3839 0.1553 0.1860 0.1880 0.1893 0.1908 0.1918 0. 1931 0.1943 0.1950
cf”
25 0. 1027 -!@€X1>¥i‘»2tQI-C> O .1968 0.1980] 0.2991 0.2003 0.2025 0.2028 0.903? 0.2049 0.2060 0. 207! 0.2081 0.2092
20 0. 1647 0.2103‘
21 =0 1600 ROM 0.2222 00 CYCL ES
23 0. 1685 10 0 .2325
29
a0
0. 1702 11 0.2423
U. 1 720 12 0.2513 SEPARA11ON
31 10 .1735 l3 10.2594 77
32 0 1752 14 10.2669 Inches
33 0. 1?6S
34 10. 1783 .15‘0.2T38
I 16 0.2804
Feet
0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ] ll
35 :13 1798 17 0 .2865
30 1812 18 9.2923 ~0. 30l540.2l74 »0.1os2 ~0.1asa A0. 1062 ~0.0S4l 40.0654 40 .0402 ~0.0349 49.0221 70.0106 ah sat
37 ‘0 1826 19 0.2077
0 ‘ 0. 0097 0.01s7- 0.0271 0.0349 0. 0423 0.0492 0.0558 0.0020: 0.0679 0.0735 0.0739
as 0. 1839 20 0.3020 0 .0841 0 .0891 0.o0ss[o.00s4 0.1928 0. 1071 0.lIl2 0.1152 0.1l90' 0.! 227 6.1264 0.1299 66 cycles
as 0. 1852 21 3070 .1sss10. 1366 0.1399 0.1430 0.1461 0. 1191 0.1520 0 1549 0.1577 0.1 604 0.1631 0.1657 ;¢=-0.2794 10¢... 11
40 '0. 1865 22 3120 9
0 .1os2;0. 1707 0.11:2 0.1150 0.1779 0. 1802 0.IB25 0 1847 0.1869 D.I 89! 0.l912 0.1933 d=;epa1-atlon, lest.
41 0. 1878 . 23 .3170
42 0. 1890 1 24 0 .19ss=0. [973 0.1093 0.2012 0.2931 0.2650 0.2069 0.2087 0.2105 0.2123 0.2140 0.2157
O. 1902
3211 9 .2174 0. 2191 0.2207 0.2224 0.2240 0.2256 0.227! 0.2287 0.2302 0.2317 0.2332 0.2347
43 Ei5€5Ei5 3255 0 .2301 0. 0.2390 0.2404 0.2418 0.1431 0 2445 0.2458 0.2472 9.248 5 0.2498 i 0.251!
44 0. 1913 0. 3294 9 2s2sJ—
2376
45 0. 1925 O .3333 0 11¢-61>‘ I
46 0. 1936
47 0. 1947
.3309 0 .2704
‘65“ .3405
48 'U 1957 wmwsum o mwmu 10.3430 v-1%~fl%\@Vli>€|6!s)I-Q 9 2010‘
49 1968 1 31 10.3472I0 |-n-r-1 2 0 .3015
13 0 .3112‘
T 32 0.35041 14 0 .3202.
33 0 3536 15 I! .3286‘
34 0.3566 16 0 .3564
35 ‘0.3595 17
.0.a0z4
0 3438
36 15 0 3561
37 ‘0.30s1 I9 10 .3573
38 10.0078 20 10 .3635
1 as 0.3704 21 0 .369!
; 40 0.3730 22 0 .3751
‘41 .0.37s5 23 0 .3805
;42i0.3770 24 10 .3856
1 43 0 3803 25 0 .3906
44 30.3820 26 In .3953
45 10. 3849 27 10 .3999 TABLE 7 M2000-Snquancs R1-:s1sm1~zc1': AND Imaucrxvm REACTANCE
40 10. 3871 28 10 4043
FAc'r0R.s (r1,x,)*
17 0. sass 29 0 . 4086
1 42 0 .3914 36 0 .4127. Ohms per Conductor per Mile
\ 49 0 .3930‘ $1 0 .4101
..__...__1 32 g0 .4205 L7. .._

\ 33 1 0 .4243 9 FREQUENCY
34 ‘D .4270 §Jehfi
15 Q .4214 Ohua 4" "" '7§'W7* "77 "“’ .7 7
so 0 .4343 25 Cycles 50 Cycles 60 Cycles
37 0 .4382 ,__________
38 0 .4414 Tb 0.1192 0.2383 0.2860
sq 0 .4445 AH
40 \0 .4410 1 0.921 1.735 2 050
41 0 .4500 5 1 043 1.980 2 343
42 0 .4535 10 1. 095 2.085 2 469
43 0 .4504 3% 50 1. 217 2.329 2. 762
44 0 .4592; 100$ I. 270 1.434 2 888
45 0 .4019~ 500 1.392 2.679 3 18!
~40 0 .404 1000 l.~144 2.784 3 307
47 ;0 .4672 5000 1 566 3 023 3. 600
40 0 4697 10 000 1.. Z9 3.133 § 720’
49 147211 0
L,“-_..-0 ‘From Formulas 1 +This is a_.n average value which mp?
re = U . 00-1704] be used 1n she absence of defimte an-
==== 0 . 0000051 103111 4 005 000;» 1°’““‘“°“'
where f= £1-eu_ue_nc_y
p=Re.s1sb1v:t._y (1-nefler-ohm)
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aervlai Lines

TABLE 8-»-Smnrr CAPACITWE Rmcmucn SPACING Fwroa (mg) M2001-ms PER Connucwon PER Mme:
25CYCLES

EEPARATION

IIi(31{I€S
Feeti '
‘ U 1 ‘A 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
‘
-0.11'69 ——— -0. 1.276 -0.0987 M0 .0782 —0.0623 41.0494 43.0384 -0.D289 43.0205 -0.013-0 —0.0062 xjat FUNDAMENTAL
O Q .0057
.0494 0.0523
0.0119 0.0159 0.0205 0.0248
0.0551 0.0577 0.0603 0-0628
0.0289
0.0652
0.0327 0.0364 0.0398
0.0876 0.0698 0.0720
0.0432 0.0483
0.0742 0.0762
25 cycles 33QUATI9N5
O 732 0.0802 0.0821 0.0839 0.0557 0.0875 0.0892 0.0909 0.0925 0. 0941 0.095? 0.0972 Ia’-.1640 19510 d xi! = xz-‘ = xBf+xd
.098? 0.1002 0.1016 0.1030 6.1.044 (1. 11'}-'13 0.1071 0.1084 0.109? 0. 1109 0.1122 0.1134 d =- aepacnnon, fast.
.1146 0.1158 0.1169 0.1181 0.1102 0. 1203 0.1214 0.1225 0.1235 0. 12¢6 0.1250 0.1286 xv =30 +3! ‘-7 xd
ooofic.1275 0.1286 0.1295 0.1305 0.1314 0. 1324 0.1333 0.1342 0.1351 9. 1300 0.1368 0.1377
.1aa6 0.1394 0.1402 0.1411 0.1419 0. 142? 0.1435 0.1443 0.1450 0. 1458 0.1405 0.1473
m~J:bm-am o-‘O E05” . 1481 "W
o_1’u'
013435 50 CYCLES
1- 0&9
0.1797
0.1739 SEPARATION
0.1826
0.13791 Inches
0.192s2Fe,_,t . _ - .. -_. .. - .
u.1914 1 2 3 4 5 s v I s 0 10 11
9 201: 0
0.2053 ‘-0.0885-0.oaas~
:1 0.0494 -0.0391 -a.oé1§ -e.o241 -0.0192 -0.0144 -0.0102 -o.o0es§0.55§1 3; 31
0.2097 0 0.0023 0.0055 0.0079 0.0102 0.0124 0.0144 0.0164 0.0182 0.0199 0.0216 0.0232
0.2132 0 .0247 50 cycles
0.2163 0 0391 . 0.0261 0.0275 0.0289 0.0302 0.0314 0.0326 0.0338 0.0349 0.0360 0.0371 0.0381
a.o4o1 0.0410 0.0420 0.0429 0.0437 0.0446 0.0454 0.0463 0.0471 0.0473 0.0436 2J'=0.081981og1.; 1!
0.220: 0 I 0494 0.0501 0.0508 0.0515 0.0522 0.0529 0.0535 0.0542 0.0548 0.0555 0.0581 0.0587 d=-sepnraY.ion, feat.
0.2233 0 .0573 0.0519 0.0585 0.0590 0.0596 0.0601 0.0607 0.0612 0.0618 0.0623 0.0628 0.0633
0.2203 0.0338 0 B643 0 0648 0.0852 0.0657 0.0662 0.0586 0.0671 0.0675 0.0680 0.0684 0.0689
0.2292
0.23201 3;3$§§ 0.0697 0.070] 0.0705 0.0709 0.0713 0-0717 0.0721 0.0725 0.0729 0.0733 0.0737
.2347 0.0782 60 CYCLES
.23738 3.8320
..230 _ 54
-2422
0.2445
0.oss§ SEPARATWON
0.0913
wm w uMnw u~» H- MnQ©€fi'lGf1\>fl¢~7I\’J>-*O'(n"-‘I@¢J;4u-~!l\3>' mci.2468
ao 0.0940 Inches
33 0.2490 0 0964
34 0.2511 \o.oss1 Feet o 1 2 a I 4 5 0 1 s 9 I 1o 1 :1
35 0.2532 0 ' 1009
36 0.2552 o ' 1029 — *0.0737 WL0532 41.0411 -0.0326 ~"4l.02\‘r0 ~0.0206 -l.\.0l60 -41.0111! 41.0085 -0 .0054 —0.0026 xi at
37
38
0.2571
0.2590 20 0 ‘ 1045
>-. >-. >- 1 G0 -Jcnov~9:bo»-CJflQ0o—Jd%v=$-bh:v¢<5
0.0824 0.0046 0.0066 0.0085 0.0103 0.0120 0.0136 0.0152 0.0166 0.0180 0.0193
39 0.2609 21 0 ' 1084
0 1057 E1
0.0218 0.0219 0.0241 0.0251 0.0262 0.0272 0.0182 0.0291 0.0300 0.0305 0.0318 60 cycles
40 0.2627 ‘ 26 0.0334 9.0342 0.0350 0.0357 0.0365 0.0372 0.0379 0.0385 0.0392 0.0399 0.0405 xa’=u=0.96R3l lbflm ti
22 0 1100 9?? cgga
411 0.0417 0.0423 0.0429 0.0435 0.0441 0.0446 0.0452 0.0457 0.0461 0.0067 0.0673 d=ueparatlon, feat.
256: 33 0 ‘ 1116
41 0.2644 '
42 0.0478 0.0482 0.0437 0.0492 0.0497 9.0501 0-0506 0-0510 0.0515 0.0519 0.0523 0.0527
43 .2618 25. O0 ‘ 1131 0.0532 0.0566 0. 0540 0. 05§4 0.0548 0.0552 0.0555 0.0559 0. 0563 0.0567 0.0570 0.0574
0.2695 261 O ' 214s
44 ......5_-6 B-0577 0.0581 0.0584 0.0588 0.0591 0.0594 0.0598 0.0601 0.060 4 0.0608 0.0611 0.0614
45 0.2111 27.0- 1160
1173 o.nas2%
m~q:~u *znma-<: 0.06l7< .
46 0.2726 23 ‘O' 1185 .0683.
47
4s p 2155 30 G’ 1190 0.2742 29 0'
.0111‘
49 .0217: M E211
G: 1223 .0157
anmm w|a>~c~é :§<:=>=.0161
32 0. 1234 |4‘o .0155
33 0. 1245 \15‘0 .oso3
a4. 0 .1255 16 0 .os2a
35 0 1266 17 0 .us41
36 0 .1216 £8 10 .0358
37 0 .12ss 19 ‘0 .ns14
38 0. 1295 20 ‘0.0009
39 0. 13 04 21 0 .o9ua
40 O .1313 2) 0 .0917
41 0. 1322 1; o .0930
42 0 .1331 24 9 .0143?
43 0. 1339 25 0 .0955‘
44 0 .1357
45 ‘O. 1355 i‘; 313$ TABLE 9——-ZERO~$EQUENCE SHUNT Cumcmvs Rmcmuczz FACTOR
46 10. 1363 gg 0 0418 1:.’
47 0 . 1371 nlooo
43 0 .1378 30 0 JM9 Megohms per Conductor per Mile
49;U. 1386 31 0 .1019 *
102s
as 0 I 1037 Cpnduetor FREQU ENCY
34 l)_1||4{, Hwéhthbove - W ._ ..- ... .- .. -
as o 1055
36 911953
found
Feet 25 Cycles P 50 Cycles I 60 Cycles
37 ‘H.107!
as 0.1019 0.640 .§2o 0.267
39 0.1057 0.727 ass 0.303
40 9.10% 0.788 394 0.328
.1 102 0.835 K3090 4t8 0.348
.1109 0 875 0 437 0.364
.1116 0.935 9 .468 0.390
.1123 0 984 0 .492 0.410
1 129 1.023 0 511 0.426
I136 1.056 0 528 0.440
D ~:$§nm-0>:-1 1142
aaqua 1. 084 0 1542 0.452
.1149 8%38%$%§3&E 1 109 0 555 0.462
:2 q>¢1=|a<:?5E5e>é. I155 _ 1°“ 1 .132 0 566 0.472

IQ'="—"'"12.;.30l0B|0 2 h
when It-height above ground.
[=f1-ecguency.
56 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Cllalilllel‘ 3
TABLE 10-—-S-museum Bnnouersrc
IV CORONA PRESSURE AS A FUNCTION OF ALTITUDE

With the increased use of high-voltage transmission lines Altitude, Pressure, Altitude, Pressure,
and the probability of going to still higher operating volt- feet in. Hg. feet in. Hg.
ages, the common aspects of corona (radio influence and
corona loss) have become more important in the design of
- loco 31.02 4000 25.84

transmission lines.
In the early days of higlvvoltage transmission, corona
was something which had to be avoided, largely because of
the energy loss associated with it. In recent years the RT
(radio influence) aspect of corona has become more im-
portant. In areas Where RI must be considered, this factor
might establish the limit of acceptable corona performance.
Under conditions where abnormally high voltages are
present, corona can affect system behavior. It can reduce
the overvoltage on long open-circuited lines. It will atten-
uate lightning voltage surges (see Sec. 29 Chap. 15) and
switching surges." By increasing the electrostatic cou-
pling between the shield wire and phase conductors, co-
rona at times of lightning strokes to towers or shield wires
reduces the voltage across the supporting string of insu-
lators and thus, in turn, reduces the probability of flash-
over and improves system performance. On high-voltage
lines grounded through a ground-fault neutralizer, the in-
pliase current due to corona loss can prevent extinction of
the are during a line to ground fault."
6. Factors Afiecting Corona
At a given voltage, corona is determined by conductor
diameter, line configuration, type of conductor, condition
of its surface, and weather. Rain is by far the most im-
portant aspect of weather in increasing corona. Hoarfrost
and fog have resulted in high values of corona loss on ex-
perimental test lines. }:iowever, it is believed that these
high losses were caused by sublirnation or condensation of
water vapor, which are conditions not likely to occur on an
operating line because the conductor temperature would
normally be above ambient. For this reason, measure-
ments of loss made under conditions of fog and hoarlrost
might be unreliable unless the conductors were at operat-
ing temperatures. Falling snow generally causes only a
moderate increase in corona. Also, relative humidity, tem-
perature, atmospheric pressure, and the earth’s electric
field can affect corona, but their effect is minor compared
to that of rain. There are apparently other unknown factors
found under desert conditions which can increase corona.“
The effect of atmospheric pressure and temperature is
generally considered to modify the critical disruptive volt-
age of a conductor directly, or as the % power of the air
density factor, 6, which is given by:
17.9?)
6 W _"6F
where
b=bar0metric pressure in inches of mercury
°F = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
The temperature to be used in the above equation is gen-
erally considered to be the conductor temperature. Under
- 500 80.47 5000 24.89
6000 23.98
0 29.92 8000 22.22
1000 23.86 E0000 20.58
2000 27.82 15000 16.38
3000 26.31 20000 13.75
standard conditions (29.92 in. of Hg. and 77°F) the air
density factor equals 1.00. The air density factor should
be considered in the design of transmission lines to be built
in areas of high altitude or extreme temperatures. Table
10 gives barometric pressures as a function of altitude.
Corona in {air weather is negligible or moderate up to
a voltage near the disruptive voltage for a particular con-
ductor. Above this voltage corona effects increase very
rapidly. The calculated disruptive voltage is an indicator
of corona performance. A high value of critical disruptive
voltage is not the only criterion of satisfactory corona
performance. Consideration should also be given to the
sensitivity of the conductor to foul weather. Corona in-
creases somewhat more rapidly on smooth conductors than
it does on stranded conductors. Thus the relative corona
characteristics of these two types of conductors might
interchange between fair and foul weather. The equation
for critical disruptive voltage is:
E,=g., 6% r m loge D/1‘ (793-l
where:
E,,=criticnl disruptive voltage in lav to neutral
g.,=-critical gradient in kv per centimeter. (Ref. 10 and 16 use
g,,=2l.1 Kv/cm rms. Recent work indicates value given in
Sec. I0 is more accurate.)
r —ra.dius of conductor in centimeters
D=the distance in centimeters between conductors, for single-
phase, or the equivalent phase spacing, for three-phase
voltages.
m=surface factor (common values, 0.84 for stranded, 0.92 for
segmental conductors)
3 =a.ir density 1'actor
The more closely the surface of a conductor approaches
e. smooth cylinder, the higher the critical disruptive volt-
age assuming constant diameter. For equal diameters, a
stranded conductor is usually satisfactory for 80 to 85 per-
cent of the voltage of a smooth conductor. Any distort-ion
of the surface of a conductor such as raised strands, die
burrs, and scratches will increase corona. Care in handling
conductors should be exercised, and imperfections in the
surface should he corrected, if it is desired to obtain the
best corona performance from a conductor. Die burrs and
die grease on a new conductor, particularly the segmental
typo, can appreciably increase corona effects when it is
first placed in service. This condition improves with time,
taking some six months to hecome stable.
Strigel“ concluded that the material from which a con-
ductor is made has no eliect on its corona performance. in
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial I/Ines 57

*” T” *' i 3 AW K‘ Curve 1-1.4 in. HI! copper. 6=0.88. Ref. 19. Corona loss test
2 G made in desert at a location where abnormally high corona loss is
observed on the Hoover—Los Angeles 287.5-kv line, which is strung
3sl.~ i *- with this conductor, Measurement made in three-phase test line.
A I l ’ l This particular curve is plotted for 5 =U.88 to show operating con-

3%
l
.y. Q>fi:]T“€M
s
A
W .
dition in desert. All other curves are for 5 = 1.00.
Curve 2--Same as curve 1, except converted to 6_=1.0U.
Curve 3—-1.-1 in. HH copper. Ref. 12. Corona loss test made in
California. Comparison with curve 2 shows elfect of desert condi-
tions. Measurements made on three-phase test line, 30-foot flat
‘ l
spacing, .16-foot sag, 30-foot ground clearance, 700 feet long.
Curve 4-~11 in. Ill-I. Ref. 13. Measurements made on three»p!1ase
g5_ _______ _~.A~._A_.. LA
test lino, 22-foot fiat spacing, 16-foot Sag, 30-foot clearance to
°o ground, 700 fcct long.
Curve -5"-1.65 in. smooth. Ref. 12. This conductor had a poor sur-
face. Measurements made on three-phase test lino, 30-foot spac-
- T-.‘_. .; _ _,_ _ _
l l ing, 16-foot sag, 30-foot ground clearance, 700 feet long.
m¢ _ . .L__...... _........._._..
i .._ _. —Q1 i
Curve 6~l.65 in. smooth aiuminum. Ref. 27. Reference curve ob-
tained by converting p8I‘*pl1&Si3 measurement to ioss on tl1roe~pi1ase
line. Dimensions of line not given.
‘. . . . ll\ Curve 7-1.04 in. smooth cylinder. Ref. 23. In reference this con-
KW/3"F'l M$EMLi
G ductor is referred to as having an infinite number of strands.
_%q'r Plotted curve obta/incd by conversion of per—phase measurements
to three-phase values, using an estimated value for charging kva,
to give loss on a line having 45-foot fiat configuration.
-»..-.4-. .‘,_ Curve 8--1.96 in. smooth aluminum. Ref. 28. Reference curve gives
10- —- - - ,- - -
ifr - throo—pha.se loss, but line dimensions are not given.
Curve 9-1.5? in. smooth. Ref. 23. This conductor was smooth and
clean. Reference curve gives per-phase values. Plotted curve is
for 45-foot flat spacing.

5 1, 5”

0 ” its
I zoo
J :-soo 400 " soc
»</ coo Fig. 27-Fair-Weather Corona-Loss Curves for Smooth Con-
KVi.—t ductors; Air Density Factor, aml.

industrial areas, foreign material deposited on the con- opment of three fo1'rnulas“°‘“"“> generally used in this
ductor can, in some cases, seriously reduce the corona per- country (Reference 18 gives a large number of formulas).
formance. (Reference 28 gives some measurements made The Carroll-Rockwell and the Peterson formulas are con»
in an industrial area.) sidered the most accurate especially in the important low
Corona is an extremely variable phenomenon. On a con- loss region (below 5 kw per three-phase mile). The Peter-
ductor energized at a voltage slightly above its fair weather son formula, when fiudiciously used, has proved to be a re-
corona-starting voltage, variations up to 10 to 1 in corona liable indicator of corona performance (see Sec. 9) for
loss and radiodnfluence factor have been recorded during transmission voltages in use up to this time. Recent work
fair Weather. The presence of rain produces corona loss on on corona loss has been directed toward the eXtra~higi1~
a conductor at voltages as low as 65 percent of the voltage voltage range and indicates that more recent information
at which the same loss is observed during fair-weather. should be used for these voltages.
Thus it is not practical to design a high-voltage line such Fair-weather corona.~loss measurements made by a num-
that it will never be in corona. This also precludes ex- ber of different investigators are shown in Figs. 2?, 28, and
pressing a ratio between fair- and foul-weather corona, 29. All curves are plotted in terms of kilowatts per three-
since the former might be negligibly small. phasc mile. The data presented in these curves has been
If a conductor is dc-energized for more than about a. day, corrected for air density factor, 5, by multiplying the test
corona is temporarily increased. This effect is moderate voltage by l /5””. Some error might have been illtroduocd
compared to that of rain. It can be mitigated by re-ener- in these curves because in most cases it was necessary to
giging a line during fair weather where such a choice is pos- convert the original data. from per-phase measurements.
S1 e. The conversions were made on the basis of voltage gradient
at the surface of each conductor. The curves should be
7. Corona Loss
used as an indicator of expected performance during fair
Extensive work by a large number of investigators has weather. For a particular design, reference should be made
been done in determining corona loss on conductors oper- to the original publications, and a conversion made for the
ated at various voltages. This work has lead to the devel- design under consideration. The relation between fair-
58 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

l W1 V fl ' l l Curve 1-1.4 in. ACSR. Ref. 12. Conductor was Wafihfid with 885°-
line then soap and water. Test configuration: three-phase line,
30~foot fiat spacing, 16-foot sag, 30-foot ground clearance, 700 feet
as is i ~ l0n .
Curv: 2--1.0 in. ACSR. Ref. 11. Conductor weathered by exposure
L® to air without continuous energization. Test, c0nligura.Li0nI three-
(@--I ‘1»-® phasc line, 20-foot. fiat spacing, 709 feet long.
Curve 3--1.125 in. hollow copper. Ref. 14. Washed in some manner
as for curve 1. Test configuration: three-phase line, 22-foot fiat
spacing.

., {{{{{ ._ or W Curve 4-1.49 in. hollow copper. Ref. 14. Washed in same manner
as for curve 1. Test configuration: three-phase line, 30-foot flat
spacing, 16-foot sag, 30-foot ground clearance, 700 feet long.
Curve 5-2.l30 in. hollow aluminum. Ref. 14. Washed in some man-
ner as for curve I. Test configuration: three-phase line, 30-foot
flat spacing, 16-foot sag, 30-foot ground clearance, 700 feet long.

SE NO_
__ W. Flip ‘I _ Curve 6-~l.09 in. steel-aluminum. Ref. 22. Reference curve is aver-
age fair-wentlicr corona loss obtained by converting per—pha.so
PH measurements to three-phase values, for a line 22.9 fool. flat spac-
ing, 32.8 feet high. This conductor used on 220-kv lines in Sweden
which have above dimensions.
24LE
xw/a-A _ __; ‘ l Curve 7——1.25 in. st¢eel—alurninum. Ref. 22 App. A. Plotted curve
obtained by estimating average of a number of fair-weather per-
phase curves given in reference and converting to three-phase loss
for lino having 32-foot fiat spacing, 50-foot average height.
Curve 8——-3 .04 in. stccl—a.luminum, 24-Strand. Ref. 23. Plotted curve
I0: »E --1 - obtained by conversion of per-phase measurements to tilxrcwphase
Al4l 4 .uni‘.
‘ ‘ A4
values, using an estimated value for charging kva, to give loss on 2.
line having 45-foot flat configuration.
Curve 9-----0.91 in. Hollow Copper. Ref. 11. Conductor washed.
1 . ~ I4 Test configuration: three-phase line, 20-foot fiat spacing, 700 feet
long.
* I
_ -8..M l
_- L_- _ .;5._ .;_--".'- -_ §.i-_ -.L .-_ .
I’.
I
,-

o I00 zoo 300 400 500 W soo Fig. 28——Fair-Weather C»orona—L0ss Curves for Stranded Con-
KVL-L ductors; Air Density Factor. 6 =1.

and foul~\vee.thcr corona loss and the vnriamion which can sion line should be operated at a voltage well below the
be expected during fair weather is shown in Fig. 30 for voltage at which the ioss begins to increase rapidiy under
one conductor. fair-weather conditions. Operation at or above this point
Corona loss on a. sabisfactory line is primarily caused by can result in uneconomical corona. loss. A very careful an»
rain. This is shown by the fairly high degree of correlation alysis, weighing the annual energy cost and possibly the
between total rainfall and integrated corona loss which has maximum demand against reduced capitalized lino cost,
been n0t,ed.‘2"“"“ The corona ioss at certain points on a. must be made if operation at a voltage near or above the
transmission line can reach high values during bad storm knee of the fair-weather loss curve is contemplated.
conditions. However, such conditions are not likely to oc- Corona loss on a conductor is a function of the voltage
cur simultaneously all along a. line. Borgquist and Vre- grndicut at its surface. Thus the effect of reduced con-
them expect only a variation from 1.6 to 16 kw per miie, ductor spacing and lowered height is to increase the corona
with an average value of 6.5 kw per mile, on their 380-kv loss as a. function of the increased gradient. On transmis-
lines now under construction in Sweden. The measured sion lines using a flat conductor configuration, the gradient
loss on their experimental line varied from 1.6 to S1 kw per at the surface of the middle phase conductor is higher than
mile. The calculated faimveather corona loss common in on the outer conductor. This results in corona being more
the U.S.A. is generally loss than one l-cw per mile, based on picvalcnt on the middle conductor.
calculations using Reference I6. Vi/he111. radio-infliiencc
must be considered, the annual corona loss will not be of 8. Radio Influence (RI)
much economic importance”, and the maximum loss will Radio influence is probably the factor limiting the choice
not constitute a serious load. of a satisfactory conductor for a given voltage. The RI
Corona loss is characterized on linear coordinates by 8» performance of transmission lines has not been as thor-
rather gradual increase in loss with increased voltage up to oughly investigated as corona loss. Recent publications
the so-called “knee” and above this voltage, 9. very rapid (see references) present most of the information available.
increase in loss. The knee of the fair-weather loss curve is RI plotted against voltage on iinear graph paper
generally near the critical disruptive voltage. A transmis- is characterized by a gradual increase in R1 up to a. vol-
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial I/ines 59

1. , “W ‘ i Hl Curve 1-4/0.985/15.7‘ (Smooth) Ref. 25. 6 not given, but assumed

1.10, which is average value for Germany. Reference curve ob~
taincd by converting einglwphase measurements to three-phase
M‘444. values on the basis of surface gradient. Dimensions of line used in
making conversion are not given.
Curve 2—-4/0.827/15.7’ (stranded aluminum-steel). Ref. 25. 5=
1.092. See discussion of Curve L
30 Curve 3--3/(1.985/l1.8* (Smooth). Ref. 26. 5=1.092. Reference
curve gives single-phase measurements versus line»to~ground vo1t~
age, but it is not clear whether actual test voltage or equivalent
voltage ct line height is given. Latter was used in making the con—
version to thremphase. If this is wrong, curve is approximately
15 percent low in voltage. Converted to flat configuration of 45
feet.
Curve 4——-2 /1.09 /17.7* (Stranded aluminum-steel). 8 1.01. Ref. 12,
App. A. Reference curve gives per-phase measurements versus
1 "A7777777iii gradient. Converted to three-phase corona loss on line of 42.5~foot
l average height, 39.4-foot flat configuration.
Curve 5&2/1.25/17.7‘ (Stranded cluminum~steel) 3 not given, probw
ably close to unity. Ref. 12. Reference curve, which gives three-
/3LM'P£HASr§ ‘EL,<4-1.4
xw N. - Q. _ _ _ _ 9L _....___j__g_ phase corona lose,~was converted from per-phase measurements.
Dimensions 42.5 feet average height, 39.4 feet flat configuration.
l V ‘J M l _ I it This conductor was selected for use on the Swedish 380-kv system.
Original author probably selected a worse f8.ll‘~W'83.ll16l’ condition
l 5‘
, ‘ j if il
1' than the writer did in plotting curve 4, which could account for
their closeness.
no ~ e —" c — T t Curve 6—2/2.04/28.7‘ (Stranded alurninum—steel). 8 not given. Ref.
13. Plotted curve is average of two single-phase lair-weather
0 curves, converted to three~phase loss for 45-foot fiat configuration.
Sec Curve 7.
Q Curve 7-2/1.04/15.7‘ {Stranded aluminumcteel). 5 not given. Ref.
oi T _ ---.__\_____ , 13. Plotted curve is average of two single-phase fair-weather
l -. \ ‘l
Q
A curves, converted to three-phase lose for 45~foot fiat configuration.
i l Date for curves 6 and 7 were taken at same time in order to show
\. ‘EN
l l. ’.»'
. effect of sub~concluctor separation.

O W IOO ZOO 300 '1-O0 509 600 “Bon<lle—conductor designation———nurnber of sub~conductors/out-

side diameter of each sub—conductor in inches/separation between
Kl-'1.~L
adjacent sub-conductors in inches.
Fig. 29--~Falr-Weather Corona-Loss Curves for Two», Three», and iiour-conductor Bundles; Air Density Factor, 6=1.00.

tage slightly below the minimum voltage at which meats» range of communication services likely to be encountered,
arable corona loss is detected. Above this voltage, the should be known. An evaluation of these factors in terms
increase in the RI is very rapid. The rate of increase in RI of their effect on various communication services must take
is influenced by conductor surface and diameter, being into consideration many things. These are available signal
higher for smooth conductors and large-diameter con- intensities along the line, satisfactory signal-tomoisc ra-
ductors. Above a certain voltage, the magnitude of the tios, effect of Weather on the RI factors and on the im~
RI field begins to level ofi". For practical conductors, the portance of particular communication services, number
leveling off value is much too high to be acceptable, and and type of receivers in vicinity of the line, proximity of
Where RI is a factor, lines must be designed to operate be- particular receivers, transfer of RI to lower-voltage cir~
low the voltage at which the rapid increase starts during fair cuits, the general importance of particular communication
weather. Figures 32 and 33 are characteristic R1 curves. services, and means for improvement of reception at indi~
The relation between fair“ and foul-Weather corona. per- vidual receiver locations.“ For extra-high-voltage and
formance is shown in Fig. 32. double-circuit high-voltage lines the tolerable limits of RI
An evaluation of RI in the design of a- high-voltage line might be higher because the number of receivers affected,
must consider not only its magnitude, but its cficct On the the coupling to lower voltage circuits, and the coupling to
various communication services which require protection. receiver antennas is reduced. Also fewer lines are required
Amplitude-modulated broadcasting and powcr—linc carrier for the same power handling ability, and wider right-oil
are the most common services encountered but other serv- ways are used which tend to reduce the RT problem.
ices such as aviation, marine, ship~to-shore SOS calls, po- Although RI increases very rapidly with increased gradi-
lice and a. number of government services might also have ent at the surface of a conductor, theoretical considerations
to be considered. of the radiation characteristics of 9. transmission line as
In determining the RI performance of a. proposed line, spacing is reduced, indicate that the RI from a transmission
the magnitude of the RI factors for the entire frequency line will not be seriously aiiected by reduced spacing.“
60 Characteristics of Aerial I/ines Chapter 3

" y" ' If '1“: ‘» Standard radio-noise metersm‘ can measure the aver-
.
.
1 3
|
I
age, quasi-peak, and peak values of the RI field. The aver-
35 1 iT"" _
age value is the amplitude of the RI field averaged continu-
i ‘ I
\
ously over y; second. For quasi—peak measurements, a cir-
cuit. having a. short time constant (0.001-0.0} sec.) for
charging and 2. long time constant (0.3 to 0.6 sec.) for dis—
l| Ilwl W, W W; charging is used, with the result that the meter indication
OI
is near the peak value of the RI field. Aural tests of radio
reception indicate that quasi-peak readings interpreted in
_Ag. Z14 terms of broadcast-station field strengths represent more
accurately the “nuisance” value of the RI field. The peak
25 l \ lg , _ value is the Iuaxirnum instantaneous value during a given
period. The typo of measurements made must be known
before evaluating published RI information or misleading
conclusions can be drawn.
mO
PHASEMLE """""-*§——-—-r~+t+< The lateral attenuation of RI from a transmission line
depends on the line dimensions and is independent of volt-
\- stem zigc. At distances between /10 and 150 feet from the outer
|<w/:s- conductor, the attenuation at 1000 kc varies from 0.1 to 0.3
db per foot, with the lower values applying generally to
‘5 OVERCAST, i Niml-Y high-voltage lines. Typical lateral attenuation curves are
HOAHFROST, ~ , "““Oi.El\R shown in Fig. 34. Lateral attenuation is affected by local
F06 l p
' l l 1‘ _' , i stein conditions. Because of the rapid attenuation of RI later-
ally from 9. line, a change of a few hundred feet in the loca-
'0 RMN —'*""’_'_"7 W’ ii ' J tion of a. right-of-way can materially aid in protecting a
3
K --cu-IAR communication service.
RAIN l E - _._ ,_ _
OLE f\R 9. Selection of Conductor
5 ucHr__“__,_, ll" In the selection of a satisfactory conductor from the
SNOW standpoint of its corona performance for voltages up to
'\
‘m
230 kv, operating experience and current practice are the
-/ i best guide. Experience in this country indicates that the
U I00 290 30° 400 500 GOD corona performance of 2, transmission line will be satisfac-
tory when a. lino is designed so that the fo.ir~\vcat»hcr
“Vin. corona. loss according to Pci.crson’s formula,“ is less than
Fig. 30—Corona Loss on 1.09 Inch Stranded Aluminum~Steel
Conductor under Difierent Weather Conditions. This con-
one kw per three-phase mile. Unsatisfactory corona per»-
doctor is in use on the Swedish 226-kv system. Note variation forinancc in areas whore RI must be considered has been
in fair-weather corona loss and the relation between fair- and reported for lines on which the calculated corona loss is in
foul-weather corona loss. Plotted curves obtained by convert- excess oi this value, or even less in the case of medium high-
ing per-phase measurements to three-phase values for 2 lino voltago lines. Figure 31 is based on Petersoifs formula and
having 32-foot fiat spacing, 56-foot average height. No cor-
rection made for air density factor. Ref. 22, App. A. indicates satisfactory conductors which can be used on
high—voltagc lines. For medium high—voltage lincs (138 kv)
considerably more margin below the one kw curve is neces-
The conductor configuration, the number of circuits, and nary bccuusc of t-he increased. probability of exposure of re-
the presence of ground wires affect the radiation from the ceivers to RI from the line, and a design approaching 0.1
line with a. given RI voltage on the conductors. Very little kw should be used.
is known about the radiation characteristics of transmis-
sion lines and caution should be exercised in applying data 10. Bundle Conductors
not token on a lino configuration closely approximating the A “bundle conductor” is a conductor made up of two or
design under consideration. more “sub-conductors”, and is used as one phase conduc-
The RI ficld from a transmission line varies somewhat tor. Riindlo condiictors are also called duplex, triplex, etc,
as the inverse of the radio frequency measured. Thus serv- conductors, referring to the number of subconductors and
ices in the higher-frequency hands, (tclcvisionli, frequency- are sometimes referred to as grouped or multiple con-
modulated broadcasting, microwave relay, radar, etc.) are ductors. Considerable work on bundle conductors has
loss apt to be affected. Directional antennas which are been done by the engineers of Siemens-Schuckertwerke”
generally used at those freqnenrrios, on the average, in- who concluded that bundle conductors were not economi-
crease the signal-to~noise ratio. The lower signal strengths, cal at 220 kv, but for rated voltages of 400 kv or more, are
and wider band-widths generally found in the high-fre- the best solution for overhead transmission. Rusck and
quency bands can all-er this picture somewhat. Frequency- Ratiisman“ state that the increase in transmitting capac-
modulated broadcast is inherently loss sensitive to RI ity éU.‘:‘l.llll;‘S economically the use of two-conductor bun-
because of its type of modulation. dles on 220-kv lines.
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines 61

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O0
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CONDUCTOR DIMIETER 1N INCHES
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l-—-Mm esrnmos —-—--o-—-—- la smnmos -------4 0UT5">€ LAYER
Fig. 3lmQuick-Estimating Corona-Loss Curves. Curves based on Peterson’s formula with a few check points from the
Carrol and Rockwell paper for comparison.

The advantages of bundle conductors are higher disrup-
tive voitage with conductors of reasonable dimensions, re-
duced surge impedance and consequent higher power capa-
bilities, and less rapid increase of corona loss and RI with
increased vo1tage.m"“ These advantages must he weighed
against increased circuit cost, increasedxiharging kvo. if it
cannot be utilized, and such other considerations as the
large amoimt of power which would be carried by one cir~
cuit. It is possible with a tWo—conductor bundle composed
of conductors of practical size to obtain electrical charac-
teristics, excepting corona, equivalent to a single conductor
up to eight inches in diameter.
Theoretically there is an optimum sub-conductor separa-
tion for bundle conductors that will give minimum crest.
gradient on the surface of a sub~conduct0r and hence high-
est disruptive voltage. For a two-conductor bundle, the
separation is not very critical, and it is advantageous to
use 2. larger separation than the optimum which balances
the reduced corona performance and slightly increased cir-
cuit cost against the advantage of reduced reactance.
Assuming isolated conductors which are far apart com-
pared to their diameter and have a voltage applied bo-
tween them, the gradient at the surface of one conductor
is given by:
e be seen by comparing curve 6 of Fig. 28, with curve 2
9 rlog¢,D/r
where the symbols have the same meaning as used in Eq.
(79a). This equation is the same as equation (79a), except
that surface factor, m, and air density factor, 5, have been
omitted. These factors should be added to Eqs. 80 and 81
for practical calculations. For an two-conductor bundle, the
equation for maximum gradient at the surface of a sub-
conductor” is:
W e(l -1- 21'/S)
9”" 2ri0g,,\fiS
D (so)
where: 1
S =separation between sub-conductors in centimeters.
Because of the effect of the sub-conductors on each
other, the gradient at the surface of a sub-conductor is not
uniform. It varies in a. cosinusoidal manner from a maxi-
mum at a point on the outside surface on the line-of-cem
tars, to a minimum at the corresponding point on the inside
surface. This cdect modifies the corona performance of a
bundle conductor such that its corona starting point cor-
responds to the voltage that would be expected from calcu-
lations, but the rate of increase of corona with increased
~ voltage is less than for a single conductor. This effect can
(7%) of Fig. 29. Cohen and Pelissierfl“ concluded that the
corona performance of a twmconductor bundle is more
accurately indicated by the mean between the average
62 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3

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1 0'” loo " zoo l zoo
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N
‘ | 1__,/ l
I -, 1 ‘ Fig. 33-—Fair-Weather Radio-Influence Field from a Trans-
l 8 | 1 :_ mission Line as a Function of Voltage. Measurements made
opposite mid-span on the 230-kv Covington~Grand Coulee
we" 4‘ so ab ' moo :20 140 Line No. 1 of the Bonneville Power Administration. R} values
MLOVOLTS are quasbpeak. 1.108 inch AGSR conductor, 27-foot flat spac-
Fig. 32——Radi0 influence and corona less measurements made ing, 4}-foot height, test frequency——800 kc.
on an experimental test line. Ref. 26..
mo A, .._ —— 1 \ ~ ; W?
and maximum gradient at the surface of a sulyconduetor, some -""
\ , 1
V ~
which is given by:
g w e(1 -i—r/S) 60 "' ‘Z *1" I
D (81) GO *7 "'4 ' ‘ ' * ' "
- 2210 B-----—
g we \ \ i
If it is desired to determine the approximate disruptive _ '\
. 1 , _ . 3 WWW -_ 1: "- _,_ Y __c
voltage of 2, conductor, g,,=21.1(1"l-9?/07) kv per centi-
7'
meter rms can be substituted for g and the equations solved
for eo in kv rms. This value neglects air density Factor
_c 0 1 L_ ‘_‘“#~§_____ ___
and surface factor, which can be as low as 0.80 (consult 05 , \ “'4
ER
references 10 and 16 for more accurate calculations). NP
TOFRE 8m_@a
380 kv Systems using bundle cenductors are being built l l
‘ , ___ :74 _, »** ;;--. E
or under consideration in Sweden, France, and Germany.
Curve 1——Avérs,ge lateral attenuation for a number of eransmissien
lines from 138- to 1-l50~kv. O X A fl] are plotted values which apply
2 ’ ‘ ” ” ”’ ”
to this curve only. Test frequency 1000 kc. Ref. 21.
Curve 2»-Lateral Attenuation from the 220-kv Eguzou-Chaingy line
in France Line has equileteml spacing, but dimensions no£- given.
Distance measured from middle phase. Test frequency»-868 kc.
'0 l l 40 60 120 I60 200
Ref. 24.
Curve 3 Lateral Attenuation from 230-kv Midway—Columbia Line HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM OUTSIDE CONDUCTOR-FEET
of the Bonneville Power Administration. Conductor height 47.5 Fig. 34—Lateral Attenuation of Radio Influence in Vicinity of
feet, test frequency 830 kc. Ref. 42. High-Voltage Transmission Lines.
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines
REFERENCES
Line Conductors—Tidd 500~kv Test Lines, by E. L. Poierson,
D. M. Simmons, L. F. Hickeruell, M. E. Noyes. AIEE Paper
47——244.
Symmetrical Components, (s. book), by C. F. Wagner and R. D.
Evans. MoGraw~Hill Book Company, 1933.
Reducing Inductance on Acfiacenfi Transmission Circuits, by
H. B. Dwight, Electrical World, Jan. 12, 1924, I3 89.
Electric Power Transmission (a book}, by L. F. Woodruif. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1938.
Electrical Transmission ofPower and Signals (a. book), by Edward
W. Kimbark. John ‘Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1949.
Heating and Current Carrying Capacity of Bare Conductors for
Outdoor Service, by O. R. Schurig and C. W. Erick, General
Electric Review Volume 33, Number 3, March 1930, 1'3 I42.
Hy-Therm C0pper-~An Improved Overhead-Line Conductor,
by L. F. Hiekernell, A. A. Jones, C. J. Snyder. AIEE Paper 49-3.
Elecérical Ciao;-aclemlalics of Transrnwlssicn Circuits, (a. book}, by
W. Nesbit, Westinghouse Technical Night School Press, I926.
Resistance and Reactanee of Commercial Steel Conductors, by
Prof. H. B. Dwight, Electric Joumal, January I919, page 25.
Dielectric Phenomena. in High-Voltage Engineering (Book) F.
W. Peck, Jr. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. New York, 1929.
Corona Loss Measurements on a. 220-KV 60-Cycle Three—Phase
Experimental Line, J. S. Carroll, L. H. Brown, D. P. Dinapoli,
A.l.E.E. Transactions Vol. 50, 1931, pages 36-4=3.
Corona. Losses from Conducisors 1.4-inch Diameter, J. S. Carroll,
B. Cozzens, '1‘. M. Blakeslee, 41.1 Transactions Vol. 53,
1934:, pages 1727-33.
Corona Losses at 230 KV with One Conductor Grounded, J. S.
Carroll, D. M. Simmons, A.I.E.E. Transactions Vol. .54, 1935,
pages 846-7.
Empirical Method of Calculating Corona. L085 from High-Volfw
age Transmission Lines, J. S. Carroll, M. M. Rockwell, Al
Transactions Vol. 56, 1937, page 558.
Corona. Loss Measurements for the Design of Transmission
Lines to Operate at Voliagoq between 220-KV and 330—KV. I.
S. Carroll, B. Cozzens, A.I Transactions Vol. 52, 1933,
pages 55—62.
Development of Corona. Loss Formula (discussion o€ reference
15), W. S. Peterson, Al Transactions Vol. 52, pages 62—3.
New Techniques on the Anacom—Electric‘Anal0g Computer, E.
L. Harder, J. T. Carleton, AIEE Technical Paper 50-85.
Ein noues Vorlustgcsctz dcr Wochsclsponnungslioronu, H. Prinz,
Wise. Veroli. Siemens~SchuckertWerke A.G.—~Vo1. XIX, July
26, 1940.
Desera Measurements of Corona Loss on Conductors for Opera»-
tion above 230 KV, VV. S. Peterson, B. Cozzens, J. S. Carroll, as
presented AIEE Convention Pasadena, Calif, June 12~l6, 1950.
Transmission of Electric Power at Extra High Voltages, Philip
Spurn, A. C. Mulltcibli, A.I.E'.E, Tmnsaist-:lon.s, Vol. G6, 1947
pages 1571-7, disc. 1582.
Progress Report on 500~KV Test Project of the American Gas
and Electric Company-~Corona, Radio lnfiuence, and Other
Factors. Philip Sporn, A. C. Monteith, as presented AIEE
Convention, Pasadena, Calif. June 12-16, 1950.
The Swedish 380¢KV System, W. Borgquist, A. Vrethem, see
also Appcndix,A. B. Henning, S. Skagerlind, CIGRE paper 412,
1948 session, June 2& to July 3, Conference Internationale cles
Grands Reseaux Electriques 2. I-Iaute Tension.
Influence, sur l’Ellet do Couronne, du Diametre et do Profil dcs
Cablce des Lignes Aeriennes a True Haute Tension, F. Cullen, R.
Pelissier, Revue Generole de l’Eleclric'iié, Vol. 58, pages 279-90.
L’emploi de Conductcurs on Faisceaux pour L’A1-moment dos
Lignes a. Trés Home Tension, F. Cohen, R. Pelissior. Bull. Soc.
Frangaise dos Electricians, 6911 Series, Vol. VIII, No. 79, 1048.
63
Recherches Experimentales sur Ia Comportemnnt des Conduc-
teurs ales Lignes a. 400 KV, F. Cohen, R. Pelissier, Bull. Soc.
Frangaise dea Elecériciens, 6th Series, Vol. IX No. 99, Dec. 1949.
Mecanisme dc l’El’fet do Courorme sur les Lignes do Transport
d’Energie en Courant Alternatif, R. Pclissier, D. Renaudin
Bull. Soc. Frarigcme des Electviciens, 6th Series, Vol. 9, Feb.191£9.
Bundelleitungen, W. v. Mangoldt, F. Busemann, A. Buerklin,
G. Markb, F. I. Kromer, Siemens-Sohuokertwerke, A. G. pam-
phlet, Berlin-Siemensstndt, I942.
400-KV ‘Transmission Lines with Special Reference to Multiple
Conductor Lines (Bundelleinungen), British Inielligence Objec-
tives Sub-committee, Final Report N0. 1833, Item No. 33, SO.
C0£ie—-No. 51—8275—-33, Technical Information and Documents
Unit 40, Cadogon Square, London S.W.l England.
Drelastrolllferliuebertmgulig mil; Bu11tlell1=:iLe1-ix, G. l\'I&rlcL, B.
Mengele, Eleklrolechmlk mid Zlloschinenbau, 1932, page 293.
Die Wirisohaftliche Bemessung von Bundelleiter~Leitungon
Elelctrolechnik mid Maschinenbau, 1935, page 410.
500-KV Experimeniol Station at Chovilly: Use of Bundle Con-
ductors; Corona Effects; Clearances, P. Ailleret, F. Cohen, Conf.
Int. des Grands Res. Electr. a Haute Tension (CIGRE), 1948,
paper N0. 410.
Relative Surface Voltage Gradients of Grouped Conductors,
M. Temoshok, Al Transactions Vol. 67, Part ll, pages
1583-9.
Discussion oi Reference 32 by C. F. Wagxier, Al Transac-
lions Vol. 67, Part II, page 1590.
Three-Phase Multiple-Conductor Circuits, E. Clarke, A.I
Transactions, Vol. 51, 1932, page 809, Appendix C by S. Cramy.
Methods of Measuring Radio Noise 1040 -- A report of the Joint
Coordination Committee on Radio Reception of EEII, N EMA,
and RMA.
Proposed American Standard Specification for a Radio Noise
Meter-—0.015 to 25 megacyeles. Oct. 1949 (Published for one
year trial use).
Television Interference Seldom Comes from Power Sytems, F.
L. Greene, Electrical World, Jan. 16, 1950, pages 55-9.
Fifient. of Radio Fmrgnannies nf a Power Systom in R$L(ll0-R.6-
ceiving Systems, C. V. Aggers, W. E. Paknln, W. A. Stickel‘
AJ Tmnsoctions, Vol. 62, 1934, pages 169-72.
Measurements Pertaining to the Coordination of Radio Recep-
tion with Power Apparatus and Systems, C. M. Foust, C. W.
Prick, A.I.E.E. Transactions Vol. 62, 1943, pages 284»-91, disc. 458.
Radio Interference Suppression in Canada, H. O. Merriman,
AIEE paper No. 47440.
Results of Tests Carried out at the 500-kv Experimental Station
of Chevilly (France), Especially on Corona Behavior of Bundle
Conductors, F. Cohen, A.I.E.E. Transactions, 1948, Vol. 67,
Part II, pages 1118-25.
Raciio~Noise Influence of 230-KV 1'.ines,'H. L. Rorden, A.I
Transaction, Vol. 66, 1947, pages 677-8; riisc. 682.
Radio Influence from High Volmge Corona, G. R. Slemon, AIEE
paper No. 49450.
Comparative Investigation of D.C.- and A.C.-Core-no on TWO-
Conductor Transrnission Lines (ln German), R. Strigel, Wis-
som-chafliiciie Vcrocféonflichungon Aus Den Siemcnsd/Vcrlcen, Vol.
15, Part 2, 1936, pages 68-91.
The Swedish 380 KV System, A. Rusck, B0 G. Rathsman, Eleo-
Zricnl Erzgineering, Dec. 1949, pages 1€]25-9.
Series Capacitor and Double Conductors in the Swedish Trans-
mission Systcm, A. Rusck, Bo G. Rathsman, Electrical Engineer-
ing, Jon. 1950, pngee 53-7.
lflffoct of Earbliing on Corona Losses, Conduotor Di:J.n1ei:er Ami
Length of Insulator Sirings, The Brown Bovem‘ Review, V01.
XXXV Nos. 7/8, July/August, 1948, pages 192-201.
The Transmission of Electric Power (a book), by W. A. Lewis,
(1948 Lithoprinted Edition} Illinois Institute of Technology.
 CHAPTER 4

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CABLES

Original Author." Revised by:
H. N. Muller, Jr. J. S. Williams

ABLES are classified according to their insulation as

paper, varnished-cambric, rubber, or asbestos, each
of these materials having unique characteristics
which render it suitable for particular applications. Be-
cause cables for power transmission and distribution are
composed of so many different types of insulation, con- (a) Singlwconductor solid, compactwound conductor.
ductors, and sheathing materials, the discussion here must
be limited to those cable designs most commonly used.
Reasonable estimates of electrical characteristics for cables
not listed can be obtained in most cases by reading from
the table for a cable having similar physical dimensions.
Paper can be Wound onto £1 conductor in successive lay-
ers to achieve a required dielectric strength, and this is the
insulation generally used for cables operating at 10 O00 ;:»=s..‘*%--j +';
volts and higher. Paper insulation is impregnated in dif-
ferent ways, and accordingly cables so insulated can be (lo) Three-conductor belted, compact-sector conductors.
sub-divided into solid, oil-filled, or gas—lilled types.
Solid paper-insulated cables are built up of layers of
paper tape Wound onto the conductor and impregnated
with a viscous oil, over which is applied a tight-fitting,
extruded lead sheath. Multi-conductor solid cables are
also available, but the material shown here covers only
single“ and three-conductor types. Three-conductor cables
are of either belted or shielded construction. The belted (c) '1Thrce»conductor shielded, compact-sector conductors.
assembly consists of the three separately insulated con-
ductors cabled together and wrapped with another layer of
impregnated paper, or belt, before the sheath is applied. In
the shielded construction each conductor is individually
insulated and covered with a thin metallic nommagnetic
shielding tape; the three conductors are then cabled to-
gether, wrapped with a metallic binder tape, and sheathed
with lead. The purpose of the metallic shielding tape
around each insulated conductor is to control the electro- (d) Single-conductor oil-filled, hollow-stranded conductor.
static stress, reduce corona formation, and decrease the
thermal resistance. To minimize circulating current under
normal operating conditions and thus limit the power loss,
shielding tape only three mils in thickness is used. Solid
single-conductor cables are standard for all voltages from
1 to 69 kv; solid three-conductor cables are standard from
1 to 46 kv. Sample sections of paper-insulated single-con-
duct0r,thrcc-conductor belted, and three-conductor shielded (0) 'I'hrcc—con<luctor oikfillcd, compacbscctor conductors.
cables are shown in Fig. 1(a), (b), and (c) respectively. Fig. l*Paper-insulated cables.
Oil-filled paper-insulated cables are available in single- or Courtesy of Qeneral Cable Corporation
threemonductor designs. Single—conductor oil-filled cable
consists of a concentric stranded conductor built around an oil channels composed of helical springs that extend
open helical spring core, which serves as a channel for the through the cable in spaces normally occupied by filler
flow of low-viscosity oil. This cable is insulated and material. This construction is shown in Fig. l{e). Oil~
sheathed in the same manner as solid cables, as a compar- filled cables are relatively new and their application has
ison of Figs. l (a) and 1(d) indicates. Three-conductor oil- become widespread in a comparatively short time. The oil
filled cables are all of the shielded design, and have three used is only slightly more viscous than transformer oil, and
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 65

remains fluid at all operating temperatures. The oil in the

cable and its connected reservoirs is maintained under
moderate pressure so that during load cycles oil may flow
between the cable end the reservoirs to prevent the devel-
opment of voids or excessive pressure in the cable. The
prevention of void formation in paper insulation permits
the use of greatly reduced insulrttiorr thickness for a, given
operating; voltage. Another advantage of oil-filled cables is
that oil will seep out through any crack or opening which
develops in the sheath, thereby pr'even.t-ing the eln;-raiiee of
water at the defective point. This action prevents the
occurrence of a. fault caused by moisture in the insulation,
and since operating records show that this cause accounts
for a. significant percentage of all l1igh~=volte.ge cable faults,
it is indeed a. real a.rlvanto.ge. SlIlgl€§~(30I1(ll1(.7§ZOI‘ oihfilled
cables are used for voltages rengirig from 69 to 280 kv; the
usual range for three~eonductor oil~[iiled cables is from 23
to 69 kv.
Gas-filled cables of the low-pressure type have recently
become standard up to 46 kv. The singlewonductor type
employs construction gr,enerally similar to that of solid
cables, except that longituclinel fiutes or other channels are
provided at the inner surl'a.ce of the sheath to conduct
nitrogen along the cable. The three-conductor design em-
ploys channels in the filler spaces among the conductors,
much like those provided in oillilled threeconriuctor
cables. The gas is normally meintei11etl between 10 and 15
pounds per square inch gauge pressure, and serves to fill
all cable voids and exclude moisture at faulty points in the
sheath or ioints.
Ccurteey of am Olconite-Caliender Cfable Company
Fig. 2“---High-pressure pipe—typc oi1—fi1lcd cable.
High-pressure cables, of either the oil~ or gas-filled "veri-
ety, are being; used widely for the higher range of volt-ages.
The physical and electrical cha.rectc1'isti<:s are fairly well
known, but their specifications are not yet standardized.
The usual 8.ppllCatiOn cells for pressure of about 200 pounds
per square int-ii, contained by at steel pipe int-0 which three
Courtesy of General Cable Cwporaiion
Fig. 3—Cr0ss-section of high-pressure pipe-type gasdilled
cable. Oil-filled pipe~type cable may have a similar cross-
section.
Comprcssion cable is another high-pressure pipe—type
cable in which oil or nitrogen gas at high pressure is intro-
duced within a steel pipe containing lead~sheat11ed solid-
type sin;.\;lc~eonduct-or cables; no high-pressure oil or gas is
inl,mr1r1c(~cl directly inside the lea-d sheaths, but voids with-
in the solid-t_Vpc insulation are prevented by pressure
exerted externally on the sheaths. This construction is
sketched in Fig. 4.
During recent years there has been a trend toward the
modification of cable conductors to reduce cost and im-
prove opemting c.hera.cteristic..=s, pa.rticu§a.rly in mnlti-eon~
doctor cables. l<l.efe.rring to Fig. 5, the first departure from
concentric round conductors was the adoption of sector»
shaped conductors in three-conductor cables. More re~
cently it cruslled stranding that results in a (fUII1pB.CIL8d
sec-tor has been developed and has found VVi(i0sp\"e3/Cl use
For conduct-or sizes of 1/0 A.W.G. and larger. It-e use in
srneller conductors is not practical. The principal 2tdvan-
teges of such a conductor are: reduced overall diameter for
a given copper cr0ss~section; elimination of space between
the conductor and the insulation, which results in higher
>_,.5 »; .
4 =».ae ‘ . 4 -
n)>_€;{§-,..
,_».-_);V\.
'" *~§‘*
, |
. “*3
"gII'-=$"-

be
single-conductor cables are pulled. The immeriiate pres-
ence of the iron pipe makes difficult the calculations of
circuit impedance, particularly the zero-sequence quanti- l_;;‘;;=§;:;,_l-.5‘;-‘I
E 0.1- 4.’ ' .==¢..
ties. Most high-pressure cables are designed so that the
fig #2:
oil or gas filler comes into direct contact with the conductor .3“?
insulation; in oil-filled pipe-type cables at temporary load
sheath can be stripped from the cable as it is pulled into the -' 1
4 3:1!) Q". Y ":s:§\
rag :| '§='w'e::¢'¢"‘-'§'~;"
rt
EY 4 ’-’ 7. Q 5 \
e!.{:_,'g?'&'5j';',~fi!
>,.,
m'§:+*&3¢1-4&1-‘,‘2: ‘J’ i, Q#5,
ll. . "~*§'~$'.~,"i"03:!§§s;,v =1
steel pipe; in ga.s~filleti pipe—type cables the lead sheath sur-
rounding each conductor remains in place, with nitrogen
1 __.- . =:~-r %/ -.; ~;;. 1'

introduced both inside and outside the sheath so that no "'2' .

' ‘t,
i I

differential pressure develops across the sheath. Examples ’—:H__ * _':!_

\=.;,_»‘. , 5.”; .
of oil» and gas-filled pipe-type cables are shown in Figs. 2
and 3. Fig. 4-—Croaa—eecti0nal sketch of compression cable.
66 Electrical Choracterisfics of Cables Chapter 4

concentric-strand type, they may also be c0mpact~round,

annular-stranded, segmental, or hollow-core.

I. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The electrical characteristics of cables have been dis-
cussed comprehensively in a series of articles‘ upon which
much of the material presented here has been based. This
(cl (b) chapter is-primarily concerned with the determination of
the clectricai constants most commonly needed for power-
systeui calculations, particular emphasis being placed on
quantities necessary for the appiication of symmetrical
components? A general rule is that regardless of the com-
plexity of mutuai inductive relations between component
parts of individual phases, the method of symmetrical
. ’ EM“ W . p -. components can be applied rigorously whenever there is

e
it it Symmetry among phases. All the three-conductor cables
inherently satisfy this condition by the nature of their con-
(6) (<1) struction ; single-conductor cables may or may not, although
usually the error is small in caicuiating shortmircuit cur-
rents. Unsymmetrical spacing and change in permeability
resulting from diiierent phase currents when certain moth-
ods of eiiminating sheath currents are used, may produce
dissymrnctry.
4» . ‘(I :5: W3.-'~
.,..\‘
,1§:3;;j;r{§?.,;“_x:_ Those physical characteristics that are of general inter-
- . _) . ~ '-. r,~ 1-‘. est in electrical application problems have been included
‘i l i.‘~i{?“‘~<i
,,_‘,c along with electrical characteristics in the tables of this
"“‘v~"< t . ..
QQ
* ,5 M .- 4.
six
_~.M ~
2. ~ 1‘ v* \-M. ~‘“ ‘r _._l-0“
t:&€)'s§§£§}: 5 ,;"I
,_ section.
1,‘:
1 ‘
~§r§,,JJ
fl ‘_k“_"“A~‘“’~‘:’_’ ¢
‘Mn 1_~
All linear dimensions of radius, diameter, separation, or
11- ~:.’f'»,~» ~*<~a»~‘i., if ace distance to equivalent earth return are expressed in inches
in the equations in this chapter. This is unlike overhead
(8) (fl transmission line theory Where dimensions are in feet; the
use of inches when deaiing with cable construction seems
appropriate. Many equations contain a factor for fre-
quency, f, which is the circuit operating frequency in cycles
per second.
"if
"3' 2,:
1. Geometry of Cables
The space relationship among sheaths and conductors in
i*-§}$?»‘-'»'l§fi§l4?-,~5'3 a cable circuit is a major factor in determining rcactance,
1* 3%.!“ capacitance, charging current, insulation resistance, dielec-
tric loss, and therznai resistance. The symbols used in this
chapter for various cable dimensions, both for single-con—
(Q) (11) ductor and three~conductor types, are given in Figs. 6 and
Plxologmpiw in Zhia flgUY2f1&Ffli8;!lli by the Okonite-Commie! Cable Company 7. Several factors have come into universal use for defining
the cross-section geometry of a cable circuit, and some of
Fig. 5--Cable conductors. these are covered in the following paragraphs.“
(a) Standard concentric stranded. Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)»This factor is a.
(b) Compact round. property usually applied to the conductor alone, and de-
(c) Non-compact sector. pends on the material and stranding used in its construc-
(d) Compact sector. tion. One component of conductor reactanceg is normally
(e) Annular stranded (rope core). calculated by evaluating the integrated flux-linkages both
(I) Segmental. inside and outside the conductor Within an overall twelve-
(g) Rope stranded. inch radius. Considering a solid conductor, some of the flux
(h) Hollow core. lines lie within the conductor and contribute to total flux-
linkages even though they link only a portion of the total
eiectncal breakdown; low a-c resistance due to minimizing conductor current; if a tubular conductor having an infi-
oz" proximity effect; retention of the ciose stranding during nitely thin wall were substituted for the solid conductor, its
bending; and for solid cables, elimination of many lon- flux would necessarily ail be external to the tube. A theo-
gitudinal channels along which impregnating compound can retical tubular conductor, in order to be inductively equiv-
migrate. While most single-conductor cables are of the alent to a solid conductor, must have a smaller radius so
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 67

LEAD SHEATH GMRi¢, which applies to the group as though it were one
LE“ 5“5*'"" sen‘ INSULATEON complex conductor. This procedure is illustrated later in
cououcron INSULATION
\ cwvvcwfi , ?~%'fli‘i%l3§ Eq. (18).
Geometric Mean Distance (GMD) Spacings among

L W) / Q conductors, or between conductors and sheaths, are impor-

4%
tant in determining total circuit reactanec. The total flux-
linkagcs surrounding a conductor can be divided into two
components, one extending inward from a cylinder of 12-»
inch radius as dismissed in the preceding paragraph, and the
other extending outward from this cylinder to the current
return path beyond which. there are no not flux-linl<:i.ges.3
(0 l lb) The fluxdinkagcs per unit conductor current between the
$IN6LE-CONDUCTOR GA3LES
EQUILATERALLY SPACED THREE CONDUCTOR CABLE 12-inch cylinder and the return path are a function of the
separation between the conductor and its return. The rc-
PHASE G
turn path can in many cases be at parallel group of wires, so

@
that a geometric Inoun of all the separations between the
conductor and each of its returns must be used in calcula-
tions. Geomctric mean distance, therefore, is 2. term that
can he used in the expression for external flux-linkages, not
Prose 8 5bc 5:0 mass A only in the simple case of two adjacent conductors where it
is equal to the distance between conductor centers, but also

r>@f
$iNGLE-CONDUOTOR CABLES
UNSYMM ETRICALLY SPAGED, BUT PERFEGTLY TRANSPOSED
Fig. 6-Geometry of cables.
that the flux-linkages present inside the solid conductor but
absent within the tube will be replaced by additional link-
ages between the tube surface and the limiting cylinder of
turclvcdnch radius. A solid copper conductor of radius d/2
can be replaced by st theoretical tubular conductor whose
radius is 0.779 do/2. This equivalent radius is called the geo-
metric meen radius of the actual conductor, denoted herein
by GMRLC where the subscript, denotes reference to only a.
Single actual conductor. This quantity can be used in re-
actance calculations without further reference to the shape
or make-up of the conductor. The fact-or by which actual
radius must be multiplied to obtain (Eli/Illic varies with
in the more complex case where two circuits each composed
of several conductors are separated by an equivalent GMD.
The posii.ivc- or negative-sequence reactance of a. three-
phase circuit depends on separation among phase conduc-
tors. ll the conductors are cquilaterallyspaccd the distance
from one conductor center to another is equal to the GMI)
among conductors for that circuit. Using the terminology
in Fig. 6,
Gl\'lT)3<,=S for an eqiiilateral circuit.
The subscript here denotes that this GMD applies to sepa-
rations among three conductors. If the conductors are
arranged other than equilatemlly, but transposed along
their length to produce a balanced circuit, the equivalent
separation may be calculated by deriving 3. geometric mean
distance from the cube root of three distance productsa (sec
Chap. 3):
(:lMD3c:\3/Sab'Sbc'Sea
The component of circuit react-enee caused by flux outside
a twelve inch radius is widely identified as “reacta,nce
spacing factor” (cod) and can be calculated directly from
the GWD:

:c¢:0.2794 élog1Q ohms per phase per mile. (2)

' $£CTOR
DEPT H
V ductor reactance due to flux out to a. twelve-inch radius.
Fig. 7-Typical sector shape of conductor used in three-cor»
ductor cablczs.
stranding or hollow-core con.<:tri_1cti0n as shown in Chap. 3,
Fig. 11. Sometimes in calculations involving zero-se-
quence reectances, simplification may result ii the three
conductors comprising a three~phase circuit are considered
as a. group and converted to at single equivalent concluctor.
This requires the use of a, new GMR, denoted here as
When the equivalent separation is less than twelve inches,
as can occur in cable circuits, the reactunce spacing factor
is negative so es to Subtract from the component of con-
The zero-sequence reactance of it three-phase circuit may
depend on spacing among conductors and sheath as well as
among conductors. A distance that represents the equiv-
alent spacing between a conductor or a group of conductors
and the enclosing sheath can be expressed as a. GMD. Also,
the equivalent separation between cable conductors and
the sheath of a nearby cable, or the equivalent separation
between two nearby sheaths, can be expressed as at GMD.
Because these and other versions? of gconletric mean die-
tenee may be used successively in a. single problem, cere
68 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

must be taken to identify and distinguish among them dur- Because of the various possible combinations of con-
ing calculations. doctors and slieaths that can be taken in a tliree-cond uctor
Geometric Factor--The relation in space between the belted cable, several geometric factors are required for com~
cylinders formed by sheath internal surface and conductor plete definition. Two of these factors, the ones applicable
external surface in a single-conductor lead-sheathed cable to positive- and to zero-sequence electrical calculations, are
can be expressed as a “geometric factor.” This factor is shown in Fig. 9.
applicable to the calculation of such cable clinrncteristics
as capacitance, charging current, dielectric loss, leakage 2. Positive- and Negative-Sequence Resistance
current, and heat transfer, because these characteristics Skin Eject»--It is well known that the resistance of a.
depend on a field or flow pattern between conductor and conductor to alternating current is larger than its resistance
sheath. The mathematical expression for geometric factor to direct current. The direct-current resistance in cables
G in :1. single conductor cable is can be taken as the resistance of solid rod of the some
length and cross—section, but increased two percent to take
G=2.303 10g... % <3) into account the effect of spiraling of the strands that com-
where : pose the conductor. When alternating current flows in the
conductor there is an unequal distribution of current, with
nminside radius of sheath.
the outer filaments of the conductor carrying more current
d “outside diameter of conductor.
than the filaments closer to the center. This results in a
Geometric factors for single-conductor cables can be read higher resistance to alternating current than to direct cur-
from Fig. 8. Geometric factors for three-phase shielded rent, and is commonly called skin effect. The ratio of the
cables having round conductors are identical, except for two resistances is known as the skin-effect ratio. In small
heat flow calculations, to those for single-conductor cables. conductors this ratio is entirely negligible, but for larger
The shielding layer establishes an equipotential surface conductors it becomes quite appreciable, and must be c0n~
surrounding each conduct-or just as a lead sheath does for sidered when figuring the 60-cycle resistances of large con-
single-conductor cables. The heat conductivity of the
three-mil shielding tape is not high enough to prevent e Tnnm-1 1--D11ur-:Ns1n1~:s AND 60-CYCLE SKIN-EFFECT RATIO or
temperature differential from developing around the shield STRANDED Co1=1=|-:12 Counccrons AT 65°C.
circumference during operation: this poses a more complex
problem than can be solved by the simple geometric fact-ore 1 Inner Diameter of Annular
Conductor Round
given here. S, Stranded Conductor, inches
we Concentric-Stranded ‘iii
0.50 0.75
(Circular ‘ . ~
Mils) Diameter ‘ Outer‘ , Outer _
_________________1 __ _________ __ _____ ___A inches . Ratio Diem. R'8'tm Diem.‘ Rama

no W ~ 211000 0.522. 1.007 l7.7.7.77.7.7

250 090 01575 1.905 . . . . . . . . . .1
_ ///I/1,,’ 1 300000 0.630 1.006 .. . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . , . ..
s.._ .~ 400000 0.728 1.012 . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..
1 , __ 500000 0.814 1.018 10.07 1.01 . . . . . . . . .
000000 0.803 1.020 1.04 1.01 . . . . . . . . . . ..

G0I _ 1
9.0
1
_ __ _ _
\\\\\\\\\\
+0 -4,,
G- 1§
/
"'1'!/I-\7
\\\\\\\\“‘\ 1
1
000000
1000000
1500000 1
1.031
1.152
1.412 ‘
1.040
1.008
1.145
1.10 1.
1.25 1.
1.52 1.
WAD

1 2000000 ‘ 1.031 1.230 112,1.

GEOMETRCFACTOR,63 l 2500000 1 1.825 1.836 1.91 1.
3000000 1 1.998 1.439 1 2.08 1. CIO@e-@@@U-l>i "~l§DOJbD \3h§fi-‘!—* -"!—‘
Ar-1:-‘:*.~r~r* senses
M
~
//"T"'-1 Z

1
\\\ '\\
\-
H»
ductors. Some skin-effect ratios are tabulated in Table 1
1
‘\\\\.-_.I \\\\\\\'*“ for stranded and representative hollow conductors?
. . —.:; V 7 »»
‘to T
\\
"01,,’lI/' Proximity Efl‘ect--The alternating magnetic flux in a
conductor caused by the current flowing in a neighboring
0 ___ __, 3, _ 1 _____ lsmscosoi conductor gives rise to circulating currents, which cmise an
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 T 0.8 1.0 L2
apparent increase in the resistance of a conductor. This
RATIO T phenomenon is called proximity effect. The increase in
Fig. 8—Geometric factor for single-conductor cables, or resistance is negligible except in very large conductors.
three-conductor shielded cables having round conductors. Proximity effect can, however, become important under
NOTE: This is approximately correct for shielded sector-conductor certain conditions of cable installation. When cables are
cables if curve is entered with the dimczisinins of 0. round-conductor laid parallel to metal beams, walls, etc., as is frequently the
cable having identical conductor area and insulation thlGl:n9$$. case in buildings or ships, proximity effect increases the
This geometric factor is not applicable for heatdiow calculations in apparent impedance of these cables appreciably. Booth,
shielded cables. See Secs. 5 and 6. Iiutchings and Whitehead‘ have made extensive tests on
 mm " w »
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 69
UT

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I I GSSE
0.6 W .\ ,_c V Q \ J _ T 1 1 _ ,
0 0.2 0.4 as as 1.0 L2 1.4 1.5 as an 2.2 24
RAYIO L?‘

Fig. 9-Geometric factor for three-conductor belted cabies having round or sector conductors.

NOTE: For cabies caving_sact.<>1: conductors, enter the curve with the dimensions of a round-conductor cable having identical conductor
area and instllatlon thlcknesses. 1\/Iultiply the resuitant geometric factor by the sector correction factor given above.
(G1 is calculated for three~phase operation; G0 is calculated for tsingie-phase operation, with three conductors paralleled and re-
turn m sheath. See Secs. 5 and 6.)
70 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

the impedance and current-carrying capacity of cables, as

they are affected by proximity to fiat plates of conducting ‘
H la)
and magnetic ma.tcrial. Figures ll and 12, La.ke-11 from this ANCE
43-09%; (ul--5 m. smcmo BETWEEN snsmss
1 5 (b)—-3m.SF'ACiN6 eerwzsru SHEATNS
work, illustrate forcefully that proximity effect can be Q.08\*""'"“;

significantly large. Although these tests were performed ; , , , ——— REACTANCE AT so CYCLES 1
at 50 cycles it is believed that t-he results serve to indicate 0.01 = 3 l -»-»-» RESESTANGE AT so cvcu-zs
effects that would be experienced at 60 cycles. The results
; lb) 5 . .
— 0136‘; 1 ~ , —— 5
in an actual installation of cables close to metal surfaces are
ERMLE.9
influenced so greatly by the material involved, and by the TANCEANDREACT O 5.4::

.0O :§44,_ C‘U

QHMSP
003"" -n\ \\\\\\\\

0.02
i /V ---T-1-El-——, (bl }C4“4“+4+_“‘
I

2. _/A
ucnmsur 0.0: (_/\_l -- i
'0
orRess 7//1
/_/
L2 -----~ ,'
‘Q
'i - ~i__l:.- -_~ _
’t__:_::
-t °-°o 1 2 5 ,,m. ,,,_ a-w»~ ;-l—— 7 a 9 I0 1|
menace mom STEEL P LA"rs —-mcmzs
5 i—
l \\/
—~5;\
‘/-
.1,
\ <
' \=_:?§" l i

———-—74----———
l
‘
Fig. IL-Increase in cable resistance and reactance caused
by proximity to steel plate for single phase systems (cable
sheaths are insulated).

FACTOR,6 8 eeeee ‘serials will contribute lowest losses. Some practical pos-
G
._
l
i
‘
l .
l
..,_ l 1_ l . sibilities, drawn from experience in the design of switch-
l l gear, transformers, and generators, are listed here:
94?. 8.. The magnetic plate can be shielded by an assembly of
saomsfn laminated punchings, placed between the cables and
the plate, so that flux is diverted from the plate and
0.4 1 l 1 into the laminations. The laminations normally have
low eddymurrent losses and they must be designed so
l l 5 that flux (lcnsity is not excessive.
O2‘1 r_1 W_*W r _ ‘ lj b. The magrietic plate can be shielded with 3 sheet of
comlucting material, such as copper or aluminum,
. l l placed so that the magnetic field acts to build up
1 lllllllllllllllllif i I
l
"___ L__._ ___ .. ..5 . _.._ _ ___ l . l
O0 0.04 o.oa 10.12 we 0.20 0131""
1 (cl
"W" '

nmo {- .03
3 3 (6l"5!N. SPACING azrwzew SHEATHS
MRLE
Fig. i0—Geometric factor for threemonductor shielded cables 1 _\ lbl—3|N, smcmo ecrwsen smzmns
3"“ " lo)» nu. smcmc asrwszu swemus
having sector conductors, in terms of insulation thickness T
and mean periphery P.
0|-msPE .<>.<>
55 “o -- --- eancnnoe an" so CYCI...E‘3
1 --- RESISTANCE AT 50 CYCLES
structural shape of the surface, that calculation and pre-
diction is dificult.
The additional losses caused by placing a metal plate or 1 rm _ _.- M14
other structural shape close to a cable circuit arise from 1 ' W K °
both hysteresis and eddy-current eliects within the plate. l
0.06l' ' "W *-’
Hysteresis losses are large if the flux density within the plate OO

is high throughout a large proportion of the plate volume. G‘

A material having high permeability and very high re~
911>
.0
.0.0
3.3
93 .3.
,4
sistivit-y would promote hysteresis loss, because flux devel-
oped by cable currents could concentrate within the low_ ODS ,6, ~<\ T\ \ . -
reluctance plate, and because the action of eddy-currents RorRES
sNTEAmCTmcANCEz-mo59ON M
<?>,l\l\V‘
/ \‘\
to counteract the incident flux would be comparatively ME
small in a high-resistance material. Eddy-current losses ll’ | l\
\. “‘_\_\

NCR£
9
.0 /
/
I I 1
I .._ld7/
. _"_[:
depend on the magnetic field strength ac the plate, and
also upon the resistance of the paths available for flow
ooh. E M ‘—=~r = .=*»- *-* -
' O I Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 Ii
within the plate. DISTANCE FROM STEEL PLATE—lNCHES
Because the Eactors that affect hysteresis loss and those Fig. 12-Increase in cable resistance and reactance caused
that affect eddy-current loss are interdependent, it is seldom by proximity to steel plate for three-phase systems (cable
easy to theorize on which material or combination of ma- sheaths are insulated).
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables
counteracting circulating currents Within the con-
ducting sheet: these currents considerably reduce the
magnetic field strength at the plate. The conducting
sheet must have suflicient cross-sectionai area to ac-
commodate the currents developed.
c. The magnetic material can be interleaved with con-
ducting bars that are bonded at the ends so that cir»
culating currents develop to counteract the incident
magnetic field as in (b).
d. The magnetic plate can be repiaced, either entirely or
partially, by a non-magnetic steel. Non-magnetic
steel has low permeability and high resistivity when
compared with conventional steel plate: these char-
acteristics do not act in all respects to reduce losses,
but the net cfiect is often a loss reduction. Non-mag-
netic steei is of particular benefit when the structure
near the cable circuit partiaily or entirely surrounds
individuai phase conductors.
The effect of paraliei metal on reactance is much larger
than on resistance as Figs. 11 and 12 indicate. These
figures also show that the magnitude of the increase in im-
pedance is independent of conductor size. Actually, when
large cables approach very close to steel, the resistance in-
crements become higher and the reactance increments be-
come somewhat lower. The curves of Figs. IE and 12 are
based on tests performed at approximately two-thirds 01'
maximum current density for each cable used. The incre-
ments in resistance and reactance do not, however, change
greatly with current density; the variation is only about
1 percent per 100 amperes. In three-phase systems the
middle cable of the three is influenced less than the outer
ones by the presence of the parallel stool. This variation
again is less than variations in materials and has not been
accounted for in Figs. 11 and 12. These curves cover only a
few specific cases, and give merely an indication of the im-
portance and magnitude of proximity efiect. More detailed
information can be found in the reference listed.‘
Proximity efiect also has an important bearing on the
current-carrying capacity of cables when instailed near
steel plates or structures. This subject is discussed in the
section on current-carrying capacity.
Sheath Currents in CabIes—~Altei-nating current in
the conductors of single-conductor cables induces alternat-
ing voltages in the sheaths. When the sheaths are contin-
uous and bonded together at their ends so that sheath cur-
rents may flow longitudinally, additional PR losses develop
in the sheath. The common way to represent these losses is
by increasing the resistance of the conductor involved. For
single-conductor cables operating in three-phase systems,
this increment in resistance can be calculated by the fol-
lowing equation, the derivation of which is given in refer-
ences:‘~’
- “mi”o11 ms per ph ase per rm'1e.
r~ (4)
Here xm is the mutual reactance between conductors and
sheath in ohms per phase per mile, and r, is the resistance
of the sheath in ohms per phase per mile. These two quan-
tities can be determined from the following equations:
:z:,,,mO.2794 $ log“, ;_~;2_g_-1 ohms per phase per mile. (5)
71
and
r, = ohms per phase per mile, for lead sheath.
{re+n) (tr ri) (6)
in which
S =spacing between conductor centers in inches.
r<,=outer radius of lead sheath in inches.
r,=inner radius of lead sheath in inches.
Thus the total resistance {r,) to positive- or negative-
sequence current flow in single-conductor cables, including
the effect of sheath currents, is
2
r.=r,+ ohms per phase per mile. (7)
where r, is the alternating-current resistance of the con-
ductor alone including skin effect at the operating ire-
qucncy. Eq. (7) applies rigorously only when the cables are
in an equilateral triangular configuration. For other ar-
rangements the geometric mean distance among three
conductors, GMDM, can be used instead of S with results
sufficiently accurate for most practical purposes.
The sheath loss in a three-conductor cable is usually
negligible except for very large cables and then it is im~
portant only when making quite accurate calculations. In
these largest cables the sheath losses are about 3 to 5 per-
cent of the conductor loss, and are of relatively little
importance in most practical calculations. When desired
the sheath loss in threemonductor cables can be calculated
from the equivalent resistance,
r= X10—B ohms per phase per mile. (8)
Ta(To'l‘Ti>2
where
r, is sheath resistance from Eq. (6).
11, and T, are sheath radii defined for Eq. (5).
S1=—»~i»»~(d+2T), and is the distance between
% conductor center and sheath (9)
center for three-conductor
cables made up of round con-
dnctors.
d=conductor diameter.
T = conductor insulation thickness.
For sector-shaped conductors an approximate figure can
be had by using Eq. (S), except that d should be 82 to 86
percent of the diameter of a round conductor having the
same cross~sectional area.
Example I—~—Find the resistance at 60 cycles of a75O O00
circulanmil, three-conductor belted cable having 156 mil
conductor insulation and E33 mil lead sheath. The overall
diameter of the cable is 2.833 inches and the conductors are
sector shaped.
From conductor tables (see Table 10) the diameter of an
equivalent round conductor is 0.998 inches. From Eq. (9),
S1 E 71:-§[0.998(0.84) +2(0.l56)]
=0.664 inches.
Since the overall diameter is 2.833 inches,
r., =1.41? inches
72 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

and here. The ratio of actual resistance as installed to the d-c

rim 1.284 inches.
From Eq. (6),
r 2 0.200
(2.701){O.l33)
=0.557 ohms per phase per mile.
Substituting in Eq. (8),
_441s0(0.ss4>_f
’" c.557<2.101)2>‘1°'°
=0.U0479 ohms per phase per mile.
From Table 6 it is found that re, the conductor resistance,
including skin ellect is 0.091 ohms per phase per mile. The
total positive- and negative-sequence resistance is then,
r,,=0.09I+.0()5=0.096 ohms per phase per mile.
Sheath currents obviously have little efiect on the total
alternating-current resistance of this cable.
Theoretically some allowance should be made for the
losses that occur in the metallic tape on the individual con-
ductors of shielded cable, but actual measurements indicate
that for all practical purposes these losses are negligible
with present designs and can be ignored in most cases. The
resistance to positive- and negative-sequence in shielded
cable can be calculated as though the shields were not
present.
Three Conductors in Steel Pipe——‘TypicaI values for
p0sitive- and nega’tive-sequenee resistance of large pipe-
type cables have been established by test“, and an empir-
ical calculating method has been proposed by Wiseman“
that checks the tests quite closely. Because the calcula-
tions are complex, only an estimating curve is presented
- "ii“ii i t 'ii i ii?eeeee
resistance of the conductor itself based on data obtained in
laboratory tests is shown in Fig. 13. The increased resist-
ance is due to conductor skin effect, conductor proximity
effect in the presence of steel pipe, and to PR loss in the
pipe itself. In preparing Fig. 13, the pipe size assumed for
each cable size was such that 60 percent of the internal pipe
crosssectional area would have been unoccupied by cable
material: choosing a nearest standard pipe size as a prac-
tical expedient does not affect the result appreciably. The
conductor configuration for these tests was :1. triangular
grouping, with the group lying at the bottom of the pipe.
If, instead, the conductors were to be laid in an approx~
imately flat cradled arrangement, some change in resist»
ance would be expected. Actual tests on the fiat arrange»
ment produced variable results as conductor size was
changed, some tests giving higher losses and some lower
than the triangular. ll a maximum value is desired, an
estimated increase of 15 percent above the resistance for
triangular configuration can be used. Field tests have been
made on low-voltage circuits by Brieger“, and these results
are shown in Table 2.
3. Positive~ and Negative-Sequence Reactances
Single-Conductor CabIes-~The reactance of single
conductor lead-sheathed cables to positive- and negative-
sequence currents can be calculated from the following
equation, which takes into account the effect of sheath
currents.
I GMD,. 112,,’
a:1=-=x2w0.2794 % logw ——-—~GMR:n—xm-—-{'2
ohms per phase per mile. (10)
O1‘
:1
2‘ at, =m2 = 1:,-{-14 -- ohms per phase per mile. (11)
HI 5

The conductor component of reactance is

M “L 12
I,-0.2794 60 logm G—-——MR1° (12)

—-—
@@©
RE$lSTANGE '“”
‘A110 Where
GMR1,=geometric mean radius of one conductor.
l
T_____ _ _ ___
_ . >
The separation component of reactance is
R
PHASE
8
'it
38 H4!“
!°:-' OON ES
S‘FANC£E§fl_P_|-1 one
x..=c.2vc4 6i()lQg1fl -Hi’ (13)
OHMSPERP§%A$§PERll
NOE,
\\ P€
NOE where
STA l NGE844TA
as' J?» L; Gil/ID3,=ge01'netric mean distance among
\\ three conductors (see Eq. 1).
L l. _Q___.. l ___ l ,,,___
The component to be subtracted‘ because of the effect of
'0 9' , ,.,4?, .. II ... noRES
5 s sheath currents is composed of terms defined by Eqs.
/V i _ (5) and (6).
ZQQIJ55§QUE Three-Conductor CabIes--Because negligible sheath
RseousncsAC current effects are present in three-conductor nen—shieIdecl
.04; 1 0‘ 1.2 '
l 1 cables, the reactance to positive- and negative-sequence
: l L,<~ ;*
TVG
li
A\ A. RATO currents can be calculated quite simply as:
M
?O5 _ l,,,,,,,,, i ~ 1.0 46_1=;‘B2=0.279-4: 6% l0gm
OD aoo I000 asoo 2000 2500
CON€JUGTOR 5| ZE, MOM
ohms per phase per mile (14)
Fig. 13-*P0litive-sequcnce resistance of high-voltage cables or
in steel pipe (estimating curve). $1-=:t=m:c.~+-and ohms per phase per mile (15)
 Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 73

TABLE 2-»-IMPEDANCE OF TH'REE-PHASE 120/208 Vour CABLE Czncurrs IN FIBRE AND IN IRON Com)U1'rs.1
P0sitive— and Negative-Sequence Impedance, Ohms per Phase per Mile at 60 Cycles.

Phase Conductor i‘ Duct Material Cable Sheath Resistance Reactance

Size C°"d“°‘°" Ammbly <4 inch) (Phase Conductors) i (Ohms fie 25°C.) (Ohms)
500 MGM Uncab1ed' Fibre Non-leaded 0.120 0.189 J
(1 Per Phww) £57 0.121 f?;1§8_
I1-on Eden-lehdecl 6.1.5.5 0.229
If“ , 0.156 i 0.236 zzzzzzzzz7
Cnbled‘ Fibre ”””7 ( __ Non-laadell 0.125 we
Iron Non-leaded 0.135 0.137
Cablcd‘ Fibre Non-leaded 0.136 W7 0.144
Iron Non-leaded 7 0.144 0.155
0000 AWG U.;¢.bin- I
7 Fibre 7 Non-leaded 0.135 0.101
(2 per phase) Iron Nomleadcii 0.144 0.152 7
Lead? 0.1437777 0.113
7 Cabled‘ Fibre 17¢§{i1I»;EEY1 0.137 J 0.079 A
Iron Non-leaded 0.137 0.035

Zero-Sequence Impedance, Ohms Per Phase Per Mile at 60 Cycles.

7 77V7 VVW ‘ Cable Sheath

Phase Conductor Neutral Conductor Conductor Duct Material Ph _ Resistance Reactance
Size Size Assembly (Much) ( as“
Conductors) (Ohms at 25%).) (Ohms)

500 MGM 0000 AWG VUncab1ed* Fibre 7 Non-leaded’ W 0.972 0.314%

(1 per phase) (1 conductor, bare) IQJ 0.777 0.sa0_
Iron Lead 0.729 0.349
500 MGM Uncabled* Iron 7 V Non—leaded 0.539 770.772
(1 conductor, bare) Cablecl’ 7*Fibre :\lon-leaded Z 0.539 0.566 _
Iron Non-leaded 1 0.534 0.60I:1_ V W
000 AWG Cabled‘ Fibre ¥92;|:@§¢¢ ‘ 0.471
(3 conductors, bare)
991.1,,
Iron f’N on-1 ended 0.433 0.264
W 0000 AWG V ‘W77 0000 AVQFG 7 flrincabledi Fibre" iiNon-leaded 1.015 0.793
(2 per phase) (1 conductor, bare) 7 Noneleaxied77
Iron V 0.707 0.676
Lead 7 70.693 77658’
0000 AVVG Uncabled‘ Fibre f f V Nonflendgdr 0.583 1 0.475
\ (2 conductors, bare) 7 Iron, Nomleaded iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii9.029 ZZZZZZZZZ76.555”
500 MGM Cabled° Iron Non-leaded 0 0.49? 0.359
_ 1:; (1 conductor, bare) W 7
lfllggberial taken from "Impedance of Three-Phase Secondary Mains in Non-Metallic and Iron Conduits," by L. Brieger, EEI Bulletin. Vnl. 6, No. 2, pg. 61, Fab-
marY
d * Assembly oi’ jfour conducimij airanged rectangularly. in the sequence (clockwise) A-B-C-neutral. while being pulled into the duct; conductors may assume a ram-
0 in can gura ta on a her en te rang
' 1. e uct .
' Assembly as in note 2 . ex cept th B. 1; cund. u ct Ora 9.1‘e cs.bled xn
" pus H50
1 n.
M J Assembly of chvee phase conducmra arranged t.1-izmgularly with three neutral conductors interposed in Llm spaces be!»-ween phase conductors. All conductors are
ca e in P osition.
_ ‘ Assembly of six phase conductors arranged hexagonally. in the sequence A‘-B-C-A.-'B~C, with either one or two neutral conductors inside we phase conduct-or group.
Tine arrangement. is maintained Oniy at the duet entrance; a random eonfiguraiioa may develop within the duct.
' Assembly as in note 5, except that conductors are cabled in position.

where : For shielded threeconductor cables the reactance to

GMD;¢=S=ge0metric mean distance among
three conductors, and the remaining values are as
defined in Eqs. (12) and (13).
For sector-shaped conductors no accurate data on change
in reactance because of conductor shape is available, but
Dr. Simmons can be quoted as authority for the statement
that the reactance is from five to ten percent less than for
round conductors of the same area and insulation thick-
ness.
p0sitive- and negative-sequence currents can be calculated
as though the shields were not present, making it similar to
belted three-conductor cable. This is true because the
effect on reactance of the circulating currents in the
shielding tapes has been calculated by the method used for
determining sheath effects in single-conductor cables and
proves to be negiigible.
Three Conductors in Steel Pipe—-Conductur skin
effect. and proximity effects influence the apparent reactance
of high»v0lea.ge cables in st-eel pipe. Because the detailed
74. Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

calculation of these factors is complex, a curve is supplied of these inductive effects cannot always be identified in~
in Fig. 14 that serves for estimating rcactsince within about dividually from the equations to he used for reactance cal-
five percent accuracy. The curve is drawn for triangular culations because the theory of earth return circuits“, and
conductor grouping, with the group lying at the bottom of the use of one GMR. to represent a paralleled conductor
the pipe. If the grouping is inst-eod a Hat cradled arrange- group, present in combined form some of the fundamental
ment, with the conductors lying side by-side at the bot-tom effects contributing to total zero-sequence reactance. The
of the pipe, the curve rcsiilts ehould be increased by 15 resistance and reactance effects are interrelated so closely
percent. A calculating method that accounts in detail for that they are best deait, with simultaneously.
Cable sheaths are frequently bonded and grounded at
as w ~~~ ~_~_ W ~ T . 250 several points, which allows much of the zero-sequence
return current to flow in the sheath. On the other hand,
when any of the various devices used to limit sheath current
are employed, much or all of the return current flows in the
_ 500 earth. The method of bonding and grounding, therefore,
has an effect upon the zeromsequence impedance of cables.
@’4 750 An actual cable installation should approach one of these
three theoretical conditions:
34 B.-. I000
musePERn:.£ 1 Return current in sheath and ground in parallel.
I500
\ 2 All return current in sliesth, none in ground.
\ I500
.\ 3 All return current in ground, none in sheath.
P£R
onusNO ,-’ ' 2000
2500 Three-Conductor CabIes—Actual and equivalent cir~
7 ‘// 2500 cuits for a single~circuit three-conductor cable having a
solidly bonded and grounded sheath are shown in Fig. 15
// // /
(a) nod (c). The impedance of the group of three paralleled
3 \ /
conductors, considering the presence of the earth return
resacnmce, \
\
'\
\ but ignoring for the moment the presence of the sheath, is
\ \\
\ given in lilqs. (16) or (17) in terms of impedance to zero~
// //i / 2l 1. sequence currents.
I I
SEQUENCE 3 / /' ____CONGENTRlG STRANDED; 8ZEMGM - z =r +1” +jO 8382 L logm A
l / i I i ° ° " ' 60 GMR3.,
VE
~ ll
I ~/ ..____,, SEGMENTAL STRANDED i R ohms per phase per mile (16)
’ l
rs
PG _O U! or
"\
l / 2 conoucTo 3c=Tc'i'Ta'i”j(55u.'i'17e"'21;d)
ohms per phase per mile. (17)

Q i 1 TABLE 3-EQUIVALENT DEPTH or EARTH RETURN (DJ. AND EARTH

.5 L0 L5 Z.Q 2.5 5.0 IMPEDANCE (r. AND 27(5), AT 60 CYCLES
CENTER TO CENTER SPACING BETWEEN CABLES, iNCH£S
Equivalent Equivalent i Equivalent
Fig. 14—Positive-sequence reactance of high-voltage cables Earth Depth of Earth Earth
in steel pips (estimating curve).
Resistivity Earth Return, D, Resistance Reactance
{motor-ohm) ---'-----------»~l~—~—----W r,, xs
the variable factors in this problem has been presented by inches feet (ohms per mile) (ohms pcrmile)
Del Marl. Table 2 contains information“ useful in esti~
I 3.36.2105 280 0.286 2.05
mating the impedance of lowwvoltagc (120/208 volt) cables
5 7.44xlO3 620 0.286 2.34
in iron conduit. 10 1 Dlixlfl‘ 880 0.286 2.47
50 . 2.~10x1(}‘ 2 000 0.286 2.76
4. Zero-Sequence Resistance and Rcactance lilfi 3.3(i\'lU“ 2 800 (1.286 2.89
When zero~scquencc current flows along the phase con» 506 744x10‘ 6 200 0.286 3.18
ductors of a tlirce~ph:ise cubic circuit, it must return in 1 (K10 l.O6xl€]‘ 8 800 0.286 3.31
either the ground, or the sheaths, or in the parallel combi~ 5 O00 2.a0x IO‘ 20 000 0.286 3.60
nation of both ground and shcut.hs.2 As zcro—soquence cur- 10 000 3.36xlO" 28 000 0.286 3.73
rcnt flows through each conductor it encounters the we
resistance of that conductor, and as it returns in the ground where :
or sheaths it encounters the resistance of those paths. The r,=a-e resistance of one conductor, ohms per
zero-sequence current. flowing in any one phase encounters mile.
also the reactance arising from conductor sol?-inductance, r,== a-c resistance of earth return (See Tabie 3),
from mu1';unl incliictence to the other two phase conductors, ohms per mile.
from mutual iiiductancc to the ground and sheath return Dafldistance to equivalent earth return path,
paths, and from S€lf~lIl€lllCL£L!1CO of the return paths. Each (See Table 3), inches.
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 75

no suemu GMRa¢= geometric mean radius of the conducting

4 __________ ___. path made up of the three actual conductors
, ill K _____________ taken as a group, inches.
..= \i/(GMR1,)(S)’ for round conductors. (18)
, I'll
w MMMMMMMMMMM__ I GMR1.,mgeometric mean radius of an individual
ll 1 . l‘ ___] conductor, inches.
i (1,°+1b6+zc°;+¢1,+1,;-o ::,#-'reacf;ance of an individual phase conductor
at twelve inch spacing, ohms per mile.
;c,=reacl;a.nce of earth ret.urn.
—-I e same
===0.8382 é logw it-25 ohms per mile. (Refer to
RGTUAL cmcurr
(ONE Tl-EREG.-CON‘D=.IGTOR CABLE) Table 3). (19)
G
GMD .
a:¢=0.2794 g3 logw (—§~—~3—°), ohms per H1116.
Iq, _ _
6
i Q‘ ______ _._Q_.:L_..____
_ _ e e , GMD;c£ge0metric mean distance among conductor
bbq, ~~~~~~~~~~~ "~31, I centers, inches.
=S=(d+2T} for round conductors in three
¢35"* I I **“**"*=: conductor cables.
lat
....J The impedance of the sheath, considering the presence of
the earth return path but ignoring for the moment the
(I°°+Ib°+ I¢°}+(31.+1°)- Q
presence of the conductor group, is given in terms of im-
pedancc to zero—sequence currents:
-—'~I cam":-4
Q z,=3r,+rB-l-jO.8382 3% logm ohms per
ACTUAL CIRCUIT
(THREE SENGLE-CONDUCTOR GABLES)
phase per mile. (20)
(bl 01'
z,=3r,+r,—§—j(3:c,+»:c,) ohms per phase per
mile. (21)
ii-“M IQ Z6
/4, '\;\lV\I\, __ __ where:
HIEPRESENTS THREE CONDUGTOR5i Z r,=sheath resistance, ohms per mile.
3
ls I- - - 4' M for lead sheaths.
___. no (To+ Ti) (T0 — Ti)

nminside radius of sheath, inches.

romoutsicle radius of sheath, inches.
:n,=== rcactencc of sheath, ohms per mile.
-—--*1“ can?» ~_ f 24 .
-0.2794 60 logm 7_---—-0+Ti Ohms per mile. (22)

EOUlVAL£NT CIRCUIT The mutual impedance between conductors and sheath,

UM PEOANKES EXPR£SS€D IN ZERO SEQUENCE TERMS) considering the presence of the earth return path which is
l¢) common to both sheath and conductors, in zero-sequence
terms is
______‘I° ‘lg“z|||) . f 2D.
Zm = T,, . 2 —- 1 Oggg T°+Ti
——-
~ A/\/V» if 1111111111111111W111111111is —
ohms per phase per mile. (23)
( Z{Zm}
or
' .__.,. I“~~/VVV\. -—: L»-- -+
zmmr,~,+j(3$,—i-re) ohms per phase per mile. (24)
Zm The equivalent circuit in Fig. 15(d) is 2, conversion from
the one just above it, and combines the mutual impedance
//////////////7//7/77777 // /Lu)//7777?) into 2» common series oiomcnt. From this circuit, when
-—-4,,‘ emrv-1 both ground and sheath reéurn paths exist, total zero-
sequence impedance is:
MODIFIED EQUIVALENT cmcun
uuvzomcss EXPRESS£D m zeno-ssouaucuz teams) 30: (zc_zm)+
M)
3

F12. 15—ActuaI and equivalent zero-sequence circuits for M2,“? ohms per phase per mile. (25)
three-conductor and single-conductor lead-sheathed cables.
76 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chi->-P561‘ 4

If current returns in the sheath only, with none in the The mutual component of impedance is:
ground: zm-=0.286+j3.87
Zn = (z.—z..) + (n -2.») If all current returned the sheath, and none in the
-= z,,+z, — 22,, (26) ground,
z@=1.27+j4.I8+3.68+j3.87—O.57-—j7.74
=-r.,+3r,»+j0.8382 gs logm ohms per =4.38+j0.31=4.39 ohms per mile.
phase per mile. (27) If return current may divide between the ground and
=rc+3r,+j(x,-2:2,;-31,) ohms per phase per sheath paths,
mile. (28) __ . (0.286+j3.S7)*
If current returns in ground only with none in the sheath,
z“'l‘27+*74"18 3.cs+;is.s7
as would be the case with nomshcathed cables or with
=1.27+;'4.1s+1.c23-12.31
=:2.89+j1.S7 =3.44 ohms per mile.
insulating sleeves at closely spaced intervals, the zero-
sequence impedance becomes: The positive-sequence impedance of this cable is:
30*’ (3c““““3m)'i‘3m z,=0.987+j0.203 ohms per mile.
=2. ohms per phase per mile. (29) Therefore the ratio of zero- to positive-sequence resistance
The zero-sequence impedance of shielded cables can be is 2.9, and the ratio of zero- to positive-sequence reactance
calculated as though the shielding tapes were not present is 9.2.
because the impedance is affected only slightly by cir~ Zero~sequence impedance is often calculated for all
culatlng currents in the shields. return current in the sheath and none in the ground, be~
The equivalent geometric mean radius (GMR;.,) for cause the magnitude of the answer is usually close to that
three—conductor cables having sector conductors is diflicult calculated considering a paralleled return. The actual
to calculate accurately. The method used to calculate nature of a. ground-return circuit is usually indefinite, since
values of GMR3. for the tables of characteristics is of it may be mixed up with water pipes and other conducting
practical accuracy, but is not considered to be appropriate materials, and also because low-resistance connections
for explanation here. As an alternate basis for estimations, between sheath and earth are sometimes difficult to
it appears that the Gl\/{Rae for three sector-conductors is establish.
roughly 90 percent of t-he GMRE for three round conduc- Single-Conductor CabIes--Fig. 15 also shows the
tors having the same copper area. and the same insulation actual and equivalent circuits for three single-conductor
thickness. cablcs in a perfectly transposed three-phase circuit, where
Example 2——Find the zero-sequence impedance of a the sheaths are solidly bonded and grounded. The im—
three-collductor belted cable, No. 2 A.W.G. conductor (7 pedance expressions applying to single—conductor cables
strands) with conductor diameter of 0.292 inches. Con- differ in some respects from those for three»phe.se cables:
ductor insulation thickness is 156 mils, belt insulation is DB
78 mils, lead sheath thickness is 109 mils, and overall z.,wr..+r.,+j0.8382 $]og 16 flit ohms
cable diameter is 1.732 inches. Assume D,= 2800 feet and
resistance of one c0nductor==0.98T ohms per mile at 60 per phase per mile. (30)
cycles. Distance between conductor centers is: OI‘
z.,=r.+re+j(:c,+n:,,—~2:cd) ohms
S>—0.292+2><().156 =O.60<;l inches.
per phase per mile. (31)
GMR of one conductor is (sec Chap. 3, Fig. 11): where:
GMR1°m0.726><O.146=O.lO6 inches. r.,==a.c. resistance of one conductor, ohms per
GMR of three conductors is: mile.
G1\'IR3.= v cWm0.33s inches. 1',=a.c. resistance of earth (see Table 3), ohms
per mile.
The conductor component of impedance is D, w distance to equivalent earth return path (see
(r@mO.987, r',,=0.286): Table 3), inches.
z.,=O.98'7~l-0.286+j0.S382 tog... ?§§»°§»»~»»;<8m GMR3.,=gcomctric mean radius of the conducting
path made up of the three actual conduc-
=1.27+j4.18 = 4.37 ohms -per mile. torsfien as awgroup, inches.
This would represent total zero-seq uence circuit impedance m
if all current returned in the ground, and none in the :u,.=reactance of an individual phase conductor
sheath. at twelve-inch spacing, ohms per mile.
For the sheath component of impedance: a:.=reactancc of earth return.
f.—
0.200 ,
= 1.13 ohms per mile
D. .
==O.8382 é) logm E ohms per mile.
(See Table 3.)
z. es ><1.13 +0.2se +j0.8382 10g... ?~»>-§-'-‘Z-51]-__-h MD . .
1.623
=3.63+j3.87 ohms per mile :v.iw0.2794 é) logm ohms per mile.
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 77

GMD3. = geometric mean distance among conductor in Table 2. Some special tests of the zero-sequence im~
centers, inches. pedancc of highwoltage pipe-type cable have been made
M \3/Sab ‘ She ' Sea ‘
but the results ere not yet of a. sufficiently wide scope to
be generally usable. ,
z,=r,+re+j0.8382 $ logm €\1—l)m ohms
5. Shunt Capacitive Reactance
per phase per mile (32)
or Shunt capacitive reactances of several types of cables
z,=rs+re+j(:c,+:c,,—2x.;) ohms per phase are given in the Tables of Electrical (.lharacterisl.ics,
per mile directly in ohms per mile. In addition, shunt capacitrmce
where: and charging current can be derived from the curves of
geometric factors shown in Figs. 8 and 9, for any cable
GMR3-=geometric mean radius of the conducting
whose dimensions are known. The geometric factors given
path made up of the three sheaths in parallel
in these curves are identified by symmetrical-component
...1/(%)(@.MD..)*. terminology.
The positive», negative-, and zero-sequence shunt capac-
r,=resista.nce of one sheath, ohms per mile itances for single-conductor metallic-sliezihed csbies are
0.200 all equal, and can he derived from the curves of Fig. 8.
- (r°+Ti)(TG_ri) for lead sheaths. Ti1rec~conduct0r shielded cables having round conductors
are similar to singlemonductor cable in that each plmse
riminside radius of sheath, inches. conductor is surrounded by a grounded metallic covering;
r.,= outside radius of sheath, inches. therefore the positive-, negative, and zero-sequence values
xamreactance of one sheath, ohms per mile are equal and are dependent upon the geometric factor
_
--0.2794 L log“; Tu+Ti.
60 Bi. relating a conductor to its own shielding layer. The
geometric factor for 1;hrcc—conductor shielded cables having
sector-shaperl conductors is approximately equal to the
z,,,=r.,»§-j0.8382 £6 logw ohms geometric fact-or, G’, applying to round conductors. How-
per phase per mile. (34) ever, if the sector shape of a shielded cable is known, then
or the curve in Fig. 10, based on insulation thickness and
mean periphery of insulation, is recommended as giving
zm=r..+j(x.,+x,-2rd) ohms per phase per
more accurate vaiues of geometric factor.
mile. (35)
where: For single-conductor and three-conductor shielded ca-
bies (sec Fig. 8),
GMD3._3, = geometric mean of all separations between
sheaths and conductors. C1 C2 C0 niicrofarads per phase per
91 *"*'" 3 W
r.,~l~n 3%‘, .. ,,+; _‘
=\/ (L1Ml)3¢}“: \/(3-~23~)(oMo..)1. mile. (38)
l.
From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 15, total zero- 221' *1 xy = 1:0-= megohms per phase per mile. (39)
sequence impedance when both ground and sheath paths
exist is: 0. 2 -kvk
z3'11 2 _ Ii'wI2'wIq-u l amperes per phase per
Zu=Z¢"""? ohms per phase per mile. (25)
B miie. (40)
If current returns in the sheath only, with none in the Thrce—conductor belted cables having no conductor
ground:
shielding have zero~scqucnce values which differ from the
z0=zc—l—z,—2z,,, ohms per phase per mile (26) positive and negativc~sequence; the appropriate geo-
GNIR 5 metric factors are given in Fig. 9;
=r.+r.+0.sss2 logm GMRQC
_%iOhms per- phase O.2f'7k . ,
per mile. (36) C1=C'; = I mierofarads per phase per mile. (41)
=Ts+1's+j{05,,-~a:,) ohms per phase per mile. (37)
0.089210 . _
If current returns in the ground only: C’@=—~~~G—-—— microfarads per phase per mile. (42)
B
Z0 Z (Zr: '_ Em) +zm
=2. ohms per phase per mile. {29) 0.59T(‘
z,'mx2'=-j;~l;~§, megohms per phase per mile. (43)
Cables in Steel Pipes or C0nduits—When cables are
installed in iron conduits or steel pipes, the zero~se-quence 1.79? _
resistance and reactance are affected by the magnetic :r<;'= ~j~f£@ megohms per phase per mile. (44)
matcriai because it closely surrounds the phase conductors 0.9" - la - kt
and forms a likely return path for zero-sequence current. Irmlrm amperes per phase per mile. (45)
No method of calculating this zero~sequence impedance is 1

available, but some rather compicte results are available IW0. 323f>lc-kc _
15566;-W amperes per phase per mile. (46)
from field tests on installed low»voltage cables, as shown
78 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Cl1aPt9!‘ 4

When three-conductor belted cables have sector-shaped Tsrsu"-1 5-MMAXIMUM Pownn FAc'roas* or CABLE INSULATION
conductors, the geometric factor must be corrected from
the value which applies to round conductors. This cor- Temperature Oil- Gas-
of Cable Solid Filled Filled
rection factor is plotted in Fig. 9, and its use is explained Paper
(Deg. C.) (low-pressure) 1 (low-pressure)
below the curve.
In the foregoing equations, 25 to 60 600009 0.0060 0.009
C1, C1, and C0 are positive», negative-, and zero-» 79 9-015 0.0075 0.013
sequence capacitances. 80 0-021 0.0090 0.018
161', $2’ and 2:,-y are positive-, negative, and zero- as 0.025 0 . 0097 0.022
sequence capacitive reactances. co , 0.030 0.0105 0.027
Ir, 12' and If)’ are p0sitive—, negative-, and zeroe- *The power factor of new cable is usually below these values by as wide marzin.“
sequence charging currents.
I<:v=line-to-line system voltage, kilovolts.
lcwdielectric constant, according to the values in II. TABLES OF ELECTRICAL
Table 4. CHARACTERISTICS
It is important to note that in converting shunt capaci- The 60-cycle electrical characteristics of the most usual
tive reactance from an “ohms per phase per mile" basis sizes and voltage classes of paper insulated cable are con-
to a total “ohms per phase” basis, it is necessary to divide tained in Tables 6 through ll. In each case the positive~,
by the circuit length: negative, and zero-sequence resistances and reactances
56¢’ are tabulated, or else constants are given from which those
Xe'— , Ol1II1S P81‘ pl'1EL$9. (47)
quantities can be calculated. Also, included in these
tables are other characteristics useful in cable work, such
6. Insulation Resistance. as typical weights per 1000 feet, sheath thicknesses and
The calculation of cable insulation resistance is difficult resistances, conductor diameters and GMR’s, and the type
because the properties of the insulation are generally of conductors normally used in any particular cable.
predictable only within a wide range. The equations pre- In each of these tables the electrical characteristics have
sented below are therefore quite dependent upon an been calculated by the equations and curves presented in
accurate knowledge oi insulation power factor. tho foregoing pages. Where sect0r~shaped conductors are
For single-conductor and three-conductor shielded used, some approximations are necessary as pointed out
cables, previously. In Table 6 the positive-» and nega’cive~sequence
reactance for sectorcd cables has arbitrarily been taken
r1'=r2'=rsm -10‘ ohms per phase 7.5 percent less than that of an equivalent roundwconductor
per mile. (48) cable, in accordance with Dr. Simmons’ recommendations.
The equivalent GMR of three conductors in sectored
For three—concluctor belted cables,
cables is necessarily an approximation because the GMR of
O.597G' one sector cannot be determined accurately. This condi»
T1’ =r2' W-----—--—5»»»»—— - I0” ohms per phase per mile.
f-k'cos§i> tion arises since the shape of sectors varies and a rigorous
(49) calculation is not justified. The variation in sector shapes
l.79G probably is greater than any error present in the approxi-
Tu" =--m—-9---- -10“ ohms per phase per mile. (50)
f- la-cos qh mation given in the tables. The reactances calculated
In these equations, from these approximate GMR’s are sufficiently accurate
Ty, w, and my are positive~, negative, and zero- for all practical calculations.
sequence shunt resistances. Table 7 for shielded cables is similar in form to Table 6
kwdielectric constant (see Table 4). and where sectored cables are listed the some approxima-
cos ¢wpower factor of insulation, in per unit. tions in GMR and reactance apply. Table 8 for three-
conductor oil-filled cables is similar to both Tables 6 and
In Table 5 are listed maximum values of insulation 7 and the same considerations apply.
power factor, taken from specifications of the Association In these tables for thrcemcnductor cables, the zero—
of Edison Illuminating Companies“. These standard sequence characteristics are calculated for the case of all
values will very probably be several times larger than return current. in the sheath and none in the ground. As
actual measured power factors on new cables. pointed out in the discussion of zero-sequence impedance,
this is usually sufficiently accurate because of the indefinite
TABLE 4—DIELEC'E'RIC Cousrmrs or CABLE Insutivrlon nature of the ground return circuit. Where ground must
be considered or where there are paralleled tliree-phase
Insulation Range of k Typical k circuits, the impedance must be calculated as illustrated
Solid Paper 3.0-4.0 3.7 in the examples given.
Oil-Filled 3.0»4.0 3.5 From the quantities given in these tables of three-con»
Gas~Fillcci 3.04.0 3.7 ductor cables, the overall diameter of any particular cable
Varnished Cambric 4.(Hi.0 5,0 can be calculated.
Rubber 4.0-9.0 so D=2.155{d+2T)+2(t+L) (51)
Chaptgr 4 Eiectrical Characteristics of Cables 79

T1.n1.1~: 6-60-Cvcma CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED PAPER-INSULATED CABLES

Grounded Neutral Service

Inspiabion POSITIVE &

Thlckness NEG.-kT1VE— 1 ZERO—SEQUENCE BHEATH
Mile SEQ.
1

bum itive
1"
(1
1:20
of i
1
.1‘?
21 CapacShunticive Reactance M12(5) GMRA-Thre Condurzims SeriesResM‘Ohms
i taper
ncleeO) ReactSer
eaqmceM119()
Ohms
per Czpac
Shunt Reacbance MlVOhms
perle(5) Ttickneas Mfls Ohms
Resi tance. £>0’
MiatperleC
Chm
Voltage Conductor ED C§.r<)u19»1'MS.)
AWG(B.61
iolar TYP61')
Conductor Weiperght Feet
1000. Dia0meter (5)
$ect0rDiepth
nches Reslstan NiPerile One
GMRofCon1 uctor— incT1 e (=1 ReSer
aes
ctance MiOhms
per
le Ohms
per

G0 35 SR 1500 0.184 0 067 6300 0.184 10.56 0 .315 11 B00 85

SR 1910 0.232 0 084 5400 0.218 8.30 0 .293 10 200 90
00 35 9 O00 90
4700 0. 262 6.99 .273
60
60
3 5:
35
SR
SR
2390
2820
0.292
0.332 C01-M 86 ~§as
0 106
0 126 Z55 4300 0.295 0.07 .256
.246
8400
7 900 95
95
60 I 35 SR 3210 0.373 0 622 0 142 4000 0. 326 5.54
250 5400 95
50 35 g0
1-tOvP~® CS 3160 0.323 0 495 0 151 COCO >-41¢»- .1»C.¢ JUIGU7l'*$(fi\‘JU1€1'\‘ZF!
GO 2800 0. 290 5.96
5.46 .241 4 500 95
60 3 51 000 CS 3650 0.364 0 392 0 171 0.134 2300 0. 320
100
60 35 0000 CS 5 4390 0.417 0 310 0 191 0.181 2000 0.355 4.72 OQOQ .237
i OG
4 U00

1Kv 60 3 :1 250 000 CS 1 4900 0.455 0 203 0 210 0.129 1800 0. 387 4.46 0 .224 3000 100
S0 35 300 O00 CS 1 .5060 0.497 U 220 0 .230 0.128 1700 0. 415 3.97 0 .221 3400 . 105 >->b-two>flm-hlb1 ; "3NU:
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60 35 350 000 CS ‘ 6310 0.539 0 190 0 249 0.125 1500 0. 446 3.73 0 .216 3100 ‘ 105 111s
60 35 400 O00 CS 7080 0.572 0 106 0 265 0.124 1500 0. 467 3.41 0 .214 2900 110 1.03
60 35 500 000 CS S310 0.042 0 134 E 0 297 0.123 1300 0.517 3.11 1 0 .208
2600 110 0.993
6-5 CS 9300 0.700 0 113 0 327 0.122 1200 0.567 2.74 0 . 197 2400 115 0.811
4U 000 (JUO
CS 11800 0.780 0 091 0 356 0.12} 1100 0.623 2.40 0 . 194 2100 120 0.711
65 40 750 000 ___. ._ WM
70 40 SR ‘ 1 680 0.184 2 50 0 007 0.192 6700 0.192 9.67 0 .322 12 500 90 1 2 as
70 40 SR ‘ 2 030 0.232 1 1 58 0 084 0.181 5800 0 227 ans 0 .29 3 . 11 200 90 216
70 40 SR. 2 600 0.292 0 987 0 106 0.171 5100 0.271 6.39 0 278 ; 9 800 95 1 so
70 40 SR 2 Q30 0.332 0 786 0 126 0.161 4700 0.304 5.53 0.263 = 9200 95 ms
70 40 SR. 3 440 0.373 0 6 22 0 142 0.150 -1400 0.335 5.06 0 .206
Y 8600 100 ‘ 1 4s
70 40 CS 3 300 0.323 0 4 05 0 151 (3.?-12 3500 0.297 5.09 0 .209
' 6700 1 95 ‘ 1 73
70 40 000
SQ
I-"B218-Q
GS 3 S90 0.364: 0 392 0 171 0.138 2700 0.329 5.28 *0 246 5 100 as 1 es
71') 40 0000 CS 4 530 0.417 0 310 0 191 0.135 2400 0.367 4.57 O 237' 4 600 100 1 42
3Kv 70 40 2-50 000 CS 1 5 160 0.455 G 263 0 210 0.132 2100 0.396 4.07 0 .231 4 200 105
70 40 300 000 CS 1 5 510 0.497 0 220 0 230 0.130 1900 0.424 3.82 0 .228 3 S00 105
70 40 350 O00 CS 1 6 470 0.539 0 190 0 240 0.129 1800 0.455 3.61 0 .219 3 700 10.3
70 40 400 000 CS ‘ '7 240 0.572 0 166 0 205 0.128 1700 0.478 3.32 0 .218 3 400 119
70 1 40 500 000 CS 8 660 0.642 0 297 0.125 1500 0.527 2.89 0 .214 3 000 115
115
75
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750 000
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105 55 SR ; 2 150 0.134 2 50 (J O67 0.215 8500 0.218 8.14 0 .342 15 000 95 1.88
100 55 3R 1 2 410 0.232 1 53 0 084 0.199 7600 0.250 0.86 0 .317 13 600 95 1.76
95 50 SB. 2 900 0.292 0 987 0 105 0.13-1 [5100 0.291 5.83 0 .200 11 300 95 1.63
90 45 SR 3 230 0.332 0 7 86 0 1215 0.171 5400 0.321 5.23 0 .270 10 200 100 1.48
90 45 SR. :1 6150 0.373 0 .622 . 0 142 0165 5000 0.352 4.79 0 .259 9 000 100 1.39
85 45 SQ
1-NIBC7 CS 3 431: 0.323 0 -195 ‘ 0 151 0.148 3000 0.312 5.42 O .203 9 300 95 1.04
>- 85 45 ‘ 000 CS 4 ose 0.36-1 0 392 0 17!. 0.§43 3200 0.343 4.74 0 .254 6 706 100
B1 85 45 0000 CS -1 721: 0.4.17 0 310 0 191 0.241 2800 0.380 4.33 G .245 8 306 100
w 85 45 250 D00 CS . 5 am 0.455 0 263 0 210 0.138 2000 G 410 3.89 G .237 7 800 105
B5 45 300 000 CS 6 050 0.497 0 220 0 230 0135 2400 0.435 3.67 6 .231 7 400 105
85 43 350 000 CS 6 830 0.539 0 190 0 249 0.133 2200 0.470 3.31 (3 .225 7 (100 1 10
85 45 400 O00 C$ 1 430 0.572 0 156 0 205 0.131 2000 0.493 3.17 0 .221 6 700 110
as -15 500 009 CS S S90 0.042 9 134 O 29? 0.129 1800 0.542 2.79 0 .216 6 200 I15
85 45 600 000 CS 10 300 0.700 0 113 0 I-127 0.128 1600 0.587 2.51 0 .210 5 800 I20
85 45 750 000 CS 12 340 0.780 0 091 0 355 0 125 1500 0.643 2.21 0 .206 5 400 125 O59§“'?"f" 8»=~$-
T“1"?" $‘~l“:3@1mm
3
Cflfi cow= '\|$U1

130 as SR 2 450 0.184 2 50 D 067 0 230 9600 0 236 O .353 16 300 95

125 as SR. 2 900 < 0.232 1 58 0 O84 (1.212 B300 0.269 0 .329 14 500 100
115 ‘ 60 SR 1 3 280 1
1 0.292 0 937 0 106 0.1133 6800 0 307 0 .302 12 500 100
110 1 55 SR E 2. 2-so 0.332 0 786 0 126 0.179 6100 0.338 0 .280 11400 I00
1 10 5'.. SR. 4 090 0 373 0 622 0 142 0.174 5700 0.358 0 272 10 700 105
105 55 8D
I-lt\7t§O= CS 3 are 0.323 0 495 0 151 0.155 4300 0 330 1 0 .273 B 300 100
> :05
105
55
as
000 CS 45 390
150
1 0.364
0 417
0
0
392
310
U
0
17 1
19 1
0 151
0.147
3800
3500
G 302
0.399
0 .263 7
6
400
600
100
105
>1 1 0000 CS
$ 305 as 250 000 CS 5 830 0 455 0 203 0 210 0.144 3200 0.425 §“Z :3’- 6 200 110 4¥<§>-434 -IP90-C1
§<0-|) ID! mama *§@§-iZ\3OQ@H>,; C€€>9.3\~8

105 55 300 000 CS 6 500 G 407 0 220 0 230 0.141 2900 . 0.455 2259
CCIO 5 600 110 1.03
105 .
105
55 .
as
350 000
400 U00
CS
CS
1 1&0 0.530
0.572
0
0
190
166
0
0
24 E}
205
0.139
0.137
2700
2500
1 0.489
0.523
0 233
0 .230
5
4
200
000
110
115
0.078
0.899
3 7 BBO
105 1 as 500 000 CS 1 9 430 0.642 0 134 0 207 0.135 2200 0.563 0 .224 4 300 120
120
0.800
0.758
105 55 G00 000 (IS ‘ 10 080 1 0.700 U l 13 U 327 0.132 2000 0.606 0 .218 3 900
105 55 7 S0 000 CS 12 740 0.780 0 091 0 360 0.129 1800 0.063 MN»;
-:»:;~o\Mw¢j~1» €Amas».-In C3'l—\3»'<—OOO‘@WP-<2r—V1113“! 0 .211 3 500 125 0.673

170 S5 2 SR 1 4 350 0.292 0 987 0 106 0.217 B600 0.349 4.20 0 .323 15 O00 110
105 so 1 SR. ‘ 4 (H0 0.832 0 736 0 126 0.2102 7800 0.381 3.88 0 .305 13 800 110
160 75 0 0.373 0 622 3.62 0 .288 I2 B00 110
155
155
7:»
75 .
00
000
SR
SR
SR.
4
5
6
090
000
230
0.419
U 4570
0
0
495
302
0
0
0
1412
159
178
0.103
0.185
0.180
1 7100
6500
6000
0.409
0 .439
0. 476
3.25
2.99
0 .280
0 .272
12 000
11 300
115
1115 \-IQ

N
1» 155 75
75
G000 SR 7 180 0.528 0 310 0 200 0.174 1
1
5600 O . 520 2.64 I 0 .263 10 600 120
120
83
“‘%78
.744
$8
155 250 000 S11. 7 S40 0 575 0 263 0 218 0.168 1 5300 0 . 555 2.50 1 0 .256 10 200
ll?
.-< 155 75 300 000 OS 7 450 0 49‘? 0 220 0 230 0 155 5400 0 507 2 70 0 .254 7 900 115 DCDH
OD
0-1»- 855
1515 75 I150 000 CS 8 3-10 0.539 0 190 ; 0 249 0.152 5100 0 536 2.54 0 .250 7 200 220 0 . 784
155 15 400 000 CS 9 030 0.572 0 1
1t"6 0 265 0.149
1 4990 0 561 2 44 0 .245 6 E300 120 0 . 758
155 \1 15 "100 O00 CS IQ 550 0.642 0 13-4 0 297 1 0.145
1 4000 0. 011 2.26 O .239 6 200 125 0 . 630
1-as 1 vs 6120 000 CS 12 O30 0.700 O 113 0 327 0.142 4300 0 656 1.97 0 231 5 700 230 0 . 620
155 1 15 7 50 000 CS 14 100 0.780 0 091 0 366 0.139 4000 0.712 1.77 E 0 226
1
5 100 1 135 0. 558

IA-1: resistance based upon 100% <:0ml11c?.ivity at 65°C. including 2% allowance [or stranding. _ ‘
ZGMR of sector-shaped conductors is cm approxinmie figure close enough for must pra-ct1cn1 appI1cat1on.s.
‘For dielec Lric constant 1 3.7.
4Based‘ upon ail return current in ihe sheath: none in ground.
‘Bee Fxg. 7.
‘The following symbols are used be designate the cable types; SR-“Stranded Round; CS—Compact. Sector.
80 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

TABLE 7-60-CYcLE CHARACTERISTICS or THREE-CONDUCTOR SHIELDED PAPER»-INSULATED CABLES

Grounded Neutral Service
1 E
POSITIVE &
NEGATIVE ZERO — SEQUENCE SHEATH
SEQUENCE
ms
8/2
£3
3 .
L. L11

rcuia.WG
K
VoltageClass InauiationTM1:
hicknes Ci A Type
ofCfi(*1
neiuctor WeiperghtFeet
1000 Diametorer Secmr
Bepbh{*1
incheg Reaist mce——Oh M
}
gar
e Co(1)
mmchea
GMRofoneiuclm SerResctiaencse Ohms
Miperle S%1un$—Capa:mveReactunce——0hM110
m per
*) GCoMBn-d—uTcht2o'ers SeriesRes)
MiOhms
(
istaper
ncele SerReaciteansce MiOhms
{*1perle Shunt-Capacmva Reacugnce-—ObmMi
3)
sper
e Thickneu Mils Resistance Ohms
Mi80:
le 50°
at

205 -1 SR 3 360 0.232 J. 53 0.242 1 0200 1 0.328 5. I5 0.325 8200 105

190 1 2 SR 4 260 0.292 0.987 0.220 1 0100 0.365 4. 44 0.298 6700 105
135 I SR 4 740 0.332 0.786 0.210 1 0000 0.398 3. 91 0.285 5000 110
150 0 SR 5 090 0.3733 0.622 5400 0.425 3 65 0. 275 5400 110
175 00 CS 4 790 0.323 0.495 5200 0.397 3. 95 0 .268 5200 105
175 000 CS 5 s10 0.364 0.392 4200 0.432 3 4.8 0 .256 4800 110
175 0000 CS 6 180 0.417 0.310 99¢?6°Z353
C‘=I‘=<“°$8?
9-4b¢>-lbI 4400 . 0.468 3 24 U 2&9 4400 110 Q->- »- 1>- 3222sac
I5Kv 175 250 000 CS 0.455 0.263 0 210 4100 0.493 2 95 0 243 4 100 115 0 807
. 175 300 000 CS 0.497 0.220 0 230 3800 0.530 2. 80 0 237 3800 115 0 860
1 375 350 000 CS 0.539 0.190 0 249 3600 0.561 2. :33 U 233 3600 120 0 783
1 175 400 000 CS (D@“~IQI 0055
>~liPGl1‘°~l® 0.572 0.166 0 265 P???
999° a»->3333“
-»->>...._-Hg
-€§ a‘5 3400 0.585 2. 45 0 228 3400 120 0 76 1
115 1 5-no 000 CS 10 710 0.642 0 297 0.146 1 3100 0.636 2. 19 0 .222 3100 125 O 684
1 115
115
000 000
150 000
CS
CS
I2 230
14 380
0.700
0.780
2.
:= s=¢= 5031 U 327
0 366
0143
0.139
1
1
2900
2600
0.681
0.737
1. 98
1. 78
0 215 2900 130 0 023
O 211 2600 135 O 562
265 2 SR 5 590 0 . 222 0.087 0 . 105 0.250 if E300 0.418 10 317 3300 115 O 870
250 1 SR. ‘ 5 860 0. 332 0. 786 0 126 0 . 232 7500 0 , 450 {~76-I $0 0 .298 7500 115 0 851

250 0 so 1 0440 1 0.313 1 0.022 0.222 6300 0.477 5° 6300 120 1 0.788
240 cs 1 coco 1 0.223 1 0.400 E33
A
1 240
240
§a
9000 ‘
cs
CS
6020
7480
‘ 0.064
0-410
0.302
0-310 0990 ~_ ~ mum» H» ~ 1
0.196
0.188
0. 181 .
6600
6000
SBOO
0.446
0.480
0.51-5 5°99 owwe» 9999 uwwg
omwmum
6600
6000
5600
115
115
120
1‘ 0.890
0.851
0 .775
240 ‘ 250 O00 CS 8 070 0.447 0.268 0.210 0. 177 5200 2.50 0.261 5200 120 1 0.747
23Kv 240 1 soc 000 cs s 090 0.490 0.220 0.230 0.171 4900 2.29 0.252 4900 125 1 0.690
240 1 350000 cs 9220 1 0 532 1 0.190 0.249 0.167 4600 2.10 0.249 4600 125 1 0.665
240 400 000 cs 10 050 0. see 0.100 0.205 0, 165 4400 CJ¢QG $§$$ woeom 2.03 0.246 11490 130 0.020
240 500 000 1 cs 12 220 o. ass 0.134 0.221 0. 159 3900 0.537 1.82 0.237 3900 135 1 0.562
1 240 000000 1 cs 1a 010 0.000 0.113 1 0.321 0.154. 3700 1 0.730 1.73 0.230 3700 135 1 0.540
1 24:0 750000 CS 15 830 1 0.767 1 0.091 1 0.366 0.151 3400 0.787 1 1. 56 0. 225 3400 1-10 0.488
355 0 SR 8 520 0.288 0. 622 0.141 0 . 239 9900 0 . 523 1 0.330 9900 130 G. 594
345 00 SR. 9 180 0.323 0.495 0.159 0.226 9100 0.548 . 0. 322 9100 135 0.559
345 D00 SR Q 900 ‘ 0.384 0.392 0. 178 0.217 B500 0.585 0.312 8500 185 0.538
1 345 0000 ‘ CS 9330 0.410 0.31.0 0.191 0 . 204 1 7200 0 . 594 . 1 0 . 290 7200 I 135 0. 553
1 345 250 000 1 cs 10 470 1 0.447 0.203 0. 210 0.197 6800 0.628 . 0,280 6800 I 135 0.545
345 300 000 1 CS 11 290 1 0.490 0.220 0.230 0.101 0400 0.663 l\O—4l:l\Jl\5—i\¢5 . 0.273 6400 1 I35 0.527
KY
35
345 350 000 _ cs 12 2su 1 u . 522 0 . 100 0.240 0.187 6000 1 0.693 . 0. 270 6000 1 140 0.491
345 400000 cs 13 can 0.560 0.100 . 0.205 0. 183 5700 1 0.721 |-n-I , 853’ ---c>gD
@Q'ilflBIio 0.255 1 5700 1‘ 140 1 0.480
1 1 1
1 345 500000 cs 14 160 1 cms 0.134 0. 227 1 5200 1 0.773 1 .46 0.257 5200 1 146 1 0.441
245 000000 1 cs 10420 3.000 1 0.113 0. 327 4900 1 0.319 1 .35 0.248 4900 150 1‘ 0.412
345 T50 000 ‘ C3 18 860 1 .767 0.091 0.366 DOD ES"<11-Z‘: 4500 1 0 . 879 1.22 0 .243 4500 1.55 1 0. 877

1A—c resistance based on 100% cond_uct.lvity at 65°C. including 2% allowance ior stranding.
‘GMR of sect0r—s11aped conducwrs ls an approximate figure close enough for moss practical afrplicabiong,
‘For dielectric constant= 3.7.
*Base.d_ on all return current in the aheabh; none in ground.
‘See Fig. 7.
‘The following symbol: are used to designate conductor types: SR2-Stranded Round; CS—Compa.st Secflor.

in which, according to Fig. 6, those given for the calculation of sequence impedances in
D = outside diameter in inches. the sections under Eicctrica-1 Characteristics. Since
d 2 diameter of individual conductor in inches. __ L 12
=con.ductor insulation thickness in inches. at,-0.2794 60 logm G~————-—~MRlc
= belt insulation thickness in inches (When present).
ohms per phase per mile (12)
P<<~."i =lead
sheath thickness in inches.
This equation refers to cables with round conductors. For _ in 24
fielogw T""'i—o+Ti
sectored cables t-here is no exact rule, but a close approxi-
mation can be obtained by using an equivalent cable with ohms per phase per mile (22)
round conciuctors and calculating the diameter D by Eq.
(11), and then subtracting 0.3 to 0.4 times the round con- :1:d=0.2794 & logm g ohms per phase per mile (13)
ductor diameter d, depending upon the shape of the sector.
A set of calculated constants is given in Table 10 for and re and r, are conductor and sheath resistances respec-
single-conductor cables, from which the positive-, negative tively, the derivation of the equations given with Table 10
and zero-sequence characteristics can be quickly deter~ becomes evident. Table 12 gives the one other quantity,
mined by using the equations given at the foot of the sud, necessary for the use of Table 10. These reactance
tabulation. These equations are derived directly from spacing factors are tabulated for equivalent cable spacings
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 81

TABLE 8-~60-CYCLE CHARACTERISTICS or THREE-CONDUCTOR OIL-FILLED PAPER-INSULATED Cmsnos

Grounded Neutral Service
~17 '7' ___ __ ‘ '_.7; ‘ ‘ " 727 W7 ‘ ' ' 7 — ‘

l \ l ‘ l rosrrzxrcc \ ZERO -ssoumuczs 1 snnxrn

NEGATIVI5, SEQ.‘
\ ______. ._........___‘_......._....._.“__---
I
Winches (9
Q

Clam
Resstance

TlhnéarcksuneioasnMiLs CoType
nof
ductor(4) 000Feel. DloramctcSectrDeptorh(F)- inches Resi l;anoe~Ohms PerMile0) GMR.
One
ofConduc mt.it ve Rec tance-Ohzna (3) GMR-Co-Tndhnrcebora Ser
cs PerM
Gh
ns SeriesRe(*1
OhmsPctMi
actaence CaShunt
pacit ve Rcactance-Dhnm PerMi
(°
ca 'iԤi'cImc s M
e Resi tance-Ohms PerMi
50°C
at le
Vo
uge MiCiarrlcas Jr:S.)
A\or
VG(E3. We
gitper (tor SeriesReQhmsPerM'
nctacnce Sh
Capac M:
Per
e
7.?
00 CS 5 590 0.323 0 .495 fl. 185 6030 0.-ice 0.265 6630 115 1.02
000 - CS 6 150 0.364 0 .302 0. :78 5480 l 0 439 0.256 5480 115 0.970
0000 CS 6 860 0.417’ 0 310 9. 172 484 0 0.478 0.243 4840 115 0.918
i 250 000 I CS ‘ll’ 680 0.455 0 . 203 ocoo §G3§aH~H 0. :63
l
4570 0.508 NCJLIM
l @090 wmod 0.238 4570 125 U.820

‘ G 300 000 CS 9 O90 0.497 0 . 220 0.230 0 :54 4200 O 539 ‘Z as l 0.232 4,200 125 0.783
Cb
-4 350 000 CS 9 180 0.539 0 . 190 0.249 0. 150 3900 0 . 570 2. 44 0.227 3900 126 0 752
35Kv 400 000 G3 9 900 0.3'?2 0 . 16'G 0.265 0. :5? 3690 0. 595 2. as ‘ 0.223 3690 125 0.729
500 000 CS 11 550 0.642 O .134 0.297 0. 153 3400 0 . 646 2. 04 0.217 3400 135 . 0.026
600 000
750 000
CS
CS l 12 900
15 660
0. 700
O 780
0 .113
O .091
0.327
0.365
O. 150
O. 148
1 3200
3070
0 691
0.763
l 94
1. 73
0.210
0.202
3200
3070
135
140
V"; 0.548
SW

00 CS 6 360 0 323 0 .455 30. 195 8700 0.436 3. 28 0 2'12 6700 115 0.928
000 CS 6 940 l 0 364 0 .392 .0. 188 6100 0 463 2. S7 (1.265 6100 125 0.826
0000 CS 7 660 0.410 0 .310 P99 l0. 180 5520 0.503 2. 07 0. 256 5520 125 0 788
250 000 CS 8 280 0 .447 0 .263 9 “E3?o,0Q.->-.- 10. 1?? 5 180 0.533 2. 55 0.247 5180 125 0.76!

300 000 CS 9 690 0 -190 0 .220 0. 230 172 4820 0.566 0.241 4820 125 0.729
3
¢~1
350 000 CS 10 iD0 0.532 0 . 190 0.249 10. 163 4490 0.:-cc 0.23? 4496 135 1 0.658
Kv
46 400 000 CS IO S20 0 566 0 . 166 0 265 ;O. 165 4220 0.623 G 232 4220 lfln O 639
500 000 CS 12 220 0.035 0 .134 0.297 10. mo 3870 i 0.672 I-IMNN tCDv- >$>- ailwfliw 0 .226 3870 135 0 . 603

l 600 000 CS 13 930 0.690 0 I13 0.327 1 0.156 3670 . 0.118 1 74 0 219 3670 140 L 0542
750 000 CS 16 040 0.757 0 .091 0.366 3 0.151 3350 0.173 1. 62 0.213 3350 140 ’ 0.510
1 000 000 US
. ___ ___
l

00 CR 8 240 0.376 O .495 0.147 0.234 B330 1 0.532 2. li 1 0.290 8330 ‘ ma 0.639

000 CS S S30 0.364 0 .392 ‘ 0.208 7560 0 0.538 2. 32 0.2% 7569 135 O 642
0000 CS 9 G60 0.4§0 0 .3§0 DO l 0.200 6840 l 0.575 2. 16 0.274 0840 l :35 0.618
l 250 coo CS 10 330 0.447 0 . 263 3 0.195 6500 0.007 2. 06 0.266 6500 125 0.597
>
soc coo CS 11 54.0 0.490 0 . 220 (DO |-.:§.':->-$9’-‘<0-l Q5»-:— 0.180 6030 \ 0.640 1. 85 0.260 6030 l £40 0.543
M,-gl 350 000 CS 12 230 0.532 0.249 1 0. 185
I
5700 \ 0.672 0.254 5700 \ 140 0.527
sir; 409 000 140
l
CS 13 040 0 .366 O 265 l 0. 18! 5430 0.700 0.248 5430 0.513
500 000 OS 14 880 0 635 0.297 1 0. 176 5050 0.760 0.242 50-50 l50 0.460
600 000 CS 16 320 0. 690 0000 >-._|l u.¢ 1-—0\7OU!cDan-l ‘~O>O 0.327 0. 173 47-10 0.707 ,->->-,_. $010!"! >h>-¢(J"~l 0.235 4740 1.50 0.442
750000 CS 18930 0.?67 O .091 0.366 1 0.165 4360 i 0.554 ‘ »- . B3 <0 Q 20
hi aacc QM .1
*1 01 0. 399
‘ l 2000000 l

‘A-c resistance based on 100% con<1uci.ivity at 65“C. including 2% allowance for stranding.
*GIV£R of sect0|‘~¥sh:\ped conductors 15 an approximate fizure close enough for most. practical implications.
‘For dielectric oonst.ant=3.5.
‘Based on all rel-urn current in sheath; none in ground.
‘See Fig. 7.
‘The following symbols are used to designate the cubic $3/yea: CRw»Compa.ct Round; CS“---Compact Sector.

from 0.5 to 36.0 inches, which Rllfillld cover the range met same insulation thickness is used for both grounded and
in practice. For all spacings less than 12 inches, sci is ungrounded operation, but in cables rated 7000 volts and
negative. above, a. greater thickness of insulation is recommended
The constants calculated in this manner apply to one for a given voltage class when cubic is operated with an
three-phase circuit of single—cunductor lead-sheath cables, ungrounded neutral. A good approximation of the elec-
assuming all zero-sequence return current to be in the trical characteristics of these higher voltage cables when
sheaths, none in the ground. opcra.tcrl with other than a solidly grounded nezltral, can
The 60~»cyc1e characteristics of singIe—conduct0r oil- be had by referring in each specific case to the next higher
fiilcd cables are given in Table 11. This table is similar in voltage class listed in the tables.
form to Table 10 and the impedance characteristics are The constants of several t.ypica.l cables calculated by the
determined in precisely the same way. Here again the Inethods outlined are listed in Table 13. These typical
sequence constants apply to one three-phase circuit of cases are included to be used as n check on the general
three cables with zero—sequcnce return current assumed to magnitude of cable constants when making calculations for
be all in the cable sheaths. Single-conductor oil-filled a specific case. Representative sizes and types of cable
cables have hollow conductors {the oil channel forms the have been chosen to cover as many types of calculation as
core), consequently Table 11 includes cables of the two possible.
most common inside diameters, 0.5 and 0.69 inches.
In each of the tabulations, the voltage class listed in the III. TABLES OF CURRENT CARRYING
firsc column refers specifically to groundccbneutral Opera- CAPACITY
tion. Frequently cable systems are operated with other One of the most common problems in cable calculations
than a solidly grounded neutral. In lowwoltage cables the is that of determining the maximum permissible ampercs
82 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

TABLE 9-—-60-CYCLE CHARACTERISTICS or THREE-CONDUCTOR GAS-FILLED PAPER-INSULATED Cantos

{SHIELDED TYPE)
Grounded Neutral Service

POSITIVE SEQ
NEGATIVE 8: ZERO-$EQUENCE SHEATH

1~Zfcknena Ea 1 (°)
éuctor '“
h(‘
——inchm
ma - inches
£43 1
hr ts stoMi ctaMi pacit 0-Uh( -Ohms50°C
r.
'ass
C E. {2}
tor
fOne nco la
RP RP I-
‘um

meteror M10
(1)
___
RP C an
apacitivoctcc-M
nt i)£1
Ohm: R
J
Tee d
to ob ctancmahlile
Ca
ive icnesa
Dept.
ctcr sistane -Oh ie:
cactaricMi‘:
emser iesesincc
(4)
msere
Voltage Mile
InsulationT C11-a.cu AWG( Type
Con
oi ‘H»er Feet
Om
P“fight D'
a Se Re Per GMR.<1 Concuc So: Oh S110 Rea Per GNE
Con Set Oh Sereance
ies Ohms
(‘)
eer $§u Rea. Per This Milo Resist; PerMi
j T vl 41>

130 2 SR ' 31100 0 292 0 . 987 1 O . 1[)L‘1 10'?

Cl. 1‘ 5100 0 . 321 . 0 .289 5100 110 1 .29
130 1
‘
1 SR 4320 1
0.332 0.786 0.125 0.189 1 4000 0.354 2*?“ fig ; 0.274 4000 110 1. 21
130 CS 4 910 0 .288 0.622 0 . 135 O 172 4500 0 .320 452. 0.279 4500 110 1.30
130 1 . cs 4440 0 .323 0 495 0 . 151 0 .105 1 4200 0 .355 434, 0.201 4000 110 1.28
£2
130 1.
12.0 1
§a¢.
0000 1
1. cs
CS
4970
51120
u.ae4
O . 417
U . $2
0.310
0.171
0 . I91
U 153
0 150
1‘ 3800
1 3500
0. 302
0 .431
3.90
3.50
'
004511000
0234 1 3500
110
110
1. 17
1 09
IQ
I-\
130 250 000 1 CS 6 180 0.455 0.202, O 210 0153 3200 O 462 0 230 3200 110 1 05
130 350 000 CS 7 530 0.539 ‘ 0.100 0 %9 1 0146 1 2200 0 521 0 222 2800 110 0 953
130 500 O00 CS » 9 540 0.642 1 0.134 O .297 0.141 2400 0 600 D .210 2400 110 O 8 54
140 1 750 000 CS , 12 900 0.780 0.001 0 366 0.121 2200 0 715 07359303 mac» wgmw 0 198 2200 115 I 0 707
1s0l 1000000 cs 111450 0.000 0.070 0 430 0 13-1 2000 0 810 1. 80 0 193 2000 125 U 578
2 s11 0. 202 0.987 ‘7 0 10r) J0 224 —6900 0 ll 17 0 302 6900 110
1 ‘ SR 0. 3:12 0.786 0 120 1 01215 0300 3 . 82 0 286 6300 110
1 1 0 1. cu 88¢.
C7IUl>¥\ L1!--g 0.288 0.622 0 131 1 0 211 6200 95°?’ 02$-O3(Or-—~1WOW 3. 62 0 302 6200 110 www 832
00 j C-S 5 360 0.393 0.495 0.188 ‘ 5800 0 412 3. 56 0 281 5800 110 1 02
OOH CS 5 Sllfl 1 (1 364 0 392 1 U178 1 5300 O 1445 3. 31 0 271 5300 110 Cl 971
200 0000 CS 6 570 0.417 0.310 U 175 4800 0 488 3. US 0 258 4800 110 El 922
23Kv i 250 000 CS 7' 1.60 01455 01253 DOUG @,_H »@4mQ-_~ Q.l?1 4500 0 520 2. 92 0 249 4500 110 0 835
350 000 1 CS S 540 0. 539 U 249 1 0163 l 4000 0 575 O 240 4000 110 0 816
500 000 CS 10 1'50 0.642 U . 297 l 0 155 3500 0 655 O 230 3500 1m O 741
750 000 C$ 14 650 01780 0 .466 O 147 2900 0 760 0 218 2900 125 0 582
1 000 O00 CS 18 560 0 000 oooo oo~» \l@Fv-ND o~mo 0 .430 0. 144 2600 0 S50 >-1»-ni\7l~J $E3% 0 M0 2600 M0 0 473
0 1 on 0 coo o.2ss I 01622 0 131 0242 l 8400 0 477 0 320 8400 1l0 0 794
co 1 on "1 200 0.320 I 0.495 0 147 1 0.23:1 . T900 O 509 0 310 7900 H0 0 763
000 1 cu s 200 0.304 0.392 0 165 0.222 7300 0 545 6 284 7300 IE5 0. 730
0000 cs s 0110 1 . 3 0.310 0 191 1 01201 6700 0 570 0 281 6700 115 0 707
O 250 000 cs 11 111111 Q. 3 0.263 0 210 ‘ 0.195 6300 0 {$04 0 270 6300 115 0 685
5Kv M 350000 ‘ cs 11200 . ‘ 0.190 O 249 0185 5600 O 665 IQ
Oi
vb 9 254 5601) 125 O 587
3 500000 . cs 12790 COO owwwwwamuwwo 0.134 II) 297 01% 4%O O T45 KOQOJ
1-Ir-‘N320 0 %1 4800 H5 0. 500
1 750 000 CS 18 190 0.76’? ‘ 0001 O 3% 0155 4%O 0 M7 0 238 4200 M0 0. 400
1 060 O00 CS 22 100 0.898 1 0.070 0 .430 0. I58 3700 O. 930 up $afiw83108
6% 6 234 3700 160 0 353

‘A14! l‘6Sl-SYBUCB B8/EGG DH lU0% 601'\d'UCll‘l-'lLy at lii5"C. including 2% flllowance fur 31,;-anding_
’GI\'lR Of Hector-shaped conductors is an aoproxxmatc figure close enough for inost practical applications.
‘For dizlectric cons.tani:1==3.'1'.
‘Based on all return current. in sheath; none in ground.
“See Fig. 7.
‘The following symbols are used to designate conductor type: SR-~S1.raudec1 Round; CR—Oompaet Round; GS—Compact Sector.

per conductor for any given cable. The limiting factor in multipliers to the tables presented for papcrwinsulatecl ca-
cable applications is not always t-he maximum permissible bles. The value for varnished cambric-insulated cables can
insulation temperature. Sometimes regulation, efficiency, be obtained by multiplying the value given in the tables
economy, etc., may dictate the maximum permissible am- for paper insulation by 0.91, the resulting figure being
peres. However because temperature rise is most often the accurate to within five percent of the calculated value.
controlling factor, the calculations of currcnt—carrying Similarly, carrying capacities for rubber insulation can be
capacity are usually based upon this limitation. determined with the same degree of accuracy by applying
In Tables 141 through 19 earth temperature is assumed to a factor of 0.85 to the figure given for an equivalent paper-
be uniform at 20 degrees Centigrade. These tables were insulatml cable. For special heat-resisting rubber this
taken from a publication“ of the Insulated Power Cable factor becomes 0.95.
Engineers Association and give maximum allowable am- Circuits are frequently installed with each duct con~
peres per conductor for representative cable typos. Cor- tainiug three cables. The current capacity of these cir-
rections for earth temperatures other than 20 degrees cuits will be less than that tabulated hero for one cable
Centigrade are given within the tables. per ciuct, but will be somewhat higher than the capacity
Special conditions may make it advisable to calculate B. of an equivalent shielded three-conductor cable of the
cable temperature problem in detail,“-1* taking into same conductor size and voitage rating.
account variable loading, “hot spots” along the cable The number of overhead power cables is a small per-
route, and other factors not contemplated in making up centage of the number in ducts, and for this reason space
the tabulated information. docs not permit inclusion of loading tables for cables in air.
Approximations can also be obtained for the current- Unfortunately there is no simple correction factor or curve
carrying capacities of other types of insulation by applying that can be used to translate the figure for cables in ducts
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 83

TABLE 10—60-CYCLE CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR CONCENTRIC-STRAND

PAPERJNSULATED CABLES
Grounded Neutral Service
1 1‘
12, :17; P» I‘:
‘ .1-11.1w h 1

B
S Reactve- phase
8
Ainchfhe at
81‘ El’
perphasepr
ter
01 One
ance01 50°C
at
12er PhasePer
Per14 ducbmper
-—Ohms Miseper
le! Sheatlstanceof
h
SQ
Sheat
{s01'
tanceh Cltags
ass M:
M115 of
eaet-ance ESE [Ii
ieat
50°C_ _ Capunt.
acit ve Pera.ctance—-OhPer
mM112‘
s 1515c
'5 12eac0s;i1ce%*1esfi=O
VoltageClass Thiniscuknlaetsion M1111
Circular S)
6:
AWG(B
or WdghtFeet
PE000
er DiaofC
meter ondaches
uc1or—— oiCondu‘icntochesr
GMR
One Reat
12actance Per
§nches—Ohms P1121PMiie Per SheB1L 1— 0hm89M
Pb A OM11e
Resoi
istance Pea-
Conducn0r—-Ohms PhnsPM'1e‘ Sh Re P1 Lead
$10 1 i> Insu
thickness_at.i0n CiM:
rcsor
ular &S)
AWG
(B WeightFeet
P1000
er Diame Conductor GMRofCoinnchesducwfl
One R ncxmsper ke Sheat
MiPhase
per Reaof
ctanche Phase
OhmsperPerMi ms M10 Shunt-CapanitOhms
e Resfat Con Pha- Res' O1 anceperMi
per Leadh _T1 icknes —-Mfls
e‘ Sheat

60 560 0.184 0 06? ‘ 4040

61} 670 0.232 . 0.08-1 cu 33 60 =1 0.232 0 054 0.412 8560 B5
60
S0 HM-n-m
8801
990 ‘
0.292 0.100
0.332 0. 126 <-:1<:c‘c 33123KOQDPO Q f=§=T'P° 33§ongch-4
2 760
2490 %€§§
Thicknes -—M1 011» G088
2
1 1_-1_-1_- c>§u
as-1 GG
0.292
0.332
0106
0.126 COG $32 ac:-no
0.400
0.400 GO>—l \I=b€J‘man a mu
7270
5580
135
85

0 0.141 0.539 0.622 2250 S0 200 0 1110 0.141 0.539 0.522 5880 85
00 0.159 0.524 0.495 2040 S0 :95 ‘ 00 1 940 0.159 0.524 0.495 6290 90
0. 173 0.512 0.392 1840 85 105 000 2100 0.178 0.512 0.392 4680 99
000
“$2:0
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R -1-'.rn¢o;|LoE»i
@ :>mauQM
10%;
mo-1.»-.1 -$10 1650 S5 130 0000 2300 0000 0.200 0.496 ¢$O€b 0.310. <3-z\1w=11::>iaaC-E.iI§ra-4\aT 4200 90
1--4
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1300
Kv
15 175
175
2.50
350
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G00
2500‘
3110
0.484
0.-164
0.377 0.263
0.366 . 0.190
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3340
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350 000 ?490 0.681 0 392 Q -1 ED Q
500 000 3180 0.814 0.378 . 0.134 1090 175 500 000 3 B40 0.442 0.352 0 134 2870 1 00
838$ 750 000 4380 0.998 @999 “"0$0320
0 1°19??? .=-u>1s».> - .1=-cow-_:wo~.v- 0.358 0 . 091 7-zoww QQQIOO€r c> ->- 885 8883 175 ‘ 750 000 5 2'10 QQQQ firemc-m1smc-<»n: c -no‘:N)m.'-l>n-—*\Il:ncxacao w cmco c>.:c>n~.'n~:1 <t- Gib:o1=~n\:- 0.417 0.336 0.09! P~7MNMN
>-I!n\1-I4\7I 5 2420 105

60 5560 1.152 0. 445 0.400 11.344 u.11m 1 1.10 $00 100 0 350 1 .152 0.445 O 400 0 325 0.070 2130 105
60 B000. 1.412 0. 543 0.374 0 319 0.050 1.05 6 45 110 S E10 1 .412 0.546 0.874 0 305 0.050 1790 115
60 §§§ 10190} 1.032 0. 033 0.356 11 3115 .111)-11 11.894 55 5 115 ~z-.1-1 menu $22¢@E 11 030 1.632 0.633 ‘ 0.356 0.294 0.041 00"‘ i»é.n<1-.:|1<¢9»1 0ggcm
»- 0 ¢ 1570 I 20

6001 0.134 0 .067 0.628 4510 1 1

720§ 0.232 0. 084 0.602 4020
0.987 8890 B0
9:111 n 2:12 0. 106 0 573 3300 295 2 I 020 0. 292 0.573 0.383
-1:-z~I~1 mcnmm §§§~02. 1040 0.332 0. 125 0.552 .0535’1a-.¢ .?:=. 1> mowcnan 01:»-.1 » owrw "-IKDUICKl%%g $‘~I 2990 8$33 285 1 2 010 0.332 0.552 0.380 0.786 mm 81150 90

75 0 1170 0.373 0.1-11 0.539 0 436 0.522 2670 80 275 0 0.373 0.539 11.377 0.622 72110 1 90
75 00 1320.0.-113 0.159 0 524 0 420 0.495 2450 S0 265 00 0.413 0.524 0.375 0.495 0580 9 U
b 75 000 151010.470 0.178‘ 0.512 0.420 0.392 2210 85 260 000 (1.-$70 (1.512 0.879 0.302 0000 Q5
1-é 75 0000 1300* 0.523 0.200 0 496 0.112 0.310 2010 85 259 0000 0.528 mg
owm_ 0.495
g’-715$E“ 0.366 0.310 5250 95
m
75 250 009 1990 0. 221 0.263 1860 Kv
23 245 250 000 0.221 0.434 0.253 4950 95
75 350 000 2 550; 0 202 0.190 1610 240 359 000 0.202 0.464 0.190 4310 100
75 500 000 3340! 0. 313 0.134 1340 240 500 000 ¢B5
>hO)C7ll\7 0 313 0.442 0.134 0720 100
75 750 000 4510; PQQP %2&$ OB-I- 47‘ o 385 U 091 1mc>-?>a-o$uam1c»91 Owmwenbcmq<‘J%<Q\GEQGG§vllz@> ~mh~l1C>D¢ 1050 . . 838$ 240 750 000 k\U\i?\2>?§-~OCl\952? Q>I—I¢lv\§~'QIggoo
_lg:@ §_9QQ_ .‘=’.wmmmc
°.°.° o- ao~l Q1.»- Q1-1 0.385 0.41? ‘ wwoa:-1 wwnwuma -20>-1 9.091 -a-.n-o~:<a»~c}.1 : .3170 105
E
s $10 1.152 0. 445 0.070 1.31 sso 100 240 2 000 000 E1 910 1 .152 0.445 0.313 0.070 2500 .110
8090 1.412 0. 543 0.050 1.02 son 110 240 1 1 500 000 9 400 1 .412 0.546 0.296 0.050 2350 ; 120
~:~|~l €-RUIVI M-. §2§ ass
U!
10200 1.622 0. 633 99.5.Q.°$533723$
.:’.:° O:-n-onso-n 0.041 0.87?‘ ass 115 1 210 2 000 D00 ‘11790 1 .632 0.633 GQQ 31°18¢=»&~<=1 0.285 0.041 1-<:-_Mcw>-N.»- §§S
oear.-umxu»m-0new9 2070 ‘ 125
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I20 1401 0.134 0.061 0.628 iii’ 0:00
H5 x101 0 212 o 024 O 573 5540 305 0 0.141 0.539 9150 100
1110
£10 1 010 0.292 0.106 0.573 .U, 4520 1185 00 0.159 0.524 S420
7620 100
H0 59¢
>-‘bilaifiz 1 160 0.332 0.125 0.552 oomp 255:» 52% 4100 370 000 0.178 0.512
.5???EAQCAICADCJ .12-no-cw .>-new 9f=F’F" aw-ac» Haw» '@P\3§7‘l0 0870 100
355 ‘ 0000 Ctfififi _‘7'|QJl§I§ l\;"*|—=_-Ioc ncw 0.200 0.496 ->-,_.,-
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3M0 350 250 000 0.221 0.484 11.34-2 0.263 (43>F>8\1l b\ 6410 100
1» 100 000 DC 14>» -4. . Qua 0.178 €Qwr-'—--l$-0A¢ 92 2860 31:5 350 000 0 262 0.464 0.366 0.290 5040 105
M 95 6000 \: '-l 0.525
H»-1. 1- m-491:4-.>-11:15:00 0.200 P?=F>¢ €:§§ I5-CRCI1 = <:»:> mumc1&->14»-2:.a;1w»€.»1@%§
Q99@999
coop ».>“$333
<»- zou o a 91:’? lJE01h =01:u=
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35 1 345 500 000 0.313 0.442 0.325 0.134 14040 I05
no 315 750 D00 til G1dbi9!l-dSI-GD ° DQmE $°
{Q3151-Cd1&1: 0.335 0.417 0.311 0.091 0-=¢v<z>»- 14250
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350 009 0.681 0.2621 0.385 1800 90 i 345 000 004] 7 730 0.400 ; 0.302 0.070 U B66 13100 115
0 .700 3210
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0. 543 0 374 0.310 110 ‘E
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105
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150 890 0.284 1 0.067 0.628 7780 1
1
150 1010 0 ‘Z32 ‘ 0.084 0.602 6600 150 250 000 4 290 0.575 0.221 0.263 7570 105
140 1150 0.292 0106 0.573 1 5400 445 350 000 4 090 0.681 0.262 0.190 67 20 110
115
140 Munoz 1330 0.332 0.120. 0.55? I @?@? ‘~22 Mmmw_q@~ .°‘.°-~.:"<o.u"-m‘ mao o 1%] n:10-15>-19-1 moJob1-cnazc 4920 1 415 500 [100 5 820 0.814 0.313 0.134 5950
445 750 0110 ‘F 450 0.998 0.385 _oo_oouh-6\9$\1Ih 1-4‘-O52‘~l"Jrl- 0.091 mu:1-ma 5130 120
Kv
46
135 U 1 450 0.373 0.141 1 0.539 0.408 0 622 4390
.4610
130 00 1590 0.418 10.1591 0.524 0.403 0 495 3890 . -115 8 680 1.152 0 445 . 0.400 I20
125 000 1760‘ 0.470 0 178 0.512 0 397 o.a92 3440 1 445 11420 1.412 0. 546 0.374 3930 130
?
711 120 0000 1980 0.528 0.200 0.490 0 389 0.310 3020 1145 Q s§§ 13 910 1.632 0.033 0.355 bl»UOQKOQ ooo 1:1<;-10 figfl
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0:‘0-15?IO 3520 135
on
120
115
115
250 000
350 000
500 000
2 250
2 730
3 5210
0.575
0.683
0.814
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0.190
0.134
2790
2350
2010
* 650
650
350 000
500080
1* 0.262
0,313
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0 . 773 1 8590
0 . 695 761.111
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115 750 000 4'-'90 0.998 @999 $2382U'IC>3\:|1- capo wwww v‘>C)‘. ,.~_<I$_,. 0.091 u1-1z-u>b-nzo u:a=:n-WWQW
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650 1 000 090 ;%>-IO? lOvF~@-I»-wo<= ><:_ - 000 - <1:oem cam-10:1 mm.»- 0.445 QQQQ ma-J-.5 8»-14:5! 12.267 0.070 0. 567 6060 135
6 000 1 .152 0. 415 0.330 0.010 1 1.25 1-170 I05
S 250 1 .412 0. 543 0.310 0.050 0.915 1215) 110
69Kv
060 § 090 13 080 1.412 0.546 0.374 0.256 0.050 0 .4ss 5250 140
>-\1-<1-~ >-1 ¢>~ mum §§§ §§§ 10 480 1.632 0 683 oooo<:>§:¢\>i§hIC>:J8rk-lBbil i)\~I@Ui*-¢J>~\>@"G>ZD-\'I~Oafi~v6l 1 0.297 0.041 0.797‘ 1055 I20 B50
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1. 1

*’°‘““’°' Md . N°¢‘““’°'S°q“°"°°
(a) Negiectmg Sheath Currents;
"“P°“““°°°= §11°‘
' ‘Z“15§§.Z‘
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115.31.-mrge
?68$°‘?=’$§Z1°.;Z’E{$‘fl‘§°§‘¢ 1%‘§‘~-3’c;°°1‘E.§’1?.‘i1‘1.§§‘§‘?%'.11mm 10.11.10.111;'
C0113“-,,,1=3.7, 0
2'1 *z2#rc+j<xa'1'xé)-
(ta) Including Sheath Currents; Zero-Sequence Impedance:
*_ X3, r, X +x W XE, (Based an all return current in sheath; none in ground)
z1===Z2=11'°- , ,1 Z0 mra+rl+j(x‘_mx.)

Where xm (x,-§-35).
Note: xd is obtained from Table 12.
84 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Cl1aPl5e1' 4

TABLE 11-—-60-CYCLE CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR OIL-FILLED (HOLLOW Conn)

PAPER.~INsULA'rE|:> CABLES
Grounded Neutral Service
1
INSIDE DIAM1CT1*iROFSPRl'N(}CORE - 0.5 KNC1-IICS INSIDE DIAMETE R OF SPRING
. CORE = 0 . 69 lNC1'ii<J3
. _. M E . .. _.i
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000 4 090 50110 110 1 0000 0.956 0.450 0.310 0 985 4350 115
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250 000 4 050 géii
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l 350 000 5950 1 .050 0.4113 4000 120
0 1 350 000 1 009 l 5470
l
115 315 500 000 6700 1. 1-15 0.5111 3700 1 320
....-. 500 000 12 c cos 1 4070 120 750 000 8030. 1 .286 0.550 . 3410 125
Kv
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140
H0
l 2-= ; 150 000 1 500 1300 1.535 0.602 0 253 1
QQQ ,z.c»0 \1!Zi'C\ 11.1152 4456 145
1 .180 0 505 looss 0592 5680 135 2 000 000 A-I . . fA C$vl»l~SC> tn-00: 20¢)!»-n2993 1.835 0.753 cope 3 695205 0~Jul~O1\l !|'—3@>€> 0 245 cc¢o
. _.s 1 0.404 4060 355
Kv
138 l ? 000 000 l .310 0 sac 00 0.068 95-ll; 5240 1-10
1 2 sen 000 1 .54? 1 0.639 0.018 0.477 -1679 [~15 250 000 0.933 0. .»=31Q P 1 0.590 72 10 135
1 2 0110 coo $3980:00 Aqapo1. .760 l 0.7111
§v:on-L4oi=raa= : 233% @@@@@¢¢= B7V§;€-ABJ»C-hI€iAsJ-Ul—iZQOQI¢£’I#>-01»-1*’!-\71kn» 953?? vat\:|~:t<a >1~¢:oo--:=~:.211. 0.030 0.427 4176 150 350 000 1.050 1 0 see $860 335
500 001} 1 1.145 . 0.537 B4313 140
550
‘T50 000 -_]
v—'lV'l 1.28-6 macaw uswroza cam-1-4 >- .|w¢.n 95:9 ascg2 0 402 KOQQC 59813 1-15
250 000 7 600 0.837 7980 130 161I(v 00 000 0. 255 0.05? 1 0.4129 5540 345
3517 O00 8 3901 0.935 7520 135 00 000 0. 246 0.04? 1 0.421 Q9813 150
500 000 9 2?‘0 1.023 6980 135 N._ . %$‘\Z0 000 :55::
-goon :1-1 =?EZQ »- — no.s>c=8§.cums:.
$5:-_:§1-59°=" 9??@¢¢ l‘v-ZUl.r-m~@mgs
€nIl\7l\.'7@U5v7 GGQG
ISCQ >4~\ :.a1:¢;a-: ca oazn 1}. 238
wwwwwww whgwo 0.032; .1 0.31511 46013 160
750 000 10 840 L180 QGQO OI-6-’ 0'11-Z):- c:€=$ f':.c.‘=§= gi=.~.\. s- -4-neco °P9P (~3t~3¢\Jl~§ Q,-.1-1'»(P1:-5=é$i}-2 999° 35$?» mwmw $¢@¢ uncncvca mm»- min--8 6329 H0
$50
12 s-10
150111111 15360 5 ‘Z85 0.550 ‘ 0.374 0. 233 Kbc*‘B.3@1 7610 1150
Xv
16} l 000 000 L310 1 0.550 i l}.3?~1 0.259 0 058 ‘ 0.4113 ‘ 5580 1-15 l 090 G00 16790 1 1116 1 0.612 0.360 G. 233 0.01:? 0.355 7146 360
1. 1 500 000 150901 1.547 0.039 0.356 0.246 0 0-ill 0.433; 5190 150 925
2 0011 (100 11; con‘ 1.760 0116 0.3-12 O 241 ‘O 030‘ 0.391‘: 471.0 155
230Ki‘' 20000011 122 090% 1.835‘ 0.763 l 0.334 0 219 ‘ 0.0221, 11.315 5980 170
£1 1
IA-c Resistance based on 100% conductivity at 65°C. including 2% allowance 1'or stranding. Above values calculated [mm "A Set of Curves £0: Skin Effect in Isolated
Tubular Ccnduct0rs" by A. VV. Ewan, G. E. Review, V01. 33. April .1930.
’F0r diqlcm-.trie constzmt= 3,5,
‘Calculated for circular sube 1:5 given in Symmetrical Components by Wagner dz Evans, C11. VII, page 138.

Positive- and Negative-Sequence Impedances: Zero-Sequence Impedance:

(a) Neglecting Sheath Current; (Based on all return current in sheath; none in ground}
z1=zz=rm‘-i(x,+x<1l. z0=r¢+r.+j(x,—x.)
(b) Including Sheath Currents:
xg 1', _ Kg
z1=z2=r=+;—31+;g +1 (1r..—l~1=<1—~—-———x3A_1_2)
Where xm‘; {x.%-xd).
Note: xd is obtained from Table 12.

to a. reasonable figure for cables in air. The current-carry IV. GABLES IN PARALLEL
ing capacities of cables in air have recently been revised The problem of current division among paralleled cables
by the IPCEA and are now available in the cable manu- is frequently encountered, because in many circuits more
facturers’ catalogs. than one cable per phase is installed in order to carry the
In the discussion on proximity effect it was mentioned total current. Also, muwal effects may develop between
that where cables are installed parallel to steel plates, the cable circuits which are adiacent throughout their length
extra losses arising from proximity to the plate may affect but which terminal-e on separate busses. Depending upon
the ctzrrcnt-ca1*1‘yi11g czipansity. This reduction in carrying the type of circuit; the cable type and configuration, and
capacity is given by the curves of Fig. 19 which are étalzcn tin: system conditions being investigated, the problem may
frcrn the test values presented by Booth. take any of several forms.
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 85

TABLE 12——~REACTANCE SPACING FACTORS (1..)*, Oams PER MILE AT 60 CYCLES

In. £4 In . Ia In. ltd I11. 371:1 In. 3d In. 93d In. 3174 In. five

2.75 —0.179 5.25 -0.100 7.75 ——0.053 10.5 “"0016 15.5 0.031 20.5 0.065 27.0 0.098
0.50 —0.385 3.00 -0.169 5.50 --0.005 8.00 -0.049 11.0 -0.011 16.0 0.035 21.0 0.068 28.0 0.103
0.75 -0.336 3.25 -0.159 5.75 -0.089 8.25 -0.045 11.5 -0.005 16.5 0.039 21.5 0.071 20.0 0.107
1.00 -~0.302 3.50 -0.149 6.00 -0.084 8.50 -0.042 12.0 0.0 17.0 0.042 22.0 0.074 30.0 0.111
1.25 —~0.274 3.75 —0.l=l-1 6.25 $0.079 8.75 -0.038 12.5 0.005 17.5 0.046 22.5 0.076 31.0 0.115
1.50 -0.252 4.00 -A0133 6.50 -0.074 9.00 -0.035 13.0 0.010 18.0 0.040 23.0 0.079 32.0 0.119
1.75 —-0.234 4.25 W-0.126 6.75 -0.070 9.25 -0.032 13.5 0.014 18.5 0.053 23.5 0.082 33.0 0.123
2.00 -0.217 4.50 -0.119 7.00 --0.065 9.50 -0.028 14.0 0.019 19.0 0.056 24.0 0.084 3-4.0 0.126
2.25 -0.203 4.75 -~0.1l2 7.25 —-0.001 9.75 -0.025 14.5 0.023 19.5 0.059 25.0 0.090 35.0 0.130
2.50 #0100 5.00 —-0.106 7.50 -0.057 10.00 —-0.022 15.0 0.027 20.0 0.062 26.0 0.094 36.0 0.133

*x¢=0.2794 é logm where S is spacing in inches.

SENDING BUS R€GEiVlNG BU$

It is difficult to anticipate in detail the problems met in u b ¢ 0 b c
um»-um-_iL£NGTH IN MiLES----»»-»—m~»——--1-I
practice, but the examples outlined here indicate methods
I,- z,-
of solution that can be modified to fit actual circumstances. I l -——>
O
Almost any problem involving paralleled cables can be
. ‘I 19..
represented by simultaneous equations of voltage drops
caused by self and mutual impedanccs but such equations <1" Z G‘ Z ul 0"

often become numerous and cumbersome. Therefore in b. Is

approaching most problems it becomes desirable to search
about for one or more simplifying assumptions so that the 15'
4*
D’ -an
problem can be reduced to simpler terms, still without
introducing errors large enough to invalidate the solution.
For example, when paralleled cable circuits connect a C‘
-7 1
generating source to a balanced load, it is usually permis- I6 Zb"c" 25:“ lo" Zu'c" 18:" Zc'c"
sible to assume that the total current in each phase is com- c" p
7-7 ' 7
posed only of the respective positive-sequence component: 1 1111:
Br‘
this assumption is based on the unsymmetrical cahle-oir- E Q__.¢.EO
cuit impedances being much smaller than the symmetrical gait

_-.- 1
load impedanoes. -—- —n: -_- - t

Three outlined examples of calculations on paralleled ////////////////////'/////////////////////////////////¥7 £75;

cables are included here, but they assist only by illustrating (ZERO CURRENT IN EMRTH RETURN PATH)
general methods, since there are so many different, and
Fig. E6-Equivalent circuit for parallel cables, with open
more complex, casee to be found in practice. clrcuited sheaths and no net ground»:-eturn current (see
Example 3) .

TABLE 13eeeee~60—CYCLE Cousmurs or TYPICAL CABLES IN Orms PER Pzvmsm PER MILE
POSITIVE~ AND NEOATIVE~ ZERO-SEQUENCE
HEQIIENCE (ALL RETURN IN
"8 SHEAT1-I)

DESC%1%°'TION ‘
RESIST/1 NCE* 1 REACTANCE
CABLE 1
g
V
Assumedi Ki
Opemt tsovo NoSheatCurrehnts IncridinSgheath Currents NoSheatCur ehnts Inc
udingSheah
Currents Shunt_Capacitive Reactance Reaistance Reactan e t Capacit ve Rea
Shun ctanoe
Ei
Single-Conductor. 1000 MOM. 30/64 in. Insulation; &§ in. Sheath. 44 0.070 0.114 0.295 ‘ 0.254 4780‘ 0 .783 0.113 4 780
Three Cables spaced 4 in. horizontally . . . . . . . . . .2 . . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
Single~Conductor. 500 MGM. 9,/64 in. Insulation; 6/64 in. Sheath. 6.9 0. 1.34. 0.162 0.302 0.299 2 440 p 1 .87 0.081 2 44-O
ThreeCa.hI0sspaced 3,3.6in .. . . .. . .
l
Single~Co_nductor Oil-filled. 750 MOM. inside diam. 0.50 in. 550 mils 161 0.039 0.221 0.422 0.347 e soo 0.631 0.115 6 300
Insulation; 9/64 in. Sheath. Three Cables spaced 13 in. horizontally!
Singxlte-Conductor. 250 MGM. 6/64. in. insulation; in. §i§§;E. 0.21 0. 263 0.239 0.181 0.150 2 270 0 .960 0.381 2 2'l'0
T ree Sheaths in contact and 4/0 Copper Neutral Wire . . . . . . . . . .
Three-Conductor belted: Sectored. 500 MGM. 7/64 in. Conductor In‘ 6.9 Q s- O8 BP- ‘ 0.135 0.135 2 420 2 .53 0,231 4 570
sulauon. 4/'64 in. Belt. 7.5/'64 in. Sheath. ..... .. .. ...... . .1
l
'I'hree-Conductor Type H; Sectorecl, 500 MGM. 13/64 in. Insulation, 15 0.134 0.135 0.156 a 400 2 .10 0.226 3 400
8/64 in. Sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ , . . . . _ . . _ _ . . _ . . . _ . . .
¥lJ*r‘;-7Cunr.01c1;or Oil~Filled Type H; Sectored, 500 IHCM. 225 1‘/ills In- 44 0.134 0.135 0.160 3 870 1 .94 0.226 3 870
sulation. 8.5/64 in. Sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . ..
*Conducf/or temperature 65°C.; Sheath temperature 50°C.
86 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

TABLE‘ 14”»-Cunnmmw Cmmyxuc CAPACITY 011' THREE-CONDUCTOR BELTED PAPER-INSULATED CABLES

Number of Equally Loaded Cables in Duct. Bank i H W

Cond mic» arm 1 THREE | SIX 1 NINE I TWELVE

12°? ‘Conduc-
Sim 101‘ Per Cent Load Factor
AWG fiype 1
1003161/1 _3° 1 501751100] 531 50175 1 100 I- . 30150 1 151100 . I 30ls0l15§10nl30[50[‘l-51100
iirf A MPERE
V ‘S P E"R CONDUQ TOR“

4300 Volta Copper Temperatm-a 85°C

s s2 80 vs 75 . 81 78 73 68 79 2'4 68 63 78 72 65 58 76 6!) 61 54
103 98 1 74 100 90 79 69
SR 109 106 108 102 96 89 104 97 89 S1 192 94 84.
89
ER 143 139 134 128 5 139 133 124 115 136 127 115 10’! I33 £21 l 1.98 Q5 230 117 I01
100
\ SR. 164 161 153 146 159 152 14 1 130 156 14.:r $.30 i 118 152 238 122 108 148 133 115

CS 189 134 177 158 1 134 175 1.62 149 18O 166 134 1'15 159 140 122 171} 152 139 114
cs 1 212 211 203 192 211 201 185 170 208 190 152 201 181 1.58 138 195 173 148 128
§8O
HNIFOI CS 250 242 232 219 242 229 211 193 237 217 172 229 200 179 156 223 197 X67 1.45
0000 CS 286 276 264 249 276 260 240 218 27 0 24 6 §-Qn' l—I>"l ,-=p—.| :-Wwfirb 194 261 234 202 176 234 223 139 163

250 amCS 305 291 273 305 233 263 239 297 271 239 212 1 2ss 258 221 192 l 279 244 [ 206 I77
sou 1 354
US 840 324 304 340 321 292 264 332 301 264 23-I 321 28.6 245.- 211 810 271 , 227 1'35
350 392
CS 376 357' 334 375 353 320 288 360 330 28$ 255 ‘ 351 311 266 229 34! 296 248 211
-mo 42¢;
CS 400 385 S59 406 Z180 344 309 395 355 300 272 sac 334 285 244 1 357 an 264 224-

aoo cs 487 465 439 408 465 433 390 348 451 403 348 305 433
450
378 320 273
298
417
462
357
393
295
323
25!
273
600 . cs 544 517 487 450 517 480 430 383 501 4 44 383 334
541
416 350
150 cs 1 s is 581 550 505 585 541 482 427 560 500 427 371 406 390 331 519 439 359 302
(1.07 at 10°C. 092 at. 30°C. (1.07 Si 10°C. 0.92 at 30°C. (1.07 at 10°C. 0.92 M. 30°C. $1.07 BQ 10°C, 0.92 9.2 30°C. (1.07 at 10°C. 0.92 at 30°C.
. ‘ 0.83 at 40°C. 0.73 at 50°C)‘ 0.83 81$ 40°C, 0.73 at 5l)°Cl' 0.83 M. 40°C. 0. "I3 89. 50°C! = 1 0.83 at 110°C. 0.73 at; 50°C!’ 0.83 at 40°C, 0.13 at 50°Cl'

7500 Volts Copper Tempzm wrc 83“C

s 81
s11 1 107
sn 1 140
l
so [
105
1-1 .
101
E 74
97
79
104
75
100
72
94
67
87
1a I
103
74 1
es
B7
S7
62
79
1'7
100
71
92 I 64
$2
57
73
' 15
as
69
B9
60
77
53
68
»-was» ; sa 1 161
137
ma
132
150
126 ;
143 1
136
156
131
149
122
138
113
128
134
1.53
125
142
113
123
102
1 15
130
14B
119
136 1 IU5
120
93
105 ‘
127
145E
114
130
99
112
87
98

‘ cs we 180 174 165 £30 172 156 146 177 148 131 172 153 136 120 161 149 128 1 11
8:» CS 214 206 we 188 206 196 181 166 202 166 14 3 196 177 155 185 191 169 145 125
000 CS 243 236 226 214 236 224 206 183 230 188 16s \ 223 200 174 152 217 192 163 1.41
0000 CS 280 210 25s 243 279 255 285 214 264 tom»->4A-‘MO: >.» —¢;w 213 190 255 229 198 172 1 247 218 184 159

250 cs an 300 237 269 300 283 l 259 235 l 293 ‘ 26¢». 2 35 208 282 252 217 158 21's 240 202 U4
300 cs . 349 ass ago BOO 335 326* 2ss 200 326 296 259 230 315 279 240 207 304 265 223 190
350 cs l 335 369 301 328 369 a4s§ 315 283 359 323 2 82 249 345 305 261 22¢ 333 239 242 206
40-O CS 417 399 373 353 398 373i ass 303 ass i 348 303 267 311 317 279 239 sso 309 2-5'! 220
500 CS 416 454 429 399 454 423 381 341 440 392 340 298 422 369 312 257 406 348 288 245
534 471 I 491 436; 31's we 343 291 4.51 384 315 207
600
750
CS
CS em
503 1
6743
479
640 1
4-13
~19?’
507
.575 532
422
473
376
4 18 55$ 489 1 418
327
363 529
408
455 381 3°13 1 - 507 r
‘ (1.08 at
-128 3 50
1 0°C, 092
295
. an 30 “C.
(1.08 an 10°C. 0.92 at 30°C. (1.08 at 10°C. 0.92 Bl 30°C. (L08 M 10°C. 0.02 BL 30"C. (1.05 at 10°C. 0.92 M. 30(3-
0.83 at 40°C ,.‘at5) 0.83 at -10C. 9.72 Lnr 50".: >1 1 0.33 at 110°C. 0.72 at 50°C)‘ 0.23 at mac, 0.72 an 50==m=
1 i O 72 0°C * 0.83 at 40“C, 0.72 8!. 50°C) ‘

E5 one Volts Copper Tempera- bum 75°C

_____________
s 7? 74 Y 71 76 74 09 04 75 Q 10 ZZZZii $4111 59 73 68 61 54 72 1 W57
65] so
six
SR .
102
132
99
129
96
125
‘D2
119
98
129
95
123
W
11:1
83
106
an 1 91
120 :11
S3 75
96
95
123
S7
112
78
99
69
88
93
120
as . 73
1081 as
e4
82
SR \ 151 147 142 135 146 140 131 I 20 144 E33 109 E40 123 112 99 136 122 :07 92
1

CS 1 175 170 163 155 169 151 E 50 * 1321 use j 1.53 123 161 146 128 112 155 139 i 120 104.
C5 200 194 187 177 194 I 156 12;-2 :15 ms [ 139 183 166 145 127 175 158 135 117
§s¢-~_.@
901113 \
cs 1
Cs
2 30
266
223
257
214
245
202
232
. 222
1 253
184
21 1
242
E70
E95
222
i
178
202
217 ‘
249
199
228
177
201 E
158
179
210
240
189
21.5
165
187
143
158 ‘
203
233
120 153
20:» 113
132
149
1
250 . Cs . 295 284 271 255 l 281 268 245 221 276 Zbi 220 ' 196 266 239 204 177 257 225 189 163
ace CS 330 317 391 283 1 310 297 271 245 307 278 244 215 295 264 225 194 285 248 Z08 178
sat: CS 365 349 332 310 = 2.45 327 29? 967 13.».'0 , 305 260 235 3 24 ‘J89 245 211 313 27 1 ' 227 193
400 CS é 394 377 357 333 375 352 319 286 is 65 327 285 251 3-19 307 202 224 336 290 241 206
soo cs 449 4 29 406 377 428 399 359 321 l 414 396 819 280 396 346 293 250 379 326 269 229
mo cs 5021 479 4501 417 476 443 3 96 3 52 ‘Q
4a. 409
r . 351 306 . 4 38 380 319 273 430 3 58 294 249
1&0 A cs 572 5 543 1 510 1 463 540 499 444 303 ‘ 520 4.18 391 341 1 494 425 356 302 ‘ 471 399 326 275

1
.09 an 10°C. 0.90 an aoac.
QC.79 at 40°C. 0.67 8-! 50°C)I
(1.09 at 1fl“C. 0.90 at 30°C. 1 (1.09 at 10°C. 0.00 at 30°C. (2.09 at l0°C. 0.90 at 30°C. R1-09 at 10“ C. 0.90” at 30”C
0.79 at 40°C. 0.07 an 50"C)= D319 at. 40°C, 0.66 M. 50°C)’ 1 0.79 9.! 40°C. 0.66 at 50°C)‘ 1 0-79 M 4'-lg‘-7. 0.556 M. 5U"(.§)'

* The following symbols are used here no designate conductor types:

8"-S0ll_d Oflnpfir. §R——at.andarc1 rnqnd cuneentriwstranded. CS~—<:ompaet-sector stranded.
* Current ratlzmgs are baaed on the foilcwmg conditions:
a. Ambient earth bempera Lure... 20°C,
b. 60 cycle alternating current.
0. Ratings include dielectric 1058. and all induced a-c losses.
gl. One cable per duct. all cables equally loadad. and in outside ducts only.
' Multiply tabulated currents by these fact-ors when earth temperature is other than 20°C.

Example 3~Type of Circuit: A three-phase 60~cycle load current (positive-sequence only), and its magnitude
cable circuit connected between a. sending and a receiving is known. The cable conductors can be of different sizes,
bus, using single-conductor unsheathed cables, and having and their spacings can be entirely unsymmetrical.
two paralleled cabies per phase. Problem: To find she division of load current among all
Conditions: The current fimwing into the sending bus conductors.
and out of the receiving bus is nearly balanced three-phase Circuit: Refer to Figure 16.
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 87

TABLE 15—~CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF THREE-CONDUCTOR SHIELDED PAPER-INSULATED CABLES

W 77” W H Number of Equaliy Loaded Cables in Duct Bank
Conziuc» ONE ‘THREE SIX NINE TWELVE
"9' Con<iuc- 1
§%% M‘ Per Cent Load Factor
Dr
zooecm 30 50 76 190 30 so I vs 100 an so 75 100 30 i 50 75 E 30 . 50 751100
AMPERIGS PER CONDUCTOR’
Wig O00 Volu’ Copper Texnperauzre 81° C

R Q4 QE 88 21-; 91 1 R? 1 8: 75 R9 BR 74 fifi R7 \ 711
59 1 an 84 75 64 56
1 SR 123 120 115 101 H9 ‘ 114 104 95 116 103 535 85 1 113 89 ‘ 77 109 96 83 72
j sn ~ 159 154 146 131 R53 144 139 121 H19 l 36 120 107 \ 1-44 =§%i 112 \ 97 139 123 104 90
5 BR 179 . 114 166 156 172 16:1 149 135 163 1 53 136 £21 1 1112 I 145 125 1 109 1 153 188 117 180
1 1
C3 203 195 182ms 1 185 ‘ 169
176 154 190 173 154 137 133 14:
154 122 178 156 131 112
‘ cs 234 224 202 225 ‘ 212 \ 19::
2 15 175 218 193 17-1 156 211 5 l87\ 162 139 203 177 H8 12?
§8O
1'-‘MFG CS 270 2-58 230 2&5258 1 2'12 22$ 198 249 225 198 i7+§ 241 L 182 1
222 167 232 202 168 144
0000 ; cs 308 29$ 2111 205 216 250
281 223 285 257 224 19$ . 275 = 241 1 205 1 1715 1 265 227 189 182
250 3 cs 341 \ 32? 310 2120 325 305 276 246 315 24 5 215 303 205 224 193 291 250 207 177
soc = cs 383 1 ass 344 320 364 32.9 sos 272 1 351 271 236 337 1 29:; 246 211 322 276 227 394
sso cs \ 417 sew 375 345 397 ass 330 293 1 383 293 255 sen 318 267 227 350 361 245 208
-mo cs 1 153 42s 463 313 429 sue . 354 314 413 ¢n3<'1~7Gv~7l-D C7>h~>- @ UJQCACAJ 313 273 394 340 285 2-12 376 320 262 222
500 ‘3 CS 513 487 450 41s 483 440 399 350 467 410 350 303 444 381 313 E 269 U9 358 292 247
600 ‘CS 567 53? 501 460 534 491 -m 38 :3: 313 450 384 3 30 ‘ ms 416 346 298 463 390 317 269
750 CS 643 ans 562 514 602 1 5.11 485 426 576 502 423 3 65 1 545 -164 383 323 519 432 348 293
1 ‘ (1.08 at 10°C), 0 .9! at we. (1.08 at we. 0.91 1» 30”C, (1.95 Bl. 1n"c:, 0.91 at 3 0" L“- . M. 310°C, 0.91 al. 3 0°C, 1 (LBS at 10°C. (HI i at 30“C.
U . S2 BL 40°C, O. 7l at 50°01»
‘L05
1 0.8‘). 85 40°C, (3.71 at 50°C)‘ D1824: t 40°C. U471 M 50°63‘ 0.x-.1 M 40°C. 0171 at 50°C)‘ 0,81 at 40°C, 0. 7(l at. 50°C)‘
zéboo V511; Copper Temperat. ure 77°C
2 = sa 1 156 250 143 134 149 H1 130 117 145 l I32 111 105 140 1 125 107 S4. 134 110 I00 88
1 sa m 3 70 162 152 170 160 145 133 154 149 132 117 159 ’ 140 121 105 1.54 I33 [12 97
CS 200 392 183 172 192 182 166 149 1 186 169 1-17 132 178 158 136 118 273 3 1411 I26 109
§2¢ CS 227 220 210 197 221 208 189 170 212 193 168 1 149 202 181 156 134 196 ‘ 172~ 144 123
CS 262 251 238 223 254 238 216 we 242 220 191 169 230 206 I50 222 195 ‘ 162 139
0000 CB 301 289 271 251. 291 273 B46 21:1 27$ 250 215 \ 190 25% 2:13 - >- <8“\.'|u| 169 255 221 182 157
250 CS 1 334 315 298 277 321 299 270 239 ans 1 275 zas 207 290 25S 216 154 279 242 199 170
8017 CB ‘ 373 349 3 28 306 354 329 297 263 341 302 5 259 227 320 253 232 292 309 266 ; 217 185
350
400
CS
CS
‘ 405
434
379 3 53 331 384 . 356 318 253 300 327 1 280 243 3§7 305 255 217 335 235 1 233 I99
499 356 35$ 412 379 340 302 2913 348 293 260 ‘ 374 32 5 273 232 359 303 24? 211
500 ‘ CS 1 492 466 436 401 4&1 , 427 379 ass 443 391 333 283 424 363 302 257 40$} 335 27 5 239
600
750
CS 1
cs ‘
543
616
516
588
484 440 512
577
470 414 ace 489 428 365 313 ‘H34 396 320 279 441 36? 299 248
6&1 495 528 465 40? 550 479 402 347 520 439 364 305 49$ 405 329 276
(1.09 at 10°C. 0 .90 at 30°C. {L09 at 10°C. 0.90 at 30°C‘ (1.09 8-Q i(!°(7. 0.96 M. 30 °C. (3.119 at 10°C. 0.90 at 36°F, (1.09 at l0*’C. 0 .90 at 30°C.
0/8|) at 40“C, 0 .67 at so=c)= 1 0.80 at 40°C, 0.67 at 50(7) ‘ 1 0.79 fit 40%;, LLB? at 60°C)' (1-79 at 40°C, 0.68 as 50"(I 1 0.79 at 40°C. 0. $5 ml: 50°C)‘
34 500 Volts Copper Tex nporat ure 70C
\ cs \ 193 3 85 176 I 165 134 174 1 53 Hl 178 1 161 \ 1 40 124 171 149 131 1 54 142 119 N13
cs 2.9 209 199 137 208 197 173 I60 202 11-32 158 140 194 170 126 £85 161 134 115
CS 250 211
gésa cs zaa
238
2? 5
225
260 24R
238
273
222
256
202
229
182
205
229 ‘
283 1
206
234
179
203
158
179
220
251
193
219 >-1- r-H coma»?O3U\€_Y\@
141
160 ‘
209
235
I82
200r
152
I70
123
144
250 cs 316 802 285 266 301 280 253 224 289 258 222 19$ 276 240 202 174 262 222 137 157
390 GS 352 33 5 315 293 334 310 278 245 320 1 28-1 244 213 3-G4 264 221 190 1 zss 1 244 203 !71
35" as 384 364 342 313 363 ‘ 336 301 267 346 308 264 229 329 285 238 264 311 263 21? 184
400 CS 413 3 92 367' 341 384 360 321 284 372 I 329 28E 244 352 303 254 216 334 282 232 195
500 CS 468 442 414 3&1 436 402 353 3!? 418 367 312 271 393 337 281 238 372 313 2 56 215
600 CS ‘ 514 487 455 416 481 4140 39 1 344 459 401 340 1 294 430 367 304 259 406 340 277 232
T50 CS 1 584 543 510 466 541 i 496 435 383 5l5 447 373 I 324 481 409 337 284 452 377 304 255
‘ 11.10 at 10°C, 0.129 at ao"c, (3.10 at 10°C. 0.89 at 30°C. ,1o at 10°C, 0.89 at 30%;, (I I0 at 10"C. 0.88 at 30°C. (1.10 at 10°C. 0.88 at 30°C.
0.76 at. 40°C, 0.61 at. 50“C)| 0-'16 BL 40°C. U160 at 5U'C)"‘ 0.16 at 40°C, 0.60 an sn"<.r>= O 75 am 40°C, 0.58 as 50°C)‘ 0.74 -lit 40°C. 9.56 at 50°C)‘

‘ The 7°§l°Wi}1K symbols are used here to designate condaicmr types

s-— 1
1 Current ltgbzirgi . -.
<é1;21;§?ii;C:‘::s¥.rand6d| CS'1. comp-ackrsector stranded.
a. Ambient earth temperacure= 20°C.
B. GU cycle aiternating cur:-cni.
°- Rflillsfl include dielectric loss, and all induced a-c losses.
' M I One cable per drink, all cables equally loaded and in outside duets only.
" W113’ mbuiabed currents by them: factors when em-Lh Lernperature is other than 20°C.

Complete voltage drop equations: Applying these aSSump%.iOnS leads to a set of three simul-
E.’ M I.;Za-i— Ia-»Z,-,,~ + Ib-Z“; + 1.1..Zs.b..+ 1c.ZB,c.+ 16.Z“. taneous equations relating three currents
E1’ Z L'Z»'.;'+ I.."Z.:'+ I1,-Za”b"'§_ 11,"Z.v-1," -|— Ic'Z.,-1.-+ I.~Z..,~c»- Modified equations:
-Eb’ = I&'Za'b'+ -{n"Zn"b' + Ib'Zb' + fh"Zh’b" + I<,‘Zb'(,' + I¢"Zb'e"
Eb" = Ia/Za'b” +' Ia"Zn"b" + Ih'Zb'b" + Ib"Zb"+ I¢’Zb"¢' + I¢"Zb"c"
1.-<2.-+2.» j 22.».-> + 1.~<z.».»1 - 2.».M 2..-.,~)
+Ic'(Za'c'+ Za"o" — Za”e' _' Zs'c") M (Zn" “‘ Z015")
E1?’ = Ifl'Z-8'6’ a"Za"c'+
It/Zb'c’ + Ih"Zb"¢' + IJZJ + Ic".Z°',," + a2(Za"b” 7“ Znfb”) + a(Za"c" _"" 4Z9/0”) -
E1%" In'Za'o" ‘§“ In"Zs"c"+ Ib'Zb'c” ‘E’ Ib"Zb"¢" + I¢'Z¢’¢" + I¢"Z¢’
Is'(Za’b' + Za/'h" "" Za'b" * Za"b') + Ib'(Zb'+ Z5" '" 222%")
Simplifying -‘1$$11mP1>30il5I It is apparent that E,’ = E,-», + In’ (Z1:/0' + Zb"c“ 7" -Z-bun’ '_' Zb’c") m (Za."‘n" ““ Zs"b':)
E?’ =: Eh", émd Eg m E}-; therefore these voltages can be + aR(gb.. k gb.b..) +1; (gbw. _ Zb.c..)_
ehmlnated. by subtraction. Also if one ampere positive
sgqugnce current is assumed to flow through the overall
1.-<Z.-.'+ - - 2.--.1; +11,- 12.».+z.~.»--2.».-'-
Zb"¢') + Ic'(Zc'+ Zn“ "' 2-Zc'u") = (Za"c" "7" ZA"c')
clrcult, then 1." = 1.0 -- I,-, I1,» = ai-— [1,-, and I." m a— 1,,-. +012<2.--.~ -~ Z.--.1) +Q12.» -2.1.-1.
88 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

TABLE 16M»Cum=zm~1r CARRYING CAPACITY FOR THREE~ ground return path may be ignored with very small error:
CONDUCTOR OIL-FILLED Puma INSULATED CABLES
(amperes per conductor)* Zia’ = l(Tc+j$a)
where
Rated Line Voltage—Grcundcd Neutral l=circuit length in miles.
Circular Mils. l 34 500 __ 46 [X10 lf 69 _ r,,= a.-c. resistance of conductor a’, ohms per mile.
or A.W.G. x, fi reactcnce of conductor a’, to a twelve inch radius,
Rlaximum Copper Temperature»--Deg. C. ohms per mile.
(B.& S.)
75 '55 75 . 12
=J0‘2?94 iogm Gl\/IR; of conductor a’,Wi'nche:,§
168
190 190 Z,.~, Zhr, Z},--, Zn», and Z¢~ are determined similarly, based
éee 210 210 210 on the respective conductor characteristics.
0000 246 2-£0 240
Z,=,~ =1-j0.2794 logw = l( -— 2:4) where Sp,» is the axial
250 000 265 265 265
300 000 295 295 295 spacing in inches between conductors a’ and a”. The re~
350 000 320 320 320 maining mutual impedance are calculated similarly, using
400 O00 342 342 342
the appropriate spacing for each.
500 000 382 382 380
600 000 41 7 417 412
A series of more complex examples of the above type of
700 000 445 445 440 problem is described by Wa»gner and Mullerf‘
750 000 460 450 455 Example 4~Type of circuit: A three~phase 60-cycle
cable circuit connected between a. sending and a receiving
Deg. C. Correction Factor for Various Earth Temps. bus, using two dissimilar three-conductor lead sheathed
10 1.08 1.08 cables in parallel.
20 1.00 1,00 Conditions: Each cable contains three conductors that,
30 0.90 ‘ 0.90 s=>:~:- 28% by the nature of the cable construction, are symmetrically
40 .79 .79 .79 transposed so that the flow of positive or negative-
sequence currents will cause no Z8I‘O~S8qL£61'1C8 voltage
75% load factor assumed.
Ratings include dielectric lose and extra a-c. losses such us sheath and prox» drops. Therefore, the sequence networks are not interde-
zznity loss.
Above mince apply specifically to sector shaped conductors. For rrmnd con- pendent and an impedance value of each sequence may be
dn 11- t crs zm Jlt up 1 y b y U . 99 .
*Applies to Lhrce similar loaded cables in a duct bank; for 51;; loaded cgbleg
calculated and used independently.
in a duct bank, mulnpty above values by 0.88. Problem: To find the zermsequence impedance of the
entire cable circuit, and to determine how zer0»sequencc
After substituting the proper self and mutual impedance current divides between cables.
values as defined later, these equations can be solved by the
method of determinants for current distribution, based on 0 b c 0 b c
7 SEEM.“ LENGTH EN MILES i
a total of 1.0 ampere positive-sequence current in the cir» 4|‘ mmmmmmmmmmmmmmm ----_-_-
cuit. To obtain actual currents, the distribution factors b’ W w % W W W W % W W % W M M M Q ......._.._
Q‘ ________________ -W»...
must be multiplied by the actual load current in umpcrcs.
Apparent conductor impcdances: Using the currenl.-
SHEATH
distribution factors for each conductor to solve the com-
plete voltage drop equations, an “apparent” impedance for
I l I l E I I E I l EI E I I l l E
each phase of the circuit can be calculated. This apparent 0:ENDiNG
U5
O:
Q: RECEIVING
impedance is valid only for the particular current division BUS BUS
calculated: snafu
Apparent impedance of phase a (01
ACTUAL cmcurr
Ear E;
"== Ia) +1” - —~ E,'— Ea", ohms.
.191.
_ _
Z6
-V\A/\/~_”1 1: _
x ;:;;_**

Apparent impedance of phase b

mi; YT é ‘vvw‘- , it __
=]—-~*~bI'"=I§=a£&;,*=ab1,", ohms. I ' Z¢'§'
*3‘ Z6-‘Q1 Z; \ 1 ‘}j:"s'
h'""l_ b’
E
Apparent impedance of phase c
Ea
-
E0’ ,,
e —\~ ww- ~— —e
= -J = (12E<,' = a-E4’, OhlT1S. —-—- 0- - 0-—-—-L
// //////////7//7////////7/////7///
l§: l ZS“ ‘ 1,3" ////
Supplementary equations: The original assumption of H” EART H

pos1t1vc~scquc:1ce current flow through the circuit pre- EQUWALENT cmcurr, wrm ALL. QUANTITIES
cludes the existence of any net ground return current. This EXPRESSED IN ZERO-SEQuF,N$E TERMS
assumption simplifies the determination of the various Fig. 17-Actual and equivalent zero-sequence circuit for two
self and mutual impedanccs, because the effects of a parallel three ~conductor lead -sheathed cable (see Example 4).
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 89

TABLE 17—CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY or THREEJIONDUCTOR GAS~FlLLED PAPER-INSULA’1‘ED CABLES

Number of Equally Loaded Cables

Conduc-1 ONE THREE SIX NINE T\V}:ILVE

tor Crmduc- ~— — —' -—-
Si" W1‘
Type Per (Jeni Load Faczor
AWG
or (1) 1
MCM ‘so 50 751 100 30 1 50 1 75 100 30 50 75 1100 30 50 1'5 150 301 50115 100

APPROXIM ATE A M PERI-IS PER CO NDUCTO R’

15 000 Vhlia Coppnr Tom pcraturc 31°C

2 ‘W SR
1 SR
159 ‘
no
154
174
14s
166
137
1:36
153
172 1 1631
144 133
1 49
12!.
135 1
15 1””136ii 101
1681
136
153
” “W”
121
1-1-1 =
162
120‘W 112
125
W 1.29
145
Q7
109
139
158
123
138
10-1
l 17
DO
100
CS 203 1 195 11 32 1 W6 ‘ 196 1 125. 169 154 190 1.73 1.5-1 137 ‘ 183 E64 241 1 122 1 173 1-A {.11 Q2 >- W >- 112
cs 1 234 215 2:2 1 1 93 162
§s.=
0000
CS
CS
1 2'20
308
224
2-58
295
245
231
202
230
26l 1
225
258
295
= 242; 2 20
1 276 = 250
175 ‘
198
223
218
‘J49
285
198
225
257
1?‘!
198
224
I56
174
196 1
211
2111
275
187
Z12
241
182
205
139
157
170
‘Z03
232
265
177
202 1
227
148
168
189
12?
144
152
250 cs 341 327 am 290 325 305 276 246 315 283 245 215 303 265 224 193 29 1 0? 177
cs 411 1 397 an 1 345 397 369 3 30 293 383 340 293 255 1 366 318 20'! 227 350 215 208
506 CS 513 1 48? 450 1 -118 483 446 1
399 350 467 410 350 303 44-1 381 318 269 419 sQs= 202 247
‘I50 CS 643 1 606 562 1 534 602 551 485 426 576 502 423 3115 545 464 383 323 519 4321 34$: 293
1 (1.08 it 10°C. 0. 91 Rt 30°C. (1 .08 M 10°C. 0.91 M 30”’C. (1.08 at l0"C, 0.91 11 z aojc, 1 (1.08 at UPC. 0.91 a 1 3I1‘( . 1 11.021 as 1o“(t, 0.91 at 30%‘-.
0.82 at 400, 0. 71at5 0“(J:= 0.82 at 40°C. 0171 at 50°C)‘ (1.82 at 40°C 0.71 M 50 C3“ 1 0.82 n z 4(J“('§, 0.70 ht -50%.‘) 1 1 0.211 at 110°C. 0 70 at .§0'(1>=

23 000 Volts Cop per 'l‘cmpcrat we 77°C

E
2 SR 156 150 143 134 149 1 141; 130 117 145 1 132* 117 105 12.5 107 S4 134 86
1 SR. 177 170 162 152 170 1&0; 14.5 133 164 1 149 132 1 11? b—l .l 0H5-995 140 121 105 154 M. W.GHQ '-‘: [U5
i
97
0
00
CS
CS
zoo 192 183 172
222 220 210 197
192
221
182
208
160 1
189 1
149
170
186
212 1
169
193
14'?‘
16$
132
149
178
202
.58 1
181 1
136
150
128
134
173
106
145)
1711
126 l
I44
109
123
can 1 CS 2621 251 238 1 223 2.54 238 216 193 2-12 1 220 101 169 1 230 206 175 150 222 H15 162 1 139
0000 CS 301 1 239 1 271 ‘ 231 1 21:1 273 246 219 275 250 2¥5 190 ‘ 264 1 233 1 197 16$} 255 22] 182 I 157
¥
250 CS as-1 315 298 277 1 321 299 270 1 239 303 215 1 2315 202' 1
290 258 216 184 279 242 19 170
350 CS 405 379 358 331 354 , use 3 11;; 283 369 327 1 280 243 1
347 305 25$ 217 335 235 2 199
500 CS 492 465 436 401 1 4151 1 427, 319 335 443 391 333 zss
-1 24 363 302 257 400 336 27' 230
750 CS 1 em 583 54 1 1 495 571 1 528 1 465 407 550 479 1 402 1 341
520 E 439 364 306 490 408 $3Q0IDCJOJYD 276
1 (1.01! at 10°C, 0.90 at 30%‘.
11.110 1 b 40°C. 0.67 at. 50 “CW 009 BL l0"C, 0.90 at 30°C, (1.99 at 10"<7. 0.210 an 30°13 ‘ (1.09 at 10°(7. 0.90 at 30°C. (1.09 3!, 1l1“C. 0.91) at. 30“(T_
use N. 40°C, 0.6? M 50°C)‘ 0.?!) B I 441°C. 0.6? at .5o°(",11 0.79 at 40°C. 0-66 at 50°C)‘ 0.79 M 4l1"(7, 0.65 $1 5U°(Z)~‘

_i3li"5<$b"vo11.. Copper Tempcrau ire TOT}

"'11
0 E1 cs 1 202-1 194 1 185 173 193 1 1616‘ 1
1- M E 148 187 165? 1 147 1 130 13 156 1 135 l 16 172 149 1 125 108
2301 220 209 196 218 207 1 127 168 21 2 192 | I66 147 20 178 1 152 132 19-} mo E 1+1 .121
000105-11262 250 230 222 250 233 1 212 1 191 240 216 I38 166 23 203 - 173 148 220 101 mo 134
0000 cs1so2
1 289 273 253 287 269 240 215 276 246 213 1 12:8 230 195 168 250 215 119 151
250 CS 332 317 soc 279 316 294 266 235 304 271 233
I
205 252 212 183 275 2331 196 165
350 CS 403 382 ass 1 334 382 316 280 363 323 27"I 240 300 250 2§4 327 2m: 22$ 193
500 CS 492 464 435 400 453 422 376 1 333 4 39 385 328 1 285 1 354 20;) 2.30 300 i 3291 209 226
750 CS 613 573’: 536 4 90 370 | 521 457 1 ‘£02 -‘HQ 469 I197 1 340 -131') 35 1 295 415 11 31151 320 258
1
1
(1.10Q1 10°C. 0.59 an 30%?‘ ‘ (1.10 an WC. 0 89 at 30°C. ‘ <1.:u 111 1€l"{J, 0 11-; 111 so-‘<1
0.76 ac ecwc. 0.6: M sow)» 11.16 B-I, -sow, 0.60 1:. .=;0=<:;= 1 0.11; Bl ¢u"<.:_ can at comm i:§s*z~-.. wgémm.w
9'1G3*~Z1Yi
’-'*O$‘@ 4JGIg
1. 1l'l“C, 0.88 at 3l}“{‘, (1 10 Bt 10%.‘. 0 . sq1 B3.
3[3°( I.
L 4l}“(;, 0.58 at 50’“CI" 1 0.71 8?. 40°C‘ 0.55 Bl 5081(1)‘

‘ Tlw $°l10W5flS symbol: are use-d here L0 mluaiguau-, conductor types

SR—-standard round conr:entric—strandcd. CS--—compact—sectoz' stranded.
’ Curront. ratings are baseé on the foliowing conditions:
a. Ambient earth temperacure= 20"C.
b. 60 cycle alternating current.
c. Ratings include miielectric §oss. and all imluceci a-c losses.
d. One cable per duct, all cables equally loaded and in outside ducts only.
' Multiply tabulated currents by these factors when E&l'Ll'1 mmperature L11 ogber than 20“C.

Circuit: Refer to Fig. 17. The three actual conductom MO(llfi0d equal.-ion:
in each cable have been reduced £0 one equivaient con- ]a.1(;;1_,._Zc.c.,)(Zs.Zs.._ Z2S.s,.) + (Z6, Ze,c..)( 7J
ductor in this figure, and ail impeda.n(:es are to be ex-
_ Z25?)
pressed in zero-sequence H-3!'Illti considering the earth as a. + 12.-.' - Z.~.'> 1 - Z.-.-Z.~) + (Z.~.' - S“ 1
return path for each eireuiz. (Z1‘”!”Z='3” _' 'Z¢"5,Z§":l + (Z1!'9" W Z11”!/} (Z<'5'Z1:'s" _ Zc's"Ze')
N r 3") {Zr”s'Zs's” _ Zc"s"Zs’)_1
Complete voitage drop equations: -1” 1VZc"s" M £120” — Z511")
(Z-QJZVS” — Z2s's") + <Zc"s' "" Z65‘) (~Zc”s“Zs's” "_ Zc"a'Zs",l
E0 = I0’-Zn‘ + I0"Zc'c” "1" Is'Zc'a' '+‘ Ia"Zc's" .1_ 1 ;;c.,s,. __ 36.8..) (Zc..a.Za.5., _ Zc.,s..Zs,)
-E0 m Ifl'Zc'c” + I0"Zc" "l" Ia'Z¢"m' ‘l“ Ia”Z¢"|"
0 = »[1‘§'Z0's'”l” I9’ Zc"s'+ Ia'Zs' + ]s"Zs'q"
This equation furnishes a solution for I11', from which I0"
0 = 1.12.1.1-+ I,1~Z¢~s»-+ 1.-z,-.-- + 1.-'2.» follows directly. To find Lhe zero-sequence impedance of
the entire circuit requires that one of the complete voltage
The voltage drop E1, can be eliminated by silbtraction-, and drop equations be solved for E0. Then
the sheath currents can be solved in terms of conductor
currents by using the last two equations only. Also, it is En E0
convenient to assume that the total zer0-seq\161'1cf: current Zr) —- i-— Eu, Ol§l'I'1S.

flowing into the sending bus is one ampere, which makes

Ig"=
Supplementary equations: The equations necessary to
determine each impedance value are shown here: every
After making these changes, the following single equation impedance must be expressed in zcrmsequence terms, with
results: the effect, of earth as a. return path included.
90 Electrical Characteristics of Cables Chapter 4

TABLE 18-CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF SINGLE-CONDUCTOR SOLID PAPER-Iwsvmmn Cums

Number of Equally LoB.{§x=.d C&1C11es1n Duct Bank

Conductor THREE I SIX 1 NINE ‘ TWELVE

Sim
iLVVCi Per Cent Load Factor
or
MOM 3U 7”5 100 30 so | 15 L100 1 soilfisgr 75 ‘Mao I so 1 15 iimoi
AMPERES PER CONDUCTOR‘

7500 Volts Coyper Temperature, 35°C

116 113 ‘ :69 103 115 110 103 1 96 113 I07 1 98 90 111 104 94
154 149 3 142 135 152 144 :24 12 5 1 49 140 12 s 1 1e 147 ms I22 110
202 196 1 186 175 199 189 :75 162 196 1&3 167 151 192 1 178 159 142
1- atOW~O’> 234 226 214 201 230 ‘ 218 201 135 22 6 210 we 112 222 1 204 181 182
3 270 262 1 245 232 266 251 231 212 261 242 219 196 256 234 208 [84
00 311 300 283 262 3U9 29U 279 24 1 3U3 278 259 224 295 . 26:: 236 208
600 356 344 324 300 356 333 303 275 343 319 285 255 340 1 ans 270 236
0000 £12 395 371 3&5 408 380 3&7 314 398 364 825 290 390 1 asz 307 269
250 456 438 409 379 449 418 379 344 437 1 400 1 ass 316 427 ass 336 294
300 512 49! 459 423 499 464 426 380 486 442 394 349 474 42s 371 325
350 561 53? 506 460 546 507 457 403 532 453 429 379 518 1 466 403 352
400 607 580 E 549 496 593 548 493 445 575 522 461 407 560 1 502 434 378
500 692 660 611 561 679 626 560 504 659 597 1 524 459 641 57: 490 427
600 772 735 679 521 757 696 621 557 733 B63 519 506 714 632 542 470
700 846 804 741 677 827 758 674 664 802 721 629 548 779 ‘ 588 587 508
750 881 B37 771 702 360 789 706 02? ~ 835 750 1 651 568 810 714 609 526
800 Q14 866 797 725 892 517 725 648 865 776 an 588 B40 740 630 544
1000 1037 980 $98 S16 1012 922 815 1 725 980 874 vss ‘ 657 950 532 705 606
1250 1176 1103 1012 914 1145 1039 Q14 1 see 1104 981 s45 ‘ 730 1068 941 784 673
1500 1300 1224 1110 1000 1268 1 1146 1000 s54 1220 1078 922 794 1178 2032 855 731
1750 1420 1332 1 204 1080 1382 ‘ 1240 1678 949 1342 1166 9-92 851 1280 1103 919 783
2000 1548 1442 1300 1162 1509 1343 1162 . 10:9 1442 1260 1. was 2 914 1385 1190 986 839
(1.07 an 10°C. 0.92 at 30%;. 0.83 11.07 3% l()"C, 0.92 M. 30“C, 0.33 (L07 at. lD"U. 0.92 at l4U“C, U .!3 1 (Li) 7 B1; l()"(J U92 M, 30°C, Q. 83
at 40°C, 0.73 at 50°C? at 40°C, 0.73 at 50°C)’ at 40°C. 0.73 at 50°C? at 10°C. '0.73
' at 50°C)‘

15000 Vohm Copper Temperature, 81°C

113 no 105 166 112 I07 100 i 93 110 104 96 E 87 108 ‘ [O1 92 S3
149 145 ms 1 131 147 140 131 117 144 136 125 114 142 1 132 119 107
195 190 180 1 170 193 I83 170 ‘ I57 189
1
177 151 146 186 1 172 I54 I37
-we-m 226 ‘ 212 20s 7 195 222 211 195 I79 218
I
204 185 167 214 1 19? 175 157
\‘ 1
0 256 248 234 220 252 239 220 203 247 230 zen 188 242 223 198 I77
U0 297 287 1 211 254 295 278 253 232 237 265 239 214 283 251 226 202
000 344 ] 330 312 ‘ 290 341 320 293 267 333 396 27¢ 1 245 327 296 250 230
0000 399 384
1
se-1 ass 392 367 335 395 383 352 315 1 280 374 340 298 263
250 440 L 423 ‘ see as? 432 1 404 367 334 422 387 345 306 412 372 325 286
300 490 470 439 we 481 449 406 369 479 429 382 338 457 41a 359 316
350 539 516 481 1 444 527 491 443 461 514 468 -as 367 501 450 391 342
400 686 561 522 4:10 572 539 478 432 556 565 441 395 542 485 419 366
500 669 639 592 543 655 G95 542 488 635 577 ‘ 501 445 618 551 474 412
\1 no 1 656
600 746 601 727 668 598 1 53": 705 637 as? 488 635 605 521 452
700 810 1 772 \ 1'12 = 652 790 726 647 sax 765 691 1 604 528 744 659 564 488
750 840 '19": 73$ fi74 821 753 872 602 705 T16 625 547 772 684 584 505
800 869 s25 1 762 696 859 780 695 022 823 ‘I41 646 565 B90 707 604 522
1000 991 § Q39 864 785 968 882 732 69": ‘ 933 $32 = 124 631 963 794 675 581
1
1250 I130 1061' 975 564 1102 1000 883 784 ‘ 1053 941 816 706 1025 E sea 759 650
1500
1750
1250
‘
1170
;2s2
1072
1162
966 1229 11115 972 856 1175 1037 . 892 772 1133 987 S28 707
1368 3044 1339 1198 919 1042 1278 I124 5 9'8
0 824 1230 1063 886 755
2000 1464 , was . 1233 ; 1106 1422 i2?4
1 IU5 970 1360 1192 : 1013 869 1308 1125 935 795
(1.08 an 10°C, 0.92 at 30°C, (1.82 (1.08 at 10°C, 0.92 at 39°C. 0.82 (1.08 M 10°C. 0.92 at 30°C. 0 .82 1
. (1.()8at10°C,‘ 0.92 M. 30°C. 0.32
Rt 40°C 0.7] at. 56°C)! an 40°C, 0.71 at, 5()°(I)1 at 40“C, 0,71 at 5D°C)7 at 40°C O _ 71 Ez s0°c)*
5

23 000 Veins Copper Temperature, 77°C

2 186 181 1 172 162___18:M. 175 i
162 150 130 169 154 1 160 173 164 147 132
1 214 207 ‘ 197 136 211 \ 200 185 1 171 206 193 176
1
159 203 187 167 150
G 247 239 221 1 213 244 230 213 196 239 222 197 182 234 21$ 192 171
00 283 273 1 258 242 278 . 263 243 ‘ 221 275 253 225 205 267 245 217 £93
000 326 314 3 296 211 320 . 302 276 1 252 815 1 290 259 233 307 280 247 220
0000 376 362 340 317 367 345 315 288 350 332 297 ‘ 265 351 320 281 250
250 412 396 373 345 405 1 aao 348 316 890 365 ‘ 325 290 386 351 307 272
300 463 444 416 386 459 422 382 349 438 494 \ 360 \ 319 428 389 340 301
350 503 488 466 422 493 461 418 380 $81 442 393 347 468 424 369 326
400
500
548 525 ‘ 492 454 536 1 498 451 409 521 478 423 373 507 458 398 349
S27 600 1 559 514 615 L 570 514 464 597 546 480 423 580 52! 450 392
600 695 653 1 616 566 684 532 568 511 663 603 1 529 466 645 577 496 431
700 765 729 675 620 744 659 617 554 723 655 514 . 503 703 627 538 467
750 797 759 1 702 643 779 1 717 641 574 75¢ 681 596 527 732 650 558 453
ROD 826 786 ‘ 726 665 808 7§3 663 595 782 706 617 540 759 674
1000 946 576 500
893 827 752 921 842 747 . 667 889 797 692 603 860 759 646 560
1
1253 1080 1020 . 935 S43 1952 845 751 101$ 781 3 676
1500 1192 1122 1 1025 925 1162 1| 9§7
IUD3 926 \ B18 1113
904
993 ‘ 855 = 736
980
1081
S55
940
725
791
630
682
1750 I296 12l5 1100 99$ 1256 ‘ 1130 991 8?’D 1206 106? g 911 785 RLG2 100?
2000 1390 1302 1180 1058
343 720
[352 1 1213 1053 928 1293 1137 ‘ 967 S31 1240 1073 893 760
(L0 9 BL 10,6‘ 0.90 at 30' (J 0 - SIJ 1 (I. - 09 M. 10°C - 0 90 It 30°Cw 0 1 80 (1 O9 at 10°C | 0 ~ 90 at 39°C O . 80 (3 . 09 an 10°C 1} . 90 at. 30°C 0.80
M W6. 0168 an 50%»! 1 an 40°C, 0.68 at .s0°0;= an we. 0.68 at s0°c>5 1; 4n=(;,'().52 3;, 5@»@;3
Continued
Chapter 4 ELecm'cal Characteristics of Cables 91

TABLE 18~—CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY or SINGLE-CONDUCTOR SOLID PAPER-INSULATED CABLES

(Continued)

Number of Equally Loaded Cables in Duct. Dank

Come tor ________ :_ THREE 1 ,,__mm__,_ , 51>: _M__ ] mm; I rwmvz
Si as
AWG Per Cent Load Factor
or
MCM 30 I 5071"’ 757 77
1 V7
100"W I 7'30 7
1
1 ,
.10 .7 1 775W 1W 100
V 1WWW30
1 #101171" 311 50 1* 1004'

AMPERES PER CONDUCTOR‘

34 500 Volta Copper Temperature, 70°C

0 227 221. 209 19'? 223 213 197 182 1 226 205 137 {G9 215 ‘ 199 177 1 58
O0 266 251 239 224 255 242 1 224 265 1 249 234 21 1 Z90 245 226 200 179
000 299 200 273 256 2'35 27$ 1 256 235 288 r1 268 24 2 21.7 282 259 230 20$
0000 341 330 312 291 336 an 1 291 267 1 328 '1 304 274 24% 32 1 1 293 259 239
250 380 367 345 322 374 352 321 294 1 36-1 1 337 303 270 356 . 324 286 253
309 422 408 382 355 416 390 1 356 324 405 E 374 334 298 395 359 315 278
350 464 446 419 389 455 426 1 388 3'3
a 1 443 1 408 364 324 432 1 392 343 302
409 502 484 451 419 491 1 400 -117 1 2.19 . 473 E MG 390 347 466 421 368 323
500 575 551 Slé 476 562 ‘ 524 1 -174 1 4 2'3 1 347 {>00 442 392 532 1 479 416 864
1
600 . M4 616 573 528 629 1 5&4 1 526 4 73 1 1310 556 49 1 -133 593 1 5:22 459 401
700 710 675 626 577 690 1 539 574 1 s17 ‘ {$69 608 535 470 649 530 500 435
780 1 736 102 B51 538 718 68/1 595 s35 696 631 $54 -188 875 602 518 450
800 1 765 730 676 620 74? 1 ego 1 611' 5 55 ‘ 723 6234 574 503 700 624 585 4:65
1000 87 5 I 832 766 701 852 ma ass r. 24 823 741 646 564 1'96 106 601 520
1 250 994 1 941 864 786 967 ssz 782 1 696 930 833 722 628 898 790 570 577
1 500 ‘ 1098 1 103:5 949 869 1068 9:12 856 760 1025 914 788 682 988 ass 730 626
1 7 50 1192 < 2123 1023 925 1156 1048 919 1 814 1109 984 S415 730 1056 929 780 668
2000 1 1276 1 1.197 1058 981 123% 1115 975 s 60 1182 1045 893 770 1133 985 B24 704
2500 141$ 1 1324 1195 2072 1367 1225 1 1064 1 9 36 1305 1144 973 83¢ 1243 1075 393 760
(1.10 at l0“C, 0.89 at 30"C, (1.76 (1.10 an 10‘C.1. 0.89 at 39“ C), 0.73 (1.10 R1. 10“(;. 0.89 81, 39°C. U. '16 [L10 9.1, I.0‘C, 0.59 at 30°C. 0.70
1 fit 40°C, 0.61 at 50°C}? at 40°C. 0.61 M 50 CW at 40°C, 0.60 at 50“C'1* 3 at -10°C. 0.60 at 50°C)’

46 OBO Volts Copper Temperature, 65"C

000
0000

250
279
322
352
1 270

340
256
294
321
260
Z76
300
274
317
346
259
299

326
239
274.
299
221
25 1
274
‘
‘
268
30$]
336
249
287
313
226
259
282
204
2352
252
262
302
329
Z4 1
276

301
214
244
266
719 1"“
2 17

236
300 394 380 358 334 385 364 33 2 3 (I4 377 349 313 280 367 335 295 2613
3 50 433 417 392 365 425 398 364 331 413 382 341 304 403 366 321 2 83
‘$00 469 451 423 3553 -£59 430 39 1 356 446 411 367 326 433 394 344 3117
500 534 512 482 444 522 487 44 1 -100 506 46-1 412 365 492 444 386 3 39
600 502 577 538 496 589 546 4'94 ‘H7 ‘ 570 5230 460 405 553 491' 41:30 3 77
700 663 633 589 542 645 598 538 486 626 569 502 441 605 54 2 463 493
750 G89 658 6 11 D61 GT2 622 1359 504 650 590 530 45? 629 562 485 4 22
800 717 653 538 583 G98 64$ 578 522 674 612 538 472 652 582 501 1 4 36
1 000 . B16 776 7 18 657 79-1 731 653 585 765 691 604 528 740 657 562 4 87
1250 $127 879 810 738 E300 R25 7112 5.1 54 865 777’ 67-'3 589 83-1. 736 626 54 1
R500 1 102D 96$ 837 895 Q92 904 1'99 703 951 850 735 638 914 802 679 585
1750 1 1110 1.047 9:19 86'! 1074 976 859 762 1025 Q15 788 E582 987 862 726 623
2690
2590
1184
1314
1115
1232
11116
1.115
918
1002
1144
121.15
1035
1 1138
909
99 4 8"/"5
‘ 1094
80 0'
1205
970
106 2
833
905
718
773
1048
1 151 996
9I3
8&0 1111
708
6 56

(1.11 at §0°(I1, 0.37 8.1. 30“C. 0.73

at 40°(?, 0.54 at 50°C)?
(1.1: at.an4819251.(153
0.2?atan50°C)”
30°C. we ‘1 11.11 at 111°C. 0.57 at. 30°C. 0. 72 (1.12 at 10°C. 0.57 at 30%;. o.?u
at. 40°C, 0.52 an .'>(:°C)* at 40°C. 0.51 at 50°C)’

69 000 Volts Copper Temperature, 60°C

350 395 382 360 3315 387 364 1 *1 L758??? 7375 ‘

333 348 312 279 365 ‘ 32.2 293 259
400 4 28 413 389 362 418 393 358 3 28 405 . 375 335 300 394 353 31 5 1 278
500 481) ‘£70 M1 409 477 Q46 406 3 70 -161 1 425 3'79 337 447 40.5 354 3 12
600 54 5 524 4 90 454 532 496 456 4 O9 513 1 471 419 371 497 442 391 343
700
7 50
599 573
51-17
53 6
556
495 552 543 490 444 561 514 455 403 542 489 425 372
623 514 605 562 508 480 583 472 41? 563 506 439 381
800 64 4 6i7 57 5 531 626 582 525 4 75 603 554 487 430 532 522 453 396
1 DOG 736 702 652 599 T 13 660 592 685 522 547 QR] 660 589 508 442
1 2 50 8 32 792 7 34 672 806 742 664 595 772 , 698 610 535 741 eso 564 489
1 500
17 50
918
994
872
Q42
S04
$65
733 386 S14 72$. 647 843 '2 763 664 580 812 '21s 612 529
788 9 57 878 775 692 913 818 711 618 873 770 658 563
2000 1 066 1006 924 S40 1020 931 822 7 32 972 868 750 651 927 814 688 592
2500 1 1 63 . 1
1096 90.1
100 1 1115 1013 89 2
1 791 1080 94 2 811 700 1007 880 741 635
1113 M 10°C. 0.85 at 80%. 0.07 41.13 at 10°C, 0.5.5 at. 30°C. 0.50 (1.13 9.: 10°C, 0 5-: an 30°13. 0.235 (1.14 5. 10%;, 0.34 an 30%;, 0.04
at 40°C, 0.42 at 50°C)! .11: 40°C, 040 at 50°01: at 40“C. 0.36 at 50°C)* in 40°C. 0.32 at 50°C?

ICQJ-rent ratings are based on the following condipio;-.5;

9 . Ambient earth 1.emperature=4!O . Q C,
1). 60 cycle alternating r-.urrent.,
e. Sheabhs bonded and grounded at. one point only (open circuited sheaths).
d. Standard concermfic stranded conductors.
e. Ratings include dielectric 10.-as and skin exfegg.
, 1- Om! "1131? PEI‘ dul"/1/. 311 GB-Mes equally luaded and in Outside ducts oniy.
M“1l'*P1¥ éflblllfll-¢<1 vflluefl by these [actors when earth temperature is other than 20”‘C.
02 Electrical Characteristics of Cables chapter 4
Z; = l[r,,+r°+j (;c,_,~l~:c(,~»— 2%)] ohms, where l= circuit TABLE 20—S_UeoEs1'eo Wzmsmnv IMPULSE VQLTAGEB
length in miles, ané the other terms are defined 7 Fm‘ UBLES WITH METALLIC c°vERmf_______________________
as f°“ E‘!-(19) Solid-Paper l Oil-Filled Paper
Zn» is defined similarly. Basic 1 Insulation Insulation
Insulatio Impulse ‘~A_—_—_T”K_-m—;—» —'_W_ »—~—: e
Z,1wZ[3r,+r,,+j(3a:,,+xe)] ohms, where the terms are Class _ E. _._
1n$1lla@i°n Insulation Withstand Insulation lwithstand
defined as for Eq. (23). FT<1 = Level far ffhiokness Voltage ‘Thickness; Voltage
Z," is determined similarly. Ff quipment l mils kv , mils kv
a ——— 1
Zc',»wl[?"e+j(3:v,+a:e)j ohms, where the terms are 1.2 30 7'8 94
defined as for Eq. (26). 2.5 45 78 94 .
Z6-',~ is determined similarly. 5.0 60 94 113
Z‘,-c~ w Zl,»,~ = Z,-5» = Z[r.,+j(x@,- 3%)] ohms, where 8.7 ‘ 75 141 100
1
15 110 203 244 110 132
:z:¢w0.2794 iogw 1%, using for S the center-to-center
23 150 266 319 145 ‘ 174
30.5 200 375 450 1 100 ‘ 220
spacing between cables,’ in inches. 46 250 469 563 f 225 l 270
09 l 350 688 825 , 015 378
A more general version of the above type of problem, 115 l 550 0 575
covering those oases where the cables are not necessarily I38 650 sen I 072
busserl together, is described by Cheek.’ 101 * 750 04s ‘ 100
Example 5——The use of complex GMR-’s and GMD’s 22.0 1 1050 l 925 11110
will very often reduce a complicated problem to workable *Baeed on renommenclatiorm by Halperin and Shanklin.”
terms. The use and significance“ of these factors should be
studied thoroughly before attempting a solution by this Circuit: Four paralleled cables similar to the three-
method (see Chap. 3). ooncluotor belted cable described in Example 1, and ar-
ranged in a. duct bank as illustrated in Fig. 18.
TABLE 19-Cummm CARRYING CAPACITY FOR SINGLE- Problem: To find the overall zero-sequence impedance
CONDUCTOR OIL-FILLED PAPERJNSULATED CABLES
(ampere; per condue’cor)* of the circuit, with sheaths and ground in parallel, or with
return current only in the sheaths.
Rated Line V0ltageW-Gr0unded Neutral GMR of three conductors,
CifQulgIL1§i]s_l 05500 i 40000 100000 Y 115000 iss000 GMR;‘,=0.338 inches (from example 1).
or A.W.G. , _
(B_& SJ 1; Maxlmurn Copper Temperature---Deg. C.
KiQ! “J U! *4U! -Q Q -!C5
'—_*'“'l

000
0000
86
1
One @010
® ® ®
2-50000
300000 450 440 9. (3) Cable configuration.
350000 492 482 470
400000 5
500000 T OF ONE CONDUCTOR
000000 605 NO. OF CIRCUITS
700000
750000
conoucros anmcn
_ Y“ § fi
800000
1000000 872 S45 7'2
M533“ g'° 2(6MR) cowoucrons
Qeess:e. se
‘JG’:
efise
e me e s -QB“ mg‘ (emu) SEPARATION
1250000 8lC7‘\‘?JI(XJQlOEOU8“-EG3 8
\C?U0
®\WN
l‘~\7C>E'J‘IO1 ex
eeegsse e ° {em R) conoucrons
1500000 1 £102 1 075 1 043 U!
U300Q7
C5!-F e se egwgsmegmwmwm
1750000 1 165 1 162 1 125 1 030 1 O02 suema
2000000 ‘ 1240 1 240 1 200 1 100 1 070
llsnzmcn I Q2“
Deg. C.
seounn
Correction Factor for Various Earth Te mps. anmcu
l 1,08 \ 1.08 1 .08 . 20
1.0 8 i 1.09 1o.asa 100.0 -3-57
1 00 1.00 1.00 x .00 1.00 . °‘: 0,
l 0.90 i 0.00 0.00 0 0.80 0.89 0,600 ‘M3’ °°'°:em'0>sr:'PARA""r|0n
$385 ‘ 70 70 70 7? .77 (r°+ri)(r;r;)(N0.0F snares)
75% loacl factor assumed.
Ratings include dielectric loss and akin efiect. (b) General equivalent circuit.
Ratings bi-sad on opemeircuited sheath operation; i.a.~Wno sheath loss con-
axdeared.
‘A . . . _ M
pplies to three urrmlar loaded cables in 0. duct bank; for an: iced cable» in
Fig. 18m-Four three-conductor cables in a duct bank (nee
ll duct, bank. multiply above values by 0.91
Example 5}.
Chapter 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables 93

GMR of the four conductor groups, ll 5"sP§c|ms i '1" svaomci i

GMR.=,= if/(0.338)“(5)‘{10)‘{l5)* = 3.479 inches. *- -j=_-1-£._ __L.. _|_ _
f _ ——r
Equivalent spacing of three conductors to their sheath, ' 6"SPAClNG
,___ ‘ 5

sw = = 0.312 inches. PYA5

ERCENT-' 55
0an0Nan<1»
"smcmo
OF
ABSENCE
STEEL
GMT) among the conductors and the sheaths, ACT
GMD(4g....,,) = R‘/(0.812)‘(5)“(10}‘(15)2 = 4.330 inches. 3'5P»°\°"*‘G Lo so. m. ensue,
From Fig. 18{b), resistance of the sheath branch, ouma ccmaucwons
0.2 SQ. IN. CABLE
0.600 . mums cououcroas
ow O . 8-18 0h ms per mi I.
(1~623)(0'lOg)(4) e 5"sPAcmc L i l E
Also from Fig. 18{b), impedance of the ground branch
CARRYN6CAP
2sO:
OFCAPACTYN
AGE
l’\'$ U1
I I
-B Cl O5 “'3 Q (9 '6
DISTANCE OF GABLES FROM STEEL PL>\TE“iNGHE$
28OOX12
’=0‘286 "i"Jn<838 log» '_'T——- Fig. 19--Effect of steel plates on current-carrying capacity of
‘9"’5'5U single-conductor cables. Three phase system; flat config-
=().28G+j3.26O ohms per mile. uration.
moo i

uoo

moo...
»~

~.~-7 -~~-‘W... J-
1 \

-W
~

H . iw .

~— ~--V
W/. 95.
fig‘
6‘
"#1
1 W Q12

90° . . Mi ‘ _ ,_ _, ‘Q1
4‘,€_44 lo IO
lo_
03 i
l._
+|
l3:_T2
2

\ \.r
¢. Q6
-R
‘1
1 Q4 1.3
I3

E51‘ m G O Q55-1° .2 |5 1__. ..

1 || 1
"' ‘ 1 :4 ‘
L35GR l u
~| OO

4 95 .1 1
EKLOVO
AG 0'3 OO
\ i ¢;£ Ki i WW W
VOLT ‘ ‘ in: T ,,_,<"é’
$8
£3T us O Cl 400,3 9O "' El _ _ W ___. _______
T \ Bl |O C kéé \
\ 2 i ,3 *\\'
Q
PB
LSE ¥ O Cl 1/l/l —7 _.__....______. . 1 €\5 Q‘, _________ _ __ _ xvi

o “Q -L’ Z
‘ I5 Q5 Ge fl .-’

}OD—
\ .
. 14
3Q
A 5‘
50
5 .

\ \ _W_ ‘N Ml
L1 >,/ _ ___ __
\.

2°“ I
no 0

. i, ,, , ,,
1
W} "T
log;
6Q__
O
W;
¢-""/
iv ‘
I00 . -/‘ ,,_. 1 1 \
\ /"1

i \ ML
60 200 300 400 500 SOD
INSULQTION THICKNESS, D!!! L5
Fig. 20-Summary of some impulse tests on paper-insulated cables
(based on information presented by Foust and Scott13).
Key: 3 An unpublished test, solid insulation (The Okonite
1 Davk 31'ld_ Eddy-13 1 X Iii negative wave, high density Company).
P3961”. solid insulation (Simplex Wire and Cable Co.). 9 Foust and Scott, L5 1 40 positive wave, regular density
3 Hfiid and L€ichsanring,17 negative wave, solid insulation. paper, solid insulation.
3 Held and Leichsenring, positive and negative waves, oil- 1|) Faust and Scott. combination regular and medium den-
filled insulation. sity paper, solid insulation.
4 Held and Loicllsenring, positive wave, solid insulation, 11 Foust and Scott, high density paper, solid insulation.
5 An unpublished test, regular density paper, oil-filled ln- 12 Foust and Scott, medium density paper, aolié insulation.
wlfltion (General Cable Corporation). 13 Foust and Scott, 1.5 x 40 positive wave, combination reg-
6 Foust and Scott, average of five tests, 1 x 10 positive wave, ular and medium density paper. solid insulation.
g>81)1lar density paper, solid insulation (General Electric 14 Foust and Scott, 0.5 2 40 positive wave, regular density
0. . paper, solid insulation.
7 An unpublished test, high density paper, oil-filled inau- 15 Foust and Scott. 0.5 x 5 positive wave, regular density
lation (General Cable Corporation). paper, solid insulation.
94 Electrical Characteristics of Cables
The zero-sequence impedance with sheath and ground
in parallel,
_ 0.848(O.286+j3.2(il2_ . 7. Reectnncc of Large Cables in Steel Pipe or Conduit by W’. A.
Z“_0.s48+(0.2so~i~j3.2c0)+0'247+*l0'O797
M 1.022+j0.275 ohms per phase per mile.
The absolute value of this impedance is 1.06 ohms per
phase per mile.
The zero-sequence impedance considering all return
current in the sheath and none in the ground,
Zoe (0.247 +j0.(§797)~l—(}.848
= l.O95+j0.079'7 ohms per phase per mile.
The ebsoiute value of this impedance is 1.1 ohms per phase
per mile, or substantially the same as with the sheath and
ground in parallel. In this case the effect of high sheath
resistance is minimized by the fact that four sheaths are
paralleled.
V. IMPULSE STRENGTH OF CABLES
Power-transmission circuits are often made up of cables
and 0verheacl—line sections connected in series, and this
construct-ion may impose lightning-surge voltages On the
cable insulation. Even when circuits are totally under-
ground, it is possible that cable insulation will be stressed
by transient ovcrvoltages caused by switching operations.
For these reasons the impulse strength of cable insulation
is information of some value for predicting cable perform-
ance in an actual installation.
No industry-wide standards have been established for
cable impulse strength. Test data from various sources is
a.vai1able,"“3 and some of these results for paper-insulated
cables are shown in Fig. 20. Several variables are inherent
in the curves, so that the spread of the test points is wider
than might be obtained with uniformiy controlled test
conditions. The factors not yet completely investigated
include the effect of normal insulation aging, the relation
between actual voltage gradient within the insulation and
the average gradient, wave shape and polarity of the test
impulse voitage, and grade or compounding of insulation.
Using 3200 volts per mil average stress as a safe with-
stand impulse strength for paper-insulated cables, as sug-
gested by Halperin and Shanklin,“ the withstand voltages
for representative cables may be listed as in Table 20.
REFERENCES
1. Calculation of the Electrical Problems of Underground Cables,
by D. M. Simmons, The Electric Journal, Vol. 29, May to
November, 1932. (The first article in this series contains a com-
prehensive bibliography for 1932 and before.)
2. Symmetrical Components by C. F. Wagner and R. D. Evans
(a book), McGra.w-llill Book Company, 1933.
3. The Transmission of Electric I’ow<:r, Vols. I and II, by W. A.
Lewis (n book), Illinois Institute of Technology, E948.
4. Curront—Rating and Impedance of Cables in Buildings and
Ships, by H. C. Booth, E. E. llutchings, and S. Whitehead,
I.E.E. Journal, Vol. 83, October E938, p. Q97.
5. Problems in the Measurement. of A-C Resistance and Reactance
Of Large Conductors, by H. Salter, A.I.E.E. Tmnsaclions,
Vol. c7, 1948, pp. 1390»-1396.
Chapter 4
6. A-C Resistance of Large Size Conductors in Steel Pipe or Com
duit, by R. J. Wiseman, A.I.E.E. Transactions, V01. 67, 1948,
pp. 17454758.
Dc] Mar, A.I Transactions, Vol. 67, 1948, pp. 1/£()‘9~—1412.
8. Unbalanced Currents in Cable Groups, by C. F. Wagner and
H. N. Muller, J12, The Electric Journal, Vol. 35, October 1938,
p. 390.
9. Zero-Sequence Iinpedances of Parallel Three-Conductor Cables,
by R. (J. Cheek, Electric Light and Power, October 1948, p. 74.
10. The Temperature Rise of Cables in a Duct Bank, by J. H.
Neher, A.I.E.E. Technical Paper 49—-£34, Aprii 1949.
11. Determination of Cable Temperature by Means of Reduced
Scale Models, by Andrew Gemant and Joseph Sticher, A.I.E.E.
Transactions, Vol. 65, 1946, pp. 475-482.
12. Impulse Strength of Cable Insulation by E. W. Davis and
W. lilddy, A.l.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 59, July 1940, p. 394.
13. Some Impulse-Voltage Breakdown Tests on Oil-Treated Paper-
Insulatcd Cables, by C. M. Foust and J. A. Scott, A.I.E.E.
Transaclirms, Vol. 59, July 1940, p. 389.
I4. Impedance of 'I‘hroo~Phase Secondary Mains in Nonmetallic and
Iron Conduits, by L. Brieger, E.E.I. Bulletin, February 1938.
I5. Specifications for Impregnated Paper—Insulated Lead-(‘iovered
Cable: “Solid” Type (7th and Sth editions), “Oil*Fillcd” Type
(ath edition), “Low-Pressure Gas-Filled" Type (lst edition),
prepared by Association of Edison Illuminating Companies.
16. Current Carrying Capacity of Irnpregnatcd Paper, Rubber, and
Varnished Carnbric Insulated Cables (lst edition), compiled by
Tho Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association, Publication
N0. P-29326.
17. The Behavior of High Tension Cable Installations Under the
Effect of Voltage Iznpulsos, by C. H. Held and H. W. Loich-
scnring. Paper No. 207, C.I.G.R.E., Paris, June-July 1939.
18. lmpulse Strength of Insulntecl~Power~Cnble Circuits, by Herman
Halperin and G. B. Shanklin, /1.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 63,
1944, p. 1199.
Books
4.0. Electric Cables, by W. A. Del Mar, McGraw»Hil1 Book Com-
pany, I924.
41. Electrical Chamcterislics of Transmission Circuits, by Vtliliiam
Neslail, \rYestinghouse Tecliiilcsl Night School Press, East ?ll.t~.‘3r'
burgh, Pa., 3rd edition, 1926.
-12. Underground Systems Reference Book, NELA Publication No.
050, 1931.
43. Symmcirical Components, by C. F. Vfagiier and R. D. Evans
Mcfirw.-v-Hill Book Company, 1933.
44. Impregmllcrl Paper Insulation, by J. B. Whitehead, John Wiley
& Sons, i935.
45. Electra}: Power Transmission and Distribution, by L. F. Wood-
ruli, John Wiley & Sons, 1938.
46. The Principles of Electric Power Transmission, by H. Waddicor,
Chapman & Hail, 1939.
47. The T-ransmission of Electric Power, Vols. I and II, by W. A.
Lewis, Illinois Institute of Technology, 1948.
Imperlance and Capacitance
60. Formulas and Tables for the Calculation of Mutual and Selfi-
Inductanco, Messrs. Ros:-1 and Glover, Bureau of Standards
Scientific Papers, No. S169, 1913; also No. S320, 1918.
61. Proximity Effect in Cable Sheaths, Dwight, A.I Transac-
lions, September, 1931, p. 993.
62. Calculation of the Electrical Problems of Underground Cables, by
D. M. Simmons, The Electric Journal, Vol. 29, May, June,
July, October and _N0vembor 1932, pp. 237, 283, 337, 476,
and 52?.
63. Calculations of Inductance and Current Distribution in Low-
Voltege Connections to Electric Furnaces, by C. C. Levy,
A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 51, December 1932, p. 993.
Chapljer 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables
64. Resistance and Reactance of Three-Conductor Cables, by F}. H.
Salter, G. B. Shanklin, and R. J. Wiseman, Al Transac-
tions, Vol. 53, December 1934, p. 1581.
65. Impedance Measurements on Underground Cables, by R. I.
I/Vebb and O. W. Manz, Jr., A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 55, April
1936, p. 359.
66. Impedance of Three~Pbase Secondary Mains in Nonmetallic and
Iron Conduits, by L. Brieger, E.E.I. Bulletin, February 1938.
67. Unbalanced Currents in Cable Groups, by C. F. Wagner and H.
N. Muller,.lr., The Electric Jourrml, V02. 35, October 1938,11. 390.
68. Current-Rating and Impedance of Cables in Buildings and
Ships, by H. C. Booth, E. E. Hutehings, and S. Whitehead,
I.E.E. Joamal, Vol. S3, October 1938, p. 497.
69. Problems in the Measurement of A-C Resistance and Reactanee
of Large Conductors, by E. H. Salter, 11.1 Transactions,
Vol. er, was, p. 1390.
78. Reaolance of Largo Cables in Steel Pipe or Conduit, by ‘W. A.
Del Mar, Al Transactions, Vol. 67, 1948, p. 1409.
71. A-C Resistance of Large Size Conductors in Steel Pipe or Con-
duit, by R. J. Wiseman, A.I.E.E. Transactions, V01. 67, 1948,
p. 1"/45.
72. Zero-Sequence Impedances of Parallel Three—Conductor Cables,
by R. C. Cheek, Electric Light and Power, October 1948, p. 74.
73. A-C Resistance of Segmental Cables in Steel Pipe, by L. Meyer-
hofi and G. S. Eager, Jr., A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 68, 1949,
p. 816.
74. 'I‘ranspositions and the Calculation of Inductance from Geo»
metric Mean Distances, by W. B. Boast, 11.1 Transactions,
Vol. 69, Part II, 19-50, p. 1531.
Load Rating and Healing
100. Temperatures in Electric Power Cables Under Variable Leed-
ing, by E. A. Church, A.I Transactions, September, 1931,
p. 982.
10}. Calculation of the Electrical Problems of Underground Cables,
by D. M. Simmons. The Electric Journal, Vol- 29, August
and September 1932, pp. 395 and 423.
102. Thermal Transients and Oil Demands in Cables, by K. \V.
Miller and F. O. Wollaston, A.I Transactions, March
1933, Vol. 52, p. 98.
103. Economical Loading of Underground Cables, by E. A. Church,
A.l.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 54, Noveniber E935, p. I166.
I04. Current-Rating and Impedance oi Cables in Buildings and
Ships, by H. C. Booth, E. E. Hutchings, and S. Whitehead,
I.E.E. Journal, V01. S3, October 1938, p. 497.
195. Maximum Safe Operating Temperatures for 15 kv Paper-In“
sulated Cables, by C. W. Franklin and E. R. Thomas, A./I EYE.
Transactions, October 1939, Vol. 58, p. 556.
106. Load Ratings of Cable, by Herman Hs.lperi.n, A.I Trans-
actions, Vol. 58, October I939, p. 535.
107. Economical Loading of High-V0lt.a.ge Cables Installed in Um
dea-ground Subway Systems, by E. R. Thomas, A.I
Transactions, 1939, Vol. 58, p. 611.
108. Load Ratings of Cablo~II, by Herman Halperiu, A.I.E'.E.
Transactions, Vol. 61, p 931, I942.
109. Guide for Wartime Conductor Temperatures for Power Cable
in Service (committee report), A.1.E E. Transactions, Vol. 63,
September 19-13, p. G06.
119. Current Carrying Capacity of lmpregnateri Paper, Rilbber,
and Varnished Cembric Insulated Cables (let edition), com-
piled by The Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association,
Publication N0. P»29~22(§, 1943.
lll. Determination of Cable ’I‘em;1era.tm-e by Means of Reduced
Scale Models, by Andrew Gemant and Joseph Sticher, A.I
Transactions, Vol. 65, 1946, p. 475.
112. Thermal Cha.ra,cteristics of a I20 kv High-Pressure, Gas-Filled
Cable Installation, by W. I). Sanderson, Joseph Sticher, and
M. H. McGratb, A1 Transactions, Vol. 67, Part I, 194.8,
p. 487.
95
I13. The Temperature Rise of Buried Cables and Pipes, by J. H.
Neher, A.I.E.E. Transactions, V01. 68, Part I, 1949, p. 9.
114 The Temperature Rise of Cables in a Duct Bank, by J. H.
Neher. A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 68, Part I, 1949, p. 541.
115 Transient Temperature Phenomena of 3-Conductor Cables, by
F. O.Wo1la.st0u, A.I Transactions, Vol. 63, Part 11, 1949, p.
1284.
116 The Thermal Resistance Between Cables and a. Surrounding
Pipe or Duct VVa1l, by F. H. Buller and J. H. Neher, A.I.E.E.
Transaction-s, Vol. 69, Part I, 1950, p. 342.
ll’? Heat. Transfer Study on Power Cable Ducts and Duct Assem~
bliss, by P. Greebler and G. F. Barnett, A.I.E.E. Transactions,
Vol. 69, Part I, 1950, p. 357.
Insulation
140 The Behavior of High Tension Cable Installations Under the
Effect of Voltage Impulses, by C. H. Held and H. ‘W. Lcichsem
ring. Paper No. 207, C.I.G.R,.E. Paris, June-July, 1939.
141. Impulse Strength of Cable Insulation by E. W. Davis and ‘W.
N. Eddy, A.l.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 59, July 1940, p. 394.
142 Some Impulse-Voltage Breakdown Tests on Oil-Treated Paper-
Insulated Cables, by C. M. Faust and J. A. Seott, A.I.E.E.
Transactions, Vol. 59, July 1940, p. 389.
143 Impulse Strength of Insulated~Power-Cable Circuits, by Her-
man llalperin and G. B. Shanklin, A.I Trcmsacticms, Vol.
63, 194-1, p. 1:90.
144 Power Factor Measurements on Poly—pbase and Multiconduo-
tor Cable Using Single~I’ha.se Bridges, by E. W. Greenfield,
A.I.E.1:L‘. Tmnsactions, Vol. 69, Part ll, 1950, p. 680.
Gm-erai
150 Characteristics of Oil-filled Cable, Sbanklin and Bullet,
A.I.E.E. Transaclicvns, December, 1931, p. 1411.
151 Oil-filled Cable and Accessories, Atkinson and Simmons,
A.I.E.E'. Transactions, December, 1931, p. 1421.
152 120 kv Compression-Type Cable, by I. T. Faucett, L. I.
Komives, H. W. Collins, and R. W. Atkinson, Al Trema-
acrions, Vol. 61, September 1942, p. 652.
153 120 kv High-Pressure Gas-Filled Cable, by I. T. Faucett, L.
I. Komives, H. W. Collins, and R. W. Atkinson, A.I.E.E'.
Transactions, Vol. 61, September 1942, p. 658.
154 Low-, Medium-, and High-Pressure Gas-Filled Cable, by G. B.
Shanklin, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 61, October 1942, p. 719.
155 Cable for Power Transmission and Distribution, by C. T.
Hotelier, Eleclric Light and Power, September 1946, p. 38, and
Oclbbcr 1946, p. 72.
156 Iligh-I":*essu're, Gas-filled Cable Impregnated with Extra.-High
Viscosity Oil, by Joseph Sticher, G. H. D0:-in, R. W. Atiiinson, and
Louis Meyerboll, Al Transactions, V01. 68, Part I, 1949,
p. 336.
157 Specifications for Wire and Cable with Rubber and Rubber-
Like lnsula.t.inns, ls: edition, I946, prepared by Insulated
Power Cable Engineers Association.
158 Specifications for Varnished Cambric Insulated Cable, 5th
edition, 19%, prepared by Insulated Power Cable Engineers
Association.
159. Specifications for impregnated Paperelnsulated Leacl~Covered
Cable: “Solid” Type (7th and Shh editions, 1947), “Oil—Filled”
Type (4th edition, 1947), “Low-Pressure Gas-Filled“ Type
(1st edition, 1948), prepared by Association of Edison Illumi-
nating Companies.
Bibliographies
180. Calculation of the Electrical Problems of Underground Cables,
by D. M. Simmons, The Electric Journal, Vol. 29, May 1932,
p. 237.
181. Underground Systems Reference Book, NELA Publication
No. 050, 1931, Appendix II.
185.. Rating of Cables in Relation to Voltage, (Bibliography on
Dielectrics) by D. M. fiimmons, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol.
41, 1922, p. 601.
 CHAPTER 5
POWER TRANSFORMERS AND REACTORS
Original Authors:
J. E. Hobson and R. L. Witzke
N this chapter are included the fundamental theory,
I operating practices, pertinent application date, and
some of the physical characteristics of power tra.ns~
formers and reactors. No attempt is made to give 2. co1n-
plete exposition of the material. It is expected that the
listed references will be consulted for u, more detailed con-
sideration of each section. Although the fundamental the-
ory presented here holds also for distribution transformers,
the standards of operation and present practices regarding
distribution transformer application are not included in
this chapter. Grounding transformers are included since
they are ordinarily associated with power systems.
I. THEORY
1. Fundamental Considerations
Before going into the various problems involved in the
application of transformers and the methods used in ana-
lyzing their effect on system operation, it is well to review
briefly the fundamental theory of transformer action.
Two windings on a common magnetic core are pictured
in Fig. l. Let the number of turns in the P winding be n,,
Ip I5
ea» --------o-
»
.—; j-.
Fig. l—Two-winding transformer.
and the number of turns in the S winding be mg. Assume
that there is at flux in the core which links both windings
and is a sinusoidal function of time.
¢2 ‘twat sin wt
Then the voltage induced in the P winding at any instant
by the flux is
d
8;» = -?11*;l§ X 10*“ volts
M —n1w¢.,,,,,, cos wtX lO““ volts
where as = 211-f
hence, c, = -~ zrfnldlmgx cos wt>< 10“ volts
Revised by.‘
R. L. Witzke and 3. S. Williams
and the 1-ms value of this voltage is
ED = Qlirgngomu X10“ volts
‘V 4-r
H 4.44fn;A BWMX 104 volts (3)
where, f=frequency in cycles per second.
A =cross sectional area of magnetic circuit in
square centimeters (assumed uniform).
B,,m=ma.ximum flux density in the core in lines
per square centimeter.
Similarly, the rms voltage induced in the S winding by the
flux is given by
E, = 4.4=4f1i4AB,,.,, X104 volts. (4)
‘Thus it is evident that a sinusoidal flux linking 2. coil in‘
duces in it a voltage which is also sinusoidal and which
lags the flux by 90 electrical degrees.
To apply the above principle to the operation of a trans-
former, refer again to Fig. l and consider the S winding as
open and let a. sinusoidal voltage be impressed on the P
winding. The current, IQ, that flows in the P winding
under this condition (I.,=-U) is called the exciting current
and sets up an alternating flux about that winding, which
consists of two parts: e. mutual flux whose path is wholly
in the core and which, therefore, links both windings, and
u leakage flux whose path is partly in air and which links
only the P winding. The ratio of the leakage flux to the
mutual flux depends on the relative reluctance of their
1
respective paths, which in turn is a. function of the sature»
tion of the core and the magnitude of the current. It is
convenient to consider the voltage induced in the P wind-
ing, by the flux linking it, as made up of two components,
one produced by the linkages resulting from the mutual
flux and the other produced by leakage flux. In the or-
dinary commercial trensformer the leakage flux is smell
and can be neglected for the present. Then, if the small iR
drop in the winding is also ignored, the voltage induced in
the P winding by the mutual flux can, with close a.pprox~
irnation, be set equal and opposite to the impressed voltage.
If, as assumed, the latter is sinusoidal, then the mutual
flux must also he sinusoidal and the induced voltage is
given by Eq. (3),
E. M 4./14fn1AB,,,,_, >< 10% volts.
(2) By hypothesis, all of the mutual flux which has just
been considered in connection with the P winding must
also link the S winding. Hence, a voltage is induced in the
S winding, which is expressed by Eq. (4),
E, =4»44f1b2ABma;>< 10”” volts.
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 97

If the circuit connected to the S winding is closed, a
current, 1,, flows and, in the manner already described in
connection with the P winding, sets up a mutual and leak-
age flux about the winding. The direction oi this current
is such that the mutual flux produced by it opposes that
produced by the P Winding and it, therefore, tends to
nullify the flux in the core. Consideration of the energies
involved shows that an additional component, I,,', must be
added to the current in the P winding he?ore the S winding
is closed, such that the magnetomotive force acting on
the magnetic circuit remains unchanged after S is closed.
In other words, the resultant flux in the core produced by
the combined action of the currents flowing in the P and S
windings must equal the mutual flux present when the S
Winding is open. Therefore,
Ttllre = T?/11), —n21;,
remembering that the fiux caused by I, is opposite that
caused by I, which accounts for the negative sign. In
a well-designed transformer, the exciting current is small
in comparison to the normal load current I',,, hence we can
assume the total current, Ip, in the P winding to be equal
to I’,, and obtain
1. s +911...
Tlg
stated, the total flux linking either winding can be divided
into two components, a leakage flux whose path is wholly
or partly in air and a mutual flux most of which lies in the
iron core. Furthermore, the mutual coupling between cir-
cuits must have an energy component to furnish the iron
loss in the magnetic circuit. With the above considerations
in mind the equivalent circuit representing the two coupled
windings in Fig. 1 can be derived”.
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2(a), where the
mathematical artifice of an ideal transformer’ is introduced
to preserve actual voltage and current relationships at the
terminals, and to insulate the two windings. The ideal
transformer is defined as having no losses, no impedance
drop, and requiring no exciting current. The ratio of
transformation for the ideal transformer is N, Where
N M "J3 . (9)
Tl/1
Z l Z is .
oefli ' — '""— -'\/\/§'v*!"~"'“,~<>o'
t§Q£29.Q ’9€5L60l,56'U5'0lT6‘ Q‘
(o

The leakage flux produced by I, induces a voltage in the

S winding opposing that produced by the mutual flux.
However, it is small as in the case of the P winding, and,
G¢ —

Ep
55 —
5 . nu __

E3
if neglected along with the resistance drop, permits writing
the relation between the P and S voltages as "zsoru orc
C llbllwwfl
E.» +@E,,. (7)

~I l~
711
qe ‘EL’ yaw ':N_,’_',—=,"—,’el駒 ca’
The seven equations developed above summarize the
general relationships between the flux, the induced volt-
ages, and the primary and secondary voltages and currents
involved in transformer action. However, they are based O LQ .Q9.Q iL “WWcomm O
(<1)
on a number of assumptions that, in analyzing the opera-
tion of the transformer or of the system to which it is con-
nected, cannot always be made. A more rigorous develop‘ G611‘ W 1:" ~'— ‘vi/3.?» ml‘§*°O'
ment that takes into consideration the eliects of exciting
current, losses, and leakage fluxes is therefore required. "5 ¢

Referring again to Fig. 1, and considering instantaneous GA arcane WWW 0<5-_F.

- i-—4~ .--Q.
currents and voltages, the classical equations for the §
coupled circuits are
'1'‘I F 5' PF
. <1‘ <1‘, -—c-

...] I...
M 00'
@,=RPi,+L,B%=-Mi, (s) Q0

M (16,, . def,
6; M Rgli L5 c V ~ V — V ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~o
(el
whore Ry and Rs are, respectively, the eilcctive resistances Fig. 2—Equiva1ent circuits for twowvlnding transformer.
of the primary and secondary windings: LP and LS are the (a) Equivalent circuit in ohms, with magnetizing current con-
self-induetances of the primary and secondary windings: sidered.
and M is the mutual inductance between the two windings. (b) Equivalent circuit in ohms, with all impedances on the primary
voltage base.
The positive direction of current flow in the two windings
(0) Equivalent circuit in ohms, with the magnetizing branch
is taken such that the fluxes set up by the two currents neglected.
will be in opposition. (d) Equivalent circuit in ohms, with the leakage impedance re-
The coefiicients LP, Ls, and M are not constant but vary ferred to the secondary voltage base.
with the saturation of the magnetic circuit‘. As previously (e) Equivalent circuit in percent.
98 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

The shunt resistance branch in ZM represents the iron 1.-R.+1X- I1» z,-a,+;><, _
1
co” ' 'vvw‘ V ~ V ~ W ‘\/vV\, so
losses and the shunt reactive hranch provides 8. I, I;
2
path for the no load, or exciting current of the transi(JI‘me1'. 5, in I lxm 5} E‘, 50
The variation in M during the cycle of instantaneous cur-
rent and voltage variation is ignored, and a mean value is o '~~fl IV
used. The branches, Z? W R1-»+jw<Lp W L211/1) end, Zs = Rs (cl
2
E,’
+jw(L5—T~§3M) are essentially constant, regardless of in»- In _ _ _ fjtgs 122.»
"1
152$ IPXF
stantaneous current variations, since their corresponding
leakage fluxes lie mostly in air. Z? and ZS are components Im I‘ 9P Es I585 gsxs P P
IR

of the leakage impedance between the P and S windings

I'p‘I5
such that
I . Ir
ZPS:ZP+fiZS ‘ (£0)
lb)

Zpg is defined as the leakage impedance between the P
and S windings, as measured in ohms on the P winding
with the S winding sh0rt~circuitcd. Actually it is not
possible“ to segregate ZPS into two parts, Z1» associated
with the P winding and ZS associated with the S winding
by any method of test; for example, Z1», the portion of
Zpg associated with the primary winding, varies with ex-
citation and load conditions. It is customary, in many
calculations involving the equivalent circuit, to make
l a E21 ratio of transformation and for a load of lagging power
ZP=N"L‘,ZS=%ZPS ‘ (ll)
The ideal transformer can be shifted to the right, as in
Fig. 2(b}, to get ail branches of the circuit on the same
voltage base. Since the impedance of the shunt branch is
large compared to Z;-S, it can be omitted for most calcula-
tions involving transformer regulation, and the equivalent
circuit becomes that of Fig. 2(0). A notable exception to
those cases where the shunt branch can be disregarded is
the case of the threephase corc~form transformer excited
with zero-sequence voltages. This will be discussed in
detail later.
The form of the equivalent circuit given in Fig. 2(0) can
be changed to show the lcal<age impedance referred to the
secondary voltage, by shifting the ideal transformer to
the left, as in Fig. 2{d). For this condition Z31», the leakage
impedance between the P and S windings as measured in
ohms on the S winding with the P winding short-circuited,
is related to ZP5 as follows:
We 2
Z5p=i7V2Zp5=(E) ZPS '
The equivalent circuit using percentage impedances,
percentage voltages, and currents in per unit is given in
Fig. 2(0). An ideal transformer to maintain transformation
ratios is not required.
2. Transformer Vector Diagram
The vector diagram illustrating the relationship between
the terminal voltages, the internal induced voltages and
the currents in the transformer of Fig. I can be drawn
directly from the equivalent circuit for the transformer.
This circuit is repeated in Fig. 3(a) and the various voltages
Fig. 3——Equi~/alcnt circuit and corresponding vector diagram
for two-winding transformer.
and currents are identified there. The primary and second—
ary leakage impcdanccs ZP and Z S are shown separately,
and the primary and secondary resistances RP and R5; are
also indicated. I1, and Im represent the core—loss component
and the magnetizing component respectively of the exciting
current IE. The vector diagram in Fig. 3(b) is drawn for
factor. The power-factor angles at the P winding terminals
and the S winding terminals are designated in the diagram
as 91> and 95 respectively.
II. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3. Transformer Impedances
The turns ratio of a t\vo-Winding transformer determines
the ratio between primary and secondary terminal volt-
ages, when the transformer load current is zero. However,
when load is applied to the transformer, the load current
encounters an apparent impedance within the transformer
which causes the ratio of terminal voltages to depart from
the actual turns ratio. This internal impedance consists
of two components: (1) a react-ance derived from the effect
of leakage flux in the windings, and (2) an equivalent
resistance which represents all losses traceable to the flow
of load current, such as conductor PR loss and stray
eddy~current loss.
Impedance drop is conveniently expressed in percent,
and is the impedance~drop voltage expressed as a percent-
age of rated terminal voltage, when both voltages are
referred to the some circuit; in three-phase transformer
banks, it is usually appropriate to refer both impedance-
drop voltage and rated voltage to a line~to-neutral basis.
Percent impedance is also equal to measured ohmic im-
pedance, expresscd as a percentage of “normal” ohms.
Normal ohms for a. transformer circuit are defined as the
rated current (per phase) divided into rated voltage (line~
to-neutral).
Representative impedance values for distribution and
power transformers are given in Table 1 ; for most purposes
the impedances of power transformers may he considered
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 99

TABLE 1--TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCES TABLE 1-—TRANSFORMER Imannnons (Continued)

(a) Standard Reactanoes and Irnpedsnces for Ratings (b) Standard Range in Impedances for Two-Winding
500 kva ané below (for 60-cycle transformers) Power Transformers Rated at 55 C Rise
(Both 2-5~ and 60-cycle transformers)
Rated-Voltage Class in kv
_ ‘ W Impedance Limit in Percent
Smgw 2.5 15 25 00 High- L0w- 1
Clasfi
i 1 Voltage 1 Voltage 1
Phase Aver» Aver» Aver- Aver~ Aver-‘Aver~» Aver» Aver- Winding “Finding
DA Class
Kva age age age age ago age age age QW FOA
Insulation l Insulation 1
Rating* Re- Im- Re- Im- 110- Im- Re- Im- OA/FA* FOVV
Ciass ‘ Class
act~ ped- act» ‘ peel» act» ped» act» 3 ped- 1 OAJFA/FOA*
kv kv
ance ance ance 1 anon anoe 2.1100 ance . ance
% % % % %._ % ‘ % 1 % ‘ ‘‘ M111. 01101. Min. ‘ Max.
3 Ll 2'2 0'8 2-8 .
15 1 15 4.5 7.0 6.75 10.5
1
10 1.5 2.2 1.3 2.4: 4.4 I 5.2 ‘ 25 15 l 5.5 1 8.0 8.25 12.0
25 2.0 2.5 1.1 2.5 4.0 5.2 1
50 2.1 2.4 2.1 2.5 4.0 5.2 6.3 6.5 1
100 3.1 as 2.0 2.2 5.0 5.2 1 6.3 6.5 34.5 15 ‘ 5* Q 9° o GD Q 12.0
500 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 0.4 0.5 1 25 CD tn 4 00 Q Q3 "1CR 13.6
‘For thrwphase transformers use }»§ of the th.0ee-pl-use kva rating, and enter 1
tabie with rated line-tc-"line voltages. 46 ‘ 25 9.75 13.5
24.5 1 ~10) GUI 1-4 95° OD 10.5 15.0
as equal to their reactances, because the resistance cum-
ponent is so small. The standard tolerances by which the 69 34.5 7.0 10.0 10.5 15.0
impedances may vary are + 7% percent of specified values 46 8.0 11.0 12.0 10.5
for two-winding transformers and i 10 percent for tl1ree~
92 3-1.5 l 10.5 11.25 15.75
winding, auto, and other non-standard transformers.
69 (X14 U151‘ 12.5 12.75 18.75
The percent resistance of transformers is less consistent
among various designs than is the impedance, and though 115 34.5 1 12.0 12.0 18.0
the curves in Fig, 4 show definite values for transformer 09 ‘ 14.0 15.5 21.0
resistance, considerable deviation from these figures is 02 PI‘ 95°?” aoo 15.0 15.0 , 23.25
possible.
Transformers can be designed to have impedances within 138 34.5 13.0 12.75 . 19.5
oioser tolerances than mentioned above, or irnpedances 69 15.0 14.25 22.5
outside the normal range, but usually at extra. cost. 115 lwi OWN U!U\U\ 17.0 15.75 25.5
A guide to the irnped an cos of three-winding transformers
is given below (this guide does not apply to auto~trans— 161 1 46 1 1 15.0 13.5 21.0
formers).
92 . 16.0 15.75 24.0
138 1- 1- ~ |—‘@§Q UVUIUY ‘1 10.0 ‘ 17.25 27.0
(1) Select a kva base equal to the kva rating of the
190 ‘ 40 {10 1 15.0 15.0
La 6* 541* 77 W’ ' 5" 7 02 11.5 17.0 17.25
V1 101 \12.5 19.0 18.75 * 50$ #3010!

230 46 11.0 24.0 10.0 10.5 ‘

02 12.5 27.0 1s.0 10.75
b .
/ 7 7 7 V717”
\_ , 1
i i _ 161 14.0 30.0 20.0 21.0
NOE__ .°I-D ‘The impednnws we expressed in Percent on the self-cooled rating of OA/FA and
\ 1 Q94’; 1 OA/FA/FDA
TA "o4_ 1 Definition of transformer class:
P an 1, DA*Oil-immersed, sail cooled OW—-Oil-imznerseal, water-cooled.
DA/FA—Oil-immersed. seif-000led/'forced—air~cooled.
OA/FA/FOA--—Oil~immeraed, B9If'O0OlGd/f0X‘(2(§d<I1§l"fl0Oled/§0!‘06d oil cooled-
RS5S is 1'11, ‘O 1 1‘1 FOA»-Oii~immersed. €orced~oil»ccol0d with forced air cooler.
0.? ' FOW3--031-immersed, fnrcerl-oil-enolai with water 000121‘.
NT 1 (483 ‘P3041’ 1 Note: The through impedance of a twmwinding autotranaformer can be
P 0'» estimated knowing rated circuit voltages, by multiplying impedance obtained from
01111 011115 by 1110155011
PERCE 99.
0.41 1_ largest capacity winding, regardless of voltage rating. All
impedarices will be referred to this base.
0.3 (2) Select a. percent impedance between the I3’16d1l.1I11-V010-'
.
500 1000 I 2000 1 lsooo 10000 lzoooo lsoioob1 the
age and the high-voltage circuits (Z1m%), lying between
S! NGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS KVA limits shown for twmwlnding transformers in Table 1.
£000 2000 4000 10000 200 4 (3) The percent impedance between the medium-voltage
THREE—PHA$E TRANSFORM€g$ £320 ‘Q0000 and low-voltage circuits (Zm,%) may lie between the limits
Fig. 4-—Percent resistance of transformers, based on OA kva of 0.35 (ZMfl%) and 0.80 (ZnH%)- Select a. value of Zmffo
ratings. lying within this range.
100 Power Transformers and Reactors Ch?-P159!’ 5

(4) Having estabiished ZMH% and Zm%, the percent at a specified power factor is reduced to zero, with the
impedance between the high-voltage and low-voltage cir- primary impressed terminal voitage maintained constant.
cuits (Zm,%} is determined as follows: Percent regulation can be calculated at any load and any
power factor by an approximate formula:
ZHL%“1-}O(ZM}\%+Zb1L%) (13)
_ (px —~ qr) 2 eperating eurrent
When impedances outside the above ranges are required, Regu1atmnm[pT+qx+ 200 X rated current
2. suitable transformer can usually be supplied but probably 14
at increased cost. where: ( )
4. Regulation “Regulation” is a percent quantity;
The full load regulation of a pewer transformer is the r = percent resistance
change in secondary voltage, expressed in percent of rated
_l0ad losses in kw, at rated kva X 100
secondary voltage, which occurs when the rated kva output rated kva

A
.4. _ _ _ I
9
Av _
"
' W” ,PERCENT’|5OWER’F’ACT0R
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IOO PERCENT POWER FAC‘FOR as ee_7__eo Tqgg 100 so ac) 10 "s'o_ _ ____go
Fig. Se-Chart for calculating reguiation of transformers.
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 101

. ' d k loss; that is, all losses incident to magnetization at full

z = percent Impedance = ]”*"""”*""*"""_'mi_):tea;in(f§_a
Va X 100
voltage with the secondary circuit open. Load losses are
PR loss caused by load current, eddy-current loss induced
:1: = percent reactance =\/QC;-3
by stray fluxes within the transformer structure, and
12 = cos 8 similar losses varying with load current.
9 = sin 6 No-load losses are measured at rated frequency and
rated secondary voltage, and can be considered as inde~
6=power factor angle of load (taken as positive when pendent of load. Load losses are measured at rated fre-
current lags voltage). quency and rated secondary current, but with the second-
The full-load regulation of a transformer can be de- ary short-circuited and with reduced voltage applied to
termined for any power factor from the chart in Fig. 5 ; the primary. Load losses can be assumed to Vary 3.5
this chart is based on Eq. (14). the square of the load current.
Typical regulation for three-phase transformers at full
load and various power factors is shown. in Table 2. These 6. Methods of Calculating Efficiency
Conventional Methodmllhis method is illustrated
TABLE Z--APPROXIMATE REGULATION non 60-Crow below for a transformer having 0.50 percent n0~l0ad loss
THREE-PHASE TYPE OA TRANSFORMERS Ar FULL Loan
and 1.0 percent load loss at full load. Percent no-load loss
is determined by dividing the no-load loss in watts by 10
Insulation l1 Power
Lagging Percent Regulation
times the kva rating of the transformer, and the percent
Class
1 Factor 1000 10 UGO ‘ 100 UGO load loss (total minus no-load) is determined by dividing
kv
1 Percent kva. kva i-rva the load loss in watts by l0 times the kva rating of the
15 ‘ 80 transformer. Note that the no-load loss remains con-
1 90 stant regardless of the load whereas the load loss varies
100 l"‘€A3»-B 1-“D720 Q5303 ‘Q!-I<£> directly as the square of the load.
Percent load . . . . . . . . 100.00 75.00 50.00 25.08 (1)
34.5 , so Percent load loss. . . . 1.00 .562 .25 .062 (2)
1 90 Percent nmload loam. .50 .50 .50 .50 (3)
r 100 P-‘#91 NIQQ 539°!“ on-eon Sum of (2) and (3).. l.-50 1.062 .75 .562 (4)
Sum of (I) and {4).. 101.59 76.062 50.75 25.562 (5)
69 RU 1 Dividing 100 times
‘ 90 (4) by (5) . . . . . . . . 1.48 1.40 1.48 2.20 (6)
100 1 I-»F~O5 H>lO\—‘ DIP!-Y\ <0;-P-~I 92”?‘ mono‘ Subtract (6) from 100 98.52 98.60 98.52 97.80 (efficiency)
l
138 so Slide~RuIe Method—This method is illustrated for
90 ‘ 9*.“ N|~\l 0'“-I GIN 1 OI“! HBO the same transformer.
100 , +- (D
11 I-* N
1. P© Percent load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l00.00 75.60 50.00 25.00 (1)
Percent no load loss . . . . . . . . .50 .50 .50 .50 (2)
230 so 1 Percent load loss . . . . . . . . . . . 1.09 .562 .25 .062 (3)
90 '-JED ¢'l\3 ‘-0'20 Q3143- Sum of {2} and (3) . . . . . . . .. 1.50 1.062 as .562 (4)
. 100 1 1.7 . 1.3 Sum of (1) and (4) . . . . . . . . . 101.50 76.062 50.75 25.562 <5)
Note: ?l‘-ese figures apply also to DA/FA and transformers, at
loads corresponding to their OA ratings. At this point the operations are continued on the slide
rule, and are described here for the full load point only:
figures also apply, but less accurately, to transformer
banks made up of three single-phase transformers; in this 1. Set 1.5 (sum of no~load and load losses) on D scale.
case the table should be entered with the three—phase bank 2. Set 101.5 over this on the C scale.
kva rating. 3. Now starting at the right end of scale D, read the
The regulation of three-winding transformers can be first figure (i.e., 1) as 90, the next (i.e., Q) as 91, the
calculated directly from translorlncr equivalent circuits, if next (i.e., 8) as 92, etc, until 98.52 is read under
the impedance branches and loading; for each circuit are the left end (i.e., 1) of scale C. This 98.52 is the per-
known. The regulation of four-winding transformers may cent efficiency at full load.
also be calculated using formulas developed by R. D. This procedure is repeated in a similar manner for other
Evans.‘ loads.
No'rn--If the sum of the percent no~load and load loss
5. Definition of Efiiciency at full load is 1 percent or less, the first figure at the right
The efiiciency of a transformer, expressed in per unit, is end of D scale (i.e., 1) is read as 99 percent and the second
the ratio of real power output to power input; figure (i.e., 9) is read as 99.1, the third figure (i.e., 8) is
read as 99.2, etc.
Em@ien@y=%%l%"@ 1—%19§§-‘lg’. (rs) If the sum of the percent no-load and load loss is greater
npu
than 1 percent as in the case illustrated above, the right
Total losses are the sum of the no-load losses and load end is read as 90 percent. In calculating the values for the
losses. No—load losses are eddy-current loss, hysteresis other points, judgment will indicate whether 90 or 99 is
loss, PR loss caused by exciting current, and dielectric to be used as the first figure on the right end of scale D.
102 Power Transformers and Reactors Chaptef 5

Chart Meth0d——The chart in Fig. 6 may be used to

calculate transformer efficiency at various loads. The pro-
L: \'Cu
55-;
\/§
cedure is described in the caption below the chart.
where :
7. Loss Ratio and Product L-=per unit kva load at which transformer operates
most efficiently.
Maximum operating efficiency for 2. transformer results
when the no-load (constant) losses equal the load (variable) Cu =l0acl losses at rated load, kw
losses. This condition will likely occur at some load less Fefino-load losses, kw.
than rated kva: load loss at rated load
. R =1oss ratio = no load loss
Cu X 1...” t Fe (16)

EFFICHENGY CHART7
O
{O ' ' K
I-|/4 mu. LOAD 3/4 I/2 V4
.9 L .L-.9
. -
.9
F"
.| 3 ,3 -- .8
.8
.l
-...
.7 99.5
.7 +0» -T
.6
'z .6 ll .6
99.5
.2
99.5
~»-99.5 W
.6
.3 99.0
.4
.4 \ 22»2.
A“; .3
¢_ r~;r|—fr|—|—}
.3 3
.4 1...- .3 \3 .2
i .2 .1
.2 1" -2. 98.5
\ .:
fififi . E. .. 99.0
4
es. -
.9
j--99.0 ‘T999
in
Z» .9 .5
.9 ‘- .e 58.0
ATFULLLOAD
LOSS .a _ .7 in
F" -8 I“ va
.7 .8
.
.7 "" -7 98.5
.8
97.5 '01
3-:
in <- .e E .e
i RCENTCOPPEQ 98.5 .4
PERCEN?IRON3.053ATFULLLOAD
PE
.1 .4 --se.s -90.5 .3
.9
.3 _-

-
.. ll .. .2
97.0
.7
l
.l
\ 1.0 -2 .3 L-- .3
98.0
.1 -Q. .2 * 12
.9 8
1-I 9&0 .l —~ ~|
.8 96.5
.9 98.0 -—- 98.0 .7
.9
"2 .a ‘- .9 -— .9 .6
V-
1 91.1 ‘-_ 916 ‘
Q-91.9 91.5 96.0
. 1.:
COPYRIGHT I91! BY J. F, PETERS

Fig. 6-—Ghart for calculation of efficiency. Directions: A straight-edge placed between

the known full load copper loss and iron loss points will give intercept on the emciency
scales for various loads.
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 103
5° \__ I . _. an _
|.o— — —~ ,6. xv oussl

90 fr: J l
ENOY
§ _

9 IE
EFFC
MUM
‘.3 i
ynoooc3 2 ;__ 7 ._ _,, , , , , . .7 .
* c e * zo 46 so
MNAX TRANSFORMER RATINCPMVA
— 0.?
(0) smoLE—PHAsa
N5
c *7! | ii 1
LT ,,,.so , , xv cuss
.0
0| CH5 ‘ '

RESU
LOAD

.9"’.'
~_\_

T
FERUN ”Q
1 ‘E1
\ ii
' V/IL
0'46” ll 2 iiiiiW4 5 T
PER0E_NT
oPERcamL
Lossgs
ormoroucr OSSE
“‘S‘
2
‘T *l .-.;._~._.2L_“u_I+_ ]_ "Ww'*"I"v*—W;c.§$"—.‘eI—I'l67[III
"5I IA_I jWt__1- ;W§IOM_m_,%,_ L_ 20 40 In1lngnu
u
~-cIn
~—-*.
I00
LOSS RATIO, YRANSFORNIER RATING —MVA
Fig. 7—Relatlon between transformer loss ratio and the most (b) THREE-PPMSE
efiicient loading. Fig. 8—TypicaI values of product of percent losses {percent
full-load copper-loss times percent iron loss}. For OA/FA
The relation between loss ratio and most cfiicient trans» or OA/FA/FOA units use OA rating to evaluate product. For
FOA and FOW units use 69 percent of rated kva to evaluate
former loading is shown in Fig. 7. The range through product.
which loss ratio may Vary in normal transformer designs is
shown by Table 3.
The product of percent no—1oad and load losses is a quan- Cu = 1% ><\/ITI1 kw. (19)
tity that has become standardized to the extent that it is
predictable with fair accuracy for large power transformers. Where:

TABLE 3 R "=loss ratio,

Normal Limits of Loss Ratio, R
P=product of the percent values of no—l0ad and
1.0.5 .=...;;..; VR = (Cu/Fe)
vflltage C1835 OAI OW I,‘OA¥¥ load losses, ><
kva kva
1" OA/FA‘ row"
OA/I~‘A/l"()A" kva = transformer rating.
46 and below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.75 to 3.25 L 1.4- to 2.4 8. Typical Efficiency Values
(59 to I38, incl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.50 to 2.75 1.2 to 2.0
Above I38 ._ ... . . . . . . . .. 1.25 to 2.00 3.0 to 1.8
Conventional transformer efficiency is given on the basis
of losses calculated at (or corrected to) 75 degrees C and
*Based on lnsaes at OA rating. i i
“Based on losses at 60 percent of FDA or FOW rating.
TABLE 4—ArY'ROXmA'rn Vans!-as or EFFICIENCY FOR 60-Crone,
Fig. 8 shows typical values of the product of percent losses, Two-Wmomc, OA, TI~IREE-PI-[ASE Pow)"-an Tnmsronnans
as a function of transformer size and voltage rating. To (Full load, unity power factor, at 75°C)
estimate values of no-load and load losses for a particular iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiW Voltage Class
transformer rating it is first necessary to select values of kva " W" " . ~~~ I
loss ratio R and loss product P from Table 3 and Flg. 8. 15 lcv 34.5 lcv 69 lcv l 138 kv 161 kv
Then the respective loss values, in kilowatts, are given 2900 98. 9'.’ 98 . 89 98 . 83 98. 56 98. 47
below: 10009 99.23 99.22 99.17 99.12 99.11
_kva P _ 50000 ; 99.47 99.45 99.4‘; 99.44
FB—-i-b~6¢\,/%,kW. Note; These figures apply also to OA/FA and GA/FA/FDA uanaformera, at
loads corresponding to their O.-K ratings.
104 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

unity powewfactor load unless otlierwise specified. Table 4
gives approximate values for 60-cycle power transformers
at full load, unity p0\ver~factor, and T5 degrees C.
III. 'i'RANSF()RMi:lR CLASSIFKJATIONS
9. Forms of Construction.
C01'e~f0rm construct.ion for sing;;le~pl1ase transformers
consists of magnetic steel punclxings arranged to provide
a single-patl1 inagnétic circuit. lligh~ and l0w~vo1tage coils
are grouped together on each main or vertical leg of the
core, shown in Fig; 9. In general, the mean length of
turn for the Winding is eo1npa,rz1.{ively short in the core-
form design, while the magnetic: path is long.
Shell-form construction for singlwphase tmnsfcmners
consists of all windings formed into a single ring, with
magnetic punchings assembled so as to encircle each side
of éhe winding ring, as in Fig. 10. The mean length of turn
is usually longer than for a comparable core-form design,
while the iron path is shorter.
In the design of a particular transfonner many factors
such as inslilation stress, mechanical stress, heat distribu-
tion, weight and cost must be balanced and compromised‘.
It appears that, for \vell»ba1e,nced design, both core-form
and shellfiforrn units have their respective fields of applica-
bility clvterminecl by kva and kv rating.
ln Lhc la1'ge1' sizes. shell-form construction is quite appro»
priate; the windings and magnetic iron can be assembled

GORE- CORE Y GORE 7

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5

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F“... .__m in M, A‘ ,
Fig. 9--~Core~fo1-m construction. Fig. 10—Shell~form construction.
 Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors
l stations can provide spare capacity on short notice.
Fig. ll-—Assembly of 15 I100 kva three-phase transformer,
showing “£01-m-fit” tank being lowered into position.
on a steel base structure, with laminations laid in horizon-
tally to link and surround the windings. A olOSe-fitting
tank member is then dropped over the core and coil assem-
bly and welded to the steel base, completing the tank
assembly and also securing the core to the base member.
This “form-fit” construction is shown in Fig. 11; it is more
compact than can be achieved by assembling a core form
unit within a tank, and the flow of cooling oil can be
directed more uniformly throughout the interior of the
coil assembly.
10. Comparison of Single-Phase and Three-Phase
Units for Three~Phase Banks
A three-phase power transformation can be accomplished
either by using a three-phase transformer unit, or by inter-
connecting three single-phase units to form a three-phase
bank. The three/~phase unit has advantages of greater
efiiciency, smaller size, and less cost when compared with
a bank having equal kva capacity made up of three single-
phaso units.
When three single-phase units are used in a bank, it is
possible to purchase and install a fourth unit at the same
location as an emergency spare. This requires only 33
percent additional investment to provide replacement ca-
pacity, whereas 100 percent additional cost would be r8-
quired to provide complete spare capacity for a three-phase
unit. However, transformers have a proven reliability
higher than most other elements of a power system, and
for this reason the provision of immediately available spare
capacity is now considered less important than it once was.
Three-phase units are quite generally used in the highest
of circuit ratings, with no on-the-spot spare transformer
capacity provided. In these cases parallel or intcrc onnec ted
circuits of the system may provide emergency capacity, or,
105
for small and medium size transformers, portable sub-
If transportation or rigging facilities should not be
adequate to handle the required transformer capacity as
a single unit, a definite reason of course dovclops for using
three single-phase units.
11. Types of Cooling
Basic types of cooling are referred to by the following
designations.“
OA -Oil-Immersed Self-Cooled—ln this type of
transformer the insulating oil circulates by natural convec-
tion Within a tank having either smooth sides, corrugated
sides, integral tubular sides, or detachable radiators.
Smooth tanks are used for small distribution transformers
but because the losses increase more rapidly than the tank
surface area as kva capacity goes up, 2. smooth tank ‘l;l'£mS-
former larger than 50 kva would have to be abnormally
large to provide suilicicnt radiating surface. Integral
tubular-type construction is used up to about 3000 kva.
and in some cases to larger capacities, though shipping
restrictions usually limit this type of construction at the
larger ratings. Above 3000 kva detachable radiators are
usually supplied. Transformers rated 46 kv and below
may also be filled with Incrtccn fire-proof insulating liquid,
instead of with oil.
The OA transformer is a basic type, and serves as a
standard for rating and pricing other types.
OA/FA—~Oil-Immersed Self-Cooled/Forced-Air
Cooled-This type of transformer is basically an OA unit
with the addition of fans to increase the rate of heat trans-
fer from the cooling surfaces, thereby increasing the per-
missible transformer output. The OA/FA transformer is
applicable in situations that require short-time peak loads
to be carried recurrcntly, without affecting normal ex-
pected transformer life. This transformer may be pur-
chased with fans already installed, or it may be purchased
with the option of adding fans later.
Fig. 12--Installation view of a 25 000 kva, 115-I2 kv, three-
phase, 60 cycle, GA/FA transformer.
106 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

The higher kva capacity attained by the use of fans is and a second rating based on forced circulation of air by
dependent upon the self-cooled rating of the transformer fans or blowers.
and may be calculated as follows:
For 2500 kva (OA) and below: IV. POLARITY AND TERMINAL MARKINGS
kva (FA) = l.l5Xkva(OA). (20) 12. Single-Phase Transformers
For 2501 to 9999 kva (OA) single-phase or ll 999 Primary and secondary terminals of a single-phase trans-
lava {OA) three-phase: former have the same polarity when, at a given instant of
kva (l¥‘A)=l.25><kva (OA). (21) time, the current enters the primary terminal in question
For 10 O00 kva (OA} single-phase and 12 O00 and leaves the secondary terminal. in Fig. 13 are illustrated
kva (OA) three-phase, and above:
kva (FA) H 1.333 Xkva (OA). (22) HI in "2 "1 En ll:
These ratings are standardized, and are based on a. hot- i"~""'-'“""—* ‘ii’

test-spot copper temperature of 65 degrees C above 30

degrees C average ambient.
OA/FOA/FOAeOil-Immersed Self-Cooled/Forced
Oil Forced - Air Coolea‘/Forced - Oil Forced - Air
Cooled--The rating of an oil-immersed transformer may
be increased from its OA rating by the addition of some
combination of fans and oil pumps. Such transformers
are normally built in the range 10 000 kva (OA) single-
phase or 12 000 kva (OA) three-phase, and above. In-
creased ratings are defined as two steps, 1.333 and 1.667
times the OA rating respectively. Recognized variations of
these triple-rated transformers are the OA/FA/FA and the
()A_/FA/FDA types. Automatic controls responsive to oil
temperature are normally used to start the fans and pumps
in a selected sequence as transformer loading increases.
FOA--Oil-Immersed Forced-Oil-Cooled With
Forced-Air C00lef——This type of transformer is intended
for use only when both oil pumps and fans are operating,
under which condition any load up to full rated kva may
be carried. Some designs are capable of carrying excitation
current with no fans or pumps in operation, but this is not
universally true. Heat transfer from oil to air is accom-
plished in external oil-to-air heat exchangers.
OW——Oil-Immersed Water—CO0Ied—-~In this type
of water—cooled transformer, the cooling water runs through
coils of pipe which are in contact with the insulating oil of
the transformer. The oil flows around the outside of these
pipe coils by natural convection, thereby effecting the
desired heat transfer to the cooling water. This type has
no self-cooled rating.
FOW-Oil-Immersed Forced-Oil-Cooled With
Forced-Water Cooler--External oil-to~water heat. ex-
changers are used in this type of unit to transfer heat from
oil to cooling Water; otherwise the transformer is similar
to the FOA type.
AA—Dry-Type Self-C00led—Dry-type transform-
ers, available at voltage ratings of 15 kv and below, contain
no oil or other liquid to perform insulatizlg and cooling
functions.
Air is the medium which surrounds the core and coils,
and cooling must be accomplished primarily by air flow
inside the transformer. The self-cooled type is arranged
to permit circulation of air by natural convection.
AFA~—Dry-Type Forced-Air Coofed——Tl1is type of
transformer has a single rating, based on forced circulation
of air by fans or blowers.
AA /FA-Dry-Type Sefi-Cooled/Forced-Air Cooled
--This design has one rating based on natural convection
i '5, E, "
X; Xg Kg X|
lg 1!‘
x, " x, ""
lit TE:
*2 t X:
F
'“" n, n,
‘vi ls»
Ha Tb Hi
la) (bl 9
suariucnve POLARITY ADOITIVE POLARWY
Fig. 13-—Standard polarity markings for two-winding trans-
formers.
single-phase transformers of additive and subtractive po-
larity. If voltage is applied to the primary of both trans-
formers, and adjacent leads connected together, H1 to X;
in Fig. 13(a} and H1 to X, in Fig. 13(1)), a. voltmeter across
the other pair of terminals [H1 and X2 in Fig. 13(a) and
H2 and X1 in Fig. l3(b)] indicates a voltage greater than
E, if the transformer is additive as Fig. 13(1)), and less than
E,-, if the transformer is subtractive as Fig. 13(a).
Additive polarity is standard for all single-phase trans-
formers 200 kva and smaller having high-voltage ratings
8660 volts (winding voltage) and below. Subtractive po-
larity is standard for all other Single-pl1ase transformers.‘
13. Three-Phase Transformers
The polarity of a three-phase transformer is fixed by
the connections between phases as well as by the relative
locations of leads, and can be designated by a sketch
showing lead marking and a vector diagram showing the
electrical angular shift between terminals.
The standard angular displacement between reference
phases of a delta-delta bank, or a star—star bank is zero
degrees. The standard angular displacement between ref-
erence phases of a star—delta bank, or a delta-star bank,
is 30 degrees. The present American standard for such
three~phase banks is that the high-voltage reference phase
is 30 degrees ahead of the reference phase on the low
voltage, regardless of whether the bank connections are
star-delta or delta-star.“ The standard terminal markings
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 107

V. STANDARD INSULATION CLASSES

HGH
I H‘ ° ° X’ LOW 14. Choice of Insulation Class
vouma "2 ° ° “=1 vomsc:
H‘ O 0 X, The standard insulation classes and dielectric tests for
power transformers are given in Table 5. The insulation
143 (Q) TERMINAL MARKWGS H2 class of at transformer is determined by the dielectric tests
which the unit can withstand, rather than by rated 0pera.t~
ing voltage.
X: X2
On o port-iculsr system, the insulation clues of the
connected power transformers may he determined by the
ratings and characteristics of the protective devices in-
Xi stalled to limit surge voltages across the transformer
30°
windings. Ratings of the protective devices will in turn
X depend upon the type of system, its grounding connections,
H| ‘ X5 H3 H1 X H5
$ and some related factors. For example, when the system
neutral is solidly grounded so that a grounded neutral (80
DELTA*D£L'l'A OR STAR-DELTA OR percent) arrester can be used, an insulation level corre-
STAR-STAR CONNECTION DELTA-STAR CONNEGTION sponding to the arrestcr rating may be chosen rather than
an insulation levci corresponding to the system opelnting
lbl LINE"-TO-NEUTRAI. VOLTAGE VECTOR DMGRAMS voltage. Many tmnsformcr hanks luwing a. $t£>.r—c0nnccted
Fig. 14——Standard polarity markings and vector diagrams for three-phe.so winding, with the neutral permanently and
three—phase transformers. solidly grounded, have on impulse strength corresponding
to 21- iowcr line~to-line classification than indicated in Table
5 (Sec Chap. 18 for a more detailed discussion of this
for 9. three-phase, two-winding transformer are illustrated subject).
in Fig. 14. Also included are the vector diagrams for delta.-
delta, star-star, star-delta and delta~star connected trans- I5. Dielectric Tests
formers. The phase rotations are assumed to be H1—H2~H3 The purpose of dielectric testing is to show that the
and X1~X2—X3. design, worl<ma,nship, and insulation qualities of 21. trans-
Fig. I5 summarizes the phase angles that can be obtained former are such that the unit will actually meet standard
between high- and low—voltage sides of star-delta, and d cl ta~ or specified voltage test limits. Below is £1. description of
the various dielectric tests which may be applied to power
‘ T " ’ rim‘ trensfo rmcrs:
EM LAGS EMBY 30‘ l Eng LEADS Em BY 30' ‘ (1) The standard impulse fest consists of applying in
c H, x, c A H3 X3 5
succession, one reduced full wave, two chopped waves, and
e H, xz n B H2 X2 b
one full wave.
A H, X, - 0 Q H, X, . C (3,) A full. wave is :1 l.5><-40 microsecond W&.VQ, usually of
negative polarity fO1'()ll-~l¥11II}(§I'SGd transformers, or positive
p(>lm‘l[y for dry type, and of the magnitude given in
E09 LAG5 E,\¢BY l5Q' Eqq LEADS E“; BY l50°
Table 5.
‘ Q H3 X3 ll 1 A
1": 7'1! ll (bl A reduced fuil wave is :1 l.5><é0 microsecond wave, having
9 H2 xi <1 l H2 X2 c :1 crest value between 50 and 70 percent of the full wave
.\ H, x O O
u:| H, x, 4: crest.
(c) A chopped wave is formed by connecting an air gap to cause
voltage brcaluloxvn on the tail of the applied wave. The
gag LAG5 Epg BY 90' 2., LEADS igg av eo- crest voltage and minimum time to fiashover are specified
‘l
n\ H5 X3 ll C H5 X3 Q ‘ in Table 5.
B H2 X3 0 ‘ 3 |-12 xi c
(2) The standard opplz'ed—p0tential test consists of apply-
Q H! X| D A H, X, ‘ l)
ing a low-frequency voltage between grOLlDCl and the wind-
1 l l ing under test, with all other windings grounded. The
Fig. l5—~Angu1ar phase displacements obtainable with three- standard test voltage magnitude is listed in Table 5, and
phase star-delta transformer units. its specified duration is one minute.
(3) The stanrlard induced-potrmfial test in general c0n~
sists of applying between the terminals of one winding a
star, three»phase transformers built with standard c0nnec~ voltage equal to twice the normal operating voltage of that
tions and terminal markings. In this Figure A, B, and C winding. A frequency of twice rated or more is used for
represent the thrco phases of the high-volt-age system, this test, so tliat the tra11sfu1'rne2' core will not be over-
whereas a, b, and c represent the three phases of the low- excited by the application of double voltage. The duration
voltage system- Phase rotations A~B—C and e~—b—~c are of the test is 7200 cycles of the test» frequency, but not
assumed. longer than one minute. Commonly used test frequencies
108 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

TABLE 5—S’I‘ANDARD INSULATION Cmsses AND DIELECTRIC

TESTS FOR DISTRIBUTION AND POWER Tmusroru/was
(Taken from Table 11.030 ASA Standard C57.I1-1948 for Transformers, Regulators and Reactors.)
Impulse Teats
Rated Voltage Between Terminals Low Frequency ‘— _ """"" ‘ _ f
of P0wer_'1~mnSfm.mers (a) Tests Oil-Immersed Trarasforrners o O11-Immersed Trims Oflneffi
500 kva or Less Above 500 kva
Insula- ””” l M W" W ‘ Wave
Fu 21 , i F11 11
tion Single-Phase 3~Phs.se Ofl_Im_ 1 D Chopped Wave (8) Ulfipped Wave Wave (6)
l l I'
C1883 —— — 1 ———————————————~ merged y ——— ——— — 7" " " " 1 ''
For v_ For new 11 Delta or Y-
T-Ype lTYP<’=(b1
1
Min Time 1 Min Time 1
Connection Connection Connected ‘ Kv 1 to
to Kw Kv Kv
on 3~Phase on 3~Pl1e.se Flash- Flash-
kv rms Crest Crest Crest over
Crest
System ((2) System 1 over
kv kv rms kv rms (C) kv rms kv 1-ms Microsec. 1 Miorosec.

0.69 0.69(d) 10 36 30 54 1.5 45

15 54 C71 45 ... .
.89 (d) 19 69 60 38 ' er
CBOUYN CD .00 {d} Ch 26 88 75 l 10 95
r- O\(DU1t\’:e-I UJCHNI CJGWC9K9 I-‘ Q10! b r-I U‘lC0€J1l\’)r-I @Q'§©iI1lO 34 1 10 l-4b-It 1)-It @O3U‘!l\DQ 05 130 L)!-In-l OM05 110
l
25 .0 14.4 25 .0 25.0 50 175 ‘ 150 175 150
34 5 19.9 34 .5 34.5 70 230 200 230 200
46 .0 26.6 46 .0 46.0 95 200 250 290 250
69 .0 39.8 69 .0 69.0 140 400 CDQCQ 350 400 oooo 350

92 -53.1 92 92 185 520 450 520 450

1 15 66.4; 115 115 230 630 . 550 630 550
138 79.7 138 138 275 750 1 650 750 650
161 93.0 161 161 325 865 OOOQ 1750‘o sas QQCQ 750

196 113 196 195 395 1025 5 O3 Q ‘ 900 I035 F“ Q 900

230 133 230 230 460 l 1210 l 1050 1210 1050
287 106 287 287 r"-'
010 l 1.500 1 1500
1300 1300
345 199 345 690 (300 ~» was @0302 QCDQ . 1550 l 1785 06¢ 1 550
Notes: (ti) Intermediate voltage ratings are placed in me nexc higher insuiaeion class unlesa otherwise specified.
(b) Standard impulse tests have not been established for dry-lype distriloutisui and power trarisforrners. Preaent»ds.y values for impulse tests of such 9.p])BJI'8$t3$
3T3 315' folio WS~'
1.2 kv class. 10 kv; 25 class, 20 kv; 5.0 class, 25 kv; 8.66 lav class, 35 kv; 15 kv class, 50 kv. These values apply to both ci1oppecI~wave and full-
\Vfl1 \'9 t es t e .
(0) Yiconneeted transformers for operation with neutral solidly grounded er grounded ehrnugh an impedance may have reduced insulation at the neutral. When
this reduced inslilatiori is below I-he level required for delln. operation. Lra.nsl0r|ru3rs_catm0t be operated (l&lfs.~c0:'lne|:te:i. _
(d) These apparatus are insular-ed for the test voltages correspomling Lo the Y <-onneetmn. so that a Single lmfl Of =1i1Paral>1~\5 $81“-’@$ {W @118 Y and K181“ 9PP1l<=-9/*
tiom. The Lest voltages for such deltwconneeted sing,le~1>liase appuratris are therefore one step higher than needed for their voltage rating.
lie) 1-5X-EU rnmresecorzd wave.

are 120 cycles for 60-cycle transformers, and 60 cycles for should the neutral class be lower than that given in Column
25—cyele transformers. 2, Table 6.
Combinations and modifications of the tests described (c) If the neutral of a transformer is connected to ground
above are contained in transformer standard publications, through the series winding of a regulating transformer, the
for example ASA C57.22~19~1S, and these publications neutral insulation class must he at least as high as the
should be consulted for detailed information. maximum raise or lower voltage (phase to neutral) of the
regulating transformer. In no case should the neutral class
16. Insulation Class of Transformer Neutrals be less than that given in Column 3 of Table 6.
Transformers designed for wye connection only with the (cl) A transformer grounded through the series winding
neutral brought out may have a lower insulation level at of a regulating transformer and a separate neutral imped-
the neutral than at the line end. The following rules are ance shall have a. neutral insulation class at least as high
included as st guide in selecting the permissible neutral as the sum of the maximum raise or lower voltage (line
insulation level: to neutre.l) of the regulating transformer and the maximum
(a) A solidly grounded transformer may have a mini- dynamic voltage across the neutral impedance during sys-
mum neutral insulation class in accordance with column tem short-circuit conditions. In no case should the neutral
2 of Table 6. insulation class be less than that given in Column 3 of
(ls) A transformer grounded through a neutral imped— Table 6.
once must have a neutral insulation class at least as high (e) if the neutral of a transformer is connected to ground
as the maximum dynamic voltage at the transformer neu~ through a ground fault neutralizer, or operated un-
tral during system sh0rt»ci1'cuit conditions. In no ease grounded but impulse protected, the minimum neutral
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 109

TABLE 6»-Mnmwu Insunimon CLASS AT Tnausronmnn Winding. The initial current is assumed to be com-
NEUTRAL pletely displaced from zero.
(b) The duration of the short circuit is liniited to the lol-
<11 12> I to I <41 lowing time periods. Intermediate values may be
i Grounded
d d 1 determined by interpolation.
Winding Er ; Grounded Through
Insulation Through , Through Qround‘ Fault Symmetrical Current Time Period
Class at
Line End
Current Regulating
Tranéormer ; Transformer |I
lécultralzfcr or
so ate but
-....i2_»§11.>;j1.‘1i.i.¥1§i.i:1s_ flew
25 times base current 2
mpulse Protected 20 times b-use current 3
16.5 times base current
14.3, or less, times base current (‘£143

sum” as Line ll“ “2. "Where kva is mentioned in paragraph 3 the following
9°P“*°!" o>Oc:\t'.>cs is intended:
15 sec s. so 8.66 llihcn the windings have a self-cooled rating, the kva.
25 sec s. cc 15
34. 5 see s. as ‘ 25 of the selflcooled rating shall be used. When the
46 15 15 34.5 windings have no selficooled ratings, the largest kva
es 15 15 , 46 obtained from the ratings assigned for other means
92 , 15 25 as of cooling by the use of the following factors shall
115 15 25 co be used:
138 15 34 . 5 92
161 15 34 . 5 92 we of Trfiiorriicr Multiplying Fact-or
196 15 40 115 W'a,tcr-coolcd (OVV) 1.0
230 15 46 13s Dry—Typc Forced-Air~Cooled (AFA) 0.75
237 15 so 161 Forced-oil-cooled {FOA or FOW) 0.60
345 15 cc l 196
“3. For multiwvinding transformers:
The base current of any winding provided with ex-
insulation class shall be in accordance with Column 4 of ternal terminals, or of any deltzwonnectcd stabiliz-
Table 6. ing winding without terminals, shall be determined
from the rated kva of the Winding or from not less
VI. TEMPERATURE AND SHORT-CIRCUIT than 3.3 percent of the rated kva. of the largest
STANDARDS winding of the transformer, whichever is larger.

I7. Temperature Standards
The rating of electrical apparatus is inherently deter-
mined by the flllOVl’8,bl€ operating temperatures of insu»
lation, or the temperature rise of the insulation above
ambient temperature. For transformers and voltage reg»
ulators with Class A insulation, either air or oil cooled,
the rating is based on an observable temperature rise (by
resistance or thermometer) of 55 C above en ambient
temperature at no time in excess of 40 C, and the average
during any 24-hour period not exceeding 30 C. Trans-
formers and other induction apparatus are designed to
limit the hottest~spot temperatures of the windings to not
more than 10 C above their average temperatures under
continuous rated conditions. The limits of observable
tcinpemture rise for air~co0led transformers with Class B
insulation is 80 C by resistance measurement.
18. Short-Circuit Conditions
A proposed revision to American Standard C57.l2-1948
(section 12.050) reads in part:
“1. Transformers shall be capable of withstanding with-
out injury short circuits on any external terminals,
with rated line voltages maintained on all terminals
intended for connection to sources of power,
provided:
(a) The magnitude of the symmetrical current in any wind-
ing of the transformer, resulting from the external short
circuit, does not exceed 25 times the base current of the
“In eoiue cases, the §sl1ort—circuit current, as limited by
transformer impedance alone, will exceed 25 times base
current. It must be recognized that such cases can occur
with transformers manufactured according to these stand»
ards and that the transformers built under these standards
are not designed to withstand such sl1ort—circuit current.”
Under short-circuit conditions the calculated copper
temperatures for power and distribution transformers shall
not exceed 250 C where Class A insulation is used assuming
an initial copper temperature of 98 C, or 350 C Where
Class B insulation is used assuming an initial copper
temperature of 125 C.
VII. TRANSFORMER TEMPERATURE-TIME
CURVES
19. Constant Load
A “heat run” of a transformer on test is made to deter-
mine the teruperature rise of the various parts at rated
load. If the test were made by applying only rated load,
with the transformer at room temperature, thirty hours or
more would be required before stationary temperatures
were reached. Such a process would be quite ineilicient of
time, energy, and in the use of testing facilities. Accelerated
heat runs are made by closing radiator valves, etc., and
applying loads in excess of rated load until the expected
temperatures are reached. Radiation restrictions are then
removed, the load reduced to normal, and the test con»-
tinued until stable temperatures are reached.
110 Power Transformers and Reactors
It is evident that the temperature-time characteristics
of a transformer cannot be obtained from the accelerated
heat—run data. Information is secured from the heat run,
however, which permits the temperatures to be calculated
under assumed load conditions. Exact calculations are
quite involved, but sufficiently accurate results can be
obtained by the use of an approximate method due to
S. B. Griscom for estimating the temperatures reached
under variable load conditions, changing ambient tempera-
tures, etc. Certain simplifying assumptions can be made
that permit a quick estimate of the expected temperatures.
Let L=transformer load in kva.
W Itotal losses (in kw) at load L.
T1: = final temperature rise at load L in degrees C above
the temperature at i=0.
.M wthermal capacity in kw hours per degree C.
1r=i~adiati0n constant in kw per degree C.
T=oil temperature rise in degrees C at time t above
the temperature at t=0.
H mthennal time constant in hours.
£= time in hours,
If the heat radiated is directly proportional to the
temperature rise of the transformer above the ambient, the
radiation constant can be obtained from the heat run data.
for W and Tp!
W To determine the temperature rise curve for any load L
Irw—
Tr ( 23 )
where the temperature at £20 is taken as ambient.
Since the total heat generated is equal to the heat
radiated plus the heat stored (heat consumed in raising the
temperatures of the various parts)
W=r:r+M%? <24)
This equation can be solved for T, giving
Tr§(1— sift) <25)
OI‘
T= Tr-(1—— 5%) (26)
where
M . . +0.17 (wt. of oil)}
H =-}-(~=the transformer time constant 111 hours. (27)
This derivation may be broadened to show that Eq.
(26) is equally correct for the case Where the oil temper-
ature rises T and T1» are those above the temperature at
i= 0, whether the value then is the ambient temperature or
otherwise.
I The foregoing discussion has been based on the assump-
tion that the temperature throughout all parts of the trans-
former is the same. This, of course, is not the case. When
the transformer load is increased, the copper temperature
is above that of the surrounding parts, and when the load
is decreased, the copper tends to he more nearly the same
temperature as the surrounding parts. Also, the top and
bottom oil are at diiferent temperatures. Eq. (26) is
therefore commonly taken as referring to the top-oil
Chapter 5
temperature rise, that is, T and Tr are defined as before
but refer to the top~oil specifically. Further, the final top~
oil temperature rise Ti‘ is not directly proportional to the
losses for all types of transformers as Eq. (23) would
indicate, but is more correctly represented by the relation
T1-'=Tr<rs> a--—‘i—--M)“
Total loss at full load
we
where:
mmO,8 for type OA transformers.
=0.9 for type GA/FA transformers.
m1.0 for type FOA transformers.
TF({])=fin3.l top—oil temperature rise at full load in
degrees C.
The use of this relation when substituted in Eq. (23)
indicates that for other than the type FOA transformer the
radiation constant Ir and the time constant H are not
completely independent of load but vary according to a
small fractional power of the total loss. However for con-
venience in calculations this variation in ir and H is nor-
mally overlooked and the values obtained from Equations
(23) and (27) for the full load condition are taken as
constant. The error introduced by the procedure is not
large compared to that normally expected in transient
thermal calculations.
therefore, the radiation constant Ii" under full load condi-
tions is first determined from the heat run data using
lilq. (23). The thermal capacity M is dependent on the
thermal capacities of the various parts of the transformer.
For convenience it can be assumed that the transformer
parts can be separated into three elements: the core and
coils, the case and fittings, and the oil. Although the core
and coils are of copper, iron, and insulation the specific
heats of those elements do not vary widely. Since, also,
there is a reasonably constant proportion of these elements
in different transformers, a single weighted coefficicnt of
thermal capacity for the coils and core is warranted. The
following relation is accordingly suggested:
M =f~6i~0~6{0.06 (wt. of core and coils)
+0.04 (wt. of case and fittings)
(29)
Here the coeflicients of the last two terms are also weighted
to make further allowance for the fact that all parts of the
case and fittings and the oil are not at a uniform tempera-
ture. The values of ll" and M found as above may be
substituted in Eq. (27) to obtain H. The value of Tp for
the desired load L is determined next by substitution of
heat run data. in Eq. (28). The quantity W for the load L
may be evaluated by the relation
W- [( ) X {full load copper loss)
[1 2
+ (no-load loss) ] (30)
The quantities H and T1» may now be substituted in Eq.
(26) from which the top-oil temperature-rise curve may be
plotted directly.
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 111

For example, a 6000~kva, three-phase, self-cooled, -so. ----r---'--"'

24 000-5040 volt transformer has the following full load
performance date. as supplied by the manufacturer: l 1
Iron loss= 10 920 watts. as.‘ \ —— ‘ 11111111~ W
Copper lossw-13 540 watts.
Tota1=54 460 watts.
Top-oil rise 1 40 C (from heat-run test data). DI O

LV copper rise=46.3 C.
GRADE
GENT
I-IV copper riee=43.3 (J.
Wt. of core and coils=25 O00 pounds.
Wt. of case and fittings: 1.8 O00 pounds. REES N U1
Wt. of oil= l7 400 pounds.
From this information the time constant H may be evalu—
I“
FULL1-040 1
I
E LOAD
ated and the expression for T obtained for the load L equal
to the rated load. asRst~ —0Es
W 54.46 G
k=T: TF 40 =-1.36 kw per degree C. ERATU

TEMP
M= —I~6166[0.O6 X25 0OO+0.04 X18 000%-0. I7 X I7 400] __7__ , AALAAJ1LAAJAAQNIIiL
6
-OL
=5_18 kw hours per degree C.
TOP
W 5.18 s ~eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee~
I1=‘_=.m~-M .
If L36 381hours~.
T= TF(1—- 6-4/H) =4o(1- @—=/W). A l
The full load top-oil temperature rise curve shown in Fig. 0° 5 IO l5 2° 25 3°
16 was calculated from this relation. 11 ms-nouns
To plot the top-oil temperature-rise curve for half-load Fig. I6-—Top-oil temperature rise versus time, for a typical
conditions for this transformer the same time constant H transformer.
is used as found above.
From Eq. (28): termined during the heat-run. The average copper tem-
perature rise above ambient at full load is required by
Tr
W 4U( (0.5)2><43.54+1o.92
54‘46
“f—19.2 C. standards not to exceed 55 C for class A insulation. The
use of that value to obtain the apparent copper gradient
will genemlly lead to overly pessimistic results since the
T=19.2(1-~ e3-;8l). actual value of the average copper temperature rise is
liomially below the limit. Tl1e1‘efo1"e it is advisable to use
The curve represented by this equation also appears in the value measured on the heat run and obtained from the
Fig. 16. manufacturer.
The rise of the hottest—sp0t copper temperature above For any ioad L, the hottest-spot copper gradient may be
the top-oil temperature is known as the hottest-spot cop- calculated from the relation
per gradient end at full load may be estimated from the L I 6
relation
“H ”* "“=**> X <32’
Gnm)=Go(r1;+/L (31)
From the performance data of the transformer previously
where: cited:
G11<m=~hottest spot copper gradient at full load in Gem, =46.3—40=6.3 C for the LV winding.
degrees C. G}1(§;)= 6.3+ 10= 16.3 C.
G¢(n>"—-apparent copper gradient at full load in
degrees C. The hottest-spot copper temperature for full-load is thus
A=1O C for type OA and OW transformers. 16.3 C above the top-oil temperature. For, say, half-load,
Eq. (32) must be used to obtain
=10 C for type OA/FA transformers.
-=5 C for type FOA and FOW transformers G11;L)=l6.3 X15 =
with directed flow over coils.
It is not feasible in e. study of this kind to keep track of
The apparent copper gradient at full load (G‘<:<n,) is the short time variations of copper or hottest-spot tempera-
difference between the average copper temperature rise ture, and it is suggested if it is desirable to show roughly
and the top-oil temperature rise, both of which are de- how this Varies, a time constant of 15 minutes be used.
112 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

90" 7 F’? F "” ‘ ‘

so. — l ~e F” -~ '1
l HOTl’E5T'$POT

10 1 We
GRAD! ENT
II /. a
" -
J
"Q
RADE 0» O
I4 orrzsr-svcrr rauwsaxruss '
|
| " ‘*
_/
‘ L
‘
\_ T°P"°"- TEMP£">'~Tl-‘RE 4 AMBIENT + rum. ToP-on. ms: 1 \\
GEWFIG
0| D
». \_
.\ I _ . i HUW" F ' '1
/
"DEGREES ;—. it
A--r L
l
PEHATURE a0| OO -- l-‘_—— _.
I‘_
,,,,,,,,,,,,.17. W .. W....< mama? T€MPERATURE
l
TEIE l
l r

8 T.‘

-¢
__ rms c'o'N sum 1_ i ll ‘
'0 W I" R-noun
, rm: oousrmr 5
" H-s.e an ' P .. .-on.
Q .._....l . A ._._. _
1'3 re .|> 5! Q 5 n D 6 8 I0 12 2
3 QITI2
Fig. l7——Step-by-step graphical calculation of temperatures under changing load conditions.

20. Variable Load Final‘ oi:

Temp. Hottest-
A step-by-step analysis using Eqs. (28) to (32) can be Final ambient Spot
made to consider conditions of variable load, changing Load L035 s1 Rise plus Gradient
ambient temperatures, etc. The method of approach is Time Ambient (n1va.} Eq.(30) MOq. (28) final rise Eq. (32)
based on the fact that the initial rate of change of tempems .
>-- N 29C 15 7 I4 7-5""1i33.7c r
ture is the slope of a line joining the initial and final tem- 2AM? 29 15 7 14 :1 43 '7 \
peratures, the two temperatures being separated by a time 28 15 7 14 7 1 l
interval equal to the thermal time constant of the trans»- fir? 27 21 8 19 2 46.2 if
former. As before Tp is calculated from heat run data and 8 29 30 2 24 .9 53.9 I
the total ioss W for each load condition through the use of 10 31 41 1 31 9 l62.o i
Eq. (28). The loss Wis obtained from Eq. (30). The final lie‘ 33 i 54 5 40 .0 73.0 -
top~oil temperature is then found by adding Ty to the 24 PME. 35 54 .5 40 .0 75.0
ambient temperature. Since the load is varying, the finai 37 54 5 40 0 77.0
temperature cannot be reached 1”or each Eoad condition and 6 34 41 1 31 9 65.9 )" i- l\hM\»M|—‘

the step-by-step analysis must be employed to obtain the 8 32 30. 2 24 9 56.9

top-oil temperature curve. Points on the hottest-spot IO 30 21 8 19 2 49.2
temperature time curve may then be obtained iiy adding
12 29 l€'0Oi4>~U1O>CI'iG§¢fl>PC»\ZI£?tOK\D 15 7 14 7 43.7 I .“"‘-.°F°9‘@.°’|rF“‘i°~OF\"l‘O°FC“\°3€a3t'»J!O \|hO0O0%
the hottest—spot copper gradient ‘Gfl for each load to the
top-oil temperature at the time corresponding to the load
VIII. GUIDES FOR LOADING OIL-IMMERSED
for which the gradient was calculated. Gt; is obtained in
the same manner as previously outlined.
POWER TRANSFORMERS
To illustrate the step—by-step method, the oil tempera- 21. General
ture-tirne curve for the 6000—kva transformer previously The rated kva output of a. transformer is that load which
described will be calculated, starting with an oil tempera- it can deliver continuously at rated secondary voltage
ture of 55 C for an assumed load cycle as tabulated in the without exceeding a given temperature rise measured
adjacent column. under prescribed test conditions. The actual test tempera-
Figure 17 illustrates the use of the calculated data in the ture rise may, in a practical case, be somewhat below the
graphical step-by-step process to plot the curve of top-oiE established limit because of design and manufacturing
temperature with time and the mannerin which the hottest- tolerances.
spot gradients are added to obtain the hottest-spot tem- Tlie output which a transformer can deiiver in service
perature~time curve. The accuracy can be increased by without undue deterioration of the insulation may be more
using shorter time intervals. or less than its rated output, depending upon the following
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 113
:¢
design characteristics and operating conditions as they use * I 1”"
exist at a particular time‘: ~ L - or ~ *" " c
(1) Ambient temperature. . . \ _ I n
I60‘ l — i ‘
(2) Top-oil rise over ambient temperature. on ,_. L ,. l
. W; -
(3) Hottest-spot rise over top»oil temperature l
(hottest-spot copper gradient). M07 A _ _ ,_ l _ _.
(4) Transformer thermal time constant- ‘ l
(5) Ratio of load loss to nowload loss.
l l
22. Loading Based on Ambient Temperature
Air-cooled oil-immersed transformers built to meet es-
tablished standards will operate continuousiy with normal
life expectancy at rated kva and secondary voltage, pro~
viding the ambient air temperature averages no more than so __u_LT___1__.._.:.-M
30 C throughout a 24-hour period with maximum air
temperature never exceeding 40 C. Water—co0led trans- ......_____--__E-i--------------—

formers are built to operate continuously at rated output _ eo~—-—— ~*--

youQi
4as
with ambient water temperatures averaging 25 C and
never exceeding 30 C.
When the average temperature of the cooling medium is
OVERTOP0LND
SPOTRSE EGRE SC
I11
it+4—_ c7ilia(0
‘ oi.l \,\€'i*/84*
._
r__@__ L_
different from the values above, a modification of the trans- ».\
former loading may be made according to Table 7. In
20> +-~— ks
TABLE 7-Pnannarr CHANGE IN KVA Loan FOR Eacn Deanna
CENTIGRADE Cuauon IN AVERAGE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
_u_ YA

Type of Cooling
Air above 30 C avg.
or
Air below 30 C avg.
or
A4 \\\. °i\l{¢l PERCENT RATED KVQ
INS
°_,_, /0%
3 °__~p‘- 200 240

Water above 25 C avg. Water below 25 C avg.

Fig. 18--H0ttest-spot copper rise above top-oil temperature
as a function of load, for various values of full load copper rise.
Selfwoolecl
‘Water-cooled
Forced~A ir~C0oled
—
-
~
| +1.0
6 per deg. O‘ +1 0% per deg. C

+0 . 75*
Forced-Oil—Coo|ed ii’; . COMM asQ
bnlhn lvn livn-6 l +6 . 75‘
2.2 ‘ r
‘Based on forcedwooied rating. W77 W77 . at it A ,
2.05» H ‘
cases where the difference between maximum air temper-
ature and average air temperature exceeds 10 C, a new
temperature that is 10 C below the maximum should be
used in place of the true average. The allowable difference
between maximum and average temperature for water»
cooled transformers is 5 C. 1
23. Loading Based on Measured Oil Temperatures TMES
RATED
KVA

The temperature of the hottest-spot within a power

1.2 1 , -
transformer winding influences to a large degree the de~ l l
terioration rate of insulation. For oil-immersed tra.nsf0rm~ 10*o 1
no 20 so 40 so so 10 so
ers the hottestuspot temperature limits have been set at row on. rzweasruss m cuteness c
105C maximum and 95 C average through a 24 hour
period; normal life expectancy is based on these limits. Fig. 19—L0ading guide based on top-oil temperature.
The top-oil temperature, together with a suitable tem- (A) OA, OW, OA/FA types.
perature increment called either hottest-spot copper rise {B) OA/FA/FDA, FOA, FOW types.
over mp-oil temperature or h0ttest~spot copper gradient, is
often used as an indication of hottest-spot temperature. A conservative loading guide, based on top-oil tempera.-
Allowable top-oil temperature for 2. particular constant tures, is given in Fig. 19.
load may be determined by subtracting the hottest-spot
copper gradient for that Eoad from 95 C. The hottescspot 24. Loading Based on Capacity Factor
copper gradient must be known from design information Transformer capacity factor (operating kva divided by
for accurate results, though typical values may be assumed rated kva) averaged throughout a 24-hour period may be
for estimating purposes. If the hottest-spot copper grad- well below 100 percent, and when this is true some com-
ient is known for one load condition, it may be estima- pensating increase in maximum transformer loading may
ted for other load conditions by reference to Fig. 18. be made. The percentage increase in maximum loading
114 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

TABLE 3—PERMISSIBLE Tamsroamza Lemme BASED on TABLE 9——PERM1SSIBLE DAILY SHORT—TIME Tmusronmna
Avnrmos Prsacnur CAPACITY FACTORS* LOADING BASED ON NORMAL LIFE EXPECTANCY

Percent Increase \ Maximum Maxiiiiiim Load I11 Per Unit of Transformer Ratingm

Type of Cooling
Above Rated kva
For each Percent By Increase,
Percent
Ieflodof 1 f
OA,OVV 05/PAW‘ oAji:¥.i1/r0iiF7
llfhich Capacity Faotcir Regardless of Increased _ __
I0 Below 100 Capacity Factor L°adlng- i‘ Average“) Initial Load, In Per Unit of
Hours 1 Transformer Rating
Self»Cooled ' 25
- 2- 0.000?0050\000 0.70 .-0.50§0.00l0.70 0.50
WYat.er—oo0led 25
Forced~Air~C-ooled 21) l . .. .
F0rced¢Oil~Cooled ‘.:’f3.Q.c’ 1 >»:-oi 20 0.5 \1.50|1.7r 1.s0l1.45 1.50 1.55 1.35i1.47 1.50
1.40‘1.54 1.00.1.a1 1.55 1.50 1.24;1.s1 1.04
*k1ere. percent capacity factor is equal to @ XlUU. averaged through- .1.24%1.s5 1.sv‘1.10 1.23 1.20 1 14~1.1sl1.21
out a 24.-hour period. IQ
r1-i—*n 1 11 ‘*1 1.19 1.11 1.131.I5'1..O9 1.10§1.10
as 0 function of capacity factor, based on a normal trans-
__ s Z 11.0 C73NI 1.0s11.0s 1.00 1.07 1.01 1.05 1.0§l1.00 . l

(a) Ambient teinperaturea of 30C for air and 250 for water are assumed through-
former life expectancy, is given in Table 8. out this table.
(ii) Based on FA rating.
(0) Based on FOA rating. _
25. Loading Based on Short-Time Overloads (cl) Use either s.vor9.ge load for two hours previous to overload period. or average
load for 24 hours (less the overload period), whichever is greater.
Short-time loads which occur not more than once during
any 24~hour period may be in excess of the transformer
rating Without causing any predictable reduction in trans- theoretical conditions and limitations described in Table
former life. The permissible load is 0. function of the aver- 10(b). These conditions were chosen to give results con-
age load previous to the period of abovewatcd loading, taming some probable margin, when compared with most
according to Table 9. The load increase hosed on capacity conventional transformer designs. For special designs, or
factor and the increase based on short-time overloads can- for 0. more detailed check on some particular unit, the
not be applied concurrently; it is necessary to chose one hottest—spot copper temperature can be calculated by the
method or the other. method shown in section 19, and the probable sacrifice in
Short time loads larger than those shown in Table 9 transformer life can then be estimated from Table 11.
will cause 0. decrease in probable transformer life, but the
amount of the decrease is miifficult to predict in general 26. Limiting of Load by Automatic Control
terms. Some estimate of the sacrifice in transformer lilo The loading of :1 transformer can be supervised by eon“
can be obtained from Table 10(0) which is based on the trol devices to insure that hottest-spot copper tempcratiires

TABLE 10(a)-~PERMISS1BLE SHORT-TIME TRANSFORMER LOADING, BASED ON REDUCED LIFE EXPECTANCY

i Following 50 percent or less of rated kvala) l Following 100 percent of rated kvaw)

Type of Period of Increased 1 Prolmlalo Sacrifice In Vercent of Normal Life Caused By Ecol: Overload

C°°li“g Loading Hours ‘ 0.10 ‘ 0. 25 0.50 j 1.00 0.10 0.25 Q 0.50 i 1.00
— '.'1ii7.;I§}Ii§;{”"i'.<§;I1 In 1;."a51;;;;5rr;;;..;1;;'.;;0.0;...
j 2.00 5 2.00 1.75 1.92 2.00
OA , 1 101 1 2.00 1.54 1.69 1.81 1
or Q1-. j 1.02 ‘ 1.82 1.35 1.48 1.58 .
OVV 1 ; 1.38 . 1.53 1.20 1.32 1.40
. . 3 1.21 . 1.37 1.11 1.20 1.28
bi QQQDQUI 1- »-> ¢>-*2-‘IQ €i$§¢>¢§8 1 1.10 ,->_._.,_-;\ ;, >-'0 IJ>—JC>QI~J<DC>t\'>O 1.23 1.05 1.09 1.15 >-P- r~\r- 1- liq CADOICDWIG

1 2.00 . 1.82 1.94 2.00

. 1 1.70 . . 1.60 1.71 1.81
0A/rA“* . 1 151 . . 1.41 1.50 1.58
‘ . 1.31 . . . 128 1.35 1.43
. 1.10 . . . 1.18 1.26 1.33
l—4|—'>-|—Pl)-4 CD>»*i\7¢0C5<D UYP-*1-~l1QOJ‘-I 1.09 »Il A»> n v->~v M[Q P—"l\7¢-9U\K3@U1@O i£'-<©@ >- _<>-»1-gm . l\DCO>l>~G P—l§—l)~v1~7-¢l-6§~v-l . C‘-‘*-'\-JIRCI UTCDWZQ-I“-I , 1.09 1.15 1.21

1.70 1.02 2 00 2.00 A 1.50 ; 1.70 1.00

0A/FA /F0A“” 1 . 53 1 .01 1.73 l 1.32 1.39 1.50 1.50
or 1.32 1.42 1.41) . 1.57 1.26 1.36 ‘ 1.43
FOA 1.15 1.20 1.55 1.40 1.10 1 1.25 1.32
DOOOUIQQQQQOI l ll) 1.17 1.24 1.31 1.10 3 1.18 1.24
[O
\~O *w+-¢.0ewe-Q 1.05 1.08 1 1.14 E 1.20 1 1.05 l 1.00 i 1.14 5 I“-4 1-KI“-l|—4b~Il|—l mwwwc<:n>—io-c »-c za
(A) More basically, following a top-nil rise oi 25 C for OA and A tr0n.<lor1nr1r=1. --r 0. 22 C rise for OA/FA/FOA and FOA units.
(bl More basically, following :1 mp-nil rise Q5 45 C for GA and 99 .>.»\-_\ 511"‘!A 1.reu\sfr.\r111|:rs, or e 41] C rise ior GA,/FA/'FOA and FDA units.
(0) Based on the FA kva rating.
(<1) Based on the FOA kva rating.
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 115

TABLE 10(b)-»Com>m0Ns AND TRANSFORMER Cnmtncrnmsrxcs _ _ |_|c-mums

Assmmn IN THE PREPARATION or TABLE 10(a) I ' jfmassrsa
PROTEGTNE ‘ill l
OA OA/FA/FOA um. “i“*“~+ '
OW OA/FA FOA
FOW i _____lPowsR
wnnusroeuza
Hottest-spot rise (C) 65 65 65 7 7
Toprrroil rise (C) 45 /15 40 cuflnzur ' €—;— lporenrnat AND
TRAN$F9RME@ \*AuxiL|ARY
Time constant at full load I TRANSFORMERS
(hours) 1 3.0 2.0 1.5 l

Ratio of full load copper to iron‘ CIRCUIT -M “~ LIGHTNING

loss ' 2 .5 =‘ 3.5 5 .0
flREAK£F?l’_-.- »/’L
lhanaasren
I
Ambient temperature = 30 C. Ii- ___.
Maximum oil temperature i1 l 1"“-
= I00 C.‘
Fig. 20--Single-line diagram of CS? power transformer.
llrlaximum hottest-spot copper
temperature = 150 C.
Maximum short-time loading IX. THE COMPLETELY SELF-PROTECTED
fi7= ZOO pr-1'ceIlt.b TRANSFORMER
(a) Based on provision for oil expansion. and inert gas above the oil.
(b) Short.-time loading for one—hali hour or more. Termirmls or t.ap~cbangers A power transformer design may include protective de-
might in some cases impose 5 limit lower than 200 percent.
vices capable cf preventing damage to the unit when it is
subjected to electrical Conditions that would probably
damage conventional transformers. Also, standard switch-
TABLE 11»-PROBABLE Sncmrrca In Tnmsronnna LIFE ing, metering, and voltage regulating functions may be
CAUSED BY Paotouunu Horresr-Sror COPPER TEMPERATURE
included within a power transformer assembly. When
Period“ 0.10 | 0.25 [ 0.50 l 1.00 these protective, switching, and motoring features are all
combined at the factory within a single unit, as indicated
High Teznperature In Degrees Contigraée in Fig. 20, it may be designated a CSP power transformer.
Temperature’ To Sacrifice Not More Than The Lightning Pr0feCti011—Coordinated arresters are in-
hours Above Percent of Normal Life stalled to protect both high— and low-voltage circuits from
I 132 K’ 142 159 lightning or other voltage surges.
124 134 I42 150
117 126 134 142
lli 1E9 126 134
105 112 119 126
§O0:¥K§\')>- ‘O $0 0 0’! 99 104 109 11_5

are always within a perrnissible range and duration. This

control may be accomplished with a thermal reiay respon~
sive to both top-oil temperature and to the direct heating
effect of load current. The tlier'n1o$t-atic element of this
relay is immersed in the bot transformer oil, and it also
carries a current proportional to load current: in this way
the temperature of the element is geared to the total tern-
peraturc that the transformer winding attains during opcr~
ation. The relay can be arranged to close several sets of
contacts in succession as the copper ternpcrature climbs
with increasing load: the first contacts to close can start
fans or pumps for auxiliary cooling, the next contacts can
Warn of temperatures approaching the maximum safe limit,
and the final contacts can trip a circuit breaker to remove
load from the transformer. K

Loading; by copper temperature makes available the F

€
short-time overload capacity of a power transformer, so
that emergency loads can bc carried without interruption 5 :
of power service, and so that peak loads can be carried
without the use of over-size transformers.‘ The tllormal I

relay can be coordinated with each transformer design to <

1
which it is applied, and it can inherently follow unpr0- 1. <.,”._
dictable factors that atiect permissible safe loading for a Fig. 21> ~Fu1ly assembled 3000 kva, 33-4.16 kv C-SP power
particular installation. transformer.
116 Power Transformers and Reactors
Fig. 22»-Installation view of 1500 kva,’ 23.2-4.33 kv GSP power
transformer.
Intemal Fault Pr0tection-Fusib1e protective links
of high interrupting capacity are connected between the
high-voltage bushings and the Winding, so that the supply
circuit can be cleared. from internal transformer faults.
Overload Pr0tect1'on_—A thermal relay, responsive to
copper temperature (see section 26), operates to trip the
seconciary circuit breaker before damaging temperatures
develop in the winding.
Relaying—Overcurrent relays normally are provided in
the low-voltage circuit to protect for secondary faults.
Circuit Breaker—~Loed switching is accomplished by
a circuit breaker in the 1ow—volta.ge circuit of the trans-
former.
Voltage Regulation--“Standard no-load taps are pro-
Fig. 23--Portable substation rated 2000 kva, 72 000/24 00%
2.5/4.33/5.0/7.5 kv, shown in operation at a substation site.
Chapter 5
vided in the high-voltage winding. Tap—che.nging-under-
load equipment for the secondary circuit may be built into
the transformer housing. i . V
Meteringmwetthour meters and ammo-ters are usually
supplied for circuit metering.
CSP transformers are available in kva. ratings up to
3000, primary voltages up to 69 kv, and secondary voltages
up to 15 kv. The units may be used to supply distribution
circuits from high-voltage lines in either industrial or elec-
tric utility applications; if one unit is used individually on
e redial circuit, a by—pa.ssing switch can be supplied 9.-cross
the low-voltage circuit breaker to permit withdrawal and
maintenance of the breaker without e service interruption.
X. AUTOTRANSFORMERS
27. Tw0~Winding Autotransformer Theory ‘
The single-phase two-Winding autotransformer contains
a. primary winding and a secondary winding on a common
core, just as 2, conventional two-winding transformer does.
However, in the autotransformer the two windings are
interconnected so that the kva to be transformed by actual
magnetic coupling is only o portion of the total kva trans-
mitted through the circuit to which the transformer is
connected. Autotransformcrs are normally rated in terms
of circuit kva, without reference to the internal Winding kva.
The autotransfoimer circuit shown in Fig. 24 oontaizas
I
.._!.9___ ,
Q
. .r. @. . “l *®
Ipl .@ E“
Fig. 24-»-Circuit for 2 two-winding autotransformer.
e primary winding P which is common to both low- and
high—voita.ge circuits, and 2. secondary winding S which is
connected directly in series with the high-voltage circuit.
Under no-load conditions, high-side circuit voltage E’, will
be the sum of the primary and secondary winding voltages;
low-side circuit voltage Ea. will be equal to the primary
winding voltage. The relation between primary and sec-
ondary winding voltages will depend upon the turns ratio
12 . .
3 between these wmdmgs.
‘"1
"n=fi1"=‘+t=”' <33’
Th
Here N is the overall voltage ratio between high- and low-
voltage circuits.
When the transformer is carrying load current, the
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 117

primary ampere-tume should essentially balance the Ila

gi-
secondary ampere-turns (noting that I',=-=13):
nllp m 71213 W "'21;
$@
‘"1
I,_' = -IF
712
(36) E2,
Z,',=Ta"' E};

1,=1,+1,» = 1,'+%1,'= NI.’ =N’li§1,= =iiWr,,. (37)

7&1 Tl/2 N “' 1
P@
The total circuit kva is given by E,,><I,, or EJXI,’
(expressing volt-ages in kv), but the winding kva is given
(Oi DETERMINATION OF HIPEDANCE TE5T
by E,><Ip or (?~)E,.XI5. The ratio between winding
I
kva (Up or Us) and circuit kva. (llT C) is, referring to equa- zifzsr
tion (37)
Ur-_E,XI*p__*r
U0“ Eixrf
Ip
N I
_N“1
NW‘ <38)
@"r;' _
Ea
N—1 "
For example, an autotransforrner rated 1000 kva, with a
l go
circuit voltage ratio of 22 kv to 33 kv (N ====%m 1.5) has an

equivalent two-winding kva of

(bl EQUIVALENT OF TEST CIRCUIT
Ur m Us =~‘i\%I:1Uc =‘1"51~51'0 X 1000 @333 kva. N-l 2

The reduced rating of transformer parts required in an
autotransfomner make it physically smaller, less costly,
and of higher efficiency than a conventional two-winding
unit for the same circuit kva, rating. In the example just
cited, the autotransformer would theoretically be only as
large as 8. 333-kva conventional transformer, and this re»
duced kva. would in practice furnish a fairly accurate basis
for estimating the cost of the 1000-kve autotransformer.
Total losses in the autotransformer would he comparable
to those in a 383-kve. conventional transformer, so that
efiiciency based on circuit transmitted power would he
quite high.
An autotransformcr will introduce series impedance, as
well as current and voltage transformation, in the circuit
where it is connected. The series impedance may be evalu-
ated by referring to Fig. 25(a.); here the lowwoltage circuit
terminals are short-circuited, so that the impedance meas-
ured at the high—v0lta.ge terminals will be equal to the series
circuit impedance attributable to the autotransformer.
Note that the circuit in Fig. 25(a) is exactly the same as the
circuit that would be used to measure the leakage impe-
dance if Z 51» were defined as the ohmic impedance measured
across the secondary winding with the primary winding
short-circuited. A circuit providing correct circuit voltage
and current ratios, and also correct through impedance, is
shown in Fig. 25(b}. Two conversions may now be made,
the first to move the series impedance to the low-voltage
side, and the second to express impedance in terms of Zn.
1 , , 1
Zezfiida =fi§Zgp.
ziP=(E)2zn= (N—1)”Z1-5. (40)
-1 r i r i
z°' Z" IZN
°—---—-’\/\/Vv -A
"2
N*l+"'a-l-
(cl CONVENTIONAL EQUIVALENT cmcunr
Fig. 25—-Equh/alent circuits for a two-winding autumna-
former.
From this, the conventional form of equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig. 25(0), where
Zt=(N——;1)2XZPs- (41)
Sequence equivalent circuits for the three~phc.se two-wind»
ing autotransformer are presented in the Appendix.
The circuit impedance of an autotransformer is smaller
than that of a conventional two-winding unit of the same
rating, as is evident from Eq. (41). This low series im-
pedencc, though advantageous in its effect on transformer
regulation, may allow excessive short-circuit currents
during system fault conditions. Often the through imped-
ance will be less than four percent based on the autotrans-
former nameplate kva, rating, which means that three-
phase short circuit current could exceed the maximum
of twenty-five times normal rated current for two seconds
as permitted by standards. For this reason a.utotrans-
formers, like voltage regulators, cannot always protect
themselves against excessive fault current; reactors or
other connected circuit elements may have to be relied on
for this protection.
118 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

28. The Three-Winding Autotransformer EB: = Ea+7'l2'l"7»z"2E,‘ 2??-1(1 +751) +n2(1V-i- t2)Ea. (42)
Three-phase autotransforrners for power service are T11"i“ 11711 711(1 +451)
usually star—star connected with the neutral grounded, and
in most of these cases it is desirable to have a. third winding n1 wturns on primary winding, not considering taps.
on the core delta-connected so as to carry the third her- 7151 == turns on secondary winding, not considering
rnonic component of exciting current. This winding could tops.
be very small in capacity if it were required to carry only t; : fractional pert of n1 included in primary Winding
harmonic currents, but its size is increased by the require» tap i-l-film indicates additional turns)
rnent that it carry high currents during system ground £2 =frectional part of 112 included in secondary Wind-
faults. A widely used rule set-s the delta—Winding rating at ing tap. (+62% indicates additional turns).
3-5 percent of the autotransformer equivalent two-wind- If Ea is assumed constant at 1.0 per unit based on normal
ing kva rating (not circuit kvs. rating). rated iow-side circuit voltage, three cases are possible:
Since it is necessary in most cases to have a delta-con— (1) Taps in secondary winding only:
nected tertiary winding, it is often advantageous to design
this winding so that load can be taken from it. This rc-
sults in a tlaree-winding ulitolrarlsforrxicr with terlninals to
E;===1+@+e"-1’ 71/1 TL]
(43)
accommodate three external circuits. The equivalent cir-
In this case the transformer volts per turn remain
cuit for this type of transformer is given in section 59 of
normal. The percent cliange in Ea’ is:
this chapter.
29. Autotransformer Taps cE;=e~l3L-100.
T?4+??»a
(44)
It is frequently necessary to place taps in the windings
of an outotransformcr to regula,te either or both circuit (2) Taps in primary winding only.‘
voltages. It is not advisable to place taps adjacent. to the ‘R2 Z1712
line connections for voltages above 22 000 volts, because ,,'= -~—~~?--. 45
E 1+“! ?'¢1'i“"1il ( )
extra insulation is ileccssawy on turns adjacent to the line
terminals. If taps were placed at the ends of the winding, The transformer volts per turn are times their
additional padding would be required throughout the 1
tapped section. Furthermore, taps placed adjacent to the normal value. The percent change in E,’ is:
line, where the most severe voltage stresses occur, con-
51 "2
stitute a. Weakness that can be avoided by placing the taps AE,,’= ——--—-><———100. 46
in the middle of the Winding as shown in Fig. 26. Taps 1+i1 m+1/e ( )
(3) Taps in both primary and secondary windings:
E;= 1+m+1+z1><m
E iwtl E (47 )
1

As in case (2), the transformer volts per turn are

(-3-) times their normal value. The percent change in
1+5:
E,’ is:
°_____,,___,_________________ noemu. TAP sf,
AE ' = 52"ii
Z ‘M
————-I00. 48
a 1+31><n1+'"-2 ( )
If E,’ is assumed constant at 1.0 per unit based on normal
so rated high~sidc circuit; voltage, and E, is allowed to vary,
three more cases are possible:
(4) Taps in secondary winding only:
= Th _ 111 i ‘note 49
0 ’W _ . D
E“ fl1+m m+n2Xn1+m(l+t=) ( )
Fig. 26—mAut0transformer taps.
The transformer volts per tum are times
n 1. +m(1+@!=)
their normal vaiue.
Inay be placed in either the primary {com1non) winding, The percent change in EA will be:
or in the secondary (series) winding, or in both windings:
however, some tap comlxinntinns are more desirable than /.\1z',= - e~i“i--100. "0
others, if the transformer metcriels are to be used most 7’~1"r‘R2(1'l-12) (0 )
effectively.
The i0W-Si{l€3 and high-side circuit voltages may he (5) Taps in primary winding only:
related, under no-load conditions, by an equation which Eaz "1 7?-1 Woéifww 51
takes account of both primary and secondary taps: or-+nz+m+mXm(1+il) +114 ( )
 s
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 119

Transformer volts per turn are times

their normal value.
The percent change in E.’ is:

AE,= -mi-1m. 52
t1'¥'11(1+t1)'l'712 ( )
(6) Taps in both primary and secondary:
= "1 VVVVE1 _ "2(5::l2) 53
E‘ n1+"a+fl1+'"'zX‘fl1(1"l-Z1)+'M(1"§"1»2). ( )
'2:musr ormer vo1ts per turn are (n1(l+£1)p+7n2(1__uMQ}
eel-%~»~»-“‘"*"“’)
times their normal value. The percent change in E,’ is:

AE,,=--~M-------"'“‘(t‘__t”) 100. 54 (0) am: -DELTA

GROUNDlNG~TRAN5F'ORMER
on mranconuzcrzo-sraa
GROUNMNG TRANSFORMER
l"¢1(1"l"i1)'l""/all-"lrfizl ( )
wmomss mmvm PARALLEL
If the transformer were designed for constant volts per ARE on ‘rm’. sms 00415
turn (£;,= —t1%), then the percent change in E, would be:
°
AE',,=t1><1O0. (55)
It is often advisable to specify a tap combination which
will allow the autotransformer to operate at practically
constant volts-per»tu1-n, regardless of tap position. As
indicated in some of the cases above, a tap change in
only one Winding may be less effective than would normally
be anticipated, because of the nullifying effect of the
accompanying change in volts-per-turn. Also, a significant
increase in volts-per-turn at some tap setting would be
reflected in a magnetic core of larger size than otherwise
necessary.
30. Autotransformer Operating Characteristics
An autotransformer inherently provides a metallic con- (C) SGH£MATlG WINDING ARRANGEMENT OF AN lNT£R-'
nection between its l0W— and high-voltage circuits; this is CONN£GT€D—STAR GROUNQING TRANSFORMER OF ‘HIE
unlike the conventional two-winding transformer which THREE"~PHAS£ OORE"~FORM CONSTRUCUON
isoiates the two circuits. Unless the potential to ground
of each autotransformer circuit is fixed by some means,
the low-voltage circuit will be subject to overvoltegcs
originating in the l1igh—v0ltage circuit. These l.1T1f.‘lQSll"PK.l)l8
Dncr
effects can be minimized by connecting the neutral of the
eutotransformer solidly to ground. If the neutral of an 9.- .o . 4;.- q
loll—1:>l_ 1" till V i ‘cl
autotransformer is always to be grounded in service, an
induced potential shop test is more appropriate than an 3 P®
applied potential test, because it represents more closely E0 s ‘W
the field operating conditions; building a grounded cuto— ig 1.,
transformer to withstand a fullwoltage applied potential
test would not be economical because of the excess insula- L '2' ‘Bpi@ 7 Zn.
tion near the neutral.
To summarize the preceding discussion, the .s,utotrnns-
former has advantages of lower cost, higher efficiency, and ls, lac,
better regulation as compared with the tWo—winding trans-
former; it has disadvantages including low reectance which
may make it subject to excessive shomcircuit currents, the Zr:
arrangement of taps is more complicated, the delta. tertiary
may have to carry fault currents exceeding its standard
(cl) EQUEVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN INTERCONNECTEIIPSTAR
rating, the low- and high-voltage circuits cannot be iso-
GROUNOING TRANSFORMER
lated, and the two circuits must operate with no angular
phase displacement unless a zig-sag connection is intro- Fig. 27»—Star-delta and zlg-zag grounding transformers,
duced. The advantages of lower cost and improved effi-
120 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

oicncy become less apparent as the transformation ratio Table 12—“K" FACToas roe Der:-tmsnmno Eouxvatnur
increases, so that autotransformers for power purposes are Tw0~Wmsmo 55 C xVA or Gsounnuro Tmnsroimnns‘
usually used for low transformation ratios, rarely exceeding Zig-Zag Connection
2 to 1. . Star-Delta
Time
Rating
Conucc‘ ‘2.4 to
mm 23 to l
461w ‘ 691;4 92 lrv
‘13.S kv‘34.5 kv‘
XI. GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS
K3, F0 r A Three Phase Unit ii’ K
A grounding transformer is a transformer intended solely
for establishing a neutral ground connection on a three- 10 seconds
1 minute 0.170
0 0.064
0 13.sr0.1s;~ 0.085
0.104
> 0.092*
0.118 0.122
i 0.110 ‘ 0.113
phase system. The transformer is usually of the star-delta
or intercomiected-star (zig-tag) arrangement as shown in 2 minutes 0.240 0.130 0.153 ‘ 0.160 ‘ 0.107 0.174
Fig. 27.
3 minutes 9.295 0.170 . 0.181 0.190 0.204 0.212
4 minutes 0.340 0.196 0.210 l 0.225 0.235 0.245
The kva rating of a three-phase grounding transformer, 5 minutes 0.380 0.220 0.242 p 0.253 0.204 0.275
or of a grounding hank, is the product of normal line-to—
K1, For A Single Phase Unit (One of three in a b sink)
neutral voltage (kv) and the neutral or ground amperes that
the transformer is designed to carry under fault conditions 1 minute 0.057 0.033 0.037 0.040 0043 0.04.6
for a specified time. A one—minute time rating is often used 2 minutes 0.080 l 0.040 0.051 0.055 0.000 . 0.004
for grounding transformers, though other ratings such as 3 minutes 0.098 l 0.051 0.064 0.00s 0.074. ‘ 0.000
those suggested in AIEE Standard for “Neutral Grounding 4 minutes 0.113 l 0.065 0.073 0.078 0.084 0.091
Devices” (No. 32, May 1947) can be specified depending 5 minutes 0.127 .0073 . 0.082 0.083 l 0.005 l 0.102
upon the probable duty to be imposed on the unit in ‘These values are calculated on the basis that the initial average winding tem—
ersture is not over 75C, that the heat from load losses is all stored in the trunn-
service. iisrmer. and that the final Lem: persture will not exceed values permitted by atand~
ards. The values are appliczii. le only for grounding transformers designed to have
Rated voltage of a grounding transformer is the line-to- $00 percent impedance.
line voltage for which the unit is designed.
When operated at rated three-phase balanced voltage, classes of grounding transformers; the table includes values
only exciting current circulates in the windings of a ground- for both three-phase and single-phase units, though the
ing transformer. Current of appreciable magnitude begins single-phase type is uncommon.
to flow in the grounding circuit only when a fault involving Conventional power transformers may be connected to
ground develops on the connected system. serve solely as grounding transformers, but the current and
Grounding transformers, particularly the zig-zag type, time ratings for grounding service are open to question
normally are designed so that rated neutral current flows depending upon the form and details of construction. When
when a solid single-line-to-ground fault is applied at the these modified ratings are desired, they should be obtained
transformer terminals, assuming supply voltage to be fully from the transformer manufacturer.
maintained. This is equivalent to i00~percent zero-sequence Star-Delta Impedancesw-The impedance to zero-
voltage impressed at the transformer terminals resulting in sequonce currents in each phase of a solidly~grounded stara
the circulation of rated neutral current. Transformers so delta. grounding bank made up of single-phase units is
designed are said to have 100-percent impedance based on equal to ZP5, the ohmic leakage impedance between one
rated kva and rated voltage. primary (star) winding and the corresponding secondary
Sometimes a resistor or other impedance is connected (delta) winding:
in the transformer ncutrai, and in these cases it may be Z0=ZPS (53)
desirable to specify that the grounding transformer shall
have less than the conventional 100 percent impedance. Percent zero-sequence impedance is normally expressed in
Equivalent circuits for stardelta and zig-zag grounding terms of short~time kva and line-to»line voltage:
transformers with external neutral impedance are includ- , Z XU
ed in the Appendix.
Because a grounding transformer is a. short~time device, ‘"%=Ti>§§<“"r;? <59)
its size and cost are less than for a continuous duty trans- In a three—pha.se sta.r—delta grounding transformer Za may
former of equal kva rating. The reduced size can be estab- be smaller than Zpg by an amount depending on the form
lished in terms of an “equivalent two—winding 55 C kvs" of core construction: a typical ratio of Z0 to Zrs is 0.85,
U, by applying a reduction factor K to the short~time though variation from this value for different designs
rated kva of the grounding transformer, and this reduced is likely.
kva can be used for a price estimate. Zig~zag Impedances-—'l‘he impedance to zero-
U, = Ur; X K3 for a th ree~phase grounding unit. (56) scquenoe currents in each phase of a solidly grounded
zig-zag hank can be derived on a theoretical basis by
Us = 31/c >-(K1 for a bank of single-phase grounding
unite (57) reference to Fig. 27(d).
Eg=IqXZp5*6p+6p.
where
U, M equivalent two—winding 55 C kva, threephase.
UQ e (line-to-neutral kv) >< (rated neutral amperes). @=z...==zrQ.
I»
{en
Values for K are listed in Table 12 for various types and Percent zero-sequence impedance for the zigzag connec-
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 121

tion is normally expressed in terms of short—time kva and 31. The UT Mechanism
line-t0—line voltage: Figure 28 illustrates schematically the operation of the
z >< U
z@%=1§%j (62) type UT mechanism for changing taps under load. Taps
from the transformer winding connect to selector switch-
es 1 through 9. The selector switches are connected to
load transfer switches R, S, and T, The-connections for
XII. TAP CHANGING UNDER LOAD
the tap changer positions are shown on the sequence
The modern load tap changer had its beginning in 1925. chart of Fig. 28. The sequence of switching is so coordi-
Since that time the development of more complicated nated by the tap changing mechanism that the transfer
transmission networks has made tap changing under load switches perform all the switching operations, opening
more and more essential to control the in-phase voltage of before and closing after the selector switches. All arcing
power transformers, and in other cases to control the phase is thus restricted to switches R, S, and T, while switches
angle relation. Tap-changing-undcr—load equipment is ap- I to 9 merely select the transformer tap to Which the load
plied to power transformers to maintain a constant second- is to be transferred.
ary voltage with a variable primary voltage; to control the When the tap changer is on odd~numbered positions, the
secondary voltage with a fixed primary voltage; to control preventive 3.Ut0—tI‘3.I1SlOI'IT18I'lS short-circuitecl. On all even-
the flow of reactive kva between two generating systems, nurnbcred positions, the preventive auto»-transformer
or adjust the reactive flow between branches of loop cir- bridges two transformer taps. In this position, the rela-
cuits; and to control the division of power between branches tively high reaotance of the preventive auto-transformer
of loop circuits by shifting the phase-angle position of to circulating currents between adjacent taps prevents
transformer output voltages. damage to the transformer winding, while its relatively
Various types of tap-changing equipment and circuits low impedance to the load current permits operation on
are used depending upon the voltage and kva and also this position to obtain voltages midway between the
upon whether voltage or phase angle control is required. transformer taps.
Under-load-tap-changers are built for 8, 16, and 32 steps,
with the trend in recent years being toward the larger 32. The UNR Mechanism
number of steps so as to give a finer degree of regulation. Fig. 29 shows schematically the diagram of connections
The usual range of regulation is plus 10 percent and minus and sequence of operations of the type UNR tap changer.
10 percent of the rated line voltage, with plus and minus The operation of tho selector and transfer switches is ex-
7% percent and plus and minus 5 percent being second and actly as described for the type UT tap changer. But the
third, respectively, in popularity. The 32 step, plus and type UNR tap changer also has a reversing switch which
minus 10 percent, tap—changing~under~loacl equipment has reverses the connections to the tapped section of the
such wide acceptance as to be considered standard for winding so that the some range and number of positions
many types of transformers.
REVERSING SWITCH ES
PREVENTIVE AUTOTEQNSFORMER
ZZPREVENTIVE AUTO TRANSFORMER

TRANSFER SVHTGHES
TRANSFER ‘Q B 9 D
S'WlTCHES
R S R 5

I 2 4 5 8 7 9
1 2 3 4 5
SEL.€.CTOR SWITCHES
SEZLEOTOR SWITCHES
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
sequence or orsmmon
lHlI%l
IIEBEIEBBEIEIIIIIB IIHHHBHHHIEHIIBEIIIHB
III
EIEIIIIIIIIII swrron-1
iii
GI.
III
IIII IIIIiBB!IIIIIII""““
~ -2
1lIIIE1l§E]IIIIIEEEIIfl
IQEIEIEI
ll. IIII
h IIII ‘~" w>i:- IIIIEEEIEEEEEEI
§BIiiE""'
0 0 IIIII
S

EGIHEIEIIIIIIIII
IIIEIEEDEHEIEEI
EIEI EIGIEIEEIIIEIEEII
EEJIEI K EEIIEJI1 IHIEI K EEIEIEEEI El GE!
gfiiglfiIEI I IEEII I IQI I KI IE hIEEEIEEE]-EEEIEHE5
EIIE IEIE-I-I -EliEIEI I I EI HEII IEEI BIEI I EI I EEII EEII EEII EI QI EEIIHEII IEIEI EI I =:g HIHIHIEIEIIHIEIIEII
o=sw|rcn cto gEEII I IuEIEIEII EEII 0-swoon ctosso
Fig. 28~—Seventeen position, single-phase, Type UT tap Fig. 29--Seventeen position. single phase, Type UNR tap
changer. changer.
 122 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

can be obtained with one-half the number of tap sections,

or twice the range can be obtained with the same number
of taps. The reversing switch is a close-before-open switch
which operates at the time there is no voltage across
its contacts.
e it it
33. The URS Mechanism e *"" c
If

The type TIRS load tap changer is applied to small power

transformers and large distribution transformers. The 8
transfer switches are eliminated, and each selector switch. I
serves as e. transfer switch 1" or the tap to which it is con-
nected. The schematic circuit diagram and operations
l
sequence chart is shown in Fig. 30. 0
lb) (cl
REVERSING SWWGH--~ Fig. 31-Power interchange between systems:
B A
(al Two systems with tie.
4 5 e ? s s l0 u 9 {bl Vector diagram of voltages during interchange of power.
s£L.£ci'oR»mA~sFes/'0 6 (c) lntroduction of an in phase voltage, BC, to correct for exce~
swlrcu sive voltage drop.
/'
-mevermve AUTOTRANSFORMER
kilowatts must go over the tie line to B. Anincrease in
generator output by A must be accompanied by a corres—
pending decrease in out-put (increase in input) by B if there
SEQUENCE OF GPERATXON
l""_'[_"=i*|E*{l"'iY "iYE‘:; is to be no change in system frequency. The transmission
ivosrnouli 2l;3_inis s 1 8l9llC§tli12l|3{|4I!5i|6lI71|Bli9l2fl2|i;gz3lg zazaaqqezg of power from A to B results in a. difference in znagnitude
SWO-lioi ' if T7 ‘iiiiiijjlililiioililii.§;lii?i
G"1|
y i 0:
'5l__:I§i_!_~".§W_g ;Oil.1
'—+"‘
‘ ' ljflf between terminal voltages and also a shift in phase angle,
151'
.. Ei"l:Cl_,§_Lil@_loi"' es illustrated in Fig. 31 (bl. A0 is the terminal voltage at
ii
0-'9?l9
W- 51
:90 '15}
‘= '
l_ji,§I§_1‘;I?°.
E§::£j___,_i_0l0_ll
"T ""717?" .‘T*fiU T
.__>!.l_.:.._1l§.l.§l._1__..
'!"::"";'*"' .1"
!:
ll yigiia
17*?!‘
.-L30 is the terminal voltage at B. AB is the veetorial volt-
age drop from .l to B. created by the flow of load (f1}1‘}'Q1'1(. [1,
if ii and 9 is the phase-angle difierence between terminal volt-
' 1-4-1 I ~ — TV
ifib
. 1’. “:°<->1 ages. in actual practice the phase angle is not always appa-
L

.4‘ _.
l

. _0<>_ , A.- 9_. ..

;»“-4-—1“r¢>1 <> i , .fi,
iufl
s°5Q. _
~_‘ .“_l'nosill.e
.'g°EJ..n rent. hui; the drop in voltage. A B’, is often ol>jectiono.ble. .-kn
OOIMWAW
,_ ,,!..Il_01o;l_;; ;ii;’ .-llafill
I,l._I_ LL,i10§0lii1:.1,:i_
_‘1l5l*il_.§7i_§liE7_l0’Qlilillljf ._._
_ attempt to maintain satisfactory terminal voltages at A
<30 9..
~ &U‘U1Qd)'~|-{D@ -llllllfii 5i9°li_Li;,_‘ii‘ V '§TEi01G and B will often result in undesirable circulation of reactive
I :I€.t:{I$l:I¥
'-_
<'}GOO<;~'OOC)OO ‘I"""i*:'*i*;";l:ibTo;=1i"’ IEILLI zflzao kva between the systems. The flow oi power from Li to B,
0
“P aka» lii;IWii!zri.|ii1oie?’..
. i I . .
Ti
iii.
. . , . 1 crooooioioo oiooioioloio
"'1’T1‘;:';i:='
or vice l-'(?l'S2}¢. is determined by the governor settings. The
=2 GD :0&00@0.00i0.Q 1,4-_ lill :&:¢.;; flow of reactive power over the iiiterconneciing line is
O=$wm:.u c:_os£n determined by the terminal voltages held by the machine
Fig. 30-~Thirty-three position, single-phase, Type URS tap cX€it:1t.i0ns at :1 and B. Excessive voltage drop lietiveen
changer. the systems can “be readily corrected by transformer taps
of a fixed nature or by tap-changing equipment. introcluc~
Physically, the stationary selector switch contacts are
arranged in circles, one for each phase. The moving Se- seams
leetor switch contacts, as they rotate about a. center shaft, O TRANSFORMER O»
both select the taps and make contact with them. The
<> e— e iv
reversing switch operates when the selector switches are
on position 17, at which time there is no current through 9 V g kltweed i .3
the reversing switches and therefore no arcing on them.
The UR$ tap changer, like the other load tap changers, is e \Q.Q_QQ_Qz 5'
can be equipped for hand operation, remote manual opera~
ll
Q...“

tion, or for full automatic operation under the control

of relays.

XIII. REGULATING TRANSFURMERS FOR

VOLTAGE AND PHASE ANGLE CONTROL \\
\‘ '1
'
I .
u‘ _l_ "1 |
Consider two systems A and B in Fig. 31 connected by a
single transmission circuit. A and B may both be generat-
ing units, or one of them may be a generating unit and the EXCITING
other a load. Should J1 generate E0 O00 kilowatts in excess TRANSFORMER
of its own load, there can be but one result, the 10 000 Fig. 32--Regulating transformer for voltage control.
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 123

ing an in-phase voltage, BC, to compensate for the voltage
drop and bring the terminal voltage at B to it desired value.
Figure 32 is a simplified sketch of a regulating transformer
for voltage control, using an exciting autotransforrner with
automatic tap changing equipment indicated by the arrows.
Consider three systems interconnected with each other
delta power transformation in that the angle of phase shift
of current and voltage is not fixed but depends on the
tap position. Figure 34 is a schematic diagram of a typical
regulating transformer for phase angle control.
0U of

so that the interconnections from A to B, from B to C’, and

from C to A form a closed loop, as in Fig. 33 (a). An
1,. \\
I ‘u\
Q I

4,’ I,‘ .5;

'1 a“‘
\
I

OOOOiO0,0\O

0 \\

(0) Q C
c
€ A ‘ In general the distribution of real power flow over the
s B
O O
(bl (Cl
Fig. 33--Power interchange with three interconnected
systems.
entirely new element enters, and adjustment of governors
will not entirely control the flow of power over any one
of the interconnecting lines. An attempt to adjust load on
the tie hetween two systems results in a change of load on
the other two tie lines. With the tie line from B to C open,
and with power transmitted from A to B, the terminal
voltages of A and C’ will be equal and in phase, with no
power being transmitted from A to C, or vice verso. (Sec
Fig. 33 (b)). There now exists between B and C a difference
in voltage and a difference in phase angle. If the tie line
between B and C‘ is closed under these conditions there is a
' u“ I 0
Fig. 34—Regulating transformer for phase-angle control.
various interconnections found in loop circuits can be con-
trolled by regulators for pl1asc—angle control. The flow of
reactive kva can be controlled by regulators for volt-age
control. The preceding statements follow from the fact
that transmission—c:ircizit impedances are predominantly
reactive. The voltage regulator introduces a series in-phase
voltage into the loop, and quadrature current (reactive
kva) is circulated around the loop since the irnpcdanccs
are reactive. The regulator for ph21se—anglr>. control intro-
duces a quadrature series voltage in the loop resulting in
the flow of currents lagging the impressed voltage by nearly
90 degrees, or the circulation of in-phase currents (kw).
For the case of correcting the voltage for lino drop, a
simple voltage control equipment can he used. This simply
adds or sulnrzicts a voltage in phase with the system volt-
age. For the case of phasemanglc control, the equipment
can he identical except the voltage selected to add or sub-
tract is in quadrature. As the earlier discussion showed,
there are cases where both voltage and phase angle control
SERIES
O TRANSFORMER O-
G;

redistribution of power flow between A and B, a part going --ferret“--m

over the line from A to B, and a part of the power going
from A to B over the lines A-C’ and U—B (sec Fig. 33 (cl). 9 - 5 '1
QQQQ
The distribution of power, both kw and reactive kva he- cl

tween the various lines is determined solely by the relative 2 ~~ u>i2:2n,~~ - 0

irnpedanccs of the interconnecting lines.
If at the time of closing B-C an adjustment of trans- Z’ l Z II
former taps were made, or a regulating transforrner for II_I
voltage control were inserted in the loop, it would lie
possible to make the voltage at C equal in magnitude to 0
OI
I
that at B but it would not have the same phase relation-
€lOl\
ship. There would still be a flow of power from A to C I4
I4 U.)
I
I '1 1
II
and from C to B. \I '0
Conditions similar to that just described occur on intcr~ O10‘
I
0i ! \
connected systems involving loop circuits. To control the I;\
QA
‘‘L-&\
Q‘InAb .. ,\ \‘ 1,,
000
1 "
A

circulation of kw and prevent overloading certain lines it A‘

Q‘€
EXCITING
is often necessary to introduce a quadrature voltage, any WINDING
place in the loop, by the use of a regulating transformer Fig. 35-‘Regulating transformer for independent phase-angle
for phaseatngle control. This dlffers from the usual star- and voltage control.
124
.-___...__..__,_.- .-
-.
.-l ‘ l
‘E fl fa "Yd
Q .
W12. 're
2"“'~*
. Qfiua
#1.agin. g
Fig. 36~Regu!ating transformer for voltage control, rated
28 000 kva, 12.47 kv, plus or minus 10 percent.
are required. There are an number of conibimtliolis of con-
nections to accomplish this, one of them being shown in
Fig. 35. V5/here the voltage and phase angle bear c. close
relation. one mechanism may suffice. However, where corn-
pletely independent control is desired, two mechanisms
with two regulating windingS and one series winding, or
with one regulating winding and two series windings are
necessary. If it is desired to close the loop, and the flow
Of both real and reactive power over the Various lines
forming the loop must be controlled, the economical loca-
tion for the control equipment is at the point of lowest
load to be transferred. This may dictate the location in a
loop, unless when in tying several con"1pa.nies together the
boundary between systems determines the location. The
voltage to be added or the phase-angle shift that must
be obtained can ‘oe determined by calculation, considering
the impedances of the tie line and the load conditions in
the loop. When such calculations become involved, the
use of the network calculator provides a quick and accur-
ate tool for obtaining the solution.
Several common connections used for regulating trans-
formers providing voltage control, phase angle control, or
combined voltage and phase angle control, are tabulated
in the Appendix under Equivalent Circuits of Power and
Regulating Transformers. The equivalent circuits of the
regulating transformers to positive-, negative», and zero~
sequence are given. It should be not-ed that the equivalent
circuits for pl1ase~angle control regulators involve an ideal
transformer providing a phase shift of voltage and current.
Positive-sequence volt-age and current are always shifted
by the same angle in the same direction. The angular shift
for negative—sequence voltage and currenis is always equal
to the angular shift for positive-sequence, but is in the oppo-
site direction. Zerosequence currents and voltages do not
undergo an angular shift in being transformed. For ex-
Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5
“ME ample, refer to F~7" in Table T of the Appendix, which is
the regulating transformer for phase-angle control shown
5 in Fig. 34.
V
For positivasequence. neglecting regulator impedance:
E'{=.Vel“Elm\”’l %"3n?*e’“E’; (63)
I1'=",—l-65°'1r1="""7g~@j"'1l1
N N; 1-Hire“
where or = tan“\/fin
For negativeoequence, neglecting regulator impedance:
E; = .w~1o:. = v’1T-:"*.??§-1~.r¢J. (65)
1; = imezz
N
= v-,@.»~1.
1 +3731
<66)
-.--—~
For zero-sequence, neglecting regulator impedance:
E0’ = E9 (67)
IQ’ w I0 (68)
For this regulator zero-sequence voltage and current
are not transformed; Io flows through the regulator as
though it were at reactor.
It happens with several connections of regulating trans-
formers that zerdsequence voltages and currents are not
transformed at all, as in F-7; or are transformed with a
different transformation ratio than for positive- or nega-
tive—sequence quantities as in Gal. This phenomenon, and
the use of the sequence equivalent circuits for regulating
transformers has been discussed in papers by l-Iobson and
Lewis’, and by J. E. Clem.‘
XIV. EXCITING AND INRUSH CURRENTS
If normal voltage is impressed across the primary ter-
minals of a transformer with its secondary opemcircuited,
a small exciting current flows. This exciting current con~
sists of two components, the loss component and the mag-
netizing component. The loss component is in phase with
the impressed voltage, and its magnitude depends upon the
no»load losses of the transformer. The magnetizing com-
ponent lags the impressed voltage by 90 electrical degrees,
and its magnitude depends upon the number of turns in
the primary winding, the shape of the transformer satura-
tion curve and the maximum flux density for which the
transformer was designed. A brief discussion of each of
these components follows:
34. Magnetizing Component of Exciting Current
If the secondary of the transformer is open, the tranc-
former can be treated as an iron-core reactor. The dif-
ferential equation for the circuit consisting of the supply
and the transformer can be written as follows:
e=Ri+n%? (69)
where, =instantaneous value of supply voltage
=instantaneous value of current
=efi'ective resistance of the winding
= instantaneous flux threading primary winding
g‘9-@=~'-.<u w primary turns
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 125

Normally the resistance, R, and the exciting current, 5,
are small. Consequently the Ri term in the above eque-
tion has little effect on the flux in the transformer and can,
for the purpose of discussion, be neglected. Under these
conditions Eq. (69) can be rewritten:
e M nrg
If the supply voltage is e sine wave voltage,
e=\/QB’ sin(wi-"l-'-R),
where, E firms value of supply voltage
on = 21:-f
Substituting in Eq. (70)
\/§E' sin(wt—{—7\) =n1(—f§
Solving the above differential equation,
¢= —\/2"E c0s(wt+7\}+¢t
om;
\/2E
In this solution, ---——-»» cos (w£+)\) is the normal
(I-in]
steady-state flux in the transformer core. The second
term, 45,, represents at transient component of flux the
magnitude of which depends upon the instant at which the
transformer is energized, the normal maximum flux and
the residual flux in the core at the time the transformer is
!MPR£$SED STEADY STATE
vomee Ftux
e ¢
I-‘lg. 37-“Impressed voltage and steady-state flux.
lMPRE55ED VOLTAGE
energized. Under stca-dy—state conditions this component
is equal to zero; the magnitude of q5@ is discussed in
Sec. 38.
From Eq. (72) it can be seen that the normal steady-
stete flux is a sine wave and lags the sine wave supply
voltage by 90 degrees. The supply voltage and the normal
(70) flux are plotted in Fig. 3'7 es a function of time.
If there were no appreciable saturation in the magnetic
circuit in a transformer, the magnetizing current and the
flux would vary in direct proportion, resulting in a sinu-
(71) soidal magnetizing current wave in plmse with the flux.
However, the economic design of a power transformer re-
quires that the transformer iron be worked at the curved
part of the sa.turation curve, resulting in appreciable s2.t~
uration. Under this condition the magnetizing current
is not at sine wave, and its shape depends upon the satu-
ration characteristics {the Bell curve) of the transformer
magnetic circiuit. The shape of the current wave can he
determined graphically as shown in Fig. 38. In Fig. 38(b)
are shown the impressed voltage and the flux wave logging
(72) the voltage by 90 degrees, For any flux the corresponding
value of current can be found from the B-II curve. Fol-
lowing this procedure the entire current wave can be
plotted. The current found in this manner does not con-
sist of magnetizing current alone but includes a loss com-
ponent required to furnish the hysteresis loss of the core.
However, this component is quite small in comparison to
the magnetizing component and has little effect on the
maximum value of the total current.
A study of Fig. 38 shows that although the flux is a sine
wave the current is a distorted wave. An analysis of this
current wave shows that it contains odd-harmonic com—
ponents of appreciable magnitude; the third harmonic
component is included in Fig. 38. In a typical case the
harmonics may be as follows: 45 percent third, 15 percent
fifth, three percent seventh, and smaller percentages of
higher frequency. The above components are expressed in
percent of the equivalent sine wave value of the totnl
exciting current. These percentages of harmonic currents
will not change much with changes in transformer terminal
voltage over the usual ranges in terminal voltage. In Fig.
39 are shown the variations in the harmonic content of the
exciting current for a. particular grade of silicon steel.
FLUX

CURRENT

/
TI 5-K ‘

THIRD HARMOMC
COMPONENT OF
EXCITING CURRENT

(Ol fluusronusa B-H cum’: (bl vomirse. FLUX mo cunfleur waves

Fig. 38--G1-aphicai method of determining magnetizing current.
126 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

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J_.._,.O an.._ W-0 90 I00 vzncsur or MomuL EXC!T’iNG cuanzrrr
?ERCENT CF EQUWALENT SINE WAVE
Fig. 40—~F.xciting current vs. terminal voltage. The above
Fig. 39——~H:-irmonic content of exciting current for a particular curve applies for one particular design of transformer; the
grade of silicon steel. shape of the curve may vary considerably depending upon the
grade of steel and the transformer design.

35. Loss Component of Exciting Current inal voltage. For example, 108-percent terminal voltage
The no-load losses of a transformer ore the iron losses, results in 200~porcent exciting current.
a small dielectric loss, and the copper loss caused by the
excizing current. Usually only the iron losses. i.e., hys- 37. Typical Magnimdes of Exciting Current
teresis and eddy current losses, are important. These The actual ma;-rnimdes of exciting currents vary over
losses depend upon frequency, maximum flux density, and fairly wide ranges depending upon transformer size, volb~
the oharzlcteristics of the magnetic circuit. age (.‘lil$S. etc. In Table 13 are given typical exciting
In przmtice the iron losses are determined from labora- cilrrents for power transformers. The exciting currents
tory tests on samples of transformer steel. However, the vary directly with the voltage rating and inversely with
formulas given below are useful in 5l1lJ\\'lI‘lg the tlualitative the km rating.
effect of the various factors on loss.
TABLE 13
Iron loss w ll}. -5- We (73) TYPICAL Excmuo Cunasur VALUE.S FOR SINGLE-PHASE
We “-= KhfB".,m watts per lb POWER TRANSFORMERS
W.,-' Kefgigflgmx mills per lb (In percent of full load current)
Wk 2 hysteresis loss The following values should be considered as very approximate for
We w eddy current loss average smndnnl designs and are predicated on prevailing perform-
fee frequency ance Cl’l1LT£i(.!L[3!‘lStlCS. Test. values will as 11 rule come below these
t= thickness of lnminations values but rt l)lU.S or minus va1'i:1tion must be expected depending
upon purrhuscrs requirements. Should closer estinmting data be
BM. = maximum flux density
required, rho msller should be referreii to the proper meiiufacturefs
Ks. KG, and at are factors shat depend upon the quality design ongiiieors.
of t-he steel used in the core. ln the original derivation of
the hyszeresis loss formula. by Dr. Steinmetz, 1: was 1.6. I-l~hrC,L,_nhase Voltage Class [Full Insulation)
_For modern steels x may have :3. value as high as 3.0. The Km ,16-- Qn 7? <1‘ >—- 5 Kvi25Kvj69Kvil38Kvl61Kvl230Kv
iron loss in n 60~cyc1e power transformer of modern design
IS auproximately one wntt per pound. The ratio of hys- 555' .. 4
,1
~ --C»
3.14.0
{>1 l
,O‘—l.94c
(V

teresls loss to eddy current loss will he on the order of 3.0 1 ooo
with silicon steel and % with oriented steel. These figures
2 300
should be used as :1. rough guide only, as they vary con-
5000 : ¢- IlQ j E l2.5€7,;4.1q.1
10 ooo ; 2.4 =3.o 34,0?/>;,*
siderably with transformer design. 25000 2- l\’C)UJ\O “~O0 _ >4-—'-‘(A70 ls: 59 55 '
50000 1-»w,1 =....i....‘s.1 3.9 52.9 '
36. Total Exciting Current 'Redur‘v<.l Insulmion.
AS discussed above, the total exciting current of o. trans-
former includes a. magnetizing and u loss component. The 38. Inrush Current
ecommlc deslgn Of 3 transformer dict-utes working the iron When LL translormer is first energized, a transient ex-
at the curved part of the saturation curve at, normal volt- citing current flows to hridge the gap between the con-
age; hence any increase in terminal voltage above uuriuul dilions existing before the transformer is energized and
will greatly increase the efioiting current. In Fig. 40 the the conditions (lictatorl hy stead)’-st»nte requirements.
oxcltlng current of 21 typiczil transformer is given as :1 For any given trrmsformor this tmnsienl current Ll€p6?l'lCl8
funoiion of the voltage applied to its terminals. The upon the magnitude of the supply voltage at the instant
BXC1l}1I1g current increases far more rapidly than the term- the transformer is energized, the residual flux in the core,
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 127

and the impedance of the supply circuiz. Often the ma.g~ TOTAL FLUX
nitude of this transient current exceeds full-load current
and may reach 8 to 10 times fuli~1oad current. These high TRANSEENT FLUX
'/ 2* In
inrush currents are import-ant principaliy because of their
effect; on the operation of relays used for differential pro-
._ ._ _ _i__
tection of transformers. i / \
In studying the phenomena that occur when a trans- $1» / \
former is energized it is more satisfactory to determine the
/ \
flux in the magnetic circuit first and then derive the cur-
_ We- .7 /.s..*._..._..- ._....___.___.-_.‘
\ ..
rent from the flux. This procedure is preferable hecause
the flux does not depart much from :1. sine wave even r mi
/
/
’\
// STEADY'-STATE
\\
\
though the current Wave is usualiy distorted.
The total fiux in a transformer core is equal to the nor-
-» FLUX SUPPLY \~..
VOLTAGE
mal steady-state flux plus a transient component of flux,
as shown in Eq. '22‘ This relation can he used to determine ta) PRMARY 01.0550 AT zmo voumss-zeao nssroum. FLUX.
the transient flux in the core of :2. transformer immediateiy
. . ‘ZF
after the transformer is energized. As 1-:51 represents the "l’O'i'AL FLUX
1
crest of the normal sLcudy~statc flux, Eq. (72) can be
rewritten, TRANSIENT FLUX

where
es -¢m cos (wt+>~)+¢~=
om = “-/25
(74) - /+ i U
(A3711 1 _5¢m 2.6 $51
RESIDUAL
At z= 0, FLUX - ____
¢0= —¢.,. cos 1+ cw (75) o.s rpm /’ \\
where qi-u = transformer residual flux / \
»-»¢»,,, cos ?\=steacly-state flux at i=0 / \
<b,@=inii,ial transient flux. _ ____ __ _ , iii’
/ \ \ ~

In the above equation the angle }\ depends upon the
instantaneous value of the supply voltage at the instant
the transformer is energized. If the transformer is ener-
gized at. zero Voltage, 7x is equal to 0, whereas if she trsns~
former is energized where the supply voltage is at a posi-
tive maxirnuin value, )\ is equal to 90 degrees. Assume that
a transformer having zero residual flux is energized when
the supply voltage is at a positive maximum. For these con.»
ditions ¢@ and cos X are hot-h equal to zero so our is also
equal to zero. The transformer flux therefore starts out
under normal conditions and there wouid be no transient.
However, if :1 transformer liaving zero residuai is energized
at zero supply voltage the following conditions exist:
)\=U
—¢,,, cos X-= ~<;>,,
950:0
¢'v.0=¢m
Substituting in Eq. (74)
¢= -<i>m cos (w£)+<i>m (76)
The flux Wave represented by Ed. (76) is plotted in
Fig. 41:1. The total iiux wave consists of a sinusoidal flux
wave plus e d-o flux wave and reaches a crest equal to
twice the normal maximum flux. In this figure the tra11~
sient flux has been assumed to have no decrement; if loss
is considered the transient flux decreases with time and the
crest value of the total flux is iess than shown. In Fig. 41
(b) similar waves have been plotted for a transformer
having 60 percent positive residual flux and energized at
zero supply voitage. Sixty percent residual Iiux has been
/ \\
yea
Q"? con /&\ \
L /srewv-sure \
/ aux SUPPLY ‘*~_..
vorrass
(b) Pmmsv crosr-:0 AT zeao VOLTAGE-
sov: PO$iT|VE nzsaoum. FLUX.
Fig. 41—Transformer flux during transient conditions.
assumed for illustration only. Flux WELVES for any other
initisl conditions can be calculated in a similar manner
using liq. (T4).
39. Determination of Current Inrush
After the flux variation has been determined by the
method described, the current wave can be obtained
graphically as shown in Fig. 42. In the case illustrated
it was assumed that a. transformer having zero residual
flux was energized at zero supply voltage; the flux there-
foro is equal to twice normal crest flux. For any flux the
corresponding current can he obtained from the trans-
former B~1{ curve. Although the maximum flux is only
twice its normal value, the current roaches a. value equal
to many times tho maximum value of the normal trans-
former cxuiliizg cur:'cnt. This high value Of current; is
rezichvd bcc=|.uso of the high degree of saturation of the
trunsforrncr rnrignctio circuit.
I n the above discussion loss has been neglected in order
to simplify the prohicm. Loss is important in an actual
trzmsforrncr because it decreases the maximum inrush cur-
rent. end reduces the exciting current to normal after a
128 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

fl

‘ £g_usn amass?

T TAL FLU! WAV£

1’RAN,§_I_E_NY FLUX

FLUX

Om

:
i
w»
z_l __~ 1
pm; cueseur
Ia) nuusronusn 8-21 suave (bl FLUX WAVE AND INRUSH GURRENY WI-VE

Fig. 42-—GraphicaI method of determining inrush current.

period of time. The losses that are efiective are the resisb— TABLE 14-Arrnoxn/mm Imwsu Cuansms ro 60-Crow.
ance loss of the supply circuit and the resistance and stray Power: Tmnsroausns ENERGKZED mom ms HIGH-VOLTAGE
losses! in the transformer. Figure %3 is an oscillograrn of at SIDE
typical excitingmurrent inrush for a. single-phase irons- Transformer Core t Shell
former energized at the zero point on the supply voltage Rating Km Form Form
wave.“ The transient has 2. rapid decrement during the
2900 ? 5-
first few cycles and decays more slowly thereafter. The
damping coefiiclent, R,/L, for this circuit, is not constant
10 000 is 24 s~5
20 ooo _( 2 0-4
because of the variation of the transformer inductance Note: The crest. inrush cm-rent: are expressed in per unit of crest full-load
with saturation. During the first few current peaks, the current.

degree of saturation of the iron is high, making L low. The
inductance oi the transformer increases as the saturation
inrush currents to singlemhase, 60~cycle transformers can
be obtained from the data in Table 14. The values given
are based on the transformer being energized from the
high“/oltage side at the instant the supply voltage passes
through zero. Energizing :1 core-form transformer from
the lowwoltage side may result in inrush currrents ap-
proaching twice the values in the table. The per unit
inrush current to a. shell-form transformer is approxintlately
the same on the high- and low-voltage sides.

-Ml/ll
The inrush currents in Table 14 are based on energizing
a. transformer from a zero-reactance source. When it is 1

; -,. ._,.W_ _. ,_ "‘.T,m,._ desired to give some weight to source reactance, the lnrush
current may be estimated from the relation
In .-.
~ 7 _~<m£ I 1~+~L,X <7‘)
Fig. 43»-Current inrush for a particular transformer ener- Where
gized at zero voltage. I@=Inrush current neglecting supply reaotance in
per unit of rated transformer current.
decreases, and hence the damping factor becomes smaller X wllfiective supply reactance in per unit on the
as the current decays. transformer kva. base. ».
40. Estimating Inrush Currents
XV. THIRD-HARMONIC COMPONENT OF
The calculation of the im-ush current to a. power trans-
EXCITING CURRENT
former requires considerable detaiied transformer design
information not readily available to the application en- 41. Suppression of the Third-I-Iarmonic
gmeer. For this reason reference should be made to the Component A

manufacturer in those few cases where 2. reasonably ac» As discussed in connection with Fig. 39, the exciting
curate estimate is required. An order of magnitude of current of a. transformer contains appreciable harmonic

0*
1-#10"

Y
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 129

current. The third harmonic is by far the largest harmonic interference, as affected by transformer connections, is
component, being as high as 40 to 50 percent of the given in Chapter 23, Sec. 11.
equivalent sine-wave exciting current.
If the flux in a. transformer magnetic circuit is sinusoidal, 42. Effect of Transformer Connections
the exciting current must contain a third-harmonic corn- The application of the above principles will be illustrated
ponent. If this component cannot flow, because of trans- by consideration of a number of typical connections. in
former or system connections, the flux will contain a third- Fig. 44 is shown a three-phase transformer bank connected
harmonic component. The third-harmonic flux will, in
turn, induce at third-liarmouic voltage in the transformer TABLE l5—INi"E.UENCE or TRANSFORMER Commcrrous on
windings. The magnitude of the third-harmonic voltage THIRD-HARMONIC VOLTAGES AND Cunnsnrs
induced in a transformer Winding, when the third-harmonic l Ténnsiroamaa ‘ 7 " ’"
current is suppressed, will vary between 5 and 50 percent sconce cohmecrnou COMMENTS
depending upon the type of transformers used. With single»- , PRIM sec l l
phase transformers or with three-phase shell-form trans-
formers the third—harmonio voltages may be as high as 50 i | /K )\ see non: 4 ,
percent of the fundamental-frequency voltage. In a three- l F
phase core-form transformer the reluctance of the third- 12 4. l A. - -» 1 =
harmonic flux path is high (see Sec. 56) ; consequently the
third-harmonic flux in the transformer magnetic circuit is l S /t\ & u u I,5
small even if the third-harmonic component of the exciting 3 i uncaouuoso ?
current is suppressed. The third~harmonic voltage induced ,4 (emu. CAPACITANCE T0 /lg I 4b ~ H L5
is therefore small, usually not more than five percent. ‘ saouno, NO csouuoso - *
In a three-phase system, the third-harmonic currents of 5 cenesunoas on saouuozo )\ A .1 ll 3
each phase are in phase with each other and hence con- , TRANSFORMER BANKS) ‘
stitute a- zcrwsequcucc set of currents of triple i1'cque1'1cy. (5 & , A u ll 3
‘ ?
Likewise, the third-harmonic voltages will constitute a
zero-sequence set of voltages of triple frequency. Thus, 1 ‘ A ,|\ ll || 3

although a third-harmonic voltage may be present in the

line-to-neutral voltages, there can be no third-harmonic 3‘ ‘ A 4; I ll -- 3,5
component in the line-to-line voltage. The paths permit-
ting the flow of third-harmonic currents are determined st )\ /K ;p sa: N0‘FE 1
by the system and transformer zero-sequence circuits.
It has been shown that third harmonics must occur in no I /1|; X -- -- 2
either the exciting current or the voltage of a transformer.
The exciting current will take the shape imposed by the i ll~ l/K -- u L5 l
particular connections used. It is always preferable to saouuoso l '
have at least one delta-connected winding in a three- I2 KGROUNDED csmzenrons on i A5 i‘ '~ ~ 2,5
phase transformer bank. The delta connection will furnish seounoeo ¥RANSF’ORMER * ?
a path for the flow of tl1lI‘(l*~i’l21l‘Il'l0IliC currents and will I3 BANKS on LARGE CAPAC|- A ,1}, n » 5
minimize the third-harmonic current in the external cir- muss TO snounoi
cuits. This is very desirable because tliird-harmonic cur- I4 i A l no 1| 6
rents in the external circuits may, under some conditions,
cause telephone interference. A discussion of telephone 315 A A -= » a
TRANSFORMER
POW CE .l6 ‘A iklnu 3,6
TFIANSNHSSION LINE
ll ll . l

Note:
I. The third-harmonic component of the i=.xc.il,ing current in 3I1pf|1‘PS.RF*.f'l am! en R
(cl A 8 )\ thir|.l-harmonic component will be present in the transformer line-to-ground voltages.
2. The t.hird—harmonic component. of the exciting current flows over the line and
may cause interference due to possible coupling with parallel telephone circuits.
3. The delta-connected winding furnishes s. path for the third-harmonic exciting

4; on _M
currents re q uired to eliminate the third-harmonlicv olt ages. No lhrd-ha.
1 r m omc
’ cur —
rent will flow in the line between the source and the transformer and very little third-
harmonu: Wlll be present in the system voltage.
4. The delta-connected winding furnishes a path for the thircbliarmonic. exciting
currents required to eliminate the thirdmarmonic voltages. Very little third-
harmnnic current will flow in the line and very little third-harmonic will be present
in the system voltage.
5. lf the capacitancewo-ground of the circuit connected to the transformer
secondary is la:-go, appreciable third-harmonic current can flow in the secondary

O
O05xi
windings. This factor will help decrease the magnitude of the third-harmonic volt-
ages hut. may cause interlorence in telephone lines paralleling the secondary power

»+>-Q
7
awe-
T
[>l> — circuits. The same comments would apply if other ground sources are connected
to the secondary circuit. Resonance with the secondary capacitance may produce
high harmonic voltages.
6. Some third-harmonic current can flow in the secondary windings if other
ground sources are present on the secondary side of the transformer bank. The
magnitude of this current will depend upon the impedance of the ground sources
Fifl. 44--Connections which influence the flow of third-har- relative Lo the delta circuit impedance and is usually too small to cause trouble
monic exciting current. from telephone interference.
130 Power Transformers and Reactors
to a transmission line, the line in turn being connected
to a power source. If the star-star connection in Fig. -l-l(a)
is used the third-harmonic compunczlh oi the exciting cur-
rent is suppressed and a third—harm0nic component will
therefore be present in the linotmneutral voltages. With
the primary neutral and the generator neutral grounded,
as in Fig. 44(b), a path is furnished for the third-harmonic
exciting currents. If the impedance of this path is low,
little thirddiarnionic voltage will be present on the system.
However, if the line is long and is closely coupled with
telephone circuits, telephone interference may result. ll
the transformer bank is close to the power source no tele-
phone interference should result from the use of this
connection.
When a delta—connected winding is present in the trans-
former such as in Fig. 44(c) and (d), the delta connection
furnishes a path for the third-harmonic currents required
to eliminate the third-harmonic voltages. If the primary
is ungrounded or the generator is ungrounded, no third-
harrnonic current will flow in the line. If the primary is
grounded and the generator is also grounded, a little third»
harmonic current can flow over the line. With this connec-
tion t-he magnitude of the third—harmonic current in the
line depends upon the relative impedances of the supply
circuit and the delta circuit. This current is usually too
smallito cause any troublesome interference.
The same general comments apply when three-winding
transformers are used. if one winding is delta connected.
little or no third-harmonic current will flow in the supply
circuit and little or no third-harmonic voltage will be
present on the system.
In Table 15 is given a summary of a number of typical
transformer connections with a. brief description of the
effect of the connections on the lZl1lI‘(l-l'1L1I’I]10l3.l0 currents
and voltages.
XVI. TRANSFORMER NOISE
Transformer noise is 5. problem because of its disturbing
efiect upon people. Noise may arise from several sources
of force induced vibrations, including
(1) Magnetostriction, the small change in dimensions
of ferromagnetic materials caused by induction.
(3) Magnetic forces tending to pull jointed core mem—
bers together.
{3} Magnetic forces acting between two conductors,
or between a. conductor and a magnetic member.
(4) Fans, pumps, or other transformer auxiliaries.
The most persistent of these sources of noise is magneto-
striction, which depends upon flux density and cannot be
eliminated by tight core construction. The only means of
reducing magnetostrictive force new at hand is to reduce
flux density in the core.
Noise arising from any of the sources listed above may
be amplified by mechanical resonance in the tank or fit-
tings, and careful design is necessary to avoid such re-
inforcement of the original sound.
Sta.ndards‘° have been established for permissible sound
pressure levels for various types of transformers, in terms
of decibels referred to 0.002 dynes per square centimeter:
Chapter 5
P
db = 20 log1@ (78)
where P, the sound pressure, is expressed in dynes per
square centimeter. Transformers designed to have sound
levels below standard levels are available, but at extra cost
because the magnetic material is worked at an induction
below normal.
It is quite difficult to predetermine a sound level which
will prove satisfactory in the surroundings where a new
transformer is to be installed. Local conditions affect sound
transmission, reflection, and resonance to a great degree,
and these factors are hard to evaluate prior to transformer
installation.
XVII. PARALLEL OPERATION
OF TRANSFORMERS
43. Single~Phase Transformers
Transloriners having difierent kva ratings may operate
in parallel, with load division such that each transformer
carries its proportionate share of the total load. To achieve
accurate load division, it is necessary that the transformers
be wound with the same turns ratio, and that the percent
impedance of all transformeis be equal, when each per-
centage is expressed on the kva, base of its respective trans-
former. lt is also necessary that the ratio of resistance to
reactancc in all transformers be equal, though most power
transformers will likely be similar enough in this respect
to permit calculations based on only the impedance
magnitude.
The division of current between transformers having
unequal turns ratios and unequal percent. impndances may
be calculated from an equivalent circuit similar to the one
shown in Fig. ~15. Either percent impedances or ohmic
Z KN L...
”~—f—— —\/vv *—4——~ —
Mia 8.
q
ft; V 7, _:_ ry-
EQI Z‘ |;N' Z-.1’ \ [Eli
. 9 —— 9
Fig. 45-Equivalent circuit for parallel connection of single-
phase two-winding transformers.
impedances may be used in an equivalent circuit for paral-
leied transformers. The circuit in Fig. 45 contains ohmic:
impedances and actual turns ratios; this method is perhaps
more appropriate when the circuit involves unequal turn
ratios, because the use of percent values in this type of
circuit involves extra complications. Solution of this cir-
cuit, with a. load current [L assumed, will indicate the
division of current between transformers. Also, solution
of this circuit with total load current set equal to zero will
indicate the circulating current caused by unequal trans-
former ratios. For satisfactory operation the circulating
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors
current for any combination of ratios and impcdanees
probably should not exceed ten percent of the iull—load
rated current of the smaller unit.
M ore than two transformers may of course be paralleled,
and the division of load may be calculated from an ox~
tended equivalent circuit similar to the one in Fig. 45.
44. Three-Phase Transformer Banks
The same considerations apply for the parallel operation
of symmetrical three~phase transformer hanks as have been
outlined for singlmphose transformers. In addition it is
necessary to make sure that polarity and phase-shift be~
tween high-voltage and low-voltage terminals are similar
for the parallel units. A single-phase equivalent circuit
may be set up on a line-to-neutral basis to represent one
phase of a balanced three—phase bank, using the theory of
symmetrical components.
When three~phase transformer banks having any con-
siderable degree of dissyrnmetry among the three phases
are to be analyzed, it is necessary either to sot up a com-
plete three-phase equivalent circuit, or to interconnect
equivalent sequence networks in a manner to represent the
unbalanced portion of the circuit according to the rules
of symmetrical components.
45. Three-Winding Transformers
Currents flowing in the individual windings of parallel
three»Winding banks can be determined by solving an
equivalent circuit, such as that shown in Fig. 46. The
I
Z!
2,,
--wt
1,
Ii:
........._..
ZT
10
¢——-D
.4
Q
. Winding is of high voltage; however, values near zero can
1'1 cu; ___.“
In
.......... .
Q
In Z;
1'1 nu‘, ........_l*
Fig. 46-——Equivalent circuit for parallel connection of single-
phase three-winding transformers.
terminal loads, as well as Winding ratios and impedanccs,
affect the division of currents among the windings of a
three-winding transformer, so all these factors must be
known before a solution is attempted.
46. Three-Winding Transformer in Parallel With
Two-Winding Transformer
The equivalent circuit for a three~winding transformer
paralleled with a two-winding transformer is given in Fig.
131
Z1 I !Nt -mi all
’P' Z; E
Zn |:N, L5,
0
ls. 1‘
o‘
E; E‘
_1.. Z ma; _ ___ al
3 *J\AA’\ *7" 3*
~ ~ — '— :1
Fig. 47-“Equivalent circuit for a single-phase thremwinding
transformer paralleled with a two-winding unit.
47. Division of currents may be calculated from this cir-
cuit, if the load currents 1,’ and I.” are assumed.
Parallel operation of two such transformers is not usually
satisfactory, since :1. change in tertiary load will alter the
distribution of load between the other two windings. If
the impodances are proportioned to divide the load pr0p~
crly for one load condition, the load division between trans-
formers at some other loading is likely to be unsatislactory.
An exception is the case wherein the a” circuit of Fig. 47
represents a delta tertiary winding in a three-phase bank,
with no load connected to the tertiary; in this instance the
transformers can be made to divide currents similarly at
all loads.
lt is possible to design a three-Winding transformer so
that the load taken from the tertiary Winding docs not
seriously affect load division between the paralleled wind»
_ ings of the two transformers. If the impedance ZP is made
0
equal to zero, then current division at the c’ terminals will
be detormiiicd by Z5 and Z only, and this impedance ratio
will remain independent of tertiary loading. It is diflieult
to obtain zero as the value for Zp, particularly if this
-
he obtained with special design at increased cost. Such a
U
design may result in a value of ZT which is undesirable
for other reasons.
XVIII. TRANSFORMER PRICES
47. Two-Winding Type OA Transformers
Estimating prices for Type OA, oil—irnroersed, selfwcooled,
60-cycle, two-winding transformers are given in Fig. 48.
The estimating prices per kva are based on net prices as of
December 1, 1949. As prices change frequently} the curvce
should he used principally for comparing the prices of
different voltage classes, comparing banks made of single-
phase and threewphose units, etc.
If the insulation level of the low-voltage winding is 15
kv, or higher, the prices in Fig. 48 should be corrected in
accordance with Table 16. Price additions are also required
when the rating of either the high- or lovwvoltage winding
is 1000 volts and iiclow.
'l“ransEormers designed for star connection of the high-
voltage winding may be built with a lower insulation level.
 132 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

TABLE 16—A00m0Ns T0 BE MADE T0 PRICES IN F10. 48

WHEN LOW-VOL'PAGE VVINDING INSULATION LEVEL IS 15 KV 012 HIGHER
1,0“--{*§L}i§e \\~'inding’ ii
H i Z ZZZZZZZZZ’i5}’§§I§w.iLi’l}’i’¢ion in Pei-com
i i Singie-Phase Equivlalent 55 C lava 5 3-Phase Equivalent 55 C lava
Insulation B11350 Self-Cooled Racing Self—C00led Raiing
Class , Impulse = Z y —i---" -
KY Levels-kv : 591“) l 1801 to ; 3001 to 7001 £0 £13501 and 501 L0 3601 m 7001 Lo I 14001m* 27001
1800 3500 7000 13500 1 above 3600 7000 I4090 27000 and above

a~ we 5 5
l
15 110 Al
33£>‘.'2i \__.|~.\ ‘QQ. 0% 54
5
\. 3\ 38 n:>\ 33 n 0% 552
25 ‘ 150 5
7 E 3 2 2
04 . 5 200 1.0 I "'4Ah
>—< 6 5 H1»-'C§ P‘ Q
C»--I1 -1
:61fl ¢@¢>-‘>43 5 pu-4!:
§ ' 1 S
46 250 l 1-Q ‘‘ 11 1‘ 10 0 l 8 14 ll 10 9 8
69 250 i 21 l 18 r 17 1 16 15 21 18 17 16 F 15
92 450 20 20 24 ‘ 23 21 29 26 24 23 21
»
115 l5"0=l 37 34 32 30 28 37 34
l
32 30 28

11la‘
138 650 l .. l 42 39 36 34 42 39 36 34
_ 161 ‘:50 46‘ i4 1 41 4 04,“;-_ .i_ -i._Mi:€_M 46 44 i 41

at the neutral end than at the line end of the winding. 48. Mu1ti~Winding Units
Table 17 summarizes the possible savings in cost with these If a. multi-winding transformer is designed for simu1~
designs. Reference should be made no section 16 for a. taneous operation of all windings at. their rated capacities I
discussion of the minimum insulation level that ehould be the price of Llie unit can be estimated from the curves
used at the transformer neufml. given for two-winding transformers by using an equivaient
8 ' "1 1
201 Kv cuss . TABLE 17 —PRIC‘E REDUCTION FOR Gnommrzn NEUTRAL Smnvrcs
230 "1 N ' "W
3
8 6 Winding Insulation l Insu§ation"‘ Price
sF£R
KVA fffjgj ._. _;_ r Class at Class an Reduczien
LAG
W;
0
l - ___ _..._ .. 6 ii
Line End
69
Neutral End
£5
Percent,
0

;! 6* 0 *' e\ aglrfi 0* IQ
92 E5 3 0
r-e
%_I" 92 2-5-69 i 5

f’
ll/Li
PR
GE-DOI. 0 1_1
O

N6
an A
0%; ;—< ex I __ 115 15

EST
MAT
A

N 45'!i—l ll’
ll’ -_... ii. ~_ e_
138
U5
11.5
25-69

15
92 >—~!\')i'J\ 601$

2 4 5 '10 20 40 -so I00 zoo 400 1.33 25e46

YHREE-PHQSE BANK RAT|NG"~MVA 135 69-92
(6) SINGLEPPHQSE UNITS 138 115 P—‘¢/JUXUI UODCJ
I002
ۤ"!i<v efzss Ff; 1 I
KVA OI Q :01 *7 100 I Z 161
161
15
2546
\ l 161 69-92
PER a Q

A35
.60 \\ ' F-"'[“"*"
161 i 115-138 l\'-\f->OI-J ‘OMOIQ

:0 ‘Si I
.r W l
196 15
AQ
4/0 i 196 25-~16

,1".4 i;¢_
196 69-l15

a-as \
— 196 138-161 l\74>~1KO U\O\U\Q

i1i
9RCE~DOLL
6
_ 5 _fi {.5 _ III ~.
1- 230 15 I-5

I
if!’
230 25-69

;fll
ATN
-:~
M
ST
E
2 :1:
MI
ll’ “QI
1%
239
230

287
1
l
l
92-138
161

15
Gilt)!‘-|@ bows

94 9" 2 4 6 10” 20 40 60 I00

P-5

287 25-69
TRANSFORMER RATING-MVA
(bl THREE-PHASE UNITS 287
2xj_____ l
92-138
101-we
l CAJU¥§D\ D O¢C>l2>
Fig. 48_—Curve for
I estimating
> prices of Dillimmersed’ 6e_CycIe' iilielierenrei
- . . S houid be
. made LO section £5 for a disuusnion of minimum perm:ss'ible
twmwmdmg, type OA power transformers. muq,n,§iQ5u1;;;mu1eve|3_
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 133

two~winding capacity equal to the sum of the rated ca-
pacities of the various windings divided by two. If a
multiwvinding transformer is not designed for simultaneous
operation of all windings at their rated capacities, the price
of the unit can be estimated from the curves given for
two-winding transformers, using an equivalent two-winding
capacity equal to
Equivalent = A + i" (B —A)
Where A w%(Sum of the simultaneous loadings).
B=%(Sum of the maximum rated capacities of
the various windings).
In addition, 5 percent must be added for Lhrcc»"windiug
transformers; 7.5 pcrccnt for fOt1I‘~wiI1ding transformers;
and E0 percent for five-winding transformers.
49. Estimating Prices for Other ‘Types of Gooiing
Table 18 is a summary of the approximate cost of three~
phase power tra.nsforn1e1's employing auxiliary cooling sys-
tems. All cost figures are expressed in per unit of OA
TABLE 18-~RI-ILATIVE Cosr or THREE-PHASE Tnsnssonmnas
WITH SPECIAL Cootmc
Each cost is in per unit, based on the cost of an OA transformer hav-
ing a, rating equal to the maximum of the special unit being co11sid~
cred“)
Three- 5
Phase
Type“) Bunk ‘
R.e.t.ingl.:.._
MvA<°’ 15 34.5 09 92 $115
>
138 161 wtlzao
transforrner cost, where the OA rating used to clet-ermine
the base cost is equal to the highest rating of the force-
cooled or specially-cooled unit. The kva ratings listed in
the second column of Table 18 are the highest ratings of
forced-cooled units; for example, the kva rating listed for
OA/FA/FOA tra.nsf0rmers is the FOA value.
(79) XIX. REACTORS
50. Application of Current-Limiting Reactors
Current-limiting reactors are inductance coils used to
limit current during fault conditions, and to perform this
function it is essential that magnetic saturation at high
current does not reduce the coil reactance. If fault current
is more than about three times rated full load current, an
iron core reactor designed to have essentially constant
magnetic permeability proves overly expensive, therefore
air core coils having constant inductance are generally used
for current-limiting applications. A reactor whose induc-
tance increased with current magnitude would be most
effective for limiting fault current, but this characteristic
has not been practically attained.
Insulation Ciass—KV
____ F 1 V.
l

oil/FA 7*? ”_'“ ' 1.0511.csl1.0c\1.0s.1.ocli.07

- 1-» DO i.02§1.02l.04l.Q5l.05'i.O5
0.95 ._*""';* o.9c%0.o70.99\0.000.99li.00
>- 0.91 ;c.os0.9a0.9sl0.0sl0.cs;0.9s
OOOIQO00.83
OO®@8O jo.900.9cl0.920.910.92§o.93
0.8? 50880.890.9l;O.9l‘0.92l(].£l2
>- 8“£%<=.=s~. OOOOQHH OGO0<0<b<DOCD -J—-lGk\5*Q1>-*!'.1I 0.880.s0;0.90l0.90}0.91§0.91
l l ‘

OA/FA/FOAl 20 0.74’o.750.?7 0.18029 0.31;

50 (J.73'0.730.750.77'O.8U O0
100 l O.72iO.74iU.750.76; $99‘? ‘éiefi

FOA 20 10.cs0.c70.'2'1\0.r3 113082

50; 0.640. Q5 O0 Q -IO 0.82
L.*t:.‘ :i.9i_
:00 I 0660.67 995° O>'-l“-¥ -Q»-¢§}ODD y &‘55.=‘<~<>g-25
OW 2
5
1.05
0.91‘
~ G?-\l-1‘

0.991199i.03l,(}71l.02U.97]0.91
U.92‘D.92!U.93U.97§O.961U.93:O.91
.Q!F’F’9$999

l
5‘0.75
?._F". \!'\E OOOODD -QWOO000060

15] (3.85 ‘ .9()0.88().9()éU.89U.930.9l‘U.9U

20 0.82 cc: .8?i0.8SO.89iU.SSiO.9l0900.90
‘ 5U i .°F’°o.o°uo!'c“o -:>:_H>§={L869.85035Ui84‘{).8850.B7\(l.87
:o :
i 100 . 6. .8-50.850. co (].S2U.82lQ.850.8l
___?‘
FOW 29 0.60 >- iO.65‘U.{i7iU. I O 71l0.740.75
50 _c>”o
0109 9l0.(i210.64.O. G161 WEE SO CD “-1 w_'0.71<U,72
100 i l .Q.(i€]lU,§il O.(i2\U G>U3"~Tt€;<O>-I.(l.65.Q.5910.G9

(9-l 05/FA-Oihlmmersed Self~CuQiud/Fg|:ee;i:ikirv(’j'<;51@d. W" rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrW

8:0/E3/P15U-—TriDle-Rated. Seli~C00le<i/Foreeti-Air-Cooled/Forced-(Jib
FOAM-Pierced-Oil-Cooled with Forced—Ai1--Coolers.
OWTOII-Immersed Water Cooled,
1l:0VW~~Fo1-rierl-Oil Cooled with Water Coolers.
(bl '13“? MVA ratings talmlawd fur OA/FA and OA/FA/FOA units are the FA
and the FOA ratings respectively.
. ' A
0:) Eimmple: The cost 9: I1 15 kv OA/FA three-phase u!11€ rated 10000 kva
E312} L‘! (Equal to 0.90 times the cost oi a 15 kv OA thrce~ph:-we unit. rated 20 O00
Fig. 49—~mOil-immersed air-core reactor.
134 Power Trrmsformers rmd Rmctors Chapter 5
»»»-M__.__ ....._..W... W. .. ." ._,
—~1s Oil-immersed reactors can be applied to e circuit of any
voltage level, for either indoor or outdoor installation. The
advantages of oil-immersed reactors also include:
“W? 1. A high factor of safety against flushover.
2. No magnetic field outside the tunic to cause heating
or magnetic forces in zicljucenr. reactors or metal
structures during short.-circuits.
3. High thermal capacity.
Dry-type reactors depend upon the surrounding air for
insulation and cooling. Because of the required clearances
and cnnsrmcrion details necessary to minimize corona,
E these reactors are limited to 3&5 kv as a maximum insulae
tiou class. Free circulation of air must be maintained to
provide satisfactory heat transfer. These coils should not
be surrounded with closed circuits of conducting ;nutez'iu.i
because the mutual inductance may be sufficient to produce
destructive forces when short-circuit current flows in the
coil. Structures such as I-beams, channels, plates, and
other metallic members, either exposed or hidden, should
also be kept at 2. distance from the reactor even though
they do not form closed circuits. A side clearance equal to
one-third the outside diameter of the coil. and an end
clearance of one-half the outside diameter of the coil will
v produce :1 tempemture rise less than 40 C in ordinary
magnetic steel. For the some size members, brass will ll3.\'€
about the some rise, aluminum about one and one hal€
times, and manganese steel about onc—tl'1ir0i the rise for
ordinary magnetic steel. Reinforcing rods less than three-
fourzhs inch in diameter which do not form :1 complete
electrical circuit are not included in these limitations. be-
cause the insulation clearances from the reactor should be
sufficient co avoid undue heating in such small metal ports.
In order to avoid excessive floor loading due to magnetic
forces between reactors the spacing recommended by the
manufacturer should be observed. Sometimes this spacing
can be reduced by use of bracing insulators between unitS
or using stronger supporting insulators and increasing the
strength of the floor. This should always be checked with
the manufacturer since bracing increases the natural period
of vibration and may greatly increase the forces to be
resisted by the building floors or walls.
51. Reactor Standards
l”
The standard insulation tests for current-limiting re-
:4. ~,
actors are summarized in Table l9.
Dry-type current-limiting reactors are built with Class
B insulation and have an observable temperature rise by
resistance of S0 C with normal continuous full-load current.
Dry-type and oil-immersed current-limiting reactors are
2.-5“ designed mechanically and thermally for not more than
33% times (3 percent reactive drop) normal full-load
Fig. 59”»-Dry—type air-core reactor. current for five seconds under short~circuit conditions.

Air core reactors are of two general types, oil-immersed 52. Determination of Reactor Characteristics
(Fig. 49) and dry-type (Fig. 50). Oil-immersed reactors \\'lu~n specifying a current-limiting reactor, information
can be cooled by any of the means commonly applied to should be included on the following:
power transformers. Dry-type reactors are usually cooled i. lndoor or outdoor service.
by natural ventilation but can also be designed with forced- 2. Dry- or oil-immersed type.
ziir and heat-exchanger auxiliaries where space is at 9. Single-phase or three-phase reactor.
premium. 2*?’ Ohms reactance.
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 135

TABLE l9—S'l‘AN"DARD DIELECTRIC TESTS

FOR CURREN1‘-»LIMI’[‘ING REACTORS
Frequency Tests
|1 ‘ -——1w
Tests(b} (on Typ@><=>
o I |
i -
Igigxigtizn ‘ Dry Chopped Wave F ll E . _. _ . ._¢)-. ._ . _.

(0) OHTYPB‘ Tyre ‘V1

‘W "H-‘= kv ('1rms
) ° ta“
‘_Min.Time W2“,
to FlU.-‘$ll- 1“, ,,,¢_,st i Iown: 3
g
5
3»
a» 0 I IlI:I
I

Fig‘oIw“
kv crest fiver

12 12 54
ifl Q3

45
_ 2 i_ "J ‘* l_II1_II
7/ I

. 0"‘|_ 51--__ $“1*“*n—1' 'IIIM111‘

liiil
1? 25 69 69
21 30 88 75
cn 29 40 ill] 95 KVA E—DOL A?RSPERIO
NG
ESTMA‘
?RC 20 100% 200 400 600 uooo 2000 4000 eooo
r-I U'l®€J1l\5b- babmw é so 00 130 My-|!—Ay-1;-1 CDCfiO'->U\U\ 110 REhC‘!'0R ammo-xvn
Fig. 51--Curve for estimating prices of singieqahase, 6l)~cycIe,
23 .0 60 85 175 150 dry-type current-limiting reactors.
34 5 so 115 236 206
46 0 105 290 COD 250
69.0 169 400 350
so W
9" Q uxssl I \ 1 i \
92.0 210 526 456 __ l ,, ,
115.0 260 630 550
138.0 310 750 _ __ _ ____7_..___ PM _ _ ___

Ar
650
wwwe 3 l

° °‘ET’ .-I
161.0 365 S65 QCDQQ l 750

100,0
230.0 l
425
485
I035
1210
l QOD
1059
". am__VI0.’/ 0I
EVA/0 /71!! !
231.0 Q 590 1500 = 1300 IN:
CE-QQLLARSNPER
arm
0 fllfl!_
_ 345.0
Notes"
000 ivss
(a) intermediate voltage ratings are placed in the next higher insulation class
unless specified otherwise.
°’.°-’F'°F" owes: 1550
PR
ATN6
/”1/I 4Ii
rn

(b) Tu:-n—to—turn tests are manic by applying these low-frequency test voltages,
at a suitable frequency, across the reactor terminals: dry-type reactors for
_ _ lW
l __ _____ V __ L ,_,_,_ _______ _ gill
outdoor service require a turn-to-turn test voltage one-third greater than tho
ESTM ._L° ‘ r l "‘
V/A,
./%'/,,
tabuinteé values.
(0) 1fv'0>ctandard impulse tests have been established for dry-type current-
hmitmg reactors. — i, iQ'44§l
0.i 0.2 0.4 0.6 I 2 4 6 #0 20
REAGYOR RATING MVA
5. Continuous current rating, amperes.
6. Reactor rating in kva. Fig. 52——~C~u1-vc for estimating prices of single-phase, 60-cycle,
7. Voltage class. oildmmersed current-limiting reactors.
8. Circuit characteristics:
(a) Singie-phase or three-phase. tion of one percent for each 100 amperes, or fraction thereof,
(b) Frequency. above 600 ampcres.
(0) Lino-to~linc voltogc. Estimating prices for single-phase, 60-cycle, oil-immersed
(d) Type of circuit conductors. currcntdimiting reactors are given in Fig. 52 for insulation
classes between 15 and 138 kv. For current ratings above
Standardization of current ratings and ohmic reactances 800 amperes make a. price addition of two percent for each
for current-limiting reactors is not yet completed, but 100 amperes, or fraction thereof, above 800 amperes.
semi-standard values are available and shouid be used Estimating prices for 60-cycle, oil-immersed, sclfmooled
where feasible in the preparation of reactor specifications. shunt reactors may be estimated by adding 10 percent to
53. Reactor Prices the prices given in Fig. 48 (2.) for two-winding transformers.
The estimating prices included in this section should be
used for comparative purposes only because reactor prices TABLE 20-PRICE Aonmons ma DRY-TYPE Rmcrons
RATED BELOW 300 AMPERES
are subject to change from time to time.
Estimating prices for single-phase, 60-cycle, dry-type Ollfffifit "7 7 W 7777 WWW P1106
currentdimiting reactors are given in Fig. 51 for kva rat- Rating Amperes Addition Percent
ings between 10 and 5000. Reactors for use in 1201 to
13 800 volt circuits may be estimated from the curve 250-299 5
labeled “I5 kv and beiow.” The prices given apply to
200~249 10
1 50-"1 99 15
singic-phase reactors with current ratings between 300 and 125-149 22
600 amperes. For current ratings below 300 ampercs, price 100424 20
additions must be made in accordance with Table 20. When rs» 00 so
the current rating exceeds G00 mupcrcs make a price addi- 50¢’ Z74 43
136 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

XX. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE lp ‘

0 "'""""'
PHASE TRANSFORMERS .|nI ,
Representation of a. transformer by an equivalent circuit clo---i.|uu'' P®
is a commonly used method for determining its perform- is ‘

ance as a circuit element in complex power and distribution

networks. Without the simplifications oiiered by the use
of such equivalent circuits the handling of transformers
4

‘E?
15,
' Q

,
with their complex array of leakage and mutual imped-
ances would be a formidable problem. 1 ll. ' an
>
For the purposes of calculating short circuit currents,
voltage regulation, and stability of a. power system, the
normal magnetizing current required by transformers is (0)
neglected. Thus Figs. 2(c), (d), or (c), as the choice may 1:», _'.=_,, O,
be, will adequately represent a two-winding transformer
Z5 ‘£5
for calculation purposes.
For three-, f0ur—, and in general multi—Winding trans- IF‘ Z9

formers, an equivalent network can be always determined

that will consist only of simple irnpeciances (mutual imped-
ances eliminated) and accurately represent the transformer
.4 G
Z, 1:N,l.L.. ,,N’
"2
n |“'“yF
..'l§.
"I
as a circuit element. The impedanccs which can be most u
readily determined by test or by calculation are those
between transformer windings token two at a time, with
other windings considered idle; therefore the imperlances
2,-H2 zp5+zpf““‘“Z 1 Z§'l/2 'L'Z5y+Zp§-Zpy
in an equivalent circuit can well be expressed in terms of "i s "i
these actual irnpe-dances between the transformer windings 1
taken two at a. time.
z,.|/2[2.,,+;?z$,-2,5]
The number of independent irnpedances required in on ZS; $50.0. ’
equivalent circuit to represent a rnulti-winding transformer " 0
shall be, in general. equal to the number of all possible
different combinations of the windings taken two at a. time. Cl
1»v~- 2,2 1. S .
Thus, one equivalent impedance is required to represent
a. two~winding transformer, three branch impedances for a E Xi
F 27% ]7“‘u'

Tm
three-winding transformer, and six independent branch cl!

impedonces to represent 3. founwinding transformer.

Equivalent circuits for the two~winciing transformer and
autwtransformcr are presented in sections 1 and 27, re- (cl U
2,1 -1/e[z,.,x +z,,1 -F;-415,1]
spectively. The following sections discuss the equivalent
circuits for three-winding and four-winding transformers. u
251 " V3 i“§§Z$1'7~*' 395% "zrril
54. Equivalent Circuits for Three—Winding Trans- U
Z71 ' i/2 l-Zn‘: +fi"EZg7X “Z9311
former
The equivalent circuit for a transformer having three Fig. 53-»~Three~wir|dlng transformer.
windings on the same core is shown in Fig. 53, where the
magnetizing branches have been omitted. The number (a) winding diagram.
(b) equivalent. circuit in ohms.
of turns in the P, S, and T windings are m, n2, and 11;,
(c) equivalent circuit in percent.
respectively. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. .53
(b) with all impedance in ohms on the P winding voltage
base and with ideal transformers included to preserve Note that Zp and Z5 as defined and used here differ
actual voltage and current relationships between the P, from Z? and ZS in Eq. l0. The equivalent circuit ex-
S, and T windings. On the P winding voltage base: pressed in percent is given in Fig. 53 (cl with all imped-
ances referred to the kva of the P winding.
ZP= %(Z1=s+Zr>r”"'-*1;;Zs'r)
IV,
2% e %(Z:=s% +ZPT% ~%~§zn~%)
-ZS=%(%-ZST”“i"ZPS""ZP'I‘)
‘ 1
Z'r=%<Zr'r+$Zsr-Zrs)
25%“ %<%ZZ8T%+ZPS%~ZPT%)
S
(so
1
N 1 =73
Tl;
Zr%="( N ‘U 1-3 3,8 + ?~:3Zsr%"Zrs%>
.
L 8

Tl.
N2”: The quantities can be expressed in percent on any arbi-
Th trary kva base, Uc, by multiplying each impedance by
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 137

in
-—c-
the ratio . The notation used is defined as follows:
0? £4
U
inn, |

illll
p@
U;>=kva of the P winding. O—--------4

Us=kva of the S winding. "2

U~;»=kva of the T winding. I ‘Ii’ 0’ N‘-KT
s C9 Illur
lmr 15 ’ N‘ "4"=
.:.=.
Zp5=leakage impedance between the P and S wind-
ings as measured in ohms on the P winding with
the S winding 5h0rt—c-ircuited and the T winding
open-circuitcd.
4 lll L ' G‘
N3’ "Kr

ZPs%=lec.kage impedance between the P and S wind-

ings, with the T winding open-circuited, ex- in... _ 0,,
T® er
pressed in percent on the kva and voltage of the
P winding.
Zp-pwieakage impedance between the P and T wind-
"@1llili- i‘" W
ings as measured in ohms on the P winding with
the T winding short-circuited and the S winding
open-circuitecl. '
qc~~ WW
-'1'
vvvv~— in
Io
Zn-%=leakage impedance between the P and T wind- 591 IE;
ings, with the S winding open-circuited, ex-
pressed in percent on the kva and voitage of the c~ ------------------ -----~ 0
P winding.
Zs-1-=lenkage impedance between the S and T wind- 2, Z,
ings as measured in ohms on the S winding with
the T winding short-circuited and the P winding "3" vi/ii/v vi/i/v 5
Z: anew: W‘ ac”
Open-circuited.
é"
O
-"T -T11
Q
Zsr%~ieakage impedance between the S and T wind- T’
ings, with the P Winding open-circuited, ex-
-—- - 0-0'
O JlQ.QQfl§» T6555? ' ’
:?‘ WWW
"lg D

pressed in percent on the kva and voltage of the 77 (bi

S winding. Fig. 54»—Four-winding tranaformer.
The equations given in Fig. 53 (b) and Fig. 53 (0) for
(a) winding diagrenm
Zr, ZP%, etc, are derived from the relationships: (h) equivalent circniiz.
ZPS“=ZP"‘i'ZS
ZP’1'=ZP‘i_Z1‘ ZpT%==Z;»%+Z~r% (82) here again the magnetizing branches are omitted. The
branches of the equivalent circuit are reiated to the ieak-
Z8?=N12(Zs”i“Zr) Zsr%= %§(Zs%+ZT%) age impedences between pairs of windings es follows;
P
also
ZP=RP‘i‘,?-‘Y? Zn: '§(ZPs"i“ZPv""- R;-§Zsv"K)
— 1
Zrs ==Rps+jXi=s ==Ri=- +Rs+j(X1=+Xs) (33)
Zn-= %(ZPB'i”_1"2ZST“ZPT“K)
ZPs% = Rrs%+J'-Y?s% €tc., N1
where X1-S is the leakage reactance between the P and S I
windings (with T open-circuited); and RPS is the total Z.,=— f,;',1-§Zsr*i"FZrv—f€.-§Zsv-K)
* 1 2 3 1
effective resistance between the P and S windings, as
measured in ohms on the P winding; with S short-circuited Za=% ,€,i_,Zrv+ZPv-"Z1=r—K) (84)
and T open-circuited. RP$% and X;»S% are the respective /""\/ti:\- 2
quantities expressed in percent on the kva. and voltage of Z,,=\/K,K2+K1
the P winding.
The equivalent circuits completely represent the actual zi=\/1ciK,+K2
transformer as far as leakage impedances, mutuai effects -----~ ZGZ;
WIIEIG, K=V,K1Kgt
between windings, and losses are concerned (except ex-
citing currents and no load losses)_ it is possible for one 1
of the three legs of the equivalent circuit to be zero or K1=ZP'r+ffiZsv—Z1>s""NgZ'rv
negative.
I E
55. Equivalent Circuits for Four-Winding Trans- Kz=ZP1'~i—N2lZsv—ZPv'"'mZs1'
former
The windings wiil ordinarily be taken in the order that
’£‘he equivalent circuit representing four windings on makes K1 and K2 posizive so that Z2 and Zf wili be posi-
the same core, shown in Fig. 54 (a), is given in Fig. 54 (b) tive. The ieakage impedances are defined as before; for
using ohmic quantities. This form is due to Starr“)? and example, ZPS is the leakage impedance between the P
138 Power Transformers and Reactors
and S windings as measured in ohms on the P winding
with the S winding shortmircuited and with the T and
V windings opcncireuited. Tile equivalent circuit in per-
cent has the same form as Fig. 54 {b}, omitting the ideal
transformers.
Z.% ” %;<ZPS% +ZPV% "'g“:Zsv% -' K%), 9'59-
U , U positive-sequence impedance. Figure 55 illustrates that
Ki%:zn~%+3,F4sv% ~zP$%-5‘?zTv%, etc. (85)
S T
Similar equations, derived irom E-q. (84), apply for the
other quantities in the equivalent circuit.
XXI. SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE
CHARACTERISTIGS OF THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER BANKS
56. Sequence Equivalent Circuits
The impedance of three-phase transformer banks to
positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents, and the
sequence equivalent circuits, are given in the Appendix,
under Equivalent Circuits for Poiver and Regulating
Transformers. The equivalent circuits were developed
by Hobson and Le\vis2‘1“. The same notation as defined
in the early part of this chapter is used to denote leakage
impcdances in ohms and in percent.
The impedance to negative-sequence currents is always
equal to the impedance to positive sequence currents, and
the equivalent circuits are similar except that the phase
shift, if any is involved, will always he of the same magni-
tude for both positive and negative-sequence voltages
and currents but in opposite directions. Thus, if the phase
Shift is +<14 degrees for positive-sequence, the phase shift
for negative-sequence quantities will be -04 degrees.
The impedance of a three-phase hank of two-winding
transformers to the flow of zcro~scquence currents is equal
to the positive-sequence impedance for tliree—phase shell-
form units (or for a bank made up of three single—phasc
units} if the bank is 5l,&1‘~Sl,£1r with both star points ground-
'=
‘*1 4%
*1 $0
“*1 $0
0 l Q ‘ O
.ll- .l|' .II’
.lI; .II' ill’
.ll_ -II: .ll;
I I
Fig. 55——Zero-sequence exciting currents and fluxes in a three-
phase C0re—forrn transformer.
Chapter 5
ed. If the bank is connected star~delta, with the star point
grounded, the zero-sequence impedance viewed from the
star-connected terminals for shell-form units, or hanks of
three single-phase units, is equal to the positive-sequence
impedance; the zero-sequence impedance viewed from the
delta—connectcd terminals is infinite.
The impedance to the liow of zero—sequeuce currents in
tlirccphase corrrform units is generally lower than the
there is no return for the zero-sequence exciting flux in
such a unit-, except in the insuiating medium, or in the
tank and metallic connections other than the core. The
flux iiniiages with the zero—sequence exciting currents are
therefore low, and the exciting impedance to zer0~sequence
currents correspondingly low. Although the exciting im-
pedance to positive~scquence currents may be several
thousand percent, the exciting impedance to zero—sequencc
currents in a three~phase core~form unit will iie in the range
from 30 to 300 percent, the higher values applying to the
largest power transformers. Low exciting impedance
under zero-sequence conditions is reflected in some re~
duct-ion in the through impedances to zero-sequence cur-
rent flow. A star~star grounded, three-phase, two-winding
unit of the core-form, or 2. star-star grounded autotrans-
former of the three-phase core form acts, because of this
characteristic, as if it had a tertiary winding of relatively
high reactance. In small core~form units this characteristic
is particularly effective and can he utilized to replace a
tertiary winding for neutral stabilization and third har-
monic excitation.
The zero-sequence exciting impedance is affected by the
magnitude of excitation voltage, and it is also affected by
tank construction. For example, the zero~sequcnce eXcit—
ing impedance of a 4000~kva, 66 000-2400-volt unit was
measured to be 84 percent at normal voltage before the
core was placed in the tanlc; it was measured to be 36
percent at normal voltage after the core and coils were
placed in the tank. In this case the tank saturated but
acted as a short—circuited secondary winding around the
transformer, tending to limit the area of the flux return
path to that between tank and windings. The zero»-
serpience exciting impedance is measured by connecting
the three windings in parallel and applying a sing1e—phase
voltage to the paraileled windings.
The zero-sequence exciting impedance of three-phase
core-form units is generally much lower than the positive-
sequence exciting impedance, and much lower than the
zero-sequence exciting impedance of three—phase sheil-
form units or three single—phase units, For this reason it
is necessary to consider the zero-sequence exciting im-
pedanee in deriving the zero-sequence impedance char-
acteristics for certain connections involving core~form
units. The exciting impedance to zero-sequence currents
has been denoted by Z SE, ZPB, etc., where the first sub-
script refers to the winding on which the zermsequence
exciting impedance is measured in ohms. Following the
same notzi.tion, Z557}; is the exciting impedance of the S
winding to zerosequence currents expressed in percent on
the kva of the S winding. The number of branches required
to define an equivalent circuit of three-phase tW0- or multi~
Winding transformers is the same in general as has been cle-
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 139

scribed ior single phase transformers. A notable exception to

this will exist in the formulation of the zero~scquencc im- to
pedance of core form srsnsfonners with grounded neutral. u ""“’
I
E01 P
Ill!‘ I1; “JR NS

.illl»n| , —~ .-E-
In this case an extra. impedance branch must be provided in
the equivalent circuit, this branch being always short- U l

circuited to the neutral bus, and having a value dependent

upon the zero-sequence excitation impedsnccs of the wind~
ings as well as the grounding impedance in the transformer ll TURNS 1
neutral. If the three-phase bank connections are unis}/in-
* .:|||; S °

Jlll .
metrical as in the case of the opemdelta. connection, mutual
coupling will exist between the sequence networks. to)
57. fierivation of Equivalent Circuits
In the derivation of equivalent circuits for three-phase z, z, '
transformers and banks made up of three single-phase a=r— T 'vvv\, Jvvvxn M “I
transformers, it is convenient to represent each winding of Eel ° 2,, "fir Ia lsglrr;
the transformer by a leakage impedance and one winding
of an ideal transformer. This method may be used in the a 1:
development of circuits for tWo~ and t.hree-winding us
transformers.
Two rnagnetically—coupled windings of ti single-phase
transformer having n; and 1'2,-3 turns, respectively, are shown
2,, 2, _
g 0' —' '\/\/\/9 r "W /\/VV‘ ' '90
schematically in Fig. 56(n). The customary equivalent Id n2 . "1
circuit used to represent such a single-phase transformer is
shown in Fig. 56(b) in which ZA and ZB are components E°i 7 7 ————— ——
“T“° Em; 5
of the transformer leakage impedance. with a. more or less Z‘ + Z 5 ' Z '8

arbitrary division of the leakage imp€d:.1I1(:e bet-ween ZA (cl

and Z5. Zn is the so-called “magnetizing shunt branch.”
Since the numerical value of Z M is very large compared to
Z, and Z3, for most calculations Fig. :36(b) is approx- 2| Z8 nlznz
Qn A./vv\.~~_ *\/vv ~ M‘
imated by Fig. 56(0) Where Z}; is considered infinite. --—0 ""'<
I .
HUI lg Z“ O IE6
Either oi these circuits has serious deficiencies as a device
representing the actual transformer; the voltage and cur- i *9
c ——’—"—' W ~K —
rent trn.nsior1na.ti0n effected by trnnsforrrier action is not ldl
represented in the equivalent circuit. and the circuit
terminals o and a’ are not insulated from each other as in i; Z
the actual transformer. These disadvantages are evidenced. NI nz i
I 0
particularly when analyzing transformer circuits wherein qc ‘VV\/\, J\/V\/~ 7 “Q
several windings or phases are interconnected. To over- 9'4
o O-I 9.
m gv
cl“ NI
come these deficiencies it is expedient to use the equivalent -we-I

circuit shown in Fig. 56{d) which combines the circuit of ° __ _ ~*-./V\/V“-" i :sv\.A—_.. A. A, FYYYW“ ———%

Fig. 56(b) with an ideal transformer. The ideal trons- .- E.I?

former is defined es having infinite exciting impedance 2
{zero exciting current) and zero leakage impedance, and 1%}:
serves to transform voltage and current without imped- 2‘ vi.
O 9 -\l\/\!\r- mm’ ./vvw V I on‘
ance drop or power loss; the ideal transformer thus re—
IQ IQ’ 4
stores actual voltage and current relationships st the Eu Eu
terminals a and o’. The circuit of Fig. olite) is obtained <; W. J.»
from Fig. 56(d) by converting the impedance Z1-,1 to the Es’ H)
voltage base (by multiplying Z5 by the square of the
voltage ratio). This process may be thought of as “sliding
the ideal transformer through" the impedance Z5. If the Z l'l|:nz
exciting, or no load, current may be neglected (Zn con~ G0 __ ,5
‘VVVV ' . . 4° 1
-fr» --i-:~o- ‘
sidered as infinite) the circuit of Fig. ofile} becomes
Eu Eu
Fig. 5G(f_).
Finally, if ZM is considered infinite, the circuit of Fig. a ,,,,,,W ,, , ,,,,,,,,*,,,,,,,,,,,, —¢

58(f) becomes Fig. 5(i(g), in which the two parts of the lo)
leakage impedance, Zr and Zn, combine into the complete Fig. 56-Steps in the derivation of the equivalent circuit of a
leakage impedance -ZPs, where two-winding transformer.
Z?3=ZA+Z}§ (S6)
140 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

In most developments the circuit of Fig. 56(g) will be e,. and e, represent the voltages across the P and S wind-
found most convenient, although in some cases it becomes ings of the ideal transformers.
desirable to have part of the leakage impedance associated Assuming positive-sequence voltages Eu, EM, and Ea,
with each winding, and the circuit of Fig. 56{f) may be applied to the terminals abc, and a three-phase short-
used. circuit at the a'b’c’ terminals, the following relations can be
To be perfectly definite, Z;-8 is understood to mean the written:
leakage impedance, as measured in ohms, with the S wind- E;,=E{,,m spec mfxmngf.
ing short circuited, and voltage applied to the P winding.
When the test is reversed, with voltage applied to the S e,,=I,Z, 1,4-51.
7'14!
(as)
winding, and the P Winding short circuited, the impedance
n n
ep=iieam_*}xZEa nml '“‘ [figs
is denoted by Z 51>. It is obvious from the development
712 Tbg 112
given that, when ZM may he considered infinite,
2

2sP=%ZI»-S.
W1
<8?) Eag“€p“i“IaZP=Ia[ZY'l"'(‘g';)2ZS]

58. Derivation of Equivalent Circuit for Star-Delta Designating the circuits connected to the abc and a'b'c'
Bank terminals as circuits 4 and 5, respectively,
In Fig. 57 each transformer winding is represented by an
impedance and one winding of an ideal transformer, the
zi.e‘i‘§=zP+(1‘l)2zsmzPS
I; 7'!-3
<89)
transformer having ni turns in the P winding and we turns Z45 is defined as the impedance between circuits 4 and 5
in the S Winding. The windings shown in parallel are in ohms on the circuit 4 voltage base. ZP5 is the imped'
assumed to be on the same magnetic core. The voltages ance between the P and S Windings as measured by apply-
ing voltage to the P Winding with the S winding short-
circuited.
Ea Z’ ll‘ T liq
With positivc~scquence voltages applied to the abc
terminals and the a’b’c' terminals open circuited,
@ © Eb;-—= a’E,,,; EL, = a?E;,

b
“@ *4 <1 s‘
Ec,=aEag
e,=T3E@p=E;,-2;,
E;K=--aE§,
(90)
Ebgl; "I mi';lE'bq "1

=\ ni
Tl
E,,=ep=1~;:(EQ,w-aE;,)
= Eemrr -<1) m\/§1;E,,,,s"i‘°.
,v nl. ;

¢= N" qfi c‘
aevl Ii: lfihq . 11,-,» .
Lett1ngN W, E; =NE“e1"°.
" {cl scnsuamc DIAGRAM *5
As positivaseoguence quantities were used in this analy-
fie We
El 2; r
Z .
sis, the final equation can be expressed as follows:
E1’ = New“, (91)
where E1’ and E1 are the positive-sequence voltages to
ground at the transformer terminals.
(bi PO5lT!VE-SEQUENCE EOUNALENT CIRCUIT The above relations show that the line-to-ground voit-
ages on the delta side lead the corresponding star-side
1" 1.“-iso voltages by 30 degrees, which must be considered in a
01 vwv 1 1’ e :0‘ complete positive-sequence equivalent circuit for the trans-

Elcc c c c c c c ii
(¢)NEGhTlVE- SEQUENCE £QUlVflLENT CIRCUIT
ls former. A consideration of Eqs. (88) wiE1 show that the
ourrentsfl, I1,’ and 1.,’ also lead the currents I,, I1, and
IG by 30 degrees.

I, e fir, {F211, =ga11,

uh
Zr
w~?\. V 0 c ea’ I8I=[X_'IY=:i(I-§"_a2I5) <92)
== gel”.
e » _ __ _ __°
idlZERO"'5EQUENCE EQUIVQLENT CIRCUIT
I1’ = glen“.
Fig. 57—-Equivalent circuits of a staxwdelta transformer bank. N
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 141
I

The complete positive-sequence circuit in Fig. 57(b) la L I

therefore includes the impedance Zpg and an ideal trans- a

former having a turns ratio N and a 30-degree phase shift. _
£°gl. "Y
Z5 s@
inf Eai
A similar analysis, made with negative-sequence volt-
ages and currents, would show that
I .
1'1 =:§e”’3". (93) @ 2,. 1 1,-~16 ©
E’-1 x N.Eg€_i3°. (94) up _
The positive- and negative-sequence circuits are there- 1|; lb,
fore identical excepting for the direction of the phase
shifts introduced by the staodelta transformation. '
b

final
I

E” .i”
The zermsequenoe circuit is derived by applying a set of
zero-sequence voltages to the abc terminals. In this case
E,,=Eb,;=E.,;=E°
Ia=1i;,=1r¢=I¢

E,,¢=€p+ZpI,.

e.-1',Z5 =0 because no zero-sequence voltage can

be present between line terminals. (95)
_s. }> 1;, ii-
sq?“ T zgi
I: =31;
722 1
e lat @1-at s~ _
In V N rt;-tn:
7.1‘ Tl; 2
eD=_eu=(‘_> L123
We "2
Illa‘; -. -ll-Er; =l[?a*;.. ""\f§'

Eu;=Ia[<%>2Zs+ZP] m LZPB (OI SCHEMATH} DEAGRAM

1*" 1:24‘ G-
Z¢,= % = % = Zvs, which is the same impedance as
U 5
was obtained with positive-sequeriee voltages
and currents. (96) 2; .
If zermsequence voltages are applied to the a’b’c’ £6l‘~
minals, no current can flow because no return circuit is
present. The zero-sequence impedance of the transformer
bank is therefore infinite as viewed from the delta side. (hi POSITWE-SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT cmcuar
Z-u rm‘ 3-
5%
59. Derivation of Equivalent Circuit for Autotrans-
former with Delta Tertiary
lnn la‘;
The basic impedances of an autotransformer with a delta 0 l i
tertiary may be defined in terms of the leakage impedances
between pairs of windings, with the third winding open 5: Zn !IN"g"° “-
circuited. The impedance between the primary and E {E1
secondary, or common and series, windings of the trans-
former in Fig. 58(a) may be obtained by applying a voltage
across the P Winding with the S winding short eircuited, (it) NE.6kTlVE'S£OUENGE EQUEVALENT OIROUI?
and the T winding open circuited. Referring to Fig. 59, zvw lIN' an
1 , IZ
“~=(a)’Z@ 2,, g '53
E=€p'i-Izy SOT ZLQ 0.

Zs
=1 ~—2"l'"ZP (97) E5
77/ 1

Zrs *"*E/I“‘*"*“g*%“i“Z1=- on 2!-Ino-ssouencz EOUKVALENT omcun

Th
Fig. 58——Equivalent circuits of a three-winding autotranv
Similar relations can be derived for the impedances former.
142 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

.............-p E,.g=ep-—(I,’—-I,)Z;-
I/H‘ 1
ZS ==6;,"'l"I3Zp 1--—-
l+n 1
min
ZS+n12ZP
--mW--~m---

@ 1°:-1
X <1+n1>*
MILE.» "12. E
6 ..
--——u~
___, W Z4“ L. m(1+n1)*[:ZP+n1"]
I
ei
(1+n1)2XZPS- ( 101 )
1p
Representing the circuit transformation ratio (1—|~n1) by
E N’,

CD '9 Z45 2 ($)2><zPs (102)

The impedance between circuits 4 and 6 may be ob-
tained by applying positive-sequence voitages to ter—
Fig. 59——Representation of the primary- to secondary-wind- minals abc, with terminals a’b'c' open and a”b”c” shorted
lng impedance of an autotransformer. cirouited. In this case:
6¢=IxZ1* LEI;/"/2
between the P and T, and S and T windingls, resulting in
the set of equations 6 =‘*'==l@
P m of (103)
Zea =22-{~32 Eag=ep+IaZP
711
Z
Z §Ia[$’i”ZP]
ZP'r=7fi+Z1> (98)
Ea Z
2 Z4s="j-§=$%Zr*Z1*'r-
Z:-yr“ Z'r+Zs-
732
With positive-sequence voltages applied to terminals
These equations can be solved for the individual winding a’b'c', terminals abc open and terminals a”b”c” short
impedances Zp, Z 5 and ZT. circuited,
€|_mI;Z'1‘ I,= -i"i"l‘lr,:
zl»=%[zps+zPT—@]
7'11
77'?

Zs=*§{Zs*r""i"?112Z1=s"?’l12ZPT} (99) @p+@.=l*»l’11ei=-(3J~“~@’?1)21,'

712 792
zT (104)
Z'1""-*51 "2 2
7"; 2 2
Zs'r+T12ZP'r—1'%zZPs E;g=ep+eB_I;(ZP+Z3)
1
The impedances among circuits 4, 5 and 6 can be de- m filoli ( )2ZT+ZP+ZSil
rived in terms of the impedances between windings, using
the some procedure as employed in the derivation of the Zae = (L%@)2ZT+ZP+ZS-
impedances of the star-delta. bank in section 58.
With positive-sequence voltages applied to terminals Expressing Z1‘, ZS and Z1- in terms of impeclances be-
abc, terminals a’b'c’ short circuited and terminals a”b”c” tween windings as given in Eq. (99):
Open circuited, the foilowing relations can be written:
E;8:E{>x=Ei=zm0 eB=n1“3n
Z56” (1+n1)Z1='r+ (1;;-?E)ZsT—?11ZPs- (105)
1

1,'—I,,+n1Ia'mO 1,'=?§;; The above equation is the impedance between circuits

5 and 6 in ohms on the circuit 5 voltage base. As Z45 and
9x>”i‘"“3a_(Ia'"“Ia)ZP'“I».IZS“0-
Z45 are ohmic impedemces on the circuit 4 base, it is con-
venient to express the circuit 5 to circuit 6 impedance on
Eliminating e. and I’, from the above equation: the same base. Dividing by (1+n,)'-’,
It
6p(1"'i'7’l/1) =11}-Z;(Zp-i-Z3} '- LZF
Zea =»--ZPT Zsr — R1 Z
(1-+Tl1)2 1+’P’l1+7'¢:(1“‘l“"1) (1+'n1l2 PB
1,, Ia ZP Z = 1 X ZPT up Z i N’ M1l l > X Zn (106)
“*=wa>@‘ZY+Z@’”m; <1o<>>
Chapter 5 Power Transformers and Reactors 143

The transformer can be represented by t.he positive- The second idea? transformer therefore has an N” turns
sequence equivalent circuit in Fig. 58(2)). The relations ratio and :1. 30 degree phase shift.
between the impedances in the equivalent circuit and the Negative-Sequence Circuit—A similar analysis
impedances between circuits can be expressed as follows: made with negative-sequence voitages would show that
the impedences in the equivalent circuit are the some as in
ZM1+ZfIl$Z45
the positive~se<;uence circuit, and that the terminai volt-
ZM1+ZL1=Z46 (J-O7l agcs are related as follows:
Z
ZH1+ZL1= w=Mn
Z E£=NflhtW om)
Zrnmi Z4a'l‘%"Z4u:l
The positive and negative-sequence circuits. are there-
Z fore identical excepting for the direction of the phase shift
Z19£l=' 45+Zl6“ ] (108)
introduced by the star-delta transformation.
Z Zero-sequence circuit-The zero»sequenco character-
*'”*“ '““l§
ZL1=i Z€6+ ~Z%] istics of the transformer can be obtained as follows:
1. Apply zero-sequence voltages to terminals obc with
N'-- 1 '— no Z terminals c'l>'c’ connected to ground and the delta. opened.
ZH£= rig? i N Ps+ —Zrr]
§ This permits evaluation of the zcrwsequence impedance
W- N
<2Ps+ZrT“ ]
Z between circuit 4 and circuit 5.
Zara‘ 2N, (lG9} 2. Apply zero-sequence voltages to terminals abc with
N’-~ l—‘P“-‘P--4 i\/"+1 Z_ the delta closed and terminals a’b’c’ open circuited.
ZL1=-5:-§;;-M ZFT+ “ZP3] 3. Apply zerwseouence voltages to terminois a'b’c’ with
r-—"“|r" 1r"'_i the delta closed and terminals obc open circuited.
M~i= The general procedure in writing the necessary equa-
tions is similar to that followed in the positive-sequence
analysis given above, and the zero-sequence analysis in
Zm”Zrr (110)
section 57. It will be found that the zer0—sequcnce im-
, N’
Z58: N ZPT"i""7;{:fl-iZ$T'“(_;\F"’1)Zp5 pedsnces in the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 58(d) are
the same as the positive-sequence quantities, that is,
Z28 =
M QZ45 ZIi0=ZiI1

ZP'l‘=Z4fl (111)
Zin=Z>o (114)
, Z N’ ZLc=ZLz
ZSTZ “""'

if the neutral of the autotransformer is ungrounded, the

in the above @qU3@l011$ ZH1, ZME, Zn, Z45 and Zia are in zero-sequence equivaient circuit is altered considerably as
ohms on the circuit ~l (abc terminals) volt-aige base. Z56 is shown. in Fig. 60. In this case zero»-sequence current flows
111 ohms on the circuit 5 (a’b'c' terrninois) voltage base.
Zrs and ZPT are in ohms on the P winding voitage base Z0
and ZBT is in ohms on the S winding voltage base, N’ ig an 1 *—~\/\/vv 1 M‘
defined as 1+n1, which is the ratio of line-to-iine or line-
to~net_itral voltages between circuit 5 (a’b’c’ terminals)
and circuit ~L (abs terminals).
ElQ .'
is
3

The phase shifts between circuit voltages can be de- Fig. 60—Zero~sequence equivalent circuit of an ungrounded
termined by applying positive-sequence Voltages to ter- three-winding autotransformer.
minals abc with the other two circuits open circuited.
Under these conditions, between terminals obs and a’b'c' without transformation.
E$a=6p Eggmgp-l_el Current in the S winding is balanced by circulating cur-
rents in the tertiary, with no current flow in the P winding.
Eh“ (1~l-ml E,,;=N’E,,g, which shows that the one The zero-sequence impedance is therefore determined by
itilleisl transformer has an N’ ratio but no phase
s i t.
the leakage impedance between the S and T windings.
Applying zero sequence voltages to the abc terminals, with
e, m En,” ——Ehs"' = E""(1_._a2> the a'b'c' terininals connected to ground and the tertiary
£2 = mcp 2 ngE,,, closed,
u_ 77/‘Z __ Tl ___. ‘
n=u=-fig
E“ "?Ta%E“‘K7is'E‘“‘ ”° (112) Th
et = IxZ'I‘
Defining\-gggas N”,
E‘; = N/:Ea‘€—jJ0‘ e, = Eel m ~ (fi)2I,_’Z;-
"'2 "'2
144 Power Transformers and Reactors Chapter 5

Ewe I,.'ZS»—e, sidering the autotransformer with delta tertiary (case D-i
2 in Tabie 7), the equivalent circuit impedances can be
I

'= It'[Zs+ Zr] obtained from the irnpeclanoes between circuits as follows:
7%

z@=%=%¥=z$
‘Z
Z'r=Z|s'r zm%=% ""Z56%+Z4fi%“Z46%:l
Q51‘.
U
Em (Nun 1) §5§+-...].Yi_Z46_Z4fi Zm1% =’§[Zi§% +Z46%*iéZ50%] (118)
N’ N’-~£ (115) 5

Percent Quanf1'ties'—~--The manufacturer normally ex-

Zt1% = %‘:Z4s% +%Zss% -245%]
presses transformer impedances in percent on a kva base 5
corresponding to the rated kva of the circuits involved.
These percent values can be converted to ohms by the The resulting impedances will all be in percent on the
familiar relation circuit 4 kva base.

l0Z‘7 E2
Z w ——“§;-5-—~-~, Where
Z wimpeolance in ohms.
Z% =impeclance in percent.
kva.=3-phase kva rating of circuit.
E—»=line-to-line circuit voltage in kv.
Using the nomenclature employed in the derivations,
0"’ 2
Zc= Where
/ 4
E’4=line~to-line voltage, in kv, of circuit 4.
U.,=thrcc-phase kva rating of circuit 4.
Z45% = impedance between circuits 4 and 5 in per cent on
kva rating of circuit 4.
Z4,,=impeclance between circuits 4 and 5 in ohms on
the circuit 4 voltage base.
Similar relations can be written for the other impcdances
involved.
It should be noted that the impe-dances, as used in this
chapter and in the Appendix, are expressed in terms of the
voitage or kva. rating of the circuit or winding denoted by
the first subscript. For example Z .5 is in ohms on the cir~
cuit 4 voltage base, whereas Z54 would be in ohms on the
circuit 5 voltage base. These §mp€3(l£LI1C8S can be converted
from one circuit base to another as follows:
Z5-1= ($02215
4 12. Tmnslormer Engineering, by L. F. Biume, ct al, (a book), John
Z 54(%—Z:
e U“?145%
The equivalent circuits can be based directly on percent
quantities as shown in Table 7 of the Appendix. Con~
(116) REFERENCES
1. Electric Circuits~—Theory and Applications, by O. G. C. Dab!
(a hook) Vol. I, p. 34, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inn, New
York.
2. Regulating Transformers in Power-System Analysis, by J. E.
Hulsson and W. A. Lewis, A.I.E.E'. T’1unsacl-ions, Vol. 58, 1939,
p. 274.
3. Fundamental Concepts of Synchronous Machine Rcactances,
by B. R. Prentice, .~l.I.E. E‘. Transactions, Vol. 56, 1937, pp. 1-
22 of Supplement.
4. Siinplificd Computation of Voltage Regulation with Four Wind-
ing 'l‘rnnsformcrs, by R. D. Evans, Electrical Enginemng,
October 1939, p. 420.
5. Surge Proof Transformers, by H. V. Putman, /1.I.E.E. Tram-s~
actions, September 1932, pp. 579—584 and discussion, pp. 5B4-
600.
6. American Standards for Transformers, Regulators, and Re~
actors. American Standards Association, ASA C57, 1948.
7. Lo:a.&ling Transformers by Copper Temperature, by H. V. Put-
rnnn and W’. M. Dann Al Transactions, Vol. 58, I939,
pp. 504-509.
8. Equivalczrit Circuit Impedance of Regulating Transformers, by
J. l'l. Clem, A.I.E.E'. Tmnsactions, Vol. 58, 1939, pp. 871-873.
9. Theory of Abnormal Linc to Neutral Transformer Voltages, by
C. W. LaPierrc, A.l’.E.E. Trnrisncmlons, Vol. 50, March 1931,
pp. 3‘Z8~342_
16. Stumlurcls for Transformers NEMA Publication N0. QF132,
Sept-ember 3948.
11. An l‘lc;uiv:1lunt Circuit for the Fuur~¥Vimliug Trazzsiorlzaer, lay
F. NI. Starr, Gencml Electric Review, March 1933, Vol. 36, pp.
150--I52.
Wiley nzul Sous (1938).
(117)
13. Equivalent Circuits for Power and Regulating Transformers, by
J. E. llobson and W. A. Lewis, Electric Journal Preprint,
January 1939.
14. J. and P. Transformer Book, by Stigant, 6th Edition, 1935,
Johnson and Phillips, London.
 CHAPTER 6

MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS
Original Author: Revised Fly:
C. F. Wagner C. F. Wagner
,____u_ __ . ..,. >>AI n._ ..,_.._..1
EFORE the growth of the public utilities into their
B present enormous proportions with large generating
stations and connecting tie lines machine perform-
ance was largely judged in terms of the stea.dy—state char-
acteristics. The emergence of the stability prohlern gave
rise to the analysis of the transient characteristics of
machines and was largely responsible for our present
knowiedge of machine theory. A further contributing urge -
wns the need for more accurate determination of short-
circuit currents for the application oi reiays and circuit
breakers.
The variable character of the air gap of the conventional
salient—p0le synchronous generator, motor, and condenser
with its concentrated field windings requires that their -h
analysis follow 8, different line from that for machines such :jw§~°~' ‘ Q
--irl:-*,. w
ms?‘ _
as inductionhriotors, which have 3. uniform air gap and .e;'»c-

distributed windings. Blondel originally ttttaclred this

problem by resolving the armature inmfs and fluxes into
two components, one in line with the axis of the poles and Fig. 2—Cut-away view of conventional waterwheel generator.
the other in quadrature thereto. When the study of the
transients associated with system stability was undertaken this conception was quickly recognized as on i1'iV8.il1£Ll')l8
' W ».:.£ A A
l
A E tool”. Since that time the method has been extended by
subsequent inV€stig&LO1"$,3"° notzihly Doherty and Nickle,
who introduced into the industry several new constants,
%t§i;, ; such as transient reectanite and subtransient resistance to
“.123 describe machine performance under transient conditions.
eff J» ‘
This chapter treats of the characteristics of synchronous
and induction machines in the light of the development of
the past twenty-five years. It will consider steady-state
..A- +~
’ c';.L£iS‘=‘%# and transient conditions for both salient pole and cylin-
2'1 "Q
Mg“: <1" no drical rotor machines under both balanced and unbalanced
conditions. There follows a, discussion of the character»
istics of induction motors under such transient conditions
flӢ( pr/kt!f[T aims
as might contribute to the short-circuit current of :1 system
~u- r_ st;-we» and might influence the choice of a circuit breaker.
-rm. _~‘¢...
'*?§§!.‘IJ Efiml ri";
‘ we 1:-twirl» I. STEADY-STATE CHARACTERISTICS OF
seam
uxn. H1iS>¢3*vi"-51
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The two general types of synchronous machines are the
QPWN. 6.-Q8:-~=-'s cylindrical rotor machine or turbine generator which has
an essentially uniform air gap and the sa.lient—pole gener~
ator. Figs. l to 5 illustrate the outward appearances and
cross-sectional views of typical modern machines
Typical saturation curves for at hydrogen-cooled turbine
generator, ti waterwl1co1—genera.tor and a synchronous con-

not
I-_P' t.-» 0». $4! --$5-»a~._» --, 4....“

Fig. l-~Cut-away view of umbrellanype waterwheel

denser are shown in Figs. 6, 7, and 8 respectively.
Because of the necessity of matching t-he speed of water-
wheel-generators to the requirements of the waterwheels
generator. it is dificult to standardize units of this type. However,
145
146 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

i" ’" V I v

_ .“ .:- . ; K A M .

‘*“:,;i l Q. T ;=

‘fig,
111.2
e ._.>l ,, z , l,
&¢-.>U. -=
_
.. .¢;_ . i *§% é M ivi
“hf. ",iE:‘§:‘ 1% . k’ * \;E\ 2 A
I-
3“-ff? f13:,
E
-'
4“
'1 j'Ii:I:
*1.-‘“R»5;§,I55»: $6 <1 i18¢ “WK W; » ‘. ‘ 3*
~
‘_ §$_:'§_ *§§r,(éV,m§ Q»; 1 v F35 ’ -,9.
'5
r l v,:%§1%?'?:_?'p?%§i§~,' ‘~ * $‘ .e
5.43523’
§ '_ ; ‘i _ 5 Ii 1» ,
Hhgii .~. E: < , $3.1’; 5. H,‘ M
‘flé
ll ' fits“ I '7 33‘-‘3 33; ¥~ ~', ‘ " - %;:.. *2, 1 l
aw Q; V5’? V _ ..,x_.: M r

& V -V :, , 4%,.
' “""' '-#1:!’ H 4; £_ F W \- _, 1
" we“f;
8!! j K

¥k~ '""""“"’ Fgrii

‘ ~
Fig. 5»-Hydrogenmooled frequency changer set installed on
the system of the City of Los Angeles, 60 000 kva; 600 rpm;
/i 56 cycle-11 500 volts; 60 cycles~13 200 volts.
’\.“!$1

rent. Depending upon the application, either the field

.1‘? current for rated voltage in the air gap or the actual field
current for rated voltage, including saturation, is used.

MQ
Fig. 3—Steam turbine generator installed at the Acme Sta-
tion of the Toledo Edison Company, 90 009 kw, 85~percem
power factor, S5-percent SCR., 13 800 volt, 3—phase, 60-cycle.
greet strides have been made wiih large 3600-rpm con-
densing steam €;urbinmgenerators. These find their great»
est application in the electric utility industry. Table l. of
Clair). 1 gives some of L114: 5p£:Clfi€£LLl011S2“ for these
ilmchines.
The concept of per-unit quantity is V2Llll€1,l)l(3 in eornpar-
ing ilie characteristics of mevhiiies of different capacities
and voltages. However, care must lie exereieecl in the case
of generators to use the same reference value for field our-
1. Unsaturated Cylindrical-Rotor Machine Under
Steady-State Conditions
The vector diagram of Fig. 9 is the well-known diagram
of an cylindrical-rotor machine. Consistent with the policy
of this hook, familiswky with this diagram is e,ssu.med‘ Let
it; suffice merely to indicate the significance of the quan-
tities. The vectors eh and 1’ represent the terminal voltage
to neutral and armature current, respectively. Upon add»
lug L-he a,ru1eLure resistance drop, 7'11, and armature leakage
reeetenee drop, mp,‘ to en, the vector e, is obtained, which
represents the voltage developed by the air-gap flux <I>,
which leads e1 by 90 degrees. This flux represents the nei;
flux in the air gap. To produce this flux 2, field current, It,
is required. The current It can be taken from the nedoaci

Fig. 4—-—C1:t-away view of hydro-

gen-cooled turbine generator.

$1;
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 147

|_4. ni 1 :4 — _\ ,
1 l 1 l

1.2. -_ T
_:~ /l€f’\%\$“\ 3
/1
1.0 l -J~' Q '0» - ~_,_ 1 1Q , _/ L L
ng
N
Io
in
2»
»= 1l
_ Tug
4no l fir
ru
$4
_oo o o o o o o o o o o o -
rvenuu
Aom6e
P 3» PER
VT
uflAOLTAGGE _4____ ‘
tree
F1 ___
Ff-.
4TUR‘7_lo~
_ .4
noLOADS 1 ii‘ OL940S4
~ 0'°1e
.2 W1
O.
Q.

ibouu
‘m N1
0°4 1,,#4,. in
Z3 E
15
'? !“ o N 0- 9'0 P‘ LI 0
.5 O .5 LO 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.9 3.5 4.0
Fl ELQ AHPERES-PER UNIT PER UNiT FIELD AMPER£5

Fig. 6—Satuz-ation curves for typical hydrogen-cooled turbine Fig. 8—Saturation curves for typical hydrogen-cooled con-
generator. denser.

field current Ir; it is the voltage taken from the air-gap line
of the no-load saturation curve for the abscissa com-:~
3 %?"1’/3.0-
'3--—- <9$ Q. : l 11 1
’’’’~ W
spending to 1;. The side AB of the triangle, since it is pr0-
portional to .1-i and consequently proportional to the arma-
1";
0<1s>“‘1e“‘
4154.
I
I
- 1 ture current. can be viewed as a fictitious reactance drop.
’°/.l___ 1 11
I

1m%Q§' Q.
0;‘
¢ “-1”!

5of i It is called the drop of armature reactonce and is desig-

\/0%‘ nated rrai. The reactztnce drops 111i and rat" can be com-
412
_r_
1 1 Q -.'\(‘O .42?. 1 bined into EL sinele term calied the synchronous reaotence
.5 éfi; Q? E ti?
VOLT-Q35 l drop and there results
Q~
A l :r@=11i+x. (ll
It follows from the foregoing that the internal voit-age, e1,
1'an
PERon ___ ‘firU~4T]~O~ Ow1 >_ _. i is equal to the vector sum of et, Ti and j $.15. The field
_
-art, current, 2'1, can he determined for any condition of loading
O40 ‘s (neglecting saturation. of course) by merely calculating
”°e I?4rIW. ._. er and taking If from the air-gap tine of Fig. 10.
3°
1“ - %It*e"“ -1., At no ioaci the axis of the fieid winding, the line OC, leads
the terminai voltage by 90 degrees. At zero power»fe.otor,
°0”'MA§S” 1.0 ts 2}) 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 the vector diagram reduces to that shown in Fig. 1 1, which
FJELD MIPERES-PER UNIT shows that, except for the effect of the resistance drop, the
foregoing statement would stili be true. As rt is only about
Fig. 7-—Saturation curves for typical waterwheel generator.
one or two percent in practical machines, the statement
saturation curve of Fig. 10 as being the current required B
to produce 61. But, the armature current produces an mmf
by its so—callet1 armature reaction, which is in time phase O A_, Q e _.
with it and in terms of the field can be expressed us At. To
D
I1 $n‘5\b ‘
produce the net rnmf represented by the current, 1,, the
field current must be of such magnitude and the field "t 90' gm is
structure must adjust itself to such position as to equal Ir. ‘ 90- *°\/Q?»
In other words, If has now such position and magnitude
fihflf 1: and A-i added in vectorial sense equals In The
O
1 .
I1 ‘
triangle OAB, formed by drawing A B perpendicular to 5 or
Az and OB perpendicular to O0, is similar to the triangle A‘ 6 la ri
Ol_)C; OB has the some proportionality to OC and AB to
i
111 9~$_6: has to L. Neglecting saturation, OB, designated
as 61, 1s thus the open-circuit voitage corresponding to the Fig. 9—Vector diagram of cylindrical-rotor machine.
148 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

NO LOAD done, it can be seen that am‘ can likewise be thought of as

SQT URATIQN CURVE arising from the two components of 1.‘ in the form of xadid
-———1m| l4/Q‘
Ll~§4F
and xaqiq’ respectively, in leading quadrature to id and iq.
In the ease of a cylindrical rotor machine, mad and 11,“, are
both equal to xi, but a. case will soon be developed for which
, VQLTAGE
7'"! 'R ’ " Q / they are not equal.
{LEAKAGE on some B l The synchronous renctance, rad, can be obtained most
REACTANCE snow conveniently from the no~load curve and the full-load zero
,,, L 5
,_ o r --~N power~€e.ctor curve. In Fig. I0 OA is the field current
required to circulate full»load current under short-circuit
conditions, the terminal voltage being zero. In this case
all of the internal voltage { the ml drop can be neglected
jlistifiably) must be consumed as synchronous reaetance
drop (mat) within the machine. If there were no saturation,
tho internal Voltage can he determined by simply reading
ZERO POWER-FACTOR the tenninal voltage when the short-circuit is removed,
Raise-cunsznr
_ SATURATION CURVE maintaining the field current constant meanwhile. This
voltage would in Fig. 10 be equal to AB. Thus the un-
ran;v
eg»: ogncs saturated synchronous react-aruze per phase is equal to the
(“J phase-to-neutral voltage AB divided by the rated current.
When the saturation curve is expressed in per unit or per-
cent it is equal to AB; but where expressed in generator-
or ~71 if _
i._*=_ Im L_.,_.m 6“"""""“"'—_"'”" ”"_“ 7 new consent terminal voltage and field amperes, it is equal to £1333 (100)
fa
Fig. 10-No-load and full-load zero power-factor character- . Ifai - ¢
istics of a generator. 111 percent or »f- 1n per umt.
is
I
2. Unsaturated Salient-PoleMachineUnderSteady-
cl State Conditions
If ,,Al
Given the proper constants, the performance of an un-
.1 saturated salient-pole machine at zero power—factor is the
same as for 2. uniform air-gap machine. For other power-
ll} factors, conditions are different. A. vector diagram for such
machines is shown in Fig. 12. As before €e. and i are the

l _ ___. i ,
9| \
pt

rill el 7 " L ~ nu “
tX1l'l""_'Xqlj
.
Q xv}
_
"Kg'
¢ '90; X5‘ §.§ .._______ . ‘ ‘uh

J v
9° Q
ix“ lick‘
go M‘ 0; -_
O - "j *1 xij
i fl

1 i°
ii
Fig. 11-~Vector diagram of cylindrical-rotor generator at zero
power-factor.
can be accepted as true for all practical purposes. How-
ever, as the real load is applied to the machine the angle 5
increases from zero and the lead of OC‘ ahead of e, increases
from 90 degrees to 90 degrees plus 6. The angle 6 is a. real
angle; it can be measured without much difficulty.
It is convenient for some purposes to resolve the reac-
tions within the machine into two components, one along
the axis of the field winding and the other in quadrature
thereto. In Fig. 9, the armature current is divided into
the two components, id, and, iq, in which the subscripts are
significant of their respective components. When this is
i>
Fig. 12-——Vector diagram of salient-pole machine.
terminal voltage to neutral and the armature current,
respectively, and er is the “voltage behind the leakage
reactanco drop.” The flux <11 is required to produce ex. This
flux can be resolved into two components <I>d and ‘I5. The
flux (Pd is produced by I; and Aid, the direct-axis com-
ponent of Ail, and <1>q is produced by Aim the quadrature-
axis component of A z‘. Here the similarity ceases. Because
of the seliency effect, the proportionality between the
mmf’s and their resultant fluxes is not the same in the two
axes. When saturation effects are neglected <i>,1 can be re-
garded as made up of a component pI‘OClL1(3Bd by I; acting
 Jg
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 149

FUNDAM£NT3\L COMPONENT ’ the projection of BF upon OG is equal to xdid so that OG

"M" -—"~ or max """ becomes equal to ed, the fictitious internal voltage, which
LUX
\ is proportional to Ii. _ I _
FLUX
The armature resistance is usually negligible 111 deter-
rrri iiiii V iiAiM W ./ ' i r W4’ \~£ L
mining either the angle 5 or the excitation and for this case
at sin §m;rqtq=2:qt' cosf¢—{—5) (2)
Upon expanding the last term and solving for 5
i ¢>
Fig. 13-—Flux resulting from a sinusoidal mmf in
1; an a=iP-E:-—
e,—1—r.:z sin qt:
(3)
(a) direct axis, From Fig. 14, the internal voltage
(la) quadrature axis.
e¢=et cos éelmxdi sin (qb+~ 5) (4)
alone and a component produced by .~l';d. The component The unsaturated synchronous reactance, xi, can be de—
produced by I; can be regarded as producing the internal termined from the no~load and full—load zero power-factor
voltage ed. The mmf produced by Ax} has a general sinu- curves just as for the machine with uniform air gap. The
soidal distribution in the direct axis as shown by Fig. l3(a). quadrature-axis synchronous reactance is not obtained so
The resultant flux because of the variable reluctance of the
air gap has the general shape indicated. It is the sinusoidal
component of this flux that is effective in producing the V, ‘5
Zia is drop shown in Fig. 12. In the quadrature axis, the
component of mmf is likewise sinusoidal in nature as shown
in Fig. 13b, and gives rise to the distorted flux form. In oo?\"‘Ufi
proportion to the mmf the sinusoidal component of flux is f-\F.\.D 9 §
much less than for the direct axis. The eiiect of this com-
ponent is reflected in the mm iq drop of Fig. 12. In general
:c,,.. is much smaller than xad.
’°/2
+ 0ray
The armature resistance and leakage reactance drops _§\_9
can also he resolved into its two components in the two
axes much as xii of Fig. 9 was resolved. When this is done 6%
the internal voltage ed can be obtained by merely adding (co)
rt} and riq and then j xq iq and j ed id to the terminalvoltage I
er. The notation ed is used to differentiate the internal
¢
voltage in this development from that used with the
cylindrical rotor machine theory.
i
Another form of the vector diagram of the machine is
FUR SIGWFICANCE. OF QUANT\TlE$ IN PARENTHESES REFER TO FIGJB
presented in Fig. 14, which shows much better the relation
between those quantities that are most useful for calcula- Fig. 15——l)etermination of internal angle, 6, and excitation
tion purposes, If from B the line BP of length arqi is drawn of a saturated salient pole machine when loading is known.
perpendicular to 1', then since angle CBP is equal to ¢+6,
the distance BC‘ is equal to xqi cos (<,t+5), or $qiq~ By easily but fortunately there is not as much need for this
comparing this line with the corresponding line in §‘ig. 12, quantity. It can be determined from a test involving the
it can be seen that the point P determines the angle 5. This determination of the angular displacement of the rotor as
relation provides an easy construction for the determina- real load is applied to the machine and the use of Eq. (2) ,
tion of the angle 5 having given the terminal voltage, the which gives
armature current, and the power-factor angle, Q5. Further, et sin 5
z“ i cos (¢~+ 5) (5)
W
or it can be determined by means of a slip test. The slip
test is described in the .~\.I.E.E. Test Code for Synchronous
1‘9 Hie Machinesl° of 1945 for a determination of red. The test for
O . em
»= s;
e the determination of 2:0 is identical except that the mini-
mum ratio of armature voltage to armature current is used.
I K
‘Q
-'. :_-,1" '8' :1.-___..lvT \ 3. Saturation in Steady-State Conditions
5‘ __m +8‘? *3’
_-. Short-circuit ratio is a term used to give a measure of the
' 4 relative strengths of the field and armature ampere turns.
4' 1-; 8
It is defined as the ratio of the field current required to
produce rated armature voltage at no load ‘co the field
Fig. 14——-Determination of internal angle, 5, and excitation of current required to circulate rated armature current with
an nnsaturated salient-pole machine when loading is known. the armature short—circuited. In Fig. 10 the SCR is equal
150 Mochilnc Characteristics
to ‘When no saturation is present it is simply the
fai
reciprocal of the synchronous impedance, xd.
It is impossible to specify the best specific SCR for a
given system. In the past it has been the practice in Eu-
rope to use somewhat smaller SCR’s than was the practice
in this country. In recent years, however, the trend in this
country has been toward smaller values. The Preferred
Standards for Large 3600—rpm Condensing Steam Turbine-
Generators” specifies SCR of 0.8.
The desire for smaller SCR’s springs from the fact that
the cost is smaller with smaller SCR. On the other hand,
static stability is not as good with smaller SCR. Regula-
tion is also worse but both of these eliects are alleviated in
part by automatic voltage regulators. For most economical
design a high SCR machine usually has a lower rd’. There-
fore, both because of its lower zed’ and higher WR2 a high
SCR has e. higher transient stability. This is not usually
a significant factor particularly in condensing turbine ap-
plications, because transient stability is not of great im-
portance in the systems in which they are installed. It
may be quite important for hydro-generators; the Boulder
Dam machines, for example, are designed for SCR’s of
2.4 and 2.74.
The effects of saturation arise primarily in the deter-
mination of regulation. Tests indicate that for practical
purposes both the cylindrical rotor and the salient-pole
machine can be treated similarly. Consideration will be
given first to the characteristics for zero-power-factor load-
ing. Fig. 11 shows that for zero power-factor, the Ti drop
of the machine is in qua/cl1'a.ture to the teriiiinal voltage
and internal drop and can have little efiect upon regulation.
It will therefore be neglected entirely.
The determination of the rated-current zero~p0Wer-
factor curve can be developed as follows. Take any ter-
minal voltage such as MN of Fig. 10. The voltage behind
leakage reactance is obtained by adding to this voltage the
leakage reactance drop, SR, which gives the line PQ. The
distance PR then gives the field current necessary for
magnetizing purposes. In addition, however, field current
is required to overcome the demagnetizing effect of the
armature current. This mmf is represented on the curve
by the distance S T, giving M T as the field current required
to produce the terminal voltage OM with rated current
in the armature. Other points on the rated—current
zer0~power-factor curve can be obtained by merely
moving the triangle RST along the no-load saturation
(3UI'Vf"3.
Upon sliding the triangle RST down 120 the base line, it
can he seen that the total field current required to circulate
rated current at short circuit which is represented by the
point A, can be resolved into the current OD necessary to
overcome leakage reactance drop and the current DA re-
quired to overcome demagnetizing effects. Neither leakage
reactance nor the field equivalent of armature current are
definite quantities in the sense that they can be measured
separately. They may be calculated but their values are
dependent upon the assumptions made for the calculations.
Synchronous reactance, ass, is a definite quantity and is
equal to the distance A0 expressed in either per unit or
percent. When either 1:1 or 21,, is assumed, then the other
Chapter 6
becomes determinable from Eq. (1) or from the triangle
just discussed.
The foregoing analysis is not strictly correct, as it neg-
lects certain changes in saturation in the pole structure.
The leakage from pole to pole varies approximately pro-
portional to the field current and the point T was deter-
mined upon the basis that this leakage was proportional
to the field current fl/IS. The increased field leakage at the
higher excitation produces greater saturation in the field
poles and this in turn increases the mm? required to force
the flux through the pole. The net effect is to increase the
field current over that determined by the method just
discussed causing the two curves to separate more at the
higher voltages.
The concept of the determination of the curve of rated
current at zero-power-factor by the method just described
is valuable and in an attempt to retain the advantages of
this method the concept of Poitier reacicmce, :c,, is intro-
duced. The Potier reactance is the reactance that, used in
a triangle of the general type described, will just fit be-
tween the two curves at rated voltage. It can be deter-
mined from test curves, sec Fig. 16, by drawing DE equal
l
ii‘
F Ԥ"
If’
,1
J,’
D‘
.é}.)!.9l=T*9§.,
Pi)".158
B
.—:—:—;—;—;—_/;_;_ ___—;v—;_ ;_ —;—_ ;;;;—— _____;—__ __ ___ 1
OM4 on..- D FIELD CURRENT
Fig. 16--Zero power-factor characteristics of generator.
to OA and then EF parallel to OB. The distance FG is
then the Potier reactance drop. Potier rcactance is thus a
fictitious reactance that gives accurate results for only one
point, the point for which it is determined. For most Ina.-
chines it is sufficiently accurate to use the one value ob-
tained at rated voltage and rated current. Potier reactance
decreases with increased saturation. Sterling Beokwith“
proposed several approximations of Potier reactance, the
two simplest are:
a:,wx1+0.63(x¢'--0:!)
and
3);, “OB 31¢’.
For other loads at zero-power-factor, the conventional
Chapter 6 Machine Chanuzterismlcs 151

method is to divide the lines BA and FD of Fig. 16 in /

proportion to the armature current. Thus for three-fourths / NO LOAD
rated current the regulation curve would be the line HJ in I SATURATION CURVE
POWER-FACTOR ’
which BH and FJ are three-fourths of B.-i and FD, mom-1‘.
respectively.
For power-factors other than zero, several methods are /‘/Y I}
available to determine the regulation. They all give sur- r
‘w _— ?_

i
*3/‘— —

/
‘ _

_ A
prisingly close results, particularly at lagging power» D 9
8,. “\
factors. The problem may take either of two forms; the
“ “—-.
determination of the terminal voltage when the load cur- Y.9!<F£@.5 a5 n
rent, Eoad power-factor, and excitation are given, or the *l—_. ‘lo
.'\_|'|'\
3'm I
determination of the excitation when the load current, load . -_ \
,3 §
/-‘ f l \\ ZERO POWER
powepfaotor, and terminal voltage are given. The resist-
' Z, -k % i moron RATES
ance drop is so small that it is usually neglected. q ’ . \‘ ' cunnzm"
(a) Adjusted Synchronous Reactance Method*~—— \ Od-
. K, ,<
“--. t
This method utilizes the no-load and the ratedwurrent /V / /POWEFPFACTOR
zero—power»fa<:tor curves. To obtain the excitation at any . j / 1_ snout /f
/*/
other power-factor for rated current, an arbitrary excita- /a/'
tion is chosen such as OC of Fig. 17. The no-load voltage /,/ 2
\
,/ .A\‘
1 l
\.
0
TERMre
/L_. Mp
‘“‘“-~l I / \
-' U‘

Q §x,:>eoe ll
N0 LOAD SATURATION CURVE 1 1 blim _,,___,_
l -A
° Fl:-L5 kiuasenr
80% POWER
' FACTOR Fig. I8*~Determinatlon of excitation, including the effects of
f saturation.
:5’
=/
gr .-’
//Y -—~----~—;#E. I

the point F. The VQr‘?i4'.'1l |liSt:).I!(’& OF is then the terminal

_ I
\\ / voltage for the particular excitation. Following this pro-

.
\. \\
/ B cedure another excituzion is chosen ;>.n<'l 'he construction
repeated from which the dotted line is obtained. The inter-
;\
.\\
section of the line with the normal voltage gives the emira-
tion for the desired power-factor at rated load. if the
machine is not operating at rated current, the zcro-po\ver-
\ factor curve corresponding to the particular current should
be used.
(b) General Merh0d—For lack of a better name this
VOLT§R}AL_
TAGEj__N method has been called the “General I\le-thud." It is based
upon the assumption that saturation is included by reading
the excitation requirements from the no-loud saturation
curve for a voltage equal to the voltage behind the Potier
reactance drop.
0 ___.————— _ The method is described in Fig. 19 with all terms ex-
B D 0
FIELD CURRENT pressed in per unit. The voltage, 0,. is the Potier internal
voltage or the voltage behind the Potier reaotance drop.
POWEi?-FACTO
ANGLE '* K- n
/ /
/ "
Fig. l7——Determination of regulation cu rvas for powawfactors /'
I’
other than zero by the "adjusted synchronous reactance /
method.” /
/

CA is than regarded as an internal voltage and the distance

AB as an internal drop of pure reactance, which is laid off
PI
in proper relation with the terminal voltage as indicated ° 0, //’ 1
by the power-factor of the load. The construction is as /
follows: The adjusted synchronous reactance drop AB is __ /
laid off to make an angle with the X-axis equal to the
l \. ‘V /
power»-factor angle. A line equal to the distance AC is then I-‘lg. 19—~Determinati0n of field current for round rotor
scribed from the point A until it intercepts the Y~axis at machine with saturation included by adding s in phase
"'D€S€:ribeCl as Method (0) Para. 1.540 in Reference lfl. with op.
152 Mockine Characteristics Chapter 6

The distance jlr represents the synchronous reactance drop, .a,

scdi. If there were no saturation the synchronous internal .7
voltage would be Olr. When using per unit quantities
throughout this is also equivalent to the field current. .6
This method includes the effect of saturation by simply
adding si the increment in field current for this voltage in
excess of that required for no saturation, to Ok in phase
with e,,, giving as a result, Uh. When per unit quantities
by
be
:>
are not used the construction is a little more complicated.
KV'AR—PERUNT
It involves the construction of ep separately so that s can .2
be obtained in terms of field current. This quantity is then
.l
added to the diagram for no saturation in terms of the field
current. In Fig. 18, first lay off from the terminal voltage,
3 .| .2 .3 .4 .5 .e .7 .a .9 to
Oa, and then the :r,, drop cc at an angle with the horizontal _,§ KW-»PER umr
equal to the power-factor angle. Oc then represents ep. By
scribing this back to the ordinate and reading horizontally, ,2
the excitation corresponding to this voltage is obtained.
The effect of saturation is introduced by the distance s. .3
The field current required if there were no saturation is A
obtained by the construction Oj andjk where Oj represents
the excitation, op, required to produce the terminal vol tags .5
at no load and jlr the excitation, ot, for the synchronous
reactance drop, read from the abscissa. These vectors
correspond to ct and jk, respectively, in Fig. 19 except
‘l.7}
that they are in terms of field current. If kh, equal to the
saturation factor, s, is added along a line parallel to Oc,
the total excitation Oh is obtained. .9
(c) Round Rotor Potier Voltage M€th0d*—This
Fig. 20——Reactive power capacity of steam turbine generator
method is the same as (b) except that the effect of satura- 20 000 kw, 23 529 kva, 0.85 p.f., 0.8 SCR, at 0.5 pslg hydrogen.
tion s, in Fig. 18 is, for the sake of simplicity laid off along
Ola, making om the desired excitation. As can be seen, sending voltage held at a constant value ed. As shown in
there is little diiterence between those two methods. This Chaps. 9 and 19 the power circle of a line of such character-
method gives the best overall results, especially at leading 3g’
power factors. The particular name of this method was istics has its center in the negative reactive axis at 5- and
cl
assigned to distinguish it from the next method.
. . . . 3 3
(d) Two-Reaction Potier Voltage Method This its internal voltage, ed, must be such tliala its radius, ~23,
method is similar to that of (cl, except that the two-rears -1
tion method of construction shown in Fig. 14 is used to passes through the point of rated real power and rated
determine the excitation before including the saturation reactive power. Actually, however, the center is usually
factor s. Fig. 15 shows the entire construction, For the located at it point equal to (SCR) times (rated kva). This
sake of comparison with other methods, the construction is to take care of saturation effects. Since, however, with
is also shown in Fig. 18. The construction is the same as . 1 . .
no saturation I 1S equal to SCR, it can be seen that for
(c) except that the line Oq is made to pass through the d
point ginstead of Fc. This arises because :04 is smailer than xd. this condition both relations reduce to an equivalence.
The leading kvar capacity (underexcited) of air-cooled
4. Reactive Power Capacity condensers is usually about 50 percent of the lagging kvar
The capacity of a synchronous machine to deliver re- capacity but for hydrogen-cooled condensers about 42
active power is dependent upon the real power that it percent.
delivers. Two limitations from the heating standpoint are
recognized: (1) that due to the armature, and (2) that due II. THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT
to the field. Figure 20 shows the reactive power capability In addition to its steady-state performance, the action
of a. standardized 3600-rpm steam turbine—generator. Real of a machine under short»-circuit conditions is important.
power is plotted as abscissa and reactive power as ordinate. The presence of paths for flow of eddy currents as provided
All the curves are arcs of circles. The line centering about by the solid core in turbine generators and by the damper
the origin represents the limit imposed by the condition of windings in some salient~p0le machines makes the treat-
constant armature current whereas the other arc by con- ment of these machines, from a practical viewpoint, less
stant field current. With regard to the latter, the generator complicated than that for salient—pole machines without
can be likened to a. simple transmission line of pure react~ damper windings. For this reason the thrceqahasc short-
ance, 2:4, with the receiver voltage held at a constant value, cirouit of these types of machines will be discussed first.
er, the terminai voltage of the generator, and with the Armature resistance wili be neglected except as it influences
‘Described as Method (a) Para. 1.520 in Reference 10. decrement factors.
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics
5. Three-phase Short-Circuit of Machines with
Current Paths in Field Structures
Consideration will be given to a simultaneous short-
circuit on all phases while the machine is operating at
no-load normal volt-age without a voltage regulator.
The general nature of the currents that appear is shown
in Fig. 21. They can be divided into two parts:
a. An alternating component in the armature and as-
sociated with it an unidirectional component in the field.
These two components decay or decrease together with the
Fig. 21--Three-phase short circuit in salient-pole machine
with damper windings.
same time constants. The alternating armature component
can be regarded as being produced by its associated uni-
directional component in the field. All phase components
of the alternating current are essentially the same except
that they are displaced 120 electrical degrees.‘
b. An unidirectional component in the armature and an
alternating component in the field or in the damper wind-
ings. In this case, likewise, the alternating current in the
field winding can be regarded as produced by the uni-
directional component in the armature.
6. Alternating Component of Armature Current
This component can in turn be resolved into several
components, the r.m.s. values of which are shown in Fig.
22. They are:
a. The steady-state component
b. The transient component
c. The subtransient component
Each of these components will be discussed separately.
Steady»State C0mp0nents——The steady~state com-
ponent, as its name implies, is the current finally attained.
Because of the demagnetizing efiect of the large short-
circuit current, the flux density within the machine de-
creases below s. point where saturation is present. Saturae
*The machine used in this case was a salient-pole machine. As
will be seen later, such machines also contain a. second harmonic
component of current. This type of machine was chosen to show
more clearly the presence of field and damper currents.
153
Voltage from air-gap line corresponding
i g __ to no-load excitation __ H _
I-.r 6-d
d xd
-.
CURRENT = Slecdy— Slole value
o.ss6 (£1;-Q)
\
‘~ o.aes(E'd-id}
hm --'5 Ta
*3 X
eraed era
ed
I n TE '~_m~—--_..i
F3 ‘:1, ”““” “”” ' “' ” ' ' ” ” ” “ " ” “ ” ' ” ‘ “ “ “ _ ' _ “ ' - ""
J L Ll TIME
Fig. 22%ymmetrical component of armature short-circuit
current (three-phase short circuit from no-load rated volt-
age). Values are arms.
tion is important only as it affects the field current neces-
sary to produce normal voltage at no load. The steady-
state value of short—circuit current is thus equal to the
line-to-neutral voltage read from the air-gap line for the
value of field current required to produce normal voltage
divided by the synchronous reaotance in ohms.
Transient Componentwif the excess of the symmet-
rical component of armature currents over the steady-state
component be plotted on semi-log paper, it can be seen
that this excess, except for the first few cycles, is an ex-
ponential function of time (the points lie in a straight line).
Extending this straight line back to zero time and adding
the steady-state component, the so-called transient com-
ponent, id’, or armature current is obtained. This compo-
nent is defined through a new reactance, called the transient
reactance by means of the expression
7.1- I <1
The manner in which this quantity is related to the ex-
ponential and steady-state terms is shown in Fig. 22.
In discussing this component, the presence of the
damper-winding currents of salient-pole machines and
rotor eddy currents of turbine generators can, for the
moment, be neglected. Before short-circuit occurs the flux
associated with the field windings can be broken up into
two components (see Fig. 23}, a component <1> that crosses
the air gap and a component fin, a leakage flux that can
be regarded as linking all of the field winding. Actually,
of course, the leakage flux varies from the base of the pole
to the pole tip. The flux ‘I11 is so weighted that it produces
the some linkage with all the field turns as the actual leak-
age flux produces with the actual turns. It is approximately
proportional to the instantaneous value of the field current
I1. The total flux linkages with the field winding are then
those produced by the flux (<I>+<i>1). As the field structure
rotates, a. balanced alternating voltage and current of nor-
mal frequency are produced in the armature. Because the
armature resistance is relatively small, its circuit can be
regarded as having a power-factor of zero. The symmet-
rical current thus produced develops an mmi that rotates
synchronously and has a. purely demagnetizing, as con-
trasted With cross magnetizing, eilect on the field fluxes.
It is a well-known fact that for the flux linkages with a
154
7,._;f _ Q l_m___
§\\“\u.\\\\1nlllllllllllWlllllllllilllll
. lI|l'l,|,7,y/,5
at->--'
,,./' —=--=',
|§
ail Ii-
-éffw
slitmrmnmnmn~l ¢+l1
Fig. 23-—Alr-gap and leakage fluxes at no load.
circuit to change instantly, an infinitely large voltage is
necessary and the assumption is justified that, for the tran-
sition period from the no load open-circuited condition to
the shortmircuited condition, the flux linkages with the field
winding can be regarded as constant. This is equivalent to
saying that the flux (<1)-l—¢I>;) remains constant. In order
that this flux remain constant in the presence of the dc-
magnetizing effect of the armature current, it is necessary
that the field current I1 increase to overcome the demag-
netizing eliect of the annature current. If I; increases then
Q11, which is proportional to it, must likewise increase. It
follows then that <¥> must decrease. Consideration of the
steady~s tate conditions has shown that the air-gap voltage,
e1, is proportional to the air~gap flux <D. The armature
current for short—circuit conditions is equal to £1. If <I> and
consequently oi had remained constant during the transi-
tion period, then the transient component of short~circuit
current would be merely the no-load voltage before the
short-circuit divided by the leakage reactance and the
transient rcactance would be equal to the armature leakage
reactance 1:1. However, as just shown, the air-gap flux
decreases and, therefore, the armature current is less. It
follows then that the transient reactance must be greater
than the armature leakage reactance. It is a reactance
that includes the effect of the increased field leakage
occasioned by the increase in field current.
Under steady-state conditions with no saturation, the
armature current can be viewed as produced by a fictitious
internal voltage equal to ma id whose magnitude is picked
from the air-gap line of the no—load saturation curve for
the particular field current. At the first instant of short»-
circuit, the increased armature current, ¢.,', can likewise be
viewed as being produced by a fictitious internal voltage
behind synchronous reactance, Whose magnitude is xdid’ or
x@%, if the short—circuit be from rated voltage, no load.
This voltage provides a means for determining the initial
value of the unidirectional component of field current by
pickingcff the value of I; on the air-gap line of the no—load
saturation curve corresponding to this voltage. If it were
Machine Characteristics Chapter 6
possible to increase the exciter voltage instantaneously to
an amount that would produce this steady-state field cur-
rent, then this component of short-circuit current would
remain sustained. It is important to grasp the significance
of this truth. There is always a constant proportionality
between the alternating current in the armature and the
unidirectional (often called direct-current) component of
current in the field winding, whether the operating condi-
tion bc steady—state or transitory.
The initial value of armature current, as stated, grad-
ually decreases to the steady-state and the induced current
in the field winding likewise decreases to its steady—state
magnitude. The increments of both follow an exponential
curve having the same time constant. Attention will next
be given to considerations aliocting this time constant.
If a constant direct voltage is suddenly applied to the
field of a machine with the armature open-circuited, the
current builds up exponentially just as for any circuit hav-
ing resistance and inductance in series. The mathematical
expression of this relation is:
i
I1=§-Z [1-—e~7T‘*°] (6)
in which
e, is the exciter voltage.
1"; is the resistance of the field winding in ohms.
T3,, is the open-circuit transient time constant of the
machine or of the circuit in question in seconds.
t is time in seconds.
The time constant is eouai to the inductance of the fieid
winding divided by its resistance. in the case of the short-
circuited machine, it was shown that at the first instant
the flux linkages with the field winding remain the same
as for thc opcn—circuit condition, but that the direct com-
l
ponent of field current increases to 55; times the open-
d
circuit value before short-circuit. Since inductance is
defined as the flux linkages per unit current, it follows
then that the inductance of the field circuit under short-
f
circuit must equal ff times that for the open-circuit con-
d
dition. The shortmircuit transient time constant, that is,
the time constant that determines the rate of decay of the
transient component of current must then equal
I
17;! .
T1 = —— T"d,, in seconds
Ia
The component of armature current that decays with
this time constant can then be expressed by
5
(z11'" 2):: T4’
‘=1
When Z is equal to T,,' the magnitude of the component
has decreased to e“1 or 0.368 times its initial value. This
instant is indicated in Fig. 22.
Subtransient C0mp0nent—---In the presence of damp-
er windings or other paths for eddy currents as in turbine
generators, the air-gap flux at the first instant of short-
circuit is prevented from changing to any great extent.
This results both from their close proximity to the air gap
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 155

and from the fact that their leakage is much smaller than only one can equal zero at a time. Therefore at times of
that of the field winding. Consequently, the initial short- three-phase short-circuits, the alternating component of
circuit currents of such machines are greater. If this excess current in st least two and probably all three phases must
of the symmetrical component of armature currents over change from zero to some finite value. Since the armature
the transient component is plotted on semi-log paper, the circuits are inductive, it follows that their currents cannot
straight line thus formed can be projected back to zero change instantly from zero to a finite value. The “theorem
time. This zero-time value when added to the transient of constant flux linkages” must apply to each phase sepa-
component gives the subtransient current, id”. This sub- rately. The application of this theorem thus gives rise to
transient current is defined by the eubtransient reactance in an unidireetionsl component of current in each phase equal
the expression and of negative value to the instantaneous values of the
alternating component at the instant of short circuit. In
. H ___” erated
all '""“ n
this manner the armature currents are made continuous as
$6. Shown in Fig. 24. Each of the unidirectional components
The subtransient reactance approaches the armature leak-
age differing from that quantity only by the leakage of the TOTAL
damper windings.
"~-. D"C COMPONENT
Since the excess of the armature currents represented
by the subtransient components over the transient com- ~‘_
“*--
ll
*""““-~- - - -"~lOU
ponents are sustained only by the damper winding cur-
iv” TlM£
rents, it would be expected that their decrement would be
determined by that of the damper winding. Since the
SYMNETRICAL
copper section of this winding is so much smaller than COMPONENT
that of the field winding, it is found that the short-circuit
subtransient time constant, T4”, is very small, being
about 0.05 second instead of the order of seconds as is Fig. 2-1--The lnciusion of a d-c component of arrnature
characteristic of the transient component. The component current whose existence is necessary to make the armature
of armature current that decays with this time constant is current continuous at the instant of short circuit.
(11;’ -111’) and can be expressed as o. function of time as
I in the three phases decays exponentially with a. time con-
(id/r____1-dr) 6'"?-“:17 stant T,” called the armature short-circuit time constant.
The magnitude of this time constant is dependent upon
Thus the time in seconds for this component to decrease the ratio of the inductance to resistance in the armature
to 0.368 times its initial value gives T4” as indicated in circuit. As will be shown the negative-sequence reactance,
Fig. 22. 11:2, of the machine is e. sort of average react-ance of the
Tests on machines without damper windings show that armature with the field winding short-circuited, so that it
because of saturation effects, the short-circuit current even is the reactance to use in determining T,. There exists then
in this case can be resolved into a slow transient component the relation
and a. much faster subtrsnsient component. The influence
of current magnitudes as reflected by saturation upon the T,=i~2——in seconds (8)
211-fr,
transient and subtlansierlt reactance is discussed in more
detail under the general lleading of Saturation. in which 1",, is the d-c resistance of the a.rma.ture. The
quantity 21rf merely converts the reactance to an induc-
7. Totai Aiternatlng Component of Armature Cur- tance.
rent The maximum magnitude which the unidirectional
The total armature current consists of the steady-state
value and the two components that decay with time con- PQFJECTION AXl5 FOR PFMSE ll
stants Ta’ and T4”. It can be expressed by the following
equation is ,_
I
_ ._L _ _'_
‘inc = lie” '-i<1')€ Ta" + (1-1' ”" id) E T‘, "'l”?:d (7) i. 1.
r..... __ " 4'
The quantities are all expressed as rms values and are equal ‘. \
FOR PHASE u
but displaced 120 electrical degrees in the three phases. \
\
\
\
8. Unidirectional Component of Armature Current \ -
\

T0 this point consideration has been given to flux link-

ages with the field winding only. The requirement that ib + z-on PHASE c
these linkages remain constant st transition periods de- (cl (bl
termined the alternating component of armature current. Fig. 25—Repreaentation of instantaneous currents of a three
Since these components in the three phases have a phase phase system. (a) Three separate vectors projected on x-axle,
(.l1Spl3C61'Il8I1l3 of 120 degrees with respect to each other, (b) Single vector projected on three axes.
156
component can attain is equal to the maximum of the
alternating component. Therefore,
idntmm-) ='\/,2—?"ri",l_ig
-Tc
A symmetrical three-phase set of currents can be repre-
sented as the projection of three equabspaced and equal
length vectors upon a stationary reference, say the real
axis. They can also be represented as the projection, as it
rotates, of one vector upon three stationary axes, spaced
120 degrees. These axes can conveniently be taken as
shown in Fig. 25, as the horlzontal—axis and two axes hav»
ing a 120-degree relation therewith. Since the initial mag-
nitude of the unidirectional components are the negatives
of the instantaneous values of the alternating components
at zero time, then the unidirectional components can be
represented as the projection of 2. single vector onto the
three equakspaced axes. This fact is used at times to
determine the maximum magnitude which the unidirec-
tional component can attain. By its use it is unnecessary
to await a. test in which the maximum happens to occur.
This method is in error, however, for machines in which
xq” and 55¢” are radically different.
9. Total RMS Armature Current
The rms armature current at any instant is
x/5.5;”-P1}§‘
The minimum current thus occurs in the phase in which
the unldirectional component is zero and the maximum
occurs when the unidirectional component is a maximum,
that IS, when maximum dissymmetry occurs. Since the
maximum value that the unidirectional component can
. . e for the no-load condition. The steady-state short-circuit
attain 1S \/Q flifig, then
d current is then equal to the line—to—neutral voltage read
~ 2 In 2 ra e 2 ra
hm: (mall: m loaded condition divided by xd.
s is its
Of course, a rms value as its name implies, is an average
quantity and is usually taken over a cycle or half cycle
of tune. The foregoing expression assumes that both the
alternating and the unidirectional components do not dc-
creasc, because of the natural decrement, during the first
cycle. In reality the decrement is usually sufficient to
make the effect noticeable. In applying circuit breakers
it is usual to use a factor 1.6 instead of \/5. This factor
includes a small decrement.
10. Effect of External Impedance
If the short-circuit occurs through an external imped-
IBJ106 Tmri-j rm, and Tm is not too large, their effect can
be introduced by merely increasing the armature constants
by these amounts. Thus the components of short-circuit
current become
1- n R grated
cl xd” +xm
1,1’~ =- $¢u"i"$s==t
eratcd
-----—-
5,2 %¢=w.__....._&::i1g*_d
3Ed"l“-Tint
Machine Characteristics Chapter 5
The short-circuit time constant is affected in a similar
manner
T,,'=“i----“'+“’°"“T,,:, in seconds (14)
r.i+wm
For the armature time constant, the external reactance
must be added to the negative-sequence reactance of the
machine and the extemal resistance to the armature resist-
ance of the machine. The expression then becomes
T‘: . . .._t'.?£fll".f".i2E.E_.. . .11, seconds (15)
2-:rf(r,,_—l~r,,,,,)
Because of the much lower ratio of reactance to resistance
in external portions of circuits, such as transformers or
transmission lines, in the vast majority of cases T, for
faults out in the system is so small as to justify neglecting
the unidirectional component of current.
ll. Short Circuit from Loaded Conditions
The more usual case met in practice is that of a short-
circuit on machines operating under loaded conditions. As
before, the short—ci1'cuit current in the armature can be
divided into two components, a symmetrical alternating
component, and a unidirectional component.
Alternating C0mp0nent—-The alternating compo-
nent in turn can be resolved into three components: (1)
steady state, f2) transient, and (3) subtransient. Each of
these components will be discussed individually.
The load on the machine affects the steady-state c0m~
poncnt only as it influences the field current before the
short circuit. The field current can be determined by any
of the methods discussed under the heading of “Steady-
State Conditions.” Saturation will be more important than
from the air-gap line for the field current obtained for the
In the discussion of the determination of the transient
C0'rrqJ0'n,c'rtt from the no-load condition, it was stated that
the quantity that remained constant during the transition
period from one circuit condition to another, is the flux
linkages with the field winding. For the short~circuit from
loaded conditions this same quantity can be used as a basis
for analysis. Consideration will be given first to a load
before short circuit whose power factor is zero, lagging,
and whose current is £41,. The flux linkages before short
circuit will be determined by a superposition method,
obtaining first the linkages with the field winding for zero
armature current and any terminal voltage and then the
flux linkages with armature current, is 1., and zero terminal
voltage. The total flux linkages is the sum of the two
values so obtained.
Let ill; be the flux linkages with the field winding at
no-load at rated voltage. For any other terminal voltage
IE such as 2,, the flux linkages 11/ will be equal to
( )
(12 )
in
erated
no
By definition the transient reactance of a. machine is
(13) equal to the reactance which, divided into the 1ine~to—
neutral rated voltage, gives the transient component of
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 157

short-circuit current at no-load normal voltage. If this circuit current i’ can be determined by dividing these
short-circuit current is designated as 11.13, then linkages into the total flux linkages just determined. This
gives
_ 8
fig’; =
In »" =—i——=e~——~—~‘+”i'i‘” (19)
At the instant of short-circuit from no-load at rated volt- we I6
grated
age, the flux linkages with the field winding, 1,’/1, remain
constant. The demagnetizing effect of the armature cur- The numerator of this quantity can be regarded as an
rent is overcome by an increase in the field current. Thus internal voltage, ed’, which is equal to the terminal voltage
the armature current 11;’, with its associated field current plus o. transient reactance drop produced by the load
which is always proportional to it, can be regarded as pro» current.
ducing the flux linkages \;/1 with the field winding. For any When the power factor of the loads considered is other
other armature current, id’, assuming always that the than zero iegging, the vector sense of current and terminal
armature is short—circuil.ed, the flux linkages with the field voltage must be introduced. This can be accomplished by
computing ed’ for the operating condition in the some nmn-
winding are equal to 1111. Combined with Eq. (17),
in 1
i L6 eeeeeeeeeeeee~ —————— ~ ~ —
nu can be eliminated giving ¢e¢,'%li'_1. While this ,_. l _,l . ,,
rated
expression was derived from considerations applying only . , . ,
to the instant of transition, its application is more general. :.s*~~ l V ¢~~—,
The only necessary o0nsl(lera,l,l0I§$ that must he satisfied W7 Wt w 7 ‘7 ‘°Q" l
are that the armature be short-circuited and that the field
current contain 2. component of current to overcome the
demegnetizing effect of the armature current. But these
l l ‘“ l
__— k .. .-
conditions are always satisfied even under steady-state

\
l
conditions of short circuit, so, in general, it is permissible
to replace id’ in this expression by ~JdL. The flux linkages
with the field winding for the steady-state short-circuit
i \\
\§
\l
. . . ;'€d'lP1
condition thus become td1,;——-. NTE Q .

rated
By application of the superposition theorem, the total
flux linkages with the field winding can then be regarded
as the sum of the flux linkages produced by the terminal
voltage, namely —€~5—1{/1 and those by the armature cur»
embed.
l.O ~ i WW i i i
- .
rent with zero terminal voltage, namely zd;,——--. If the
. .Z‘d'§b§ :0 to ***T55: 740 so soD
erated REAGTANGE m PERCENT
armature current lags the voltage by 90 degrees, then the Fig. 27—Machine internal voltage as a iunction of reactanoe.
linkages are directly additive, and there results for the Full-load rated voltage.
flux linkages with the field
e . so '
,{,=__E_¢,1+,dLnii1 ner that ed was determined in Fig. 14, except that xd should
ex-stud 3:-ated
he replaced by xi’. The voltage ed’ should then replace
et+a:.1' in in (19). However, for nearly all practical pur-
= (e.+i:.,'1:.,,,>-ll-. (18) poses it is sufiiciently accurate to replace ea’ by the ampli-
enned
tude of .9. quantity ei’, which is usually referred to as the
Since the flux linkages with the field winding produced voltage behind transient reacts.nce to distinguish it from
by a unit of current id under short-circuit conditions is similar internal voltages for which leakage, synchronous
I

equal to 22-155 then the transient component of short- or subtransient reactance is used. The construction for
rated this quantity is shown in Fig. 26 and to assist in the ready
evaluation of the amplitude the curves in Fig. 2'7 are
Bi provided. The transient component of short-circuit current
e is then

64",,7/ i., 2 5;
ma. no
24%.; -\-

The subtransient component of shorvcircuit current is

obtained in a manner similar-to the transient component
lat except that the subtransient react-once is used in the calcu-
Fig. 26—Comtruction for the determination of internal volt~ lation of the internal voltage e,”. For loads of zero-power
ages er’ and er”. factor lagging the suhtransient rcactaxice drop, z,{’2',1;,,
158 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

caused by the armature current is directly additive to the ... ' __?_ 3
z.=%e,e Ta’ cos (21rfi+a)+j cos (21rft-§-0:)
terminal voltage and for zero-po\ver—iactor leading directly d d d
subtractive. For other power-factors er” can be obtained a:q—a:d' --2§- xq +xd’ _--‘_
from Fig. 27 by using xd”. The subtrausient component of ._WW.__
2xd,mq eta . cos( 4 vrf1 ~§~a) _w~WW»
2xd,xq eue T. 0080: (22)
short-circuit current is then
If
_ I ___1__
ib=§i1——l;ie,e T11’ COS (2':rft+-a-~I20°)
r" six
Ilia
(21) 1311513-:1

Unidirectional C0mp0nent—-In the three-phase +5? cos (21rft+0z—-120°)

<1
short-circuit from no load, the unidirectional component
seq -224’ - -i __
of current was introduced to prevent a non—continuous " €¢€ TB COS (47Ffl§*l—Of 120 )
transition of the instantaneous value of current from the
-' i
no-load to the short-circuit condition. The unidirectional
current performs a similar role for the short-circuit from
-@@,¢'r;
217.1 zcq
cos (o¢+120°) (23)
loaded condition. Before the short-circuit the armature . W;l.'2,1"""$¢' --L;
current is equal to "Jar. and has some position with reference 1-n'—_'_'”"f€<;€ '1"-1 cos (21rj'15—l—oz+12O°)
;17<1Id
to et such as shown in Fig. 28. The subtransient com-
+2008 (21rft+a~l-120°)
e'{ xq ~ red’ - 1-
-iete T: cos (41rft+a+l20°)
ll '
2xd’:cq
Wat I z
--%1£-*-_l_,i~‘3-e,e_'1'T=~ cos (a— 120°). (24)
‘ G d =1
ltll. 900 r
Where
e,=Terminal voltage before short-circuit.
fr I T2+2:d’x I rt

2 K’
'_*!5.=. T. = (26)
d Q
WV?
1 a==Angle which indicates point on wave at which
sh0rt~circuit occurs.
The instantaneous field current, Id, is
Fig. 28--—Showing that id, for a short circuit from load is equal 1l§rl_xd' ‘""—L, ‘""""i'
I4m""””WIg 6 T4 —€ T" COS 21l'fi +[g
to the negative of \/§ times the difierence between i” and i. (§
Where
ponent, i”, lags Cg” by ninety degrees so '5” and in will be 1;: Initial value of field current.
determined with respect to each other. The \/2 times the
vector difference between these two quantities (since they III. UNBALANCED CONDITIONS
are rms magnitudes) gives the unidirectionai component
necessary to produce smooth transition. The magnitude 13. Phase Currents for Unbalanced Short Circuits
of this quantity varies between this amplitude and zero As explained in the chapter relating to Symmetrical
depending upon the point in the cycle at which short- Components, the unbalanced operating conditions of a
circuit occurs. rotating machine can for most purposes be described in
Other Considerati0ns-'l‘ime constants are not influ~ tcruis of three ciiaracteristic constants: the positive-se~
enced by the nature of loading preceding the short-circuit. quence impedance, the negative-sequence impedance, and
Total rms currents can be determined by the rciations the zciosequence impedance. The short~circuit currents
already given. can be resolved, as before, into the steady~statc, transient,
and suhtransient components. The difference between
12. Three-Phase Short Circuit of Salient-Pole Ma-
these components decreases exponentially as before. The
chine without Damper Windings components of armature current and the time constants
For most applications it is suflicicntly accurate to treat for the ilifferent, kinds of short-circuits are given below for
the salient—pole machine without damper windings just as short-circuit.s at the terminals of the machine.
other machines. It must be recognized, however, that this For three-phase short-circuit:
is only an approximate solution. Among other complica- f
tions, in reality a strong second harmonic is present in the .,, 61” ,, 6;’ . 6;
7' ‘LT I mi: 'L=—“ Te’ * 922" Tao’ (23)
armature current. l)oherty and Nickles have developed Id 13¢ is xd
expressions for tile armature currents for a three-phase For terminal~to~terminai short circuit, the a-c components
short circuit from no load. These are given beiow. of the phase currents are given by
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics
.,, \/§ei” ., \/get’
2 =----»»»-» 2 =---Mr
wd"+rvz w.i'+ri
. =i-
\/3o $a'"l"$2
T ' =——W-T '0 L39}
2 ws+wi d ¢vs+1:z d
in which :12, is the negative-sequence impedance of the
machine
For terrninal~to~neutral short circuit, the a.-c components
of the phase currents are given by p i
i”_ 301” ii“ 381'
r¢"+a:1+x@ sa:»+~aa+r@
. 3@i , 33a "l"x2‘i'-T0 ,
7' :v<1+x@+x<> T‘; _ -I.rl“I132'i'Iu T“ (30)
in which $0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the machine.
The subtransient time constant, Td”, does not change sig-
nificantly With different conditions and, therefore, the
single value is used for all conditions. The unidirectional
components and the rms values are determined just as
described under the general subject of “Short Circuit from
Load.” The above values of er, er’ and ei” will naturally
be those values corresponding to the particular load
condition.
The ratio of the phase currents for terminal-tomeutral
to three~phase short circuits can be obtained from Ecfs (30)
and (28). Thus, for the phase currents
Terminal-to-neutral short circuit 31rd”
'I‘hree~phase short circuit 21¢” ~l~ at, + 2:0
The negative—sequence impedance, xi, is usually equal to
xd”, but for many machines $9 is less than x.-1”. For
these cases, the terminal-to-neutral short-circuit current
is greater than the three-phase short-circuit current. The
generator standards require that the machine be braced
only for currents equal to the th1'ce~pl1ase values. In order
that the terminal-to-neutral current not exceed the three-
phase current a reactor should be placed in the neutral of
the machine of such value as to bring the zero—sequence
impedance of the circuit equal to xd”. Thus, the neutral
reactor, xn, should be
we %%(:vr"——rr@)
14. Negative-Sequence Reactance
The negative-sequence impedance of a. machine is the
impedance offered by that machine to the flow of negative
sequence current. A set of negativc~sequence currents in
the armature creates in the air gap a magnetic field that
rotates at synchronous speed in a direction opposite to that
of the normal motion of the field structure. Currents of
double frcqucncy are thereby established in the field,
and in the damper winding if the machine has one. The
irnaginary component of the impedance is called the nega-
t1ve~sequence reactance and the real component the nega-
tive-sequence resistance. These will be discussed sepa~
rately, in the order mentioned.
If a single-phase voltage is applied across two terminals
of at salient-pole machine without dampers while its rotor
IS stationary, the resulting current is dependent upon the
position of the rotor with respect to the pulsating field set
159
up by the armature current. If the axis of the sI1ort~
cireuited field winding lines up with the axis of pulsating
field then the current is large and if the rotor is moved
through 90 electrical degrees then the current is much
smaller. The first position corresponds to the case of a
transformer in which the secondary winding is short-
circuited, the field winding in this case corresponding to
the secondary winding of the transformer. This is the
position in which the subtransient reactance, ms”, is deter»
mined. It is equal to one-half of the voltage from terminal-
to-terminal divided by the current. For the second position
the field winding is in quadrature to the pulsating field
and consequently no current flows in the field winding.
The armature current is then determined by the magnetiz»
ing characteristics of the air gap in the quadrature axis.
The subtransient reactance, zzzq”, is determined when the
field is in this position and is equal to one-ha.1f the quotient
of the voltage divided by the current. The reactance for
intermediate positions varies between these two amounts
in accordance with the curve shown in Fig. 29.
W cwZoRAiuRs'.\x:s xgi \ it
J 1 1 1 ‘ ‘ _
nib smear Axis x¢
i ~~ss~ up. OA‘MPER5'
1 I .
l" I l
0.8
._ ___ -_ ....-_.-Q---,-.-..--w-.----,--- - _ ---
NEGATIVE. SEQUENCE ‘ y
o.s r -. _ * = W
_- W, ;
W
1
7 "*e|.ocxeo—Ro'ron "estate iiiiiii
I ‘
°~2. y r W Jcor-ten zizanéirzns
. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,_ . ll
O0 30 80 90 I20 I50 ISO
INGULAR POSITION OF ROTOR IN DEGREES
Fig. 29Y~Re1ation between subtrsmsient and negative-us»
quence reactance.
When a set of negative-sequence currents is made to flow
through the armature with the field short-circuited and
rotating in its normal direction, then the field Winding
takes different positions successively as the armature field
rotates with respect to it. The nature of the impedances
in the two extreme positions, that is, where the field wind-
ing lines up with the magnetic field and where it is in
quadrature with it, should be somewhat the same as rd"
and xq”, the only significant difference being the fact that,
in the determination of Id” and zcq”, currents of normal
frequency were induced in the field, whereas, in the nega-
tivesequence case the currents are of twice normal fre-
quency. One would expect therefore that the negative-
sequence rcactance at; is some sort of a mean between xd”
and :cq", and such is the case. According to the AIEE test
code,” the definition of negative-sequence reactance is
equal to “the ratio of the fundamental component of re-»
160 Machine Characteristics Chaptfil‘ 6

active armature voltage, due to the fundamental neg:-a.tive~
sequence component of armature current, to this compo-
nent of armature current at rated frequency.” A rigorous
interpretation of this definition results in we equal to the
ll If
arithmetic mean However, several different defi-
nitions can he given for 2:2. That this is possible is depend-
ent largely upon the fact that when a sinusoidal set of
negative-sequence voltages is applied to the armature the
currents will not be sinusoidal. Converseiy ii the currents
are sinusoidal the voltages will not be.
In Table 1 are shown expressions“ for 2:; based upon
different definitions. This table is based on a machine
without damper windings for which 22.,” is equal to xq, and
tad" is equal to m’. In this table
t=
\/wt + \/rd’
For each test condition it is possible to establish definitions
based on whether fundamental or root-mean-square cur-
rents are specified. For example, in the first definition if
the fundamental component of armature current is used
in calculating I2 then the expression in the first column
should be used, but if the root-meamsquare figure of the
resultant current is used then the expression in the second
column should be used.
In order to orient 0ne’s self as to the relative importance
of the different expressions, figures have been inserted in
the expressions given in Table 1 for a typical machine
having the constants 14' =35%, rq =70%, and :c¢= 100%.
The magnitudes are tabulated in the righthand columns
of Table 1. From the standpoint of practical application,
the negative-seqfluelice rcactarice that would result in the
where I equals the root-mean-square armature current in
the short-circuited phase; and E’ equals the root-mcan—
square open-circuit voltage between terminals before the
short-circuit is applied or the no-load voltage correspond-
ing to the field current at which I is read.
In general, the same arguments can be applied to other
types of machines such as turbine generators and salient~
pole machines with damper windings when the parameters
std” and xq” are used. For such machines the difference
between xq” and we” is not great. The values for xq” and
azd” of a machine with copper dampers are given in Fig. 29.
For such machines the difference between as, based on the
diiierent definitions of Table 1 will become inconsequential.
In addition, for turbine generators, saturation introduces
variables of much greater magnitude than those just con»-
sidered. For these machines negative-sequence reactanco
can be taken equal to sud”.
Method of Testwln addition to the method implied
by the AIEE Code and the ASA whereby 2:2 is defined as
the arithmetic mean for and” and asq”, $g can be determined
directly from test either by applying negativesequence
voltage or by the method shown in Fig. 30.
1-— 0
E
b
._..¢
-1----------wnv C

proper root-mean-square current ior method (3) would _ _ __ _a‘—a

appear to be the most important. However, the method I,-O Inn] In-M WI I,1—}§(0+a“I-—czI)-—--§-I
of test to determine this quantity involves a sudden short-
circuit and from this standpoint proves rather inconveni- 12:,,=o E5=E can-r: EA,=%(0+a*E—~aE’)=?E
ent- On the other hand, the figure for $2 obtained from __~§ig__.7l.1‘il’"""<ll mEa2m J53
the use of the ro0t"~rnean~squa.1"e values in a. sustained E“_"l\/Llm 3\/5?; E z2ml;mI\/§
single-phase short-circuit current [method (4)1 is nearly If ¢=<:os*1%, where P=wattmeter reading,
equal to this quantity. When the resistance is negligible
this negative-sequence reactance is equal to then, z2= U%~I~(sin ¢»+j cos 45) w 2-2-—i~ja:,

x2@§—/fgll»-aid (31) Fig. 30—Determination of the negative-sequence impedance

of symmetrically-wound machines.

TABLE 1»-~Dn1=*mz'r1oNs or NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE Rnacrnucn

l Analytical Expressions , Numerical values
‘ 23¢ w35% x.,w70% :1=a=1D9%
Definition r
Funda- Root-Mc:1n—Squa2'e Rogthhgrianl
mental
_ __ ‘ __ q _ __

(1) Application of sinusoidal negative-se» 2:c.;’:cq __‘:.../?.L’€’s._ 47 l 44

quence voltage 5 x*‘f+xdi
\/1q2+:~r.i"
(2) Application of sinusoidal negative-se»
quence current
$q+Id'
2 i \/o..+@d'>=+Q<a—a'>= 53 74
(3) Initial symmetricel_component of sudden ' 1
‘V flra 16.; id’ \/1-or-1) + \/wag \/1-or p 50 5 48
singlaphase short-circuit current
(4) Sustained single-phase short-circuit current ‘V/Z'4'£L'q re(v'1-!>‘—1)+\/r¢’wq\/E-b’ l 5° . 4?
(5) Same as (4) with 50% external reactance 51 I 50
xq"'i'"~Td'
(6) A.I.E.E. and A.S.A.
2
53
__ _ _ l _ l __,_, __,_,_ _____
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics
With the machine driven at rated speed, and with a single-
phase short-circuit applied between two of its terminals
(neutral excluded) the sustained armature current and the
voltage between the terminal of the free phase and either
of the short-circuited phases are measured. The reading
of a single-phase wattrneter with its current coil in the
short-circuited phases and with the above mentioned volt-
age across its potential coil is also recorded. The negative-
sequence impedance equals the ratio of the voltage to the
current so measured, divided by 1.73. The negative-
sequencc reacumcc equals this impedance multiplied by the
ratio of power to tho product of voltage and current.
I5. Negative~Sequence Resistance
The power associated with the negative-sequence cur-
rent can be expressed as a resistance times the square of
the current. This resistance is designated the negative~
sequence resistance. For a machine without damper wind-
ings the only source of loss is in the armature and field
resistances, eddy currents, and iron loss. The copper loss
in the armature and field is small as is also the iron and
eddy loss in the armature, but the iron and eddy loss in
the rotor may be considerable. Copper damper windings
provide 8. lower impedance path for the eddy currents and
hinder the penetration of flux into the pole structure. The
relatively low resistance of this path results in a smaller
negative-sequence resistance than if the flux were per~
mitted to penetrate into the rotor. For higher resistance
damper windings the negative-sequence resistance increases
to a- point beyond which the larger resistance diminishes
the current in the rotor circuits sufiiciently to decrease
the loss.
Induction-Motor Diagram-—-The nature of the neg-
ative—sequence resistance is best visualized by analyzing
the phenomena occurring in induction motors. In Fig. 31
ix! rt lxr rr
-.iI- ___.-,.
l’ Ir
l i i- l
Fig. 31—Equivalent circuit of induction motor.
is given the usual equivalent circuit of an induction motor
in which
1', = stator resistance.
w,-wstator-leakage reactance at rated frequency.
r, -= rotor resistance.
:n,.= rotor-leakage reactance at rated frequency.
zm=shunt impedance to include the effect of magnetiz-
ing current and no-load losses.
E, = applied voltage.
I, = stator current.
I.5 rotor current.
s m slip.
The justification for this diagram is shown briefly as
follows: The air—gap flux created by the currents I , and I,
161
induces the voltage E, in the stator and sE, in the rotor.
In the rotor the impedance drop is
r.I.+jsrJ. (32)
since the reactance varies with the frequency of the cur-
rents in the rotor. The rotor current is therefore deter~
mined by the equation
8E, = r,I,+jsx,I,
DI
E,.=-%r,+;'s,1, , (33)
It follows from this equation that the rotor circuit can be
completely represented by placing a circuit of impedance
%5+jz, across the voltage E5. The total power absorbed by
g must be the sum of the rotor losses and the useful shaft
power, so that, resolving 2 into the resistances r, and
1-§~§r,, the power absorbed by r, represents the rotor cop-
1
per loss. The power absorbed by —~;~§r, represents the
useful shaft power.
Neglecting r, and the real part of 2..., the only real power
is that concerned in the rotor circuit. Assume that the
induction motor drives a direct-current generator. At
small slips the electrical input into the stator is equal to
the copper loss, i.e., the Iflr, of the rotor plus the shaft
load. With the rotor locked, the shaft load is zero, and the
total electrical input into the stator is equal to the rotor
copper loss. At 200—pci-cont slip, i.c., with the rotor turning
at synchronous speed in the reverse direction, the copper
. . . I”
loss is IE1}, the electrical input into the stator 18 —-35,
1--2 —I?r, .
and the shaft load Tr,IE or A negative shaft
load signifies that the direct-current machine instead of
functioning as a. generator is now a motor. Physically that
is just what would be expected, for as the slip increases
from zero the shaft power increases to s. maximum and
then decreases to zero for 100-percent slip. A further in-
crease in slip necessitates motion in the opposite direction,
which requires a driving torque. At 200-percent slip the
electrical input into the stator is equal to the mechanical
input through the shaft; half of the copper loss is supplied
from the stator and half through the shaft. This is the
condition obtaining with respect to the negative-sequence
in which the rotor is rotating at a slip of 200 percent rela-
tive to the synchronously rotating negative-sequence field
in the stator. Half of the machine loss associated with the
negative—sequencc current is supplied from the stator and
half by shaft torque through the rotor.
The factors of fundamental importance are the power
supplied to the stator and the power supplied to the shaft,
which can always be determined by solving the equivalent
circuit involving the stator and rotor constants and the
magnetizing-current constants. A more convenient device,
162
lxs rs lxr rt
Zm
Q - W - 1;
(0)
lxl lxr
l>”””””-
ixm
,, , ,___ ___
2 (E)
X,-x,+ xm(r,+4x,x,,,+4x,) zr x‘
rz -------L-%-
rE*+4(x,,,+x,)' r,?+ -:(xm+x,)'
0* - ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ~
(0)
Fig. 32»»»Deve1opment of negative-sequence resistance and
reactance from equivalent circuit of induction motor.
la) Negative-sequence diagram for induction motor; (b) neg-
lecting armature and no load losses; {c) almpllfied network-
negatlve-eequence resistance and reactance.
since sis constant and equal to 2 for the negative~sequence,
is to reduce the equivalent network to a simple series im-
pedance as shown in Fig. 32 (0). The components of this
impedance will be called the negative-sequence resistance
T2, and the negative-sequence reactance $2. The current
flowing through the negative-sequence impedance is the
current flowing through the stator of the machine, and the
power loss in r, is equal to the loss supplied from the stator
of the machine and the equal loss supplied through the
shaft.
The total electrical effect of the negative-sequence re»
sistance in system analysis problems is obtained by in-
serting the negative-sequence resistance in the negative-
sequence network and solving the network in the usual
manner. All three of the sequence currents are thus af-
fected to some extent by a change in the negative-sequence
resistance. The total electrical output of a generator, not
including the shaft torque developed by negative-sequence
current, is equal to the total terminal power output plus
the losses in the machine. However, the negative and
zero-sequence power outputs are merely the negative of
their losses. In other words, their losses are supplied by
power flowing into the machine from the system. There-
fore, the contribution of the negative and zero-sequences
to the electrical output is zero. The total electrical output
reduces then to that of the positive-sequence and to include
the positive-sequence armature-resistance loss it is neces-
sary only to use the positive-sequence internal voltage in
the calculations. Or viewed differently, since there are
no internal generated voltages of the negative or zero-
sequence, the corresponding internal power must be zero.
In addition to this electrical output, which produces a
torque tending to decelerate the rotor, there also exists the
negative-sequence shaft power supplied through the rotor.
It was shown that this power tending to deceleratc the
rotor is numerically equal to the negative-sequence power
Machdne Characteristics Chapter 6
supplied to the stator, which, in turn is equal to the loss
absorbed by the negative-sequence resistance. Therefore,
the total decelerating power is equal to the positive-
sequence power output plus the loss in the negative-
'5' sequence resistance.
The assumption was made that the stator resistance
and the losses in the magnetizing branch were neglected.
For greater refinements, the stator resistance and the losses
in the magnetizing branch can be taken into consideration
by substituting them in the equivalent circuit and reducing
that circuit to simple series resistance and reactance,
it wherein the resistance becomes the negative-sequence rc-
2
sistance and the reactance the negative-sequence reactance.
The ratio of the negative-sequence shaft power to the loss
in the ncgativosequence resistance is then. equal to the
ratio of the power loss in 7-; for unit negative-sequence
current in the stator to 7'3. This ratio can be obtained easily
by test by measuring the shaft torque and the negative-
sequence input when negative-sequence voltages only are
applied to the stator.
While this analysis has premised induction-motor con-
struction, thc conclusions can also be applied to synchro-
nous machines.
Method of Test—-While 1», and as can be determined by
applying negative-sequence voltage from another source
of supply to the armature, the following method has the
advantage that the machine supplies its own negative-
sequence voltage. Two terminals of the machine under
test are short-circuited and the machine driven at rated
frequency by means of a direct-current motor. The equiv-
alent circuit and vector diagram for this connection are
shown in Fig. 33. The positivosequence power perphase
at the terminals is equal to the product of E1 and I1 and
the cosine of the angle qr». This power is positive. However,
the negative-seciuepce power output per phase is equal to
the product of E2, I2, and the cosine of the angle between
E’; and I2, and since I1= —-I1, and E'1=E2, the negative-
G
Er
e b
DRIVING MOTOR
_ “ax:
IX: r‘
|-2 ix:
lgfi
E|"Eg*(Ig '|' |X;) 1|
¢
4....... ..... .. \ - WT»
is ° 1|
,. =3_(P-“Prrrl
’ 2I=
in which
P,= shaft input.
P]'+w=fI'.lCl»l»QI1 and windage loss.
Fig. 33--Negative-sequence resistance of 9. synchronous
machine.
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics
sequence power output is the negative of the positive-
sequence power output, which, of course, must follow since
the output of the machine is zero. A negative output is
equivalent to a positive input. This input is equal to rJ§
per phase. Theref_ore, the p0sitive—sequence terminal out-
put per phase is T913, and adding to this the copper loss due
to 1,, gives them total shaft power due to the positive-
Sequence as 3(1'J§+r1I§).
Now from Fig. 32(a), if zm be neglected the negative-
sequence input per phase is equal to
(T,-}~'r, or(%+r,)T§,
from which it follows that
=-.=§+i.. <34)
As shown previously the negative-sequence shaft power
per phase is equal to 55.73, which on substituting iii from
(34) reduces to (r¢—r,)f§. But since r,=r1, the expression
for the negative-sequence shaft power per phase can also
be written (r2—r;)I§. Incidentally, from this the rotor
losses are equal to 2(r,--r,)T§. Therefore the total shaft
input into the alterpating-current machine is equal to
3[r,I§+r,I§+(r2—-r,)I§} and, since I1=I,, reduces to 6rJ§.
Including the effect of friction and windage, Pm-|-W), and
calling P. the total input into the alternating-current
machine from the driving tool,
r2= (35)
. - I — .
and, since Ififi where I 18 the actual measured phase
current,
,z2 (36)
The foregoing neglects the effects of saturation. Tests on
salient pole machines with and Without dampers verify
the fact that the loss varies as the square of the negative-
equencecurrents. The ioss for turbine generators, on the
other hand, varies as the 1.8 power of current.
£6. Zero-Sequence Impedance
The zero-sequence impedance is the impedance offered
to the flow of unit zero-sequence current, i.e., the voltage
drop across any one phase (star-connected) for unit current
in each of the phases. The machine must, of course, be
gtar-connected for otherwise no zero-sequence current can
OW.
The zero-sequence reactance of synchronous machines is
quite variable and depends largeiy upon pitch and breadth
factors. In general, however, the figures are much smaller
than those of positive and negative sequences. The nature
of the reactance is suggested by considering that, if the
armature windings were infinitely distributed so that each
phase produced a sinusoidal distribution of the mmf, then
the mmfs produced by the equal instantaneous currents
of the three phases cancel each other and produce zero
field and consequently zero reactance except for siot and
163
end-connection fluxes. The departure from this ideal con-
dition introduced by chording and the breadth of the phase
belt determines the zero» sequence reactance.
The zero-sequence resistance is equal to, or somewhat
larger than, the positive-sequence resistance. In general,
however, it is neglected in most calculations.
Method Of TeSt—The most convenient method for
test of zero-sequence impedance is to connect the three
phases together, as shown in Fig. 34, with the field short-
..L
E
Rotor at synchronous speed
(or blocked)
Zero-sequence impedance;
M?
”"“31
Fig. 3&—-Connection for measuring zeromequence imped-
ance.
clrcuited. This connection insures equal distribution of
current between the three phases. For this reason it is
preferable to connecting the three phases in parallel. The
zero-sequence impedance IS then equal to Ziwfi as H.1-
dicated in the illustration.
IV. PER UNIT SYSTEM
The performance of a whole line of apparatus, regardless
of size, can often be expressed by a single set of constants
when those constants are expressed in percentages. By
this is meant that the loss will be a certain percentage of
its kilowatt rating, its regulation a certain percentage of
its voltage rating, etc. The advantage of this method of
representation extends to a better comparison of perform-
ance of machines of different rating. A 100-volt drop in a
transmission line has no significance until the voltage base
is given, whereas, as a percentage drop would have much
significance.
A disadvantage of the percentage system is the confusion
that results from the multiplication of percentage quanti-
ties. Thus, a 20-percent current flowing through a 40-
percent reactance would by simple multiplication give 800
which at times is erroneously considered as 800-percent
voltage drop, whereas, the correct answer is an 8~percent
voltage drop.
The per unit system‘ of designation is advanced as pos-
sessing all the advantages of the percentage system but
avoids this last mentioned disadvantage. In this system
the rating quantity is regarded as unity. Any other amount
of the quantity is expressed as a fraction of the rated
amount. It is the same as the percentage system except
that unity is used as a base instead of 100. The foregoing
164 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

multiplication example would in the per unit system be . .-:~ 0 - .E'

expressed as follows: A 0.20 per unit current flowing =" '“J(%;i ')6:"‘r.7;;; (37)
through a 0.40 per unit reactence produces an 0.98 per
unit voltage drop, which is correct. Bill; El = ed —1lIe?:<1—jIEqiq
A further advantage of the percentage and per unit and E=E cos t9—jE sin 9
systems lies in the elimination of troublesome coefficients.
However, this is not an unmixed blessing as a definite Upon substituting ér and E in equation (37), there results
disadvantage of the use of the per unit system lies in the w,+r¢
loss of the dimensional check. in “fie = "‘"J(*;*";") [es —$d@'a —J'%’iql
H G

V. POWER EXPRESSIONS -+~j5;[E cos 6—jE’ sin 6} (38)

It is frequently necessary to know the manner in which
Equating reels
the power output of a. machine varies with its excitation
and internal angle. A particular application of this knowl- , :::q(x,+Iv¢l. E sin B
zq= --——-M~—»--~z +--———
edge is the stability problem. Several simple cases will xsxc q 330
be considered. x,E sin 0
39
17. Machine Connected through Reactance to In- ==w.r.,+wqw.+wq:v. ( )
finite Bus and also Shunt Reactance across its And equating imaginaries
Terminals, Resistance of Machine Neglected
The schematic diagram for this case is shown in Fig. . av +1 . 1
t,,=-~'1--5{e,;-:2:<nd]-—~—l§’ cos 6‘
ZEQIE5 its
35(a.), which also shows the significance of the various
symbols to be used in this discussion. The reactances :v., (:r:,+:c,,)ed-~a:,E cos 6
arc, and the one indicated by the dotted lines represent the $axu+Id:5|+xdxc
branches of an equivalent 1r circuit, for which the resistance
components are neglected. For the purposes of determin- The power output, P, is equal to the sum of the products of
ing the power output of the generator the reactance shown the in-phase components of armature current and terminal
dotted can be neglected. The vector diagram which ap- voltage, namely
plies is Fig. 35(b}. The total machine current is equal to 'i, P = '£q(e¢ — xdid) +id(:cqz'q)
=== ediq+ (:z:q— I@)idT:q
e X‘ 6 xi at jxfl = {Ed-i“-(21q'""'$d}’l:d]’iq
6 _ E
'—"' *1-'* n, The power is then obtained by calculating 2}, and id from
ii g _ ic cu
ll IX: Zl (39) and (40) end inserting into (41). If E and err are ex-
¢-:1
rl
pressed in terms of rrns volts to neutral and resctances in
ohms per phase, then the above expression gives the power
Y? in watts per phase; but if the emf ’s are expressed in terms
{<1}
of the pl1ase~to-phase volts the expression gives total power.
On the Other hand, if all quantities are expressed in p.u.
ls ____ _ WWfiv___ ‘___ then the power is also expressed in p.11. where unity is
equal to the kva rating of the machine. If ed’ rather than
L9 tug“ we ed is known then ed should be replaced by ed’ and 2.1 by xd’
Wherever they appear in Eqs. (40) and (41).
or For the special case of 3. machine with cylindrical rotor
in which xq =a:¢, the expression reduces immediately to
P = 8,-liq
\‘ lb) :z:,Ee¢ sin 8

Fig. 35--Machine connected to infinite bus through a re-

r.xs+zQr,+rQrt (42)
actance. Another interesting special case is that for which the
shunt reactance is not present or x.== w. Then
which from the internal and external currents one can ed—-E cos B Esin 9
obtain*
in “fie = 2:; +2:
P“l‘“+‘”“*”d>isei*i‘l ?:.,+?<{
HedE sin 6+ (xd--xq)E’ sin 26
And inserting the equivalents of vi, and *1 w@+w¢ 2{%+=v¢) ($q'l'-73¢) (43)
. ,,
‘I <1 "“ .7 1 <l = jx‘
5, éy"-E’
.—-l-'*—.%
And if 1:,-=0 and :x:,= so, then
Jxn
P: + (xdm :v;)E2 sin 28
‘The symbol caret over a quantity indicates a phasor quantity. ma x,;xq (44)
Chapter 6 Mackine Characteristics 165

11::
,_,
1 toril i
l
*~ { { { { { { { { { o-inn:{ { or *~
ta i ~ ~ ~~~ ~ V V V ea —~ ~~ [4
5 to
§O.S'" " "

W ~~ ~ ~ mi.
2
Mi *_ __ _ ,_ ,_ _ if
.~»~»~»~J- —-
_* e, v
°o " "E W 4? g **
p-—%>—~J-1—-rZ— 3,_._. _i.
9 IN DEGREES
l,_ i. a_
‘FOO’ * * no s-4-—- I50 W7 I50 W
Fig. 37-Vector diagram of salienbpoie machine including
Fig. 36—Power-angle diagram of a salient~pole rnechine~—- effect of series resistance.
excltation determined to develop rated kva at 80-percent
power factor. x¢== 1.15; xqa 0.75. eh cos 5%-riq+:r,;id-— edflO (46)

In Fig. 36 is shown a power-angle diagram of a salient- From (45)

pole machine whose excitation is determined by loading at
fuli kva at S0-percent power factor.
¢'.=§-(8, sin e+n'.,); (47)
q

An expression frequentiy used to determine the maxi-

mum pull-out of turbine generators is the following Substituting (47) into (46)

e, cos 0%-let sin 6+-if4I.;+x.iz'4—e.;wO

Pul1—out in kw%%g(rating of generator in kva) 2:“ xq
where QC is the field current for the particular operating from which
condition and OD is the field current for the rated-current _ 1 .
zero-power factor curve for zero terminal voltage (see Fig. id = ml [zrqea --wet SID. 6 --xqet cos 6:! (48)
17). This expression is based upon the maintenance of
rated terminal voltage up to the point of pull-out. At and substituting in (47)
pull-out the angle 5 of Fig. 15 is equal to 90 degrees. Since
the extent of saturation is measured by the voltage behind iq==-—%——w [re,.1+xde, sin 6-re, cos 0] (49)
r’+.2:dxq
the Potier reaetance drop, it can be seen from Fig. 15 that
for 5 equal to 90 degrees this voltage is less than rated The power output, P, is equal to the sum of the products
voltage, and that therefore little saturation is present. of the in-phase components of 11 and er, or
From Eq. (44) since zmwzcq and 9-"190 degrees, the pull-out Pmiqet cos 6-§—fde, sin 8 (50)
IS E£--. But es, is proportional to OC on the a1r»ga.p line and Upon substituting (48) and (49) this reduces to
d

and is likewise proportional to OD on the air-gap line. P6 .

Examination of Eq. (44) shows that even if the excita-
tion is zero (ed=0) the power-angle curve is not equal to
_ 2 ~
zero, but equal to . This results from the
<1 <1
effects of saliency. Note that it disappears for uniform
air-gap machines for which x4=a:,. Advantage is some-
times taken of this relation in the case of synchronous
condensers to obtain a somewhat greater capability in the
leading (under~excited) kva range. With some excitation
systems (see Chap. 7, Excitation Systems) it is possible to
obtain negative excitation. The excitation voltage, e,,, in
Eq. (44) can be somewhat negative without proclucinglan
unstable power-angle diagram. By this device the leading
kva range can be increased as much as 15 or 20 percent.
18. Inclusion of Machine Resistance or External
Resistance
If the machine is connected to an infinite bus through a
resistance and reactance circuit, the external resistance
and reactance can be lumped with the internal resistance
and rcactance and the following analysis used. The vector
diagram for this case is shown in Fig. 37 for which
at sin 94-ri¢ — xqiq m O
|:e¢(r cos §+:rq Sill $ -'3’?
6) +~3-§—-get .
sin 29-~1"et]
(51)
The power input into the machine is equal to P plus rel’.
The expression for this quantity does not simplify and it
is better to calculate it through the intermediate step of
evaluating H12, which is equal to ¢(i§+'i§).
The foregoing expressions apply to the steady-state con-
ditions. In stability problems it is necessary to determine
the average power from instant to instant. In general for
this purpose it is permissible to neglect both the unidirec~
tional component of currents and the subtransient com-
ponent of the alternating current, leaving only the transient
component. These latter are determined by the instanta-
neous value of ed’. It follows then that the power expres-
sions are simply those derived for the steady~state condition
with es replaced by ed’ and xd by 2:4’.
VI. EFFECT OF CHANGE IN EXGITATION
Field forcing in certain industrial applications and con-
siderations of system stability require that the voltage
increase in response to a sudden need. This increase is
(45) brought about automatically either by means of the some
166
control that produced the increase in load or through the
use of a voltage regulator. It is necessary, therefore, to be
able to predetermine the efiect of an increase in exciter
voltage upon the output of the synchronous machine. In
general, significant changes in exciter voltage never require
less than about one-tenth of a second to bring about the
change. By the time this effect has been felt through the
synchronous machine, which has a time constant of about
a second, it will be found that the result is always slow
when compared to the subtransient and unidirectional
components of the transients associated with the change.
In other Words, variations in excite: voltage are reflected
only in the transient components. As an example, suppose
it is desired to calculate the armature current of a machine
for a. three-phase short-circuit while it is operating at no
load with a voltage regulator set for rated voltage.
immediately after the inception of the short circuit there
is a slight lag in the regulator until its contacts and relays
close. The exciter voltage (and voltage across the field of
the main machine) then rises as shown in the upper curve
of Fig. 38. The bottom curve refers to the armature cur-
sxcman voumcs
l-—-Lao nu aseutnoa
‘ *i TIME
ARMATURE CURRENT
_¢___'
"'--»--.___
"=~----¢.-,,__, _ _ ,,,,
TIME
Fig. 38- ~ ~ Jllustration showing relative importance of different
components of armature short-circuit current and response
of transient component to the excite!" voltage.
rent, the dotted line showing the nature of transient com-
ponent if there were no regulator, the exciter voltage
remaining constant. The line immediately above shows
how the transient component changes as a result of the
change in excite: voltage. To approximately the same
scale, the crosehatched area shows the increment in cur-
rent caused by subtransient effects. The blackened area
shows how the unidirectional component would contribute
its effect. This component is quite variable and for a
short-~circuit on the line might be entirely completed in a
cycle or less. In any event regardless of its magnitude it
can be merely added to the transient and subtransient
component. It is independent of the exciter voltage.
19. Fundamental Equation
Being restricted to the transient component, the effect of
exeiter response can then he defined entirely by effects in
Machine Characteristics Chapter 6
the field circuit. The beauty of the per unit system is
exemplified in the analysis of this problem. In p.u. the
differential equation for the field circuit takes the following
form
I
.‘:..=<i.+r.;.‘5§‘-» <52)
In this equation e, represents the exeiter voltage or the
voltage across the field if there is no external field resistor
in the field circuit. The unit of ex is that voltage required
to eirculate such field current as to produce rated voltage
at no load on the aihgap line of the machine. The term ed
is the synchronous internal voltage necessary to produce
the instantaneous value of armature current for the given
armature circuit regardless of what it may be. Its unit is
rated voltage. It is synonymous with field current when
unit field current is that field current necessary to produce
rated voltage at no load on the air-gap line. It will be seen
then that the use of ed is merely a convenient way of
specifying the instantaneous field current during the tran-
sient conditions; it is the field current necessary to produce
the armature current existent at that instant. As shown
previously, ed’, is proportional to the flux linkages with the
field winding. it. is the quantity that, during the transition
period from one circuit condition to another, remains con-
stant. The foregoing equation has its counterpart in the
more familiar forms
8,.-=R¢+N(10-=)‘-3‘? (53)
01‘
e,=Ri "i' enas \ _v'
sis l_'\
To familiarize the reader with (52), suppose that normal
exciter voltage is suddenly applied to the field winding at
no load. Since the armature is opemcircuited e4’ and ed
are equal and the equation can be written
d
ex”5¢i“l"T¢lo:i€§‘l <55)
When steady-state conditions are finally attained lg? is
equal to zero and edmex. This states that since e,= 1.0,
e¢ must also equal 1.0, that is, the excitation is equal to
the normal no-load voltage. It will attain this value ex~
ponentially with a time constant T50.
Another exampie. Suppose the synchronous machine
to be short-circuited from no-load and to be operating
without a regulator. At any instant the armature cun-
rent, #1, is equal to Ed,/xdl. But since ed, which can be
regarded as the instantaneous field current required to
produce 1', is equal to rs '5, then eliminating 11 between
these equations
6:1 = 53,64’ (55)
ills
Then equation (52) takes the form
iii ' (Z85,
T'°---
I¢]ed+ d dd
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 157

or if it is to be expressed in terms of armature current name, has been celled by the author “t-he follow-up meth-
od,” It is a method that can be applied to any problem
1=$di+Téq$¢'g€. (so involving e simple time constant.
To demonstrate the method, consider 9. simple resist-
The sustained magnitude of i, is then ance-inductance circuit to which the voltage, E’, is applied.
Let the differential equation for this circuit be
_ 1
dI
E e RI +1115 (59)
The initial magnitude of i, since ed’ remains constant
during the transition and is initially equal to l, is where the symbols have the customary significance.
Dividing through by R, there results
{ML E L all
37¢’ R I+R
—= cu
— -— ( 60)
The homogeneous equation for (57) is
.
0-=w.n+ Téowdid ' The coefficient of g is called the time constant of the

or circuit and will be designated by T, giving

, . E Tall
0=¢+T,;.,% g (58) R-1J“ dt
Thus 11 changes from '57 to %~ exponentially with a. time
1.1 d
{@312£1 (61)
I
dz T
constant equal to ?T<ls.
o
In this expression g is the steady-state current that I
In all problems involving 2. transition from one circuit
condition to another the one quantity (when suhtransient approaches for the instantaneous value of E’. I is the
effects are neglected and the time constant in the quadra- instantaneous magnitude of current. If the current at
ture axis is zero) that remains constant within the machine any instant is plotted by the point <1 (Fig. 40) and the
is the flux linkages with the field winding, which in turn
is reflected in the quantity es’. It is necessary, therefore, correspondlng value of E for that mstant IS plotted as
to calculate ed’ for the circuit condition preceding the the point b (Fig. 40) displaced horizontally by a time T,
transition. All the discussion of the following cases as-
sumes that this point is understood and that ed’ is known h
for the beginning of the transient period.
Several cases will now be discussed.
20. Three-phase Short Circuit of Unsaturated Ma-
chine
i_1Ml_ sfii
\ G;--

The problem is to determine the transient component

of short-circuit current in response to the exciter voltage
given in Fig. 39. This is most quickly and conveniently
found by a graphical method, which, for want of 9. better ,loo”"l
Fig. 40--Construction derivation of “FoIlcw~up Method."
‘ 2
then the vertical distance between a and b gives the nu~
I1 merator of (61) and the horizontal distance the denomina-
0 . (H
tor. The slope of the line between a and b is equal to 8-E.

‘s If an interval of time At is chosen following the instant

under consideration and E is assumed constant over the

i ill
"E interval then the change in I during the interval, AI, is

1‘ l
equal to got. The final value of current for the interval
Y
\
l is then given by the point 1;. ll g at an instant Al later is
A
I
l|||| I
Fig. 39-Illustration of “Follow-up Method.”
then plotted and the line drawn from c then the value for
AI for the second interval is obtained. Following such
procedure it is possible to construct the complete curve
for 1. The construction is illustrated in Fig. 39, in which
 168 Machim Characteristics Chapter 6

the curve marked E is the instantaneous magnitude of E

t'#;:£,. Starting from this value the actual magnitude of
from time i=0. Plot g displaced to the right a time T. ii
i is obtained as a function of time.
Let Ii be the initial vaiue of I at t=0. Divide the time into
intervals of Iength At. Draw the iine ab, then od, ef, etc. 21. Unsaturated Machine Connected to Infinite Bus
The accuracy will be greater the smaller the intervals and As stated previously the suhtransient and unidirectional
can he increased somewhat for a given element width by components of current are not of importance in the sta-
bility problem. For this sppiication it is desirable to de-
using T —~% instead of T for the distance by which the
termine how ed’ varies es this influences the power output
steady-state curve which I tends to approach, is offset of the machine and in turn dictates the degree of accelera-
horizontally. tion or deceleration of the rotor. The circuit shown in
N ow returning to the problem in hand. The differential Fig. 35(a) is typical of a setup that might be used for an
equation governing the case is given by (52). The exciter analytical study to determine the effect of exciter response
voltage e, is assumed given and expressed in p.u. For a in increasing stability limits. Another case of considerable
three-phase short circuit at the terminals of the machine importance is the action of a generator when a heavy load,
6.; is equal to stat and ed’ =:td’t'. Therefore Eq. 52 becomes such as a large induction motor, is connected suddenly
across its terminais or across the line to which is is eon-
t.=t.1:+@.'r.:..§§ <62) nected. In starting the motor the iine voltage may drop
an excessive amount. The problem might be to determine
Dividing through by xd the amount to which this condition could be ameliorated
, . by an appropriate excitation system. Since reactive kva
E25: 2‘+'md
xd ~ ifs‘. TdgI fit is more important than the real power in determining
regulation, the motor can be represented as a reactor and
The construction dictated by this equation and the the circuit in Fig. 35(a) utilized. Having determined the
manner in which ed’ varies, the power in the case of the
follow-up method is shown in Fig. 41. g is plotted against stability problem and the terminal voltage (ed’~—z,1’~I) in
15¢
the case of the voltage problem, can be calculated easily.
0| Equation (52) must be used again to deteunine the manner
X-.. Q7 in which ed’ varies in response to changes in exciter voltage
and phase position of the rotor with respect to the infinite
bus. The instantaneous armature current can be found in
\ 8‘ terms of the rotor angle 6 and ed’ by replacing e4 and 2:‘; of
Eq. (40) by ed’ and 1,1’, respectively, giving
1,d=(x,-l~:t.,)ed ’ a:,E cos 0
I
(M)
l
l
a
l In-'Ec+$d -'17a”’i""$<1 170
2_
The synchronous internal voltage, ed, is equal at any
instalit to
(3.1 1‘-"“ 645+" (274 -37d')’ig
ex
and upon substituting (64)
xd
(91 ~irI@)e ’—z,E' cos 9

|..
=2 (w.r°+w¢w.+:vd:v@)ed’ —x.(r.i -1 xi’)? <38 9
a:,x.,+:i:,;':z:, +:c¢’x¢
Substituting this expression in (52), there results.
4% . X6760 . Zs1io+37dJ7;+-Id-77¢ ,
¢=“"“”“*""T“**"**‘;“ed “
we-73o’i‘xd zu’l'xd -'50

$5 (1%: - $4’)
_._._._..__...c........];; I Jed’
W...
w.wt+w¢'I,+a:d’x.. cos 6+T°° dt (66)
which can be converted to
TIME
Ta’ $»($d'" 93¢’) deli’
Fig. 41—'I‘ranslent component of ahorbclrcuit current, i’, as --—, ~—-—---—m-~W—WE 9= ’ T '~—- 67
influenced by excitation.
T‘.i..P +:v.x.,+xi=r.+r¢rl cos 8°‘ + " dfi C )
in which
. . . . . :c ’ ; ___ 97:-77e"i'"37d,55a‘+1'dl17a ;
time, its zero being displaced an interval ~d-»T§., from refer- Ta M :v.:ct+=w¢=+r¢1¢° T” (68)
95¢
ence zero. The initial value of z‘ is determined through ed’ The time constant Td’ is the short-circuit transient time
which was 1.0 at tmfl. This makes the initial amount of constant.
Chapter 6
If 8 were constant or if its motion as a function of time
were known then the whole left-hand side could be plotted
(displaced by the time Ta’) and treated by the follow-up
method as the quantity that es’ tends to approach. Un-
fortunately 6 is not in general known beforehand, and it is
necessary to calculate 0 simultaneously in small increments
in a simultaneous solution of ed’ and 0. The magnitude of
0 is determined by the electromechanical considerations
discussed in the chapter dealing with System Stability. In
solving for ed’ a progressive plot of the left-hand side can
be made or (67) can be transformed to the following form
§@¢'_ I Ta’ 1F|($a"$u') _
tit _ Tr’ l: Tése‘+r.w-»+w¢I.+:v¢w.E cos 8 8‘
and the increment calculated from the equation
Ae;=%sr
A shunt resistance-reactance load such as an induction
motor is not much more diflicult to solve numerically but
the expressions become too involved for analytical solution.
It is necessary only to calculate -i.1in terms of ed’ and 9 just
as was done before and than follow the same steps as used
for the rcactance load.
22. Unsaturated Machine Connected to Resistance-
Reactance Load
A case not too laborious to carry through analytically
is that for which a resistance-react-a.nce load is suddenly
applied to a synchronous machine. Let rm and arm be the
external resistance and reactance. The addition of a. sub-
script t to machine constants indicates the addition of rm
or 1:”, to the respective quantity. The equations of Sec. 17
then apply to this case, if e, in the equations is made equal
to zero and xd replaced by 2“, etc.
Following the same procedure as previously, there re-
sults from Eq. (48) when as and 2:¢ are replaced by cg
and xi; and ct is equal to zero.
‘*' w “"“ ' ‘71 l
The fieid current or its equivalent, the synchronous in-
ternal voltage, is then
ea = ¢a'+ ($41. -"1I<i¢)ia
'== 6a"l' (.TU<iz“"$=lt) “T£u'i;-"~04,
9'a+93dv13qs
$u¢$qz"l“?'€ , This can be converted to
Substituting this expression in (52) there results that
61
=fL%*+"§
xéwq'+ 1% ed, +
‘ii’
dt
which can be converted to
T41’ ___ IdégI
T506;-6a'+ Ta]?
in which
$ rvmu+1%
T1 xwfifirst
Machinc Characteristics 169
From this point the follow-up method can be used as
before. After ed’ is determined as 2. function of time any
other quantity such as terminal voltage can be obtained
readily.
23. Saturation
In analyzing transient phenomenon of machines in the
l1B58.l;LlI'B,l56d condition, the theory was built; around the
concept of the transient internal voltage, ed’, a quantity
evaluated by using the transient reactance, :zd'. In the
presence of saturation it was found that for steady-state
, conditions by the introduction of the Poticr reactance,
1:, (see Sec. 3) the proper regulation was obtained at full
(69) load zero power-factor. The use of av, and 42,, also resulted in
satisfactory regulation for other po\ver—factors. In extend-
ing the analysis into the realm of transient phenomenon.
(70) e, will continue to be used as a base from which to intro-
duce additional mmf into the field circuit to take care of
saturation effects. The treatment will follow quite closely
the some assumptions as were used in determining the
steady~state regulation according to the Two-Reaction
Poticr Voltage method of Sec. 3(d).
With this assumption the fundamental Eq. (52) for the
field circuit becomes
I
e, =ed+ (2 due to e,) +T,§,%-5 (76)
As before ed represents, neglecting saturation, the voltage
behind the synchronous reactence of the machine or what
is equivalent the field current required to produce the
instantaneous ed’, including the demagnetizing effect of
the instantaneous armature current. The total field cur-
rent is obtained by adding a to ed. In some cases it is found
simpler to convert all of the right hand side to the single
variable e, but in others it is simpler to retain the variable
in the form of ed’. Two applications of this equation will
be discussed.
Machine Connected to Infinite Buswfrhe circuit
shown in Fig. 35(a) is the one under discussion and for
which Eq. (66) applies for the unsaturated condition. This
equation can be expanded to include saturation, in accord-
ance with Eq. (76), to the following
= w.r.,+w:.+m¢x.
he e I
- e :c.(:vd-—:vd') E a
Q‘ :=.==.+w¢’r.+z¢’rf'* w.r.+x¢'r..+¢¢’x. cw
I
+ (s due to e,)+T¢Q%%. (77)
<7” id’...s¢.<ed“@..i92@2+3-(cwed’) E cos 9 wee? (78)
dt W T50 (#>.:v.+x.1x.+x¢w»)T¢’ Ta’
in which Ta’ is defined from Eq. (68). Before (78) can be
used it will be necessary to determine 0, in terms of e4’.
The components of current, 1}, and id, can be determined
from (39) and (Q0) by replacing ed, by e¢’ and 0:4 by ma’.
Thus
(74) . =____________’__
:r,E sin 9 7
"‘ w>..+wqr.+:wr. (9)
. (:c.+:c¢}e¢'-—z,E cos 8
(rs) la 1:.:v.,+:r:¢’x.~i-:c.1'a:. ' (80)
170 Machine Characteristics Cliapter 6

The dircct—a.xis component of 6,, is equal to assumption that is usually made in stability studies that
end “ ed’ " ixdi ‘"“7r>lic where quick response excitation is installed, ed’ may he
x,a:,,—l--x,,x,+x,,x¢ , x,(xd’-—:z:,,)E cos 8 regarded as constant.
=»e—~—~—~—~—»———~—1— ~e +————=::——— ———==~ 81 Machine Connected to Resistance-Reactance
wax. + 13¢’-75s‘i‘17d,xo d :¢..:c@<i—2>¢’x.+x¢’w@ < ) Load--This ease is the same as that considered in Sec. 22
and the quadrature-axis component of e, is except that saturation effects are to be included. Upon
including the saturation term s into Eq. (74) there results
em = (xq _ xnlliq
that
= (32)
:c,,xc~l~xqacs-l~a:qx,, T " d<3‘;
E1-G}; |:e,-— (s due to epfl =ed'+T¢'?i~é- (85)
The amplitude of e,, is then equal to G

in which
<2.»-=\/@:.d+@:;""" <83) r ‘Z
While this quantity does not simplify greatly, it does not r11.’J-----““”“‘“”;T.,'
5/l7dc513qc“l'7's
... (so
appeer so fonnidalile after numerical values are inserted.
e,, can thus be calculated for any instantaneous value of It is well to recall again that this analysis neglects sub“
42¢’ and the s corresponding thereto substituted in Eq. (78). transient effects and assumes that the time constant in the
Equation {T8} provides s means for computing increments quadrature axis is zero. If in Eqs. (48) and (49) ei is made
of change in ed’ for use in step-by-step solution. Thus equal to zero, ed is replaced by ed’ and the corresponding
changes in reactance associated with ed’ are made, and in
as, =~§E~At
<1 ' (84) addition the subscripts are changed to indicate total re-
actances, Then
As s becomes small and saturation effects disappear, the
. xut ;
solution relapses into the salne type as used when satura- = "'-'"'-'—""'*.'6 (S7
tion is negligible (Eq. 86), for which the follow~up method 16 -rd/t33qt'i‘T€ d )
is frequently applicable. . Tc ,
= xdrtxM_LT2ed
--—-----—— . ( 88 )
The relations just developed are useful in estimating the M1

extent to which ed’ varies in system stability problems. The total current is then
Fig. 42 shows the results of calculations on a system in
which a generator is connected to a large network, repre- \/wider? ,
'=———————e . 89
sented as an infinite bus, through £1. reactance equal to 30.6. z xd'txqt+T% d ( )
The voltage 6p is
x3*o.4s jo.| jo.s e, R 'l.\/Z£;';g““i‘“Tz
up - 0.40 E-0.51
xq-o.a5 \/(I...+1'i)(::.,r+r.) ,
Xql Ll‘ Téaflfi, H'5.0 1&2 L ' i-3...:-...+r€ 8" (90)
Upon substituting ed’ from (90) into {B5} and using (86)
"-7 RESPONSE ORBi
SEC
A?“ also there results that

_ " ,-» '\/{xix "i" (xii? 'i'

——— ———————.—— —— d V
YER
EXC REGULAT xdt-'l7q¢'i'7'i e 33dt5T7qv.'i” Ti, (8 uc to en)
0
55 0.05
=~@pe+eT."g’f <91)
‘B
m " * L ‘ " " " 7" To * " As can be seen from Fig. 43 the solution of this equation
1.14 i e 0.5 0.05 lends itself well to the followup method. On the right-
hand side the assumed exciter response curve, ex, is plotted
es a function of time. Multiplying this quantity by the
;_ ._ ._J. _ .
coefficient of ex, the term em is obtained. This is the value
0 OJ 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.5 6? tends to attain if there were no saturation effects. As
TIME lN SECONDS in the follow-up method, the zero of time from which the
Fig. 42-EfEect of rate of response upon ed’ as a line~to-line instantaneous curve of e,, is drawn. is displaced to the left
fault represented by the three-phase shunt load jfl.2 is applied an amount Ti’ minus half the interval of time chosen in
to generator which had been operating at 90 percent power- the step-by-step solution. Along the ordinate of e, a curve
factor. 20 percent of air-gap mmf required for iron at rated s; equal to the second term is plotted in which s is obtained
voltage.
from the no-load saturation curve shown in (b). For any
instantaneous value of ep, s, is plotted downward from em,
A line-to-line fault is assumed applied to the connecting as the construction progresses. S0 starting from the initial
transmission line on the high tension bus at the generating value of ep, of which more will be said later, a construction
end which is equivalent to a threeqahase short circuit line is drawn to a point for which s1 was the value corre-
through a reactance of jO.2 ohms. The curves justify the sponding to the initial value of ep. For the second interval
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 171
!‘l0O‘lQ
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in o“o'\’0 M0" e,+x.i MHQ
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uncnmi ovcouu. . -\ 5
CONSYANTS CQNSTANTS gt‘; -"" "'
0, *
‘I X”! X9 Ht";
Xi
Ia
xiii‘ rd +xlll
141' la *Xu:
° {.0 (c)-VECTOR DMGRAM
FOR MACHME ALONE
'
i
FIELD CURRENT OR
*1 xq, - xq+x“, EICITER VOLT!
‘I-
I‘
" ' ' """ (bl-SATURATION suave
(0}' DEFINITIONS Q; Mac;-|;~E
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CALCULITE 9'5 FROM (G) FDR INIYML LON) '. xi! !q1‘"l:
Eb RENMNS GONSYANT DURING TR-KNSITION ' 1 . ‘ ' EEG
[Q I WHEN F180
FRDNI ONE OPERATING CONDITION TO THE
NEXT.
NTERVAL/*1 ~¥£5n=-2
I ' z s, ron mn:Rvn.*2
R8
x!1x,|+r;.|., _ Q1 .
Q
mmu VALUE or e,,Vl“nr"':ll*:r"rl 2. e,0
Z I Q
do s, FOR m'raavA1.H

L?To
Kflligé-F: t
*'dr*qa*"|t - §::'r;,- 521 ween r,-o
:1 ._T_./
1-~l’-'e;wn:ur,-0 __ _ —--»-
flu: ’————-* " i’
*4: Q TIME7’ Q‘

Fig. 43--Graphical determination of terminal voltage as poiyphnle series resistances, rm and renctances xm are suddenly
applied.

sudden disconnection of s, loaded generator from the bus

s1 is taken for the value of e,, at the end of the first interval
or, to be slightly more accurate for an estimated average throwing its load upon the remaining units or the starting
value of e,, for the second interval. And so the construction of an induction motor by direct connection to a generator.
proceeds. For the latter case, if the capacity of the induction motor
By the same reasoning whereby e,. was obtained in Eq. is a, significant fmction of the kva of the generator, a severe
(90) the terminal voltage at can likewise be obtained, giving drop in voltage results. Thus a 500-hp motor thrown on
et =" T;’\/itzexu “l‘7'2exv.
a 3300-kva generator produces an instantaneous drop in
voltage of the order of 13 percent. The effective impedance
=‘\/(w§¢+r§){w’m+r’m) , of the induction motor varies with slip and to be rigorous
-*Fa':~%z+1"i this variation should be taken into consideration. It is
and substituting ed’ from (90) usually sufliciently accurate to use the blocked rotor rc-
actance for the motor impedance up to the speed corres-
2 x2ext+r2oxt
ponding to maximum torque in calculating the factor which
8‘ \l wfirl-rf 8' (92) determines em. in terms of e,,. Beyond the slip correspond-
This permits of the calculation of e, from c,, after the ing to maximum torque, the effective impedance varies
construction has been completed. rapidly to the running impedance. Simultaneously with
During the transition from one operating condition to the increase in impedance the lagging kva likewise drops
the next, only ed’ remains constant; en changes. It is cs- off which results in a considerable rise in voltage. This
sential therefore that ed’ be computed for the initial operat- effect is clearly shown in Fig. 44 taken from some tests
ing condition. The conventional construction shown in made by Anderson and Monteith.” As running speed is
Fig. 43(0) can be used. This determines the initial value approached the generator voltage rises, the excitation be-
of ea’ for the new operating condition from which the initial ing too high for the particular loading. To form a. better
value of 2,, can be computed by Eq. (90). idea of the magnitudes involved in such calculations, Fig.
Common cases for which these calculations apply are the 45 shows curves of terminal voltage as an induction motor
determination of regulation for loads suddenly applied to equal in horse power to 20 percent of the kva. of a generator
8- generator. Instances in which this can occur are the is suddenly thrown upon an unloaded generator for diffcr—
172 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

3500 I200 240 : problem generally and have plotted the results in curve
mores
se - ‘= form.
3100 :00 --._---i. 200 S The analysis has been carried out for both self-excited
agai fiml vc sxcmzn vounez I
and separately-excited exciters. The results for the former
2700 80 _:Inl .i\ml
WI“-IIIII
I esusnxroouncs
‘III
I £60
are plotted in Fig. 46, and for the latter in Fig. 47. These
§flI3fli§§!HQ§§Im O LT curves are plotted in terms of the four parameters; (1)
NI 0| OO O O OO
magnitude of load change (2) X.1,“ (3) T59, and (4) rate
Iungnlnflnl fil l " "'hE§§:
VOL1'A($£
M&IIIHIIHIII‘I _
I900
CURRENT
400 HIIIIEQEEI
—---w 6O of exciter response, R. The response is defined in the
llflullfllll I SPE
MOTORV0AGE
chapter on Excitation Systems. It is shown by Harder
moo zoo GE~€R,,,, vM_\/E gag" 40 and Cheek" that variations in Iq, saturation factor of the
ER
"00 0 I ' p_\_i§vii.J€;__<;_ub?_£n _ generator and power facsor besween zero and 60 percent
0
O 0.4 0.8 l.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 3-U 4.0 EXCT have liLLlc cllcct upon Lhe lnaximum drop. The assumed
“ME lb? SECONDS value of rd for these calculations was 120 percent. An
Fig. 44—Perforrnance of 3333 kva, 0.6 power-factor. 3600 rpm, accurate figure for maximum voltage drop can be obtained
1.7 short-circuit ratio generator as a single 500-hp induction- for values of Id other than l20 percent by first expressing
motor pump is started. Induction-motor starting torque rcactances and the applied load on a. new kvs base, such
equal to full-load torque and pull-out torque equal to 2.8
full-load torque. Full lines represent operation with fixed that Id on the new base is 120 percent, and then applying
excitation and dotted lines under regulator control. the curves. For example, suppose 21. load of 1500 kva (cX~
pressed at full voltage) of low power factor is to be applied
to 11 3000-lcva generator having 30-percent transient re-
actance and 150-percent synchronous reactance. Suppose
__*_ ._ _,_ ___,.;—< —.l— — I’ . 7 that the generator time constant is 4.0 seconds and the
l 7. excuse r cxciter has 2. nominal response of 1.0. To dcfierminc the
QESPQNSQ |_q I 7_
drop, express the transient reactance and the 8.ppli€d load
‘ l O. . on the kilovolframpere base upon which xd is 120 percent.
O:9 <O>
TERMHALVQLTS The base in this case will be 3000>< 120/l50=240{l kva.
On this base the transient reactance 1,,’ is 30 X2400/3000 w
24 percent, and the applied load is 1500/2-l00w62.5 per—
cent. If the cxcitcr is sclllexcitcd then from the curves of
m Fig. 46, the maximum voltage drop is 15 percent for 62.5-
.-, 9 pcrcent load applied to a. generator having 24-percent. tran-
RATED
PERCENT
sient rcactancc, a time constant of 4.0 seconds, and an
exciter of 1.0 nominal response. This same maximum drop
would be obtained with the machine and load under
mo 0.2 0.4 0.6 l o.a lo consideration.
TIME - SECONDS
The initial load on a generator influences the voltage
Fig. 45ATermlnal voltage of a 560 kva, 80-percent power- drop when additional load is suddenly applied. As shown
factor engine-type generator (xd=l.l6, x.,=0.59, xd’=0.30, in Fig. 48, a. static or const-antdmpedance initial load re-
13 percent saturation) as a E0-hp induction motor is con- duces the voltage drop caused by suddenly applied load.
nected. However, a load that draws additional current as voltage
decreases may increase the voltage drop. Such loads will
ent rates of response of the exciter. Ordinarily one is be referred to as “dynamic” loads. For example, a. running
primarily interested in the minimum voltage attained dur- induction motor may drop slightly in speed during the
ing the accelerating period and so the calculations have voltage dip so that it actually draws an increased current;
been carried out to only 1.0 second. The curves show con- and thereby increases the maximum voltage drop. The
ditions For constant excitation and for exciters with 0.5 and dynamic initial load curve of Fig. 48 is based on an initial
1.0 ratios, respectively. load that draws constant kilowatts and power factor as the
voltage varies.
24. Drop in Terminal Voltage with Suddenly-
Applied Loads
VII. CONSTANTS FOR USE IN STABILITY
When a relatively large motor is connectecl to a. gener-
ator, the terminal voltage may decrease to such an extent PROBLEMS
as to cause undervoltagc release devices to operate or to The stability problem involves the study of the elect-,ro~
stall the motor. This situation arises parsiculsrly in con- mechanical oscillations inherent in power systems. A
nection with the startirlg of large motors on power-house fundamental factor in this problem is the ma.:u;cr in which
auxiliary generators. The best single criterion to dcscribc the power output of the generator varies as the position of
this cflcct when the generator is equipped with a regulator its rotor changes with respect to some reference voltage.
to control the excitation is the maximum drop. The pre~ The natural period of power systems is about one second.
vious section describes a method whereby this quantity Because of the series resistance external to the machine,
can be calculated. However, the problem arises so fre- the time constant of the unidirectional component of arm»
quently tbat Harder and Cheel<”~“ have analyzed the ature current is usually so small as to be negligible in
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Chapter 6 Machéne Characteristics 1'15

40 W _ ~ Further consideration of this constant is given in Part

XIII of this chapter.
\\ ; ‘

\ W DYNAMl6/ Y 26. Network Calculator Studies

For most problems the synchronous machine can be
/ 1 . represented by its transient reactance and a. voltage equal
STATIC to that behind transient reactance. For the rare case for
_ Ll ; "V *1 w _ * which salienbpole theory is required, the following pro-
cedure can be followed. It is impossible to set up the two
reactnnces in the two axes by s single reactor, but if the
5H5
o reactance, xq, is used and n new voltage, eqd, introduced as
representing the internal voltage, both position of the rotor
DROPMAX
MUM-PEROE”? and the variations in ed’ can be carried through quite
simply.
°6 20”“ as "med so 120 Fig. 49 shows a. vector diagram similar to Fig. 14 in
mom. LOAD-?ER cam’ which eqd is included. This voltage is laid off along ed and
es’ and terminates at the point a. The reading of power
Fig. £8-Effect of type {whether dynamic or static) and initiai
at eqd is the same as the actual output of the machine. As
load, assumed at 0.80 power factor, upon the maximum volt-
age drop when 100-percent low-power-factor load ts uddenly the exciter voltage changes ed’ and ‘eqd likewise change.
applied to an a-c generator.
W1; ea __;l __;__

comparison with this natural period. The subtransient ; '7 o -,,, ................. " lle 5”"
' XQl¢ l
component is likewise so small that its effects can be , W, fin Q‘ V , , ,_ ,.
neglected. There remains then only the transient com- We
ponents, those components associated with the time con- lo ,__ 7_ 0 _
stants of the field winding, that are important. 4
8
25. Representation of Machine xgq ?
"91
+~
\
The transient stability problem is primarily concerned
with the power-angle relations during system swings fol- 91
lowing s. disturbance. Because of the dissymmetry of the la
two axes, it is necessary theoretically to take this dissym— rl
i
Inctry into consideration. However, in most cases an
impedance is in series externally to the machine so that Fig. 49-Jlonstructlon. of aqd for network calculator studies.
the difference in reactances in the two axes becomes a
smaller proportion of the total reactance. The results of
calculations presented in Chap. 13 show that for most The incremental changes in eqd can be obtained as follows.
practical purposes it is sufficiently accurate to represent From Fig. 49 it is evident that at any instant
the unsymmetrical machine with a symmetrical machine on = ed’ + (1.1 — r¢')“i<1 (94)
having the some rd’.
From Eq. (52)
In spite of the close agreement of salient—p0le with
cylindrical-rotor results, a few cases arise for which it is (£63! 1
necessary to use sslient~pole theory. Relations for calcu- dz _ T,i.,<e‘_ed)
lating the power output have been given in Secs. 16 and 17 and
and for computing the change in internal voltages in Sec. d ' 1
22(a). It is shown in the latter section that if the exciter A64’ = *5?-“A5 = “i,‘“;;(6g""8,1)At
d
is of the quick-response type, the voltage e¢’ can, for all
practical purposes, be regarded as constant. Methods for where lied’ is the increment of 3.3’ in the increment of time
the inclusion of these factors into the stability calculations At. From Fig. 49 there results also that
have also been treated in Chap. 13. ea = @qa"l' ($a—$qlid
A knowledge of the inertia constant, H, is a requisite for
so that
the determination of the acceleration and deceleration of 1 .
the rotor. It represents the stored energy per kva and can Aedl E E’. [ex -~ eqd ~ (x¢ M xq)1..1] At. (97)
be computed from the moment of inertia and speed by the
following expression In network calculator studies of system stability, 0,,
eqd, and id are known at any instant. From Eq. (94) it is
H ,3 {Q3} evident that the increment of em; is equal to the increment
vs.
in 2,1’. Thus
where H = Inertia constant in kw-sec. per kva.
1 .
WR*=-Moment of inertia in lb-ft’.
Aeqd = ~52; 1:6, —e.,4— (xv-:v.,)zd] At (98)
176 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

This method can be applied regardicss of the number of
machines involved in the study.
To obtain the initial value of eqd, calculate ed’ from
the steady-state conditions before the disturbance. ed’ is
the quantity which remains constant during the instant
representing the change from one operating condition to
another. The proper eqd is obtained by changing the
magnitude of eqd until Eq. (94) is satisfied.
To include the effect of saturation, break the reactance
xq, which represents the machine, into two components
12,, and (xq~—:c,,), the latter being next to the voltage eqd.
The voltage at the junction of these two reactances is ep,
the voltage behind xp. The effect of saturation will be
included by adding the saturation factor s taken from the
no~Ioad saturation curve {see Fig. 17) for ep, to the excita-
tion obtained by neglecting saturation. This corresponds
to method (d) of Sec. 3 for steady-state conditions. Eq.
(98) then becomes
Aeqd = %iD [ex - eqd""' (xd --xq)1I,;—s] At. (99)
of unidirectional and negative-sequence currents. The crest
value of the negativesequence current, £2, is \/iii; and the
. . \/§
crest value of r” is ;_—,;.
d
In the ease of negative-sequence currents, part of the
loss is supplied by the shaft and part is supplied through
the armature. The loss associated with the circulating
currents in the rotor as developed in Section 15 is approx»
imatcly equal to 2(r;.— r1)1}§. Assuming for the moment that
the loss varies as the square of the current and neglecting
the differences due to the frequencies in the two cases, the
loss for the unidirectional components of current is
$. ”
" 2(?'2“""T1)’lg QT
2< .- > .
Actually, however, the loss varies more nearly as the 1.8
power of the current so that the expression becomes
2(T3—T1}
(xdu)1.3 ‘

27. Armature Resistance Now considering the client of frequencies. Since the
For most stability studies the loss associated with the depth of current penetration varies inversely as the
resistance of the armature is so small as to be negligible. square root of the frequency, the resistance varies directly
The exception to this rule is the case for which a fault as the square root of the frequency. The loss for the uni-
occurs near the terminals of a generator. directional component is then
The losses in an a,-c generator during a. three~phase short
circuit can be large enough to affect significantly the rate
at which the rotor changes angular position. This is of Wm ) '
or {rs )
<w1>
particular importance for stability studies. Two of the
most important factors determining this effect are the lOC-fir" 3-6gp r or rrrrr or WT ‘-38
tic-u of the fault and the value of the negative-sequence
resistance. The latter is difficult of evaluation particularly
for turbo-generatorsithe type of machine in which the 3.2 re -..*.»»* 1; l 36
effect is greatest. One must rely almost entirely upon oa.i— 1 . l‘ .
culations, which are extremely complicated. For a-c board
studies of system stability it is convenient to represent the 2.8 *— y . J4-
-
machine losses by means of a resistance placed in series in i4

the armature. The value of this resistance should be chosen 2.4‘ Y1” W — e.|a
so that its Foss, with the reactance of the machine repre- \ \
sented by 92$, be equivalent to that of the machine under T
actual conditions. An approximate evaluation of this 2: 3 uu
equivalent resistance wili be developed for a turbo- Logs Tl It 1
generator. ‘ . . 1 PER
Let the initial value of the subtransient component of 5%’. '0@ m
rowan
short-circuit current be designated, 2'”. The components r.q
of the unidirectional current have a maximum vaiue x/Q5" 1,2 do ____ _____ 3 has
and are related in the three phases in a manner as discussed I l l .
in Sec. 8. The sum of the unidirectional components in all ‘row. |.oss__._.._....._.._______J____l
three phases produce an essentially sinusoidal wave of mmf alflii '0 #
that is stationary with respect to the armature. This sta- 1
tionary mmf develops a flux that in tum generates currents D.C.LOSS X W E; “xi
having a frequency of 60 cps in the rotor. This effect is -4; i } V ~~~ ~ _. Q .02
similar to that produced by negative-sequence currents in *L\_A§.L0S5; ‘ y T l_____,,'
the armature except that the latter produce a sinusoidal
rnmf Wave that rotates at a speed corresponding to 60 cps 0.. [ 771?: — —
05 JO .15 .20 .25 .30 .35
in a direction opposite to the rotation of the shaft and TIME IN SECONDS
ultimately generates circulating currents in the rotor hav-
ing a frequency of 120 cps. The magnitudes of the mmf Fig. 59-Development of rm of 2 turbo-generator for the con-
dition of a three-phase short circuit across the terminals of
waves in the two cases are equal for the same crest values the machine for various duration of the short circuit.
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 177

The loss associated with this current is

1";[(—17-—i)e_T:’+-1-T.
fa
c
39¢ Ea
(104)
To form an idea of the order of magnitudes of these
losses, let
$YNCRRONOUS__....._____..,._r___h a:¢"=0.09. T,=0.09.
- ‘ conozuslzn ; p 1lI§'=0.l5. Td,=0-6.
1 * '” *4‘ ‘
{Ed =
\§""""""""\i"""““""n Y‘-2 = 0.035.
_ 06 _
I
V ll l
1'1 = O.(lll5.

'
D2____
r;
r %b-_L_i_ VIZ!
I l i VII I I_.ly
/ ...
saur-:'u"r POLE '
wrm oamecas 14*‘7|!r. A r
c,. _r rt,
scuam POLE /‘
WITHOUT l;JAMP£RiS
iei 1__

§_"
in 1‘
ha
‘
The results of the calculations are shown in Fig. 50. The
upper dashed curve is the loss associated with the uni-
directional component and the lower dashed curve the load
losses. The full line represents the total losses. The cur-
rent flowing in the generator as represented on the board
. 1 . .
it Q; JC ll ll .2; .30 TIME 1N SECONDS
IS constant and equal to $7. The equivalent resistance,
cl
rm, to be inserted in series with std’ must be such that the
(H) integrated loss over any interval must be the same as that
in Fig. 50. The dot-dash curve in Fig. 50 gives the values
.12 1 ~I ‘I V } of Tgq obtained by this method.
I ______ Figure 51 gives simiiar values of Tm for other types of
machines. The curves in Fig. 51(a) were calculated for
short circuits at the terminals of the machines, those in
Fig. 51(b) are for three-phase short circuits across the
.. l 1 §Y?acnRo}ioiT$
»_- .i;:-,._ _
l terminals of a transformer connected in series with the
couozusr-zn r machine.
‘O U’!Q7”’
'0 ~ /Jis
5, ~ i
sauerrr POLE _;__L__,
wmaour canvass ;
~ = n
UNT
N?E§ VIII. UNBALANCED SHORT CIRCUITS ON
no
‘ ‘\“\i-4" in’ lSl\’|[l£Nll‘”'F’l:5iI£” MACHINES WITHOUT DAMPER WINDINGS
§§-kn
\
wm-| oAuPsas..mc.__..m
5 €.%i-_
Ilfl Because of the dissymmetry of srilientrpole machines
I7!)Ill]: Without dnrnper windings, the a:'1r1atu1'e currents at times
.02_
A + 4 *i 01.2 a nous :€"""'-'%
" IEII“"IllIflll
on
of three-phase short-circuits, as shown in Sec. 12, contain
seconthharmonic components. For unsymmetrical short-
0 cs
j j j .10 .15 .20 .25 so .35 circuits, such as from te1"minal—to—torminal, the Wave forms
TIME "E SECOND? of currents and voitngcs become even more complex. Both
Kb) odd and even harmonies are present.
Fig. 51-Typical equivalent resistance, rm], for different types 28. Terminal-to-Terminal Short Circuit
of rnachines.
In particular consider a salient-pole machine in which
(a-} for thredphase short circuit across the terminals used
(b) for three—phase short. circuit across the terminals of 2, series- saturation is neglected and which is operating at no load
oonnccted transformer of 10 percent impedance. to which a short-circuit is suddenly applied across two
terminals. The short-circuit currents in these phases is
then
Since the unidirectional current decreases exponentiaily
w1th a time constant TM the loss as a function of time is
(asq +xd'} + (xq —:c¢’) cos 2(27rf£+¢0)
1.s¢
\/2-(T2 —~ T1) 6- 5': in which qfio indicates the phase position during the cycle
(man) LR ' at which the short-circuit occurred.
It wiil he observed that this can he resolved into two
In addition to the losses associated with the unidirec-
tional current, the load losses as reflected by T1 can also be
components
significant for a three~phase fault across the terminals. . Y _ \/3 IrSlI1 (2wfl—i-:66)
Neglecting the sub-transient component, the 2.-c com- FEEL’ (:vq+:c,i’)+(:cq-~a:d’) cos 2 (21rf£+¢q) (106)
ponent of short~circuit for a three~phase short circuit from
no-load is
Se°°“d‘ <»q+cr'>+<;fil'i1:@?2 <2»fl+¢l> ‘um
1 1 -L, 1 The first component is shown in Fig. 52(a) for an typical
-"£;)c T4 . (103)
machine and consists of odd harmonics only. The second
178 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

3.0-— 4*
-
Thus Many-emw" \/311;d +
_ ‘”d'i_\’“?§fi*_
/‘MM
2.0- 3'
1.0- =- Sin if
(
FIRST 108)
cauruueur
o
6
'
5‘ ii’
|- ~
('11
[(wq+rd’)+€1vq—I¢'} 00$ 2 (21rfi—¢)]
..|_q|.- g , With the assistance of Fig. 52 it will be seen from Eq.
"9-°‘ mi =L (105) that the maximum amount of the odd harmonic
I .
-49- 1" component is equal to The maximum vaiue of
. =.> . . i . .*:*»¢, 7 if ’ ah
KI
the tots! current is dependent upon the instant during
seem: _,L the cycle at which short—circuit occurs and reaches a
camwasnn
__'_ ,2 lo) . \/3 I:
l1}.£tXlI1'1LlIH of -"W;--.
lb! M
__,_
0 22' zar °_
Assuming no decrement for either the odd or even
harmonics \/_
-1» 6- _ 3 I sin qfi f1-H)“
arms (even)='_§ NiiE§
..;_ 4-
YOTM.
, Ir 1
'°" 5‘ an zrms c¢¢a>-\/3? \/Ti (119)
~4- 3;‘
i
\/xq/22¢ -1
'5“ M ' b= -~»M.+.___. 111
-;- 1-1iiJ—; V xq/$d’+l ( )
°o 11 217'
ARMATURE CURRENT F|EL@ CURFRENT 4 <-
i
Fig. 52-—-Armature current and field current in a synchronous 5»
machine when a terminaI»to»terminal short circuit is sud~—
denly applied. 2 -r l

!¢'=0.30 x4=1.1 x¢,»9.75 ¢.,=90° 1;

(G)
component is shown in Fig. 52(1)) for q5n= +90° and con-
O1» . _. __J
sists of even harmonics only. The hitter component is de~ _‘—

pendent upon the instant during the cycie at which the -gJ
short~circuit occurs and may vary anywhere between the
-3..‘
values given and the negative of those values in accordance
with the coefficient, sin Qbg. Figure 52(c) gives the totai -.21

current, the sum of Figs. 52{a) and 52(b).

The units chosen are the p.u. in which for the machine
operating at no~loo<:l at rated circuit voltage I; would be Mm
equal to 1.0 and in this case the current 1' is given in terms VOLTAGE Q
-1 F

of arcs: magnitude of rated phase current-. rm} .

The components of armature current shown in Figs. i

52(3) and 5260} have associated with t-hem the field cur- °1
rents shown in Figs. 52(d} and 52(e), respectively, the for~ 4i ‘
mer consisting only of oven harmonics and the latter only
of odd harmonics. in Fig. 52(5) is shown the total field it
current. The average magnitude of this current is equai to 2%
eiixrfiii; ik I

$a'+\/gm fl _cci_ZZZZZZZ4 if
The odd-harmonic component of field current and its as-
° ” rr ‘ er?
-i
sociated even harmonic in the armature decay to zero with
time. The even harmonics of the field and their associated .24

odd harmonics of armature current decay to constant,
stea.cly—sta.t-e zunounts. Their initial values are in excess of
their steady~sta.te magnitudes by the amount tho average
of I f is in excess of its steady-state amount, I ;. The steaily»
state vaiue of 2‘ is then equal to the initial amount of the
ocid~hsrm011ic component multiplied by
134' +\/ 2rq.2?;7
Id"i'“\/LYIQIQI.
Fig. 53—Wave form of voitage across terminals of a WQICI"
wheat generator without damper -windings for a terminal-tm
terminal short circuit from no-load. xq/xdf $2.5.
(:1) Initial value of odd harmonic component (decays slowly);
(b) initial value of even harmonic component for sin ¢0= 1 (decays
rapidly). Its magnitude varies between that given and its
negative depending upon the point during the cycle at which
short circuit occurs. It may be zero.
(c) Tots] initial value for sin q'>n= l
Chapter 6
The rms total current is equal to the square root of the
sum of the squares of those components. It must be re-
membered that the unit of current is the crest of rated
terminal current. When expressed in terms of the rated
rms current the above figures must be multiplied by
The voltage from the short-circuited terminals to the
free terminal, neglecting decrements, is equal to
e,e~e1, meat, w *"3I§K{SlH(2Tfl+¢u) +311 sin 3(21rfi+¢o)
+51)“ sin 5(21rf£+¢ol+l . .]
+3]; sin qbf2b cos 2(21rf£-i—¢o)
+4t@ cos 4{21rft+¢l+- - -l
in which
K = ___\"”*a<’&L.._._
\/ xq/xd, "‘l’"" 1
and b has its previous significance.
Like the sliort-circuit current this voltage can likewise
be resolved into two components that together with the
total voltage are plotted in Fig. 53. The maximum possible
voltage, that which occurs when sin do is equal to unity, is
3 .2;
eablmaxlmum for max. flux linkages) =§I1' (gffiw 1)
ll/hen sin ¢g=”’0, the even harmonic component is equal
to zero and for this case the maximum voltage is
8 mg
eammaxlmum tor minimum flux linkages) =
The corresponding line-to-neutral voltages for the termi-
nal—to-terminal shortmircuit are 9/§ of the above figures.
In all of these expressions the arcs? vuliie of rated line»-to~
neutral voltage has been used as a. base. When the rms
figure is used, the above quantity must be multiplied
by
For a terrninal—t-o-neutral short circuit, neglecting do»
crements, the short--circuit current is
7;: x31; [cos (2¢rfE+ql>0) ~—£os¢>r,]
(xd'~-~l--xq +1;<;) —l— (;c¢' —:rq) cos 2(2irf£+¢@)
29. Unsymmetrical Short Circuits Under Capa-
citive Loading
When a salient-pole machine without damper windings
is loaded by a highly capacitive load,"-1* there is danger,
5ur OF PHASE O
if
4 ..............ig /
3 tions can be determined for other types of loads and other
.. .,,
X¢'
AX|$ OF
"/ I %
/é/éi ‘ .\x|S OF
ems: c /7» mas: b
>' ibl ‘4
l‘(lg-Q/lb / Since the danger of these high voltages arises from the
Fig. 54——Schematic diagram of a three-phase, salient-pole
alternator to which a three-phase bank of capacitors and a
terminal-to-terminal short circuit are applied simultane-
ously.
Machme Characteristics 179
\/xqx ¢’[1+2b coa29-I-4b‘ coa494-ab’ cos 69+----]
e.--3!d K [sin e+3bain 391-5b‘:ln 59+-»-1
+315 sin oc{2b cos 2 e +4 b‘ cos4B+-~-3/
xc
(112) R
l-vornss
ACROS ub-l
Fig. 55*-Equivalent circuit to which Fig. 54 may be reduced.
(I13) bx: W \_/ In/Ig’-‘ 1 I6: \/IQ/Id,
\/are/15+ 1 \/ Jr./Ia’-§—1
at times of unbalanced short circuit, that resonance occur
between the reactance of the machine and the load
with the possibility that dangerously high voltages might
result. Considering a purely capacitive load such as an
unloaded transmission line, the schematic diagram is shown
in Fig. 54 and the equivalent. circuit in Fig. 55 for the
condition of a terminal-to-terminal short circuit. The emf
applied to the circuit is equal to the open~circuit voltage
for the same short-circuit condition. The oscillographic
results of tests made on a particular machine as terminal-
d to-terminal short circuits are applied for different amounts
of connected capacitance are shown in Fig. 56. Resonance
In
will occur near points for which the quantity - -----—— =n*,
\/:r.;':vq
where n represents the integers 1, 2, 3, etc, and also the
order of the harmonic. The nature of this resonance phe-
nomenon is illustrated more clearly by the curve of Fig. 57,
in which is plotted the maximum voltage during short-
oircuit in per unit.
To orient one’s self with regard to the length of line
7 (116) involved in these considerations, the figure in miles which
appears below each oscillogram of Fig. 56 represents ap-
proximately the length of single-circuit 66- or 220-kv
transmission line that, with a generator having; the char»
acteristics of the one used in the test, is required to satisfy
the given value of a¢.,/\/ These figures were arrived
at by assuming a generator capacity of 25 O00, 75 000, and
208 000 kva for 66-, 132-, and 220-kv lines, respectively.
For smaller machines the length will decrease in proportion.
The possibility of the existence of such resonant condi-
X:
L- types of fauits by setting up the network for the system
and replacing the machine by the reactance \/ mama’. This
circuit should he set up for the positive-, negative-, and
zero—sequence networks and the networks connected in
accordance with the rules of symmetrical components. Any
= xc xc b condition for which the impedance as Viewed from the
iuuuliiuc is zero or very small should be avoided.
dissymmctry of the machines, it can be eliminated effec-
tively by the installation of damper windings. Fig. 58
presents oscillographic evidence of the voltages existing
for machines equipped with difierent types of dampers as
180 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

LENGTH OF S1NGLE _§£_. LENGTH OF SINGLE ..__?£2_

onacurr LINE m MiLES 1/Xgxq cmcurr LINE IN MILES |/xgxq

* 4

{ I3) 44 _ V V 50.

(Q) :99 2 Li V ‘V ' 1 V’ V H

Fig. 56——Effect upon the terminal voltage of varying the shunt capacitive reactance when a terminal-tmtermina] short cir-
cuit is applied to a machine without damper windings.
 Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 181

8.0. " ' r " * '*" rr";

1 \
__ _____ 3; _ .—-~—
' V l
l l
__l_ ‘ l
?.o= - 5 ‘
l l l 7 ‘;
” 1\ 1 7. 1’
6.0%\_ J} l l‘ \__
i ‘ __.
(Q)

._.........m......W_._..n “M1 W. - 1111111-

_ , ' _,__ _L
1
vcassrourme Tp4 __,_ l *
W l ll! ll’ if ~
s»9'.9c- c“Q14;; ” """Tf’ Z T l i
r //1in i L_...ll _ l l J
2 ’°' I
A ll
1. l l\
id \l .
“°s 4
.
5 0 1 a no 20 so 40 so so
l (6)
xc/\/xqx¢'
Fig. 57—Experimental values of crest voltages (twelfth cycle)
from terminal a to b when switch in Fig. 54 is closed. Unit of
voltage is crest of terminal-to-terminal voltage before short
circuit. xq/x¢’=2.2. Machine without damper winding.

tcnnin2.l~to terminal short circuits and capacitive react-

ances are applied simultaneously. While a continuous
or connected damper winding is most eilective, a non-
II

connected damper Winding having; a ratio of equal to

at least 1.35 will be found adequate for practically all
d
(fl
purposes.

IX. DAMPER WINDINGS

The addition of copper damper windings to machines
effectively simplifies the characteristics of the machines
as viewed externally in that harmonic effects are largely
eliminated. However, the addition of other possible cir»
cults for current flow complicates the internal calculations.
The influence of dampers can in most cases be evaluated (hl
in terms of their effect“ upon the subtransient reactances Fig. 58-—Efiect of damper windings.
in the two axes. Terminal-tmterminal short circuit;
(a) No dampers.
30. Types of Damper Windings
(b) Connected copper damper.
Damper windings are of several general types. (c) Connected high resistance damper.
Connected Dampers~»~These consist essentially of (d) Non~C0nnected copper damper.
windings similar to a squirrel-cage or an induction motor. Terminal-to-neutral short circuit:
They are continuous between poies as shown in Fig. 59 in (e) No damper.
which (21) shows the connection between poles for a slow~ (f) Connected copper damper.
speed machine and (b) shows the additional bracing re- (g) Connected high resistance damper.
quired in the form of an end ring for higher speed ma- (h) Non-connected copper damper.
chines. In this type of damper, zq” and rad” have nearly
the same magnitudes. in Fig. 60. They are somewhat cheaper than connected
Nomconnected Dampers-~The dampers in each pcie dampers but at the expense of no longer being able to
face are independent from those in adjacent poles, as shown make :c,,” and rd” equai.
 182 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6
§.n,W...M. , ._ ._ m._-V -we ........u,,cW .,..W,“,,\,,~ ‘1'VV x
l
~
i
2
connected in series to slip rings. By connecting a variable
resistor externally to the slip rings the starting character-
istics can be varied at will.
The general characteristics of damper windings will be
discussed under the following heads.
31. Balancing Action. and Elimination of Voltage
Distortion
One of the earliest needs for damper windings arose from
the use of single-phase generators and, later, phase bal-
anccrs. Such machines if unequipped with damper wind~
ings have characteristics which resemble closely those of
a three-phase machine without damper windings when a
single»~phase load is drawn from it. Voltage distortion
similar to that discussed under unbalanced short-circuits
occurs. In addition, if this condition persists the currents
that flow in the body of the pole pieces, produce excessive
heating. The addition of damper windings provides a low-
rcsistance path for the flow of these currents and prevents
both wave distortion and excessive heating. Because of
(=4) (b) the steady character of the load, damper windings in
Fig. 59-Connected damper windings: single-phase machines and phase balencers must be heavier
than those in i.h1‘8e—pi19,Se machines.
(a) Siovwspeed machine. The best criteria of a polyphase machine to carry un-
(b) 1'1igh»speed machine.
balanced load are its negativesequence rcactance and
resistance. The former reflects its ability to prevent un~
,m....,~W -»»M,,.,.,WW.....~\..W.,.,,........._.. WW .i_. (W \]—Q{.uA_ \])“‘p \ ___.. M u._..v..__,_W,N,,,. MM.
balancing of the voltage and the latter its ability to carry
the negative-sequence current without undue heating of
the rotor. These properties are particularly important for
such fluctuating loads as electric furnaces. Not only do
the dampers reduce voltage unbalance but also reduce
wave form distortion.
32. Negative-Sequence Reactance and Resistance
As dismissed previously the negativewsequcnce reactanee
and resistance of a machine are both aiieeted by the damper
windings. Tahie 2 shows the effect of different types of
windings upon a 100-kva generator” and Table 3 upon a
5000-kva synchronous condenser.“ Both of these tables
represent test. results.

TABLE 2* Cons-mu-rs on A SYNCHRONOUS Gem-lmroe AS

Arrncrao BY TYPE or DAMPER. Wmmuo (100 Kva,
2300 Vours, 25.2 Amrrmes)

~._..._ 5; <1
l
»
Typfi Ltd’ Zq
i;.\W._ Id '1l'Iq 1 Z“; Tm” E !";q”
AAAAAIQI QA " 1 _ ____________ _w_cccc
d
'7 1
No damper.... 0.260 G.-577 9 0: 5 2.22 0.028 i 0.195
Fig. 60-Two types of nomconnected damper windings.
Id” xqn
P
iv/‘ta xii
EL”
Id u ‘
l‘
Special Dampersyin this classification fall such
dampers as double-deck windings, which are in effect a Connected
double winding, one of high resistance and low rcactance Copper. . . .. 0.157 0.146 (L151 0.93 \0.036 0.047
Connected l
and the other of low resistance and high rcactance. The
principal uses of this type are in motors where the com-
Everrlur. , l 0,171 D I57 0.164 0.92 loose 0.111
Non-connected l
bination provides better" starting characteristics. At low
speeds the high reactance of the Eoxwrcsistance winding
Copper. . . . .~fi(V).1§4 0.39% F? § 2.53 0.037 0.113

forces the current to flow through the high-resistance wind-

ing, which produces a high torque. At higher speeds the 33. Damping Effect:
lovwresistance winding becomes effective. Another type of In the early days when prime movers consisted mostly
special winding is one that is insulated from the iron and of reciprocating engines the pulsating character of the
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 183

TABLE 3-CONsrAN'rs or A SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER as ratio is greater than 1.35 and less than 1.35 add 2 and 3
Arrnornn BY TYPE or Deurm WINDING (5000 Kva, percent, respectively, to the price of the machine. In con-
4000 Votrs, 721 Antennas) sideration of the many complicated problems involved in
1': :v="~=“l (I<i”+wq”) the selection of a damper winding it would appear, in view
Type of the low increase in cost of the connected damper, that
Test Calculated Test Calculated if any damper winding is thought necessary, the connected
type should be used.
No damper . . . . . . . . . 0.045 0.040 O. 75 0.69
Connected copper. . . . 9.026 0.029 O. 195 04 215
Connected brass... . . 0.045 0.044 0.195 0.215 X. SELF-EXCITATION OF SYNCHRONOUS
Connected Everdur. . O. 12 7 _ 0.125 20 9.215 MACHINES
torque made parallel operation diflicult. This was succes s- When a synchronous machine is used to charge an un-
f u l ly' solt’ ed by damper windings
' ' ' that the damper wind-
in loaded transmission line whose charging kva is equal ap-
ing absorbed the energy of oscillation between machines proximately to the kva. of the machine, the machine may
and prevented the oscillations from becoming cumulative. become selflexcited and the voltage rise beyond control.
More recently in consideration of the stability problem The conditions that must be satisfied for this phenomenon
loiv-resistance damper windings have been advocated for to occur are made manifest by determining the machine
the same reason. While a l0‘iV-1‘€SiStEl-I166 damper winding characteristics for a constant inductive reactive load.
wili decrease the number of electro—rncchanical oscillations
following a disturbance this effect in itself is not impor-
tant“ in increasing the amount of power that can be
transmitted over the system.
The general influence of damper windings, their negative- no LOAD 6
scquencc resistance and rcactance, and also their purely SATURATION ix
damping action, upon the
~ stability prob1em, is discussed suave ‘ ‘ » aI
\ .
in more detail in Chap. 33. x‘ \~
\ \~
l \
34. Other Considerations Affecting Damper Wind- Q
__r_...-......_.
|
\
\
\
ings 1
\ J
1
\
Synchronous generators feeding loads through trans- )4
la... 1
mission lines having a high ratio of resistance to reactance \1
\
tend to set up spontaneous hunting.“ This tendency is O \
l
greater at light loads than at heavy loads, the criterion at A41']
K
\
which it tends to disappear being when the angic between NALvotues \
\
\
the transient internal voltage and the load voltage equals \
l
the impedance angle of the connecting impedance. There TERM \
\
need not be any periodic impulse, such as the pulsating \
torque of a compressor, to initiate this phenomenon but
x9 i \\
\
it may very well aggravate the condition. Damper wind- l

ings are very effective in suppressing such inherent hunt»- .-4”

ing conditions and also alleviate hunting produced by M
periodic impulses, although the latter phenomenon is usu- _,~'

ally eliminated by altering the natural frequency of the

system by changing the fly wheel effect of the generator
or motor or both. Synchronous mot ors connected through O "lie
Oi ,._ 9:111’
high resistance lines or cab}es also develop spontaneous
hunting but not so frequently as they are always provided
I““e __l_ FIELD CURRENT

with a damper winding. Fig. 61——C0nstruction of regulation cu rves for induction

Series capacitors in decreasing the eiiective series react»
ance increase the ratio of resistance to reactance and thus
tend to increase the likelihood of spontaneous hunting.
In general, where beneficial effects can accrue with the
use of damper windings, the benefits are greater for con-
nected or continuous dampers than for non-connected
dampers. Mechanically there is no choice as both types
can be made equally reliable. The nomconncctcd winding
lends itself somewhat easier to the removal of a poie but
not to sufficient extent t o constitute
' a consideration in the
choice of type to install - A ratio of :1: Q ” t 0 rc.-.1” as low as
about 1.35 can be obtained with nomconnected and 1.1
with connected dampers. Damper windings for which this
loading.
In Fig. 61 the line (JAG represents the n0—Ioad saturation
curve . S uppose the machine' is
' loaded with
' a three-phase
reactor equal to zcs ohms per phase. To determine the
regulation curve for this impedance, that is, a curve of
terminal voltage plotted against field current, proceed as
follows: Choose an armature current such that mat‘, the
terminal voltage, is approximately rated voitage. This
voltage is given by the distance BD in Fig. 61. By adding
*In this discussion, the terminal voltage is regarded as the terminal-
to-neutral value. When terminal-to-terminal voltage is used the volt-
age drops considered will have to be multiplied by
184 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

to this distance the xvi drop, DA, the voitage behind Potier
reactance denoted by the point A is obtained. The mag-
.a§>=>1=
J
I \

netizing current to produce this voltage is given by the I

distance OB. In addition to this, however, the field current _ ~_so
Ai is required to overcome the demagnetizing effect of the I
I
.I
1.;
1
armature current. For normal current, At is the distance 1I
QII
I
I

KN in the Potier triangle, OMN . In conclusion, to produce I

.IIII
I
.
‘___,
the terminal voltage F, the field current OC is necessary. l‘ no- LOAD
The triangle BAC is a sort of Potier triangle, in which ~
\
the Potier rcactance is replaced by a reactance equal to
(x,,—|-;r,,). Thus by drawing any line HG parallel to CA and
.94 RATED
s___
GJ parallel to AF, the intersection with the verticai Erom VOLTAGE fr
H determines the terminal voltage for the excitation H. 3
When the load consists of baianced capacitors having a 3
reactance 2:6 in which act is greater than mp, the impedance VOLTAGE. I 230%. '~
-
"~.

as viewed from the voltage behind Potier reactance is oa—

pacitive and the armature current is magnetizing instead
of demagnetizing. This case can be treated in a manner uuni. I l||

similar to that for an inductive-reactance load with some TER

modifications as is shown in Fig. 62. In this figure the _.
-

distance CF’ represents the terminal voltage produced by ____

the external drop $131.. Since the current leads the terminal --_-\
voltage by ninety degrees the voltage behind Potier react- “~-.
‘ found b y su b- '-_ '“-.‘
~
ance for the assumed armature current IS '-...,_-.
‘.5

___-__
J "=.‘5
;_-___
. W "H?,,,,,,,,,, ~ -
\\ 0 were CURHENY
\\
\ Fig. 63—Regulation curves for constant capacitive load of
\\ such values as to give the loads at rated voltage indicated on
.
\
G
the curves. HG parallel to flq. Point q represents excitation
r and internal voitage, neg lecting saturation, to produce rated
I terminal voltage with 300-percent capacitive current.
I
1
I
I
I
trecting the drop :n,,i giving the distance (I'D or BA. To
produce this voltage the magnetizing current OB is re-
- qu1re
' d but since the armature current is magnetizing to
the extent of At, the actual field current necessary IS only
OC‘. This
' determines
' F as a point
' 1n' t h e regu lation curve .
-.
For other field currents such as the point H, draw HG
parallel to CA until it intercepts the no-load saturation
AL curve at G. Then draw GJ parallel to AF. The intersection
Va wit
' h th e ve rtical from H determines the point J.
"'1 _ O
CUR
‘?... Fig 63 depicts the regulation curves for different sizes of
VTEARAM
NOLTAGE caP acitors. The number assigned to each curve represents
T10"
It the percent kva. delivered at rated voltage.
N X L
_ 1(x¢——xt,)1, At
The angle oz in Fig. 62 is equal to tau '
zero excitation it can be seen that if this angle is sufficiently
>1.Ln-..§
-_:I..
.;I.:.; :.--l: ;.l ;.li I’
M small, intersection
‘ with
' the no-load satura ti on curve is
possible, but as a increases a point is finally reached at
which intersection is impossible and the solution fails.
This signifies that when this point is reached self-excitation
ll .
. on A does not occur. This critical condition occurs when the
*"——~
a:~--_ __ _n
slope U:%f")l’ equals the slope of the no-load saturation
O Z O __
.4? :f:_mE_i
I ”.l:l:” ;_
IF curve. In discussing the significance of rd use was made of
FIELD CURRENT Fig. I0 where it was pointed out that DA is the current
. . . h
Fig. 62——C-onetruction of regulation curves for capacitlva necessary to overcome the _ demagnetazmg effect, A2, of t e
loading. armature current. The d istance AB is the synchronous
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 185

.50‘; reactance drop rcdi and DC the Potier reactance drop.

i I800 RP"
Thus the slope of the no—10ad saturation curve is equal to

'0- °,c
O
C
./ . The condition for self excitation is then that
ASE
<==.-a>@<<a-x.>>-»'
Az Ac
i 6* I or

Qt -~"°°” Stated otherwise, the machine will become selfiexcited if

. E’ .
the kva of the machine as defined by I is less than the
yeaPn
cnomanos
3c__3_n_
_ 1 E“
charging kva of the line
2
Since xd is, except for special
rl

_;o;~ ____A K :_1111as

t (‘F
PHASE
I Log L
cases, of the order of 120 percent, danger may threaten
when the charging kvs. requirements of the line exceed
to I i
i j W 7O
s 5
l
lib I75
;==
'
approximately 80 percent of the kva of the machine.
TERMNML KV
XI. CAPACITANCE OF MACHINE WINDINGS
A knowledge of the capacitance to ground of machine
windings is necessary for several reasons, among which arc:
.20 ~ , __ 1 1—~ 4— is » (a) Grounding of Generators. This is discussed in con-
ssoo are - <g@ siderable detail in the chapter on Grounding. The ca~
‘*9 \‘.\ ‘\\"*‘\ pacitance to ground of the windings must be known so
that the associated resistance can be selected.
J0 <?§§§§ss§~l§ii§sssE:;9 , , " so (b) System Grounding. The capacitance must be
‘so as I
known so that the contribution of this element to the
ground current can be determined for single line-t0~
ground faults. The contribution to the fault current for
90 eon 40 ” so* so :o6" ‘ this condition is equal to \/3 2:rfGOEX 10"‘ where f is the
NVA
system frequency, E the Iine~to-line voltage and C0 the
Fig. 64—Capacitance to ground of 'I‘UR13INE—GENERA'I‘OR capacitance per phase in microfarads.
windings for 13 200-volt machines in microfarads per phase. (c) System Recovery Voltage. The capacitance of the
For other voltages multiply by factor K in insert. rotating machines may be an important element in the
determination of the system recovery voltage, It is cus-
Q5 ....... _ ,, ____, i _*‘ _ V W ‘,:,_A::,T_,_~ __i ' _ I _

°5t___t...¢3°° voLrs____-__t__L_ __..esoo vows “\ 1 ‘ lm-»|sooo vows

it
; ‘ 1‘
FHASE
.0
Q
1
I
‘T c_ 5
A ii D
*1 1 t
, __ i
l 2 O \ i \ (P 2 Q‘ V é \
nosPER Q3 _
f i O
........____ MO ,___
§ -.00
=> ‘
5 ‘I
\ “J
‘*7’ ______ __ 7”
1
1
\
1 ‘
1‘
1 $0 .
, . ____

ROFAR
l “O0 - ed O0 l ‘ s>°
it {ii ‘Z9 3 1
- Q24.» . _ _ ___" __,, __= ‘ _ _ _J aaaaaNa:

_ \
/ V

'I
x r
I tot '\\ __Lc..2
t

s,__
F’ 5 I i
1 , ,, ~">a<=» Q0!’
I 5 I

\
\
\ 0* ‘ /I
CNMC
O.| - -
I
_- \ ' ‘i
\I \ *
‘I
\'

\\ \
\
\ I f

téth;\\i
\ ! 4
\._L
’/
c,A\___\
\ ‘
\\\ or chiIc‘ '
i'\‘TX
‘ \\
“rt, \\
.\cr_vcci .
4_ \~\

2ooo° sooo oooo socoo zooo 0ooo soooo 2000

5000
20ooo zocoo 5000
20
coo so
ooo
KVA KVA §
0oooP
Fig. 65“-Capacitance to ground of SALIENT-POLE GENERATORS AND MOTORS in mlcrofarads per phase.
186 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6
0.020 ’ e capacitance per phase to ground in microfarsds and E is
._l the applied voltage from Winding to ground.
v y V Figures 64 to 67 provide basic data calculated for West-
',y,o.o:s.2 \ l ‘ i
~~ V AW i inghouse turbine generators and salient-pole generators
‘i
and motors. The generator data was obtained from refer-
ence 23 and the motor clots. from some unpublished ma-
PE oizl .1 1 1;? . terial of Dr. E. L. Harder. This information should be
typical of other machines to within about t 50 Dement-
. ~—w—~-Qi-' ~
itil 4 In general, it should be borne in mind that these character»
istics vary greatly between machines of difierent designs.
ROFARAOS P.0O ..8-_-4
Rma Fortunately, however, not very great accuracy is required
for the applications cited above.
gQ_°°‘.l V 2‘ \ ‘ .......... 1

XII. NATURAL FREQUENCY OF SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINE CONNECTED TO INFINITE BUS
00 i moo zoo 1 :00 £05” soc A synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus
HORSE POWER possesses a naturai period of oscillation which is given in
the ASA C50——~1943 Rotating Electrics} Machinery
Fig. 66-Capacitance to ground of 2300-volt SYNCHRONOUS
MOTORS in micro£ai-ads per phase to ground. For voltages Standards as
between 2300 and 6600, the capacitance will not vary more
than i 15 percent from the values for 2300 voit. fa; cycles per minute (I13)

where P, is the synchronizing power in kw per electrical

tomary to represent the machine capacitance in this
radian displacement,
work by placing one-half of the totai capacitance to
f is the system frequency.
ground at the machine terminal. For details of this type
When given sn angular displacement, the machine oscil—
of calculation refer to the chapter on Power-System lates with this frequency and finally subsides unless sub-
Voltages and Currents During Abnorrnai Conditions. jected to periodic impulse of proper magnitude. It is not
(d) Charging Kva. in testing the insulation of Ina- within the scope of this work to discuss this subject in its
ehines, pwticuiuriy in the field, it is sometimes necessary
entirety, but merely to derive the above expression.
to know the approximate charging kva of the windings
If an incremental displacement A6 be assumed, the cor-
so that a. transformer of sufficiently high rating can be responding synchronizing power is
provided beforehand to do the job. This is required
either for normal routine testing, for testing at time of AP=P,A6 in kw (114)
installation or for testing after rewinding. The charging and A8 is in degrees. From the Stability Chapter it can be
kva per phase is equal to 21rfC°E2>< 10”“ where Co is the seen that the acceleration of the rotor is
180 1'
0.04,’ ’ " " r " r r" " M a= Raid}; in deg/sec’
l
lL ___ ___ 1 i
= P in rad/sec’ (115)
oaz= _
+' l where the kva, refers to the rating of the machine and H
the inertia constant. Substituting H from Eq. (93)
O2“ ..‘ .. .__ ‘8 I 11-10“ f
(116)
0! = ill 1‘8.Cl/$862

P.p<> 5.._
O 3
U5
"I
and substituting AP from I-Sq. (£14)

PHA$€
PER
NN
IGRGFIRQU3 . \\\sg “- 'n'lO“
°‘ =.s~M~
fP,
0.231 -___-_Aa
(WR’)(rpm)’ (:1?)
Z5 o.ooa i f I \» =-me. (118)
‘K106 fP,.
K= —?- ---~W;-----—2. (119)
0.231 (WR )(rpm)
O0 Z 5010*” M2100 if if 566"’ 7400 $00 The sign of P, is actually negative as an increment in A0
aoaserowes
produces a torque which tends to return the machine to the
Fig. 67--Capacitance to ground of 2390-volt INDUCTION operating angle. Thus, K is positive. Now
MOTORS in microfarads per phase. For voltages between
2304} and 6600, the capacitance will not vary more than ems) —KA6.
C!=“‘(?t?‘= (120)
;t I5 percent from the values for 2300 volts.
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 187

Further, let current equal to rated value is called the “rated-current

A6=A sin 21rfa£
then substituting this relation into Eq. (120)
—(21rfn}* A sin 21rf,,£= ~—KA sin 21rf.,t
from which
Substituting K from Eq. (119)
587
f..-—rpm fig cycles per sec
which converts to Eq. (113).
XIII. TYPiCAL CONSTANTS AND COSTS
Both the voltage and the current at which a. machine
operates affect certain of the principal constants through
the variability of the permeability of the iron. In this
sense, these so-called constants are not in reality constant.
Consider the transient reactance, xd’. If three-phase short-
circuits are applied to a machine from no load, the react-
arlces so obtained vary with the excitation. Two of these
quantities have been given special designations. Thus the
reactance obtained when the excitation is such as to pro-
duce rated voltage at no load before the short—circuit is
called the “rated»voltage reactance” and the reactance
obtained when the excitation is reduced so as to produce
from no load a transient component of the short-circuit
1.0~"""""
T UR BINE GENERATORS
(121) roactance.”
A knowledge of these two values of 2:4’ is not sufiicient
for all applications for which :c¢' is required. The rated-
current rd’, because of lower excitation, lends itself more
readily for determination from test. The rated“/oltage :v¢'
is that required for shorbcircuit studies. Saturation within
the machine is a minimum for the former and a maximum
for the latter. The rated voltage value is sometimes called
the “saturated value” and is the value usually given by the
designer. Certain applications, such as stability studies,
demand a quantity determined under conditions for which
(122) the terminal voltage is near rated voltage and the armature
current is likewise near its rated current. Fig. 68 obtained
from data presented by Kilgore“ shows how the reactances
of typical machines of different classes Vary if three~phase
short—circuits were applied from rated voltage no load, the
current being altered by introducing different external
reactances in the armature circuits. The rated-current
figure is used as a base for all the curves. The particular
reactance on the curves for rated current is the one that
would have greatest utility for stability and regulation
problems. No specific name has been assigned to this
quantity.
Similar considerations apply to the subtransient react-
anccs, with this difference, that the rated—current reactance
zd” is obtained from the same test as that for which the
ra,ted~current reactance of .14’ was obtained. In this case
rated current refers to the transient component and not
the subtransient component of current. Fig. 69 shows how
l
2-POLE
TURBINE GENERATOR

9 49 l____ ___ _ _ _

NTVALUE
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sonarunn 5
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TRANSIENT COMPONENT OF
ARMATURE CURRENT 8N PER UNIT
0.90 | 2
TRANSENT COMPONENT OF
ARHATURE CURRENT IN PER UNIT

Fig. 69—Saturatlon factors for subtransient reactance.

3 4l

“Rated current" value used as base. All rcactances from

Fig. 68—Saturatlon factors for transient reactance. Three- three-phase short circuits without external reactance. Satu-
phase short circuits from rated voltage no load. Current ration factors for salient-pole machine with damper winding
limited by series reactance. is equal to unity.
 188 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

0.! Z ————— ————— ———————— —— —

xd” varies with the transient component of current, all
points being obtained from three-phase Si1OI‘t'~ClI‘(IU.1iS with 7'5 coo xv,
no external reactance, the current being altered by the
excitation before the short—circuit.
In genera], it is unnecessary to make this distinction for
the negative-sequence reactance. The AIEE code” sug- nzncr mce 993
6
gests determination of at; by means of the method discussed
0.06 i
43 750 KVA
PER
T
UN
0.0 1 —~ 1 ——~ *—

§ . ii I re?
‘O 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 LO L2 L4
PER UNIT ARMATURE CURRENT

QMWH
-
s_!”‘|§"JH=
_
360
l
I80
240— —
Fig. 72WVariation of 2., for turbine generators.

ERUNTR P0 NU!
P '_ OO
i ii7i .
_@m"
Q

32‘?
0'00 20000 ¥ 8 OO ieocflo i7ariiooo<i l0(i)0O0i naoooo --1 1*‘9_o,‘F4!
,Q
p _‘..__l7 ‘
8
k‘
\
SECONDS
muw
‘I \\\
Fig. 7fl—Normal unsaturated transient reactance (x¢..’) for ENT
TRAN$
‘1‘Q “sQB
waterwheel generators. Q.
b.:°<>o L%e§§L1i.7
under Negative-Sequence Reactence, the current during

ii»
the sustained terminal-to-terminal shorbcireuit being 7 L _L-_ gi
_ _ _ V.
limited to the rated current. N
ECONSTQNT
-~25 cvcu:
-2
The normal value of :1:'.i.. designed into waterwheel gen— I do TM -—eo cvcua

‘ §§§kfl.",_u nu.mum A;_nusk1is \h..

TOPENGROUT
erators varies with the kva capacity and speed. These
"values are plotted in curve form in Fig. 70. To obtain »anDo
ma 3 4 5 IO Z0 30 40 50 6°
lower values than those indicated usually involves an RATING IN THOUSANDS OF KVA
increased cost.
The angular reiations within the machine are determined Fig. 73—Open-circuit transient time constants of a-c gen-
erators and motors.
to a large extent by xq. The variation, by test, of 2., for
several salient-pole machineslw’ is shown in Fig. 71.
I2
3 a
‘fw —
77
%
‘
'1"
6‘
*2
xi ll::i;i~:l;~lY
O“!
<0
75’
9. S
" 1\ P \_. 5* 90 E?’ ""
U

T
PER
UN TT --»
; _ i i_ Q e

xqes 9. 01 1
i 1 fie D HANSEN‘
RCU?
-c
60»
NTNECOND5
\

.-_~__
.._J
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 5.0 L2 D
ARMATURE CURRENT IN PER UNIT li
N
1,1,,PEN
1'MEcousrn T.
Fig. 71-24 for salien t-pole machines.
@7500 kva generator without damper winding. 00 7720 7740 To so 7 loo :20 7146”
= 750 kva generator without damper winding. RATING IN THOUSANDS OF KVA
M331 kw: motor with damper winding removed.
UOtdZ>- = IOU kva. generator with damper Winding. Fifl. 74~—Open-circuit transient time constants of turbine
generators.

The zero-sequence reactance, as evidenced by Fig. 72
taken from Wright’s paper," is not affected to any great
extent in the region for which it has greatest use.
For practical purposes the effect of saturation upon the
open-circuit transient time constant T4’, and the sub-
trensient short-circuit time constant Ta” can be neglected.
In general, Td’ varies 1’ in the same manner as :24’, so that
f
the relation T6’ =:%i—Td’,, is still maintained. Because of
4 current equal to rated current. It must be kept in mind
the wide variation of Td'., with the size of the unit the
curves of Figs. 73 and 74 taken from a paper by Hahn
and Wagner," are also included.
Table 4 gives both the range of typical constants that
are characteristic of normal designs and also an average
that can be used for general purposes when the specific
value of a particular machine is not known. The negative-
sequence resistance is that obtained at a. negative-Sequence
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 189
W I
that the loss associated therewith varies as the second - ‘T9
HI‘ N-i 2.0 1.
power of 1'2 for salientqnole machines either with or without 8. 10
IF;
--< “Q 9’:
damper windings and as the 1.8 power of it for turbine fig. 75
Sec SeeF'g
75(a SeeFig.
75(b) ?5(b
SeeF'g Lar
gSma Large Sina
generators. Column (9) in Table 4 refers to the a—c re-
sistance, ri, (which includes the effect of load losses} and ,,_. if;
3
column (10) the d-0 resistance, 1"“. w:<
w-1 53 0.13 H 0313;
gr"?
0.15
30 50~0.
o.
=<.=
0.
.§3f'L>»0_.
The inertia constant, H, which is discussed in Chap. I3 004-024 6! 0.03-9.25 0
lO~
U
1 _9.;
0.1:
is likewise given in Tabie 4. The general variation of H of
s='=
turbogenerntors and the corresponding figures for water»- ‘Id kw.
50000
500kva.
and
about
:18
wheel generators are given in Fig. 75. The effect upon H 13
E“! O35
U. O
- l§l
O35 6“lift?
I
0.gas cso2%(M
U02-0.
O5 ie JZJZ3-‘>4 0.01-0.05 c0240.0-l ta:
I0 , NW1» * V
in m 00 we ’“
"14gr. tr.:‘:<,:
“rt Mr . forga'venare
10“.,Fi
rm
K ' """ ' f"'T"fi | I
._¢
El’ --UH":
IBOO RPM CCNDEN5lN(il_
i MSueFig.
9’?4
_-_5_ _ SE5
l
r .
‘Q C,
M l") Olffii N D1
';—¢
3; _ __i__ _ 1 i _ |,__ l M _ .__...__._ W ngvaic
11113 -:< FD
r-| z r-6‘
"ego I‘?
or we
~ ¢\ O
M mit
ru olio .E.k"?' I
r-0
E-1 5. 8. Fig. W6 *°
°.__; ‘ac: mgcg
ma Q
H6 1 See
mm"
O’)
§"°
. <0 to
'' l I '1 ' i'""'*
aeoo mm couoeusmsl ;
l
5-r:
I
L_" _ _Wl__ Wt _ | 1 L l _ ‘Q 9-OB leis,
1 . to cl:
3
-< /n
C 5-
I
1 éfil 8 .pN,
c:>
4 O03~0.015
M600
“’* i RPMI noucouoausms
I I 1”‘ i
0001-
ggeef;OO0? OUOl
5 ~Gi0U5, 0 O003-0O15 A 0‘ 0.002 ofoc
_ __:____ ' j l~— | l
0 damper
th
resista.ce.
H ,_ _ incvarywi
rract
rating th
9 .__, s.
20 i 20 40 "” so co l 004-0OH 003
UUGWO O0-5~0i020 005-020 0v;_(_}_§J_{‘>5 009
(M-0.
005-0009
I00
0 0 if" ;° §4°
:'?. . -
THOUSANDS OF KVA
(cl) lei, es I}
T aatnnd
\lrevar
5 , ,,. I .1 8
25
.03-0.045 U2-5~D.07 0#0
O70
if _5|4 RPM[___
I X‘
092-
‘D 5W0(M 003-0045 0Ol2—00290 E
*1
4 \,,__ l l,» 3$<) ‘
=~='
N
°‘ in
Iv
R "‘_| 270037
1"?
O11!
0.10 __017.07-0 lo‘ “(L28
0.40
17~0 __9,0.1?-0
-,3.? “‘1;Tg.+0.o 0.20%)35 04 . . 0224
5'1‘
5 fig 1.
9_____ -1 Y/ED.
l i ‘ 72
d 0408
<0
(*) To :3 0
rated currcnt 0.03 93?.. 0.15

2 / I l l l belthe
line
tueshnorgive
rvaloaosengeofval
abovegiveanav
wmuale ues,werhiagele {JU
-0.08 0c
.»"-c. 003-023 G
3~O,2-i
Fv.........................h .._._.h...._
_;0025-0
Z‘.t;1.f% OI‘:
Id
Ta
i> l *5
l.6‘ 1 T34
_l;n,,eeee e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 77l if
IQ 313':
rated current xxtsn
"
3ll ¢‘="9
gt,
<3
l

*3 Q55?
l l
31-?
iiT44 0 C‘!I
hard
be
ll!CCng
y

1
'0’ " 20 i
l 40 ‘
l
‘so so ""100
0
l 03a~o.o5 0.18.40 c5 113630
:7: l
_¥'>’
#9
U9C3

'1'
yull in" 500 T
O.
[5
3 3
£5
ct rings
‘rnousanos or KVA 4 8%’
<.
I915 (Z20
2
Q1*” 9 32 G
0. 23-
(bl IIxd
rated voltage 5
20-.
[O I-L _ 0,1"
G 1243
Id
3
1340
0
_c.0.so-201 l 9'
Fig. '75--Inertia constants.
Q
(a) Large turbine generators, turbine included. |‘>& i°\ 565-'3
wsyxccdu
1,
ietenaver
M
,_D
Qle=.= ;€¢\'
3 0 for
93
pitchw
.22
(b) Large vertical type wat-erwheel generators, including aliow» -Tated
ra °,;:“i‘Z-_, § 0_'
Q: W
048 3%
ance of 15 percent for waterwhoels. TABLE
CONST
TSHYRNOF
E¢C§H—RAOP—TNTHNOAYSUPEIMCAACHIL NES
voltage
ML
0.12-
Qlfil
la 020-oisou 020-0 j;s1i;F :00.-0
L 5° E
0cc E5
sionceandW
“.2i
gntc

of increasing the short»-circuit ratio and changing the N

E
£51-*2
42
3‘
=°._§
1; sof tr:
BO
l
iv;
iv?
I
5*’-in J3; fig! 019. Q I-1
power-factor is given in Fig. 76. The WR2 represented rated current. owreact
lot =>2 0acme.so 0so-1040 "-1?-ii 0.954. 110» Low24".
by the curves of Figs. 75 and 76 are those obtained arnaturew'n
from a normally designed machine in which no particular t
in
ticnaremsonesctoaenndsts . no
[<9 50.E‘
I’)
Q
have 70f
Q‘; 0 Q.
l E t mo‘:
effort has been made to obtain abnormally high H. When I-Q °f\| 25 w'LO.
to

magnitudes of WR” in excess of these are desired e more

Id
unset) -oé‘; 2
1 [50
5041 2T5 E 1.-of2085-2. .=\a§.§ 0 1
nd
lo 1.45
0041 0 O
60-1 “F
SJ.“
BXp0I1$lV0 machine results. The additional cost of the W“
E
additional WR2 is about proportional as shown in Fig, 77. Lit
’ noc
y
to
ed
units fro0.
nls
n
The cost per kva of water-wheel generators depends 1.
0
Sp?
b'c sd 3\ydro-
at
ed V8ref
upon its kva and speed. The extent of this variation is er er k
§l|.'1(‘E
ratO

shown in Fig. 78. Machines of higher short—circuit ratio cooe High Xv Vin“
Ell‘
C
E
1'! envpol
gen- e "eit-pol(wateerges mpers) .:‘
or power-factor are more expensive in the proportion shown Reacareper
tuances generators generators erand
ators motorswida
motth s) L: er da at gencoolé
psi £3
2-Po
tuerlzfne 4-P Sa Sa condemn Condcns
190 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6

:1:
E 60
70
\z*@
%1: 50x 10°!A»-1 ‘>04
i(oj
3

‘\' \"“— W‘ 1
i
0 Q \ Q7
‘uPo
~ 0;,04
MORE ao
4:,#4 A7“,
\{€

""”"*";//77’—“% V ‘/ ‘ cos1'
m
U
Ul
N-‘i
. . QO
OOO

>1P£flcENTAsENcR£AsE
on
LO 1.4 1.8
"é~,,;,___J_
2-Z 2.6
1 {"0 3.0
SHORT CIRCUIT RAT!O
P£RC£NTA6E :0oi
_ _ OOO
\ \ Fig. 79-Efleczt cf short-circuit ratio upon cost {Normal 1.0
onio
. :4
. ‘N Tb
. 22
. as":
. ‘ 5.0 short-circuit ratio and 0.8 power-factor used as base}.
snow cmcww RATIO
Fig. 76——Efiect of short-circuit ratio upon H. 2°? W 0‘
ro O :6; ~~— 0 \ *

0_ 0LLL»W*W
CHNE
I4
HYDROGEN - 8 0 F1 D
‘2 uT0oon

NC 2° i 40 » 60 lih
~r=
R€ASEDancos!ERCENT
6
0
PERCENT INCREASE IN H
H ‘°
PER
s
NDOLLARS
KVA
‘
‘
K(((((((" "

‘_______,iW_W AIR COOLED I

/ 7 —

3 3_
%

Fig. 7'7—Efiect of increasing H above the normai values given

COS? 4‘Z
by Fig. 15. 1*9'
_
2 ‘. ‘ _ __
4s __
1 0 \ . ». . <*. . . _. _-Q._
0 IO 20 so -so 50
"mousauos or mm
40 - 1 , ~ 1! Fig. 8B*G0st of synchronous cendensers including excite:
‘ ,_ 1 and autotransformer.

uN
{ 0 in Fig. 79. Naturally these figures will vary from year to
year wiih the cost of materiais and labor.
DOLLARS ' W’ r
The condenser cost per kva including the exciter, piiot
exciter, and auio-transformer is plotted in Fig. 80. The
‘Q I00 } 1 * excite!" kw varies with t-he size of the unit, ranging from
8 1.2, 0.7, and 0.32 percent for 2, 1000, 5000, and 50 000-kva.
unit, respectively.
§a M __ _ _
sec
V \
‘
_
The cost of normal exciters for \va.ter-wheel generators
varies from 7 to 13 percent of the cost of the generator
KVAN
COSTPER ___, _, , A-MIA ((((((( i _ alone for siow speeds, and from 2.5 to 6 percent for high
5:4
3
--1 1WWW _
0 speeds. T110 larger figures apply for units of about 3000
kva. and ‘£110 smaller figures for machines of about 50 000
i i ' i “ * \ kva. Direct-connected pilot exciters cost approximately
30 percent of that of the exciter.
0 no Eb so 40 50
mousmos or am XIV. INDUCTION MGTORS
Fig. 78-~Cost of waterwheel generators including direct-com The equivalent circuit of the induction motor is shown
nested exciters only. . .. . . 1-
m I‘ 1g. 31. The loss 1n éhe resxstor —§r, repmsnnts the
(0.8 powerfactor and 1.0 short circuit ratio)
(0.9 power-factor and i.1 short circuit ratio) shaft. power and since izhe circuit is on ax per phase basis,
(1-U power-factor and 1.25 short circuit rafiio) the total shaft power is thus
Chapter 6 Machine Characteristics 191

example of this case is the phenomena that occurs during

Total shaft p0Wer=l~§§(3r,'¢',2) in watts (123)
the interval l)cL\vec11 the transfer of power-house auxiliaries
l l—~s from one source to another. In the second case, the tran-
=-_Ww
746 WW , .9, .
8 (3;-'1.}1nhp . ( 124 ) sient is determined by reactions involving both the stator
and rotor and the duration is quite short. Examples, of
The robot copper loss is (3r,z',2). Therefore, neglecting this case, are the sudden cncrgization of an induction motor
other losses, the efficiency is: or sudden short circuit across its terminals.
Efficienc _ floral shaft power 35 Contribution to System Short—Gircuit Current
y total shaft powcr+ rotor copper loss In the calculation of system, short circuit-s only synr:l1ro-
l—s nous machines are usually considered but in special cases
where induction machines constitute a large proportion of
=1--:2--=1-8. (125) the load, their contribution to the short-circuit current
~k+1
S
even if its rluralion only a few cycles may be large enough
to influence the choice of the breaker from the standpoint
Thus, the efficiency decreases with increasing slip. For of its short~ti1ne rating, that is, the maximum rms current
10 percent slip the efficiency is 90 percent, for 90 percent the breaker can carry for any time, however small.
slip the efficiency is 10 percent. Similarly, the rotor copper As a first approxirnation the shor‘{,~circui‘{. current; sup-
loss is directly proportional to slip; being l0 percent for plied §>y an induction motor can be resolved into an alter»
10 percent slip and 90 percent for 90 percent slip. noting and a unidirectional component much like shat for
The total shaft power can also be expressed in terms of a. synchronous machine. The initial rms magnitude of the
torques. Thus, altcrrlasing component is equal to the terminal voltage
to neutral divided by the blocked rotor impedance per
7?‘
Total shaft horse power = §~§2~,~)~66( T in 1;, gt) (rpm) ,,_.,,_ ( I — s). phase. The time constants are namely,
for the altcrnatilrg component,
(126)
(blocked rotor reactanee per phase in ohms} bl G 0,85
Equating (124) and (126), the torque is
211- (rotor resistance per phase in ohms) Y '
T=?.c4--5-» ft. (121) for the unidirectional component,
(IP01) syn. Sin per unit.

The equivalent circuit of Fig. 31 can be simplified con- §.l%l. ‘?.¥1lfi°?l. }f9§9.*I. £¥i?¥f?P;€%£?.E?2..P.9FT.. l2l}?:§§..§I‘ Ohms? in 0 C16,,
siderably by shifting the magnetizing branch to directly 21r (stator resistance per phase in ohms) ‘Y '
across the terminals. The resultant approximate circuit Fig. 82 shows the short-circuit current of a 25-horse-power,
is shown in Fig. 8l. This approximation permits of 5-50~volt squirrebcage motor. The dotted line in the upper

JX5 I‘; JX, ff

--»—h
if

I-0
T 'r
Zm

3 7 I ~ 7 7 w —7 W" ~~— *——

Fig. 82-—~App1-oximate equivalent circuit of induction motor.

relatively simple determination of it, so that Eq. (127)

becomes
Tr

ra (W111)
_7'°4Ez~
syn.
3 (Ta__,__%1_")
0 ,8+(x5+Ir)2lbft. (128)

Most transients involving induction motors fall within

one of two categories; first, those in which the machine is
disconnected from the source of power and, second, those
in which the machine remains connected to the source of
power. In the first case the Lransiens is determined largely Fig. 82——Short-circuit currents in armature of squirrel-cage
by changes in magnetization and may be quite long. An induction motor.
192 Machine Characteristics Chapter 6
r,-.02 x,-.08 x,-.08 r,-.02
curve indicates the computed value of the envelope of the I-3.0
alternating component of short~circuit current. The am-
plitude shows a substantial check but the computed time amen , I-S
constant was low. This can probably be attributed to using VOLTAGE APPLIED X" 4° ?'r
the a~c resistance of the rotor rather than the d-c resistance. T .
The dotted line in the lower curve is the computed value of '"° " or.
the unidirectional component which checks quite well.
Wound-rotor motors, operated with a substantial amount
as
~“”1?/did‘
LOAO
r . nr
Tl)ROUfi'T|_% Tim _ _
its e .
of external resistance, will have such small time constants
p ACCELERATING
that their contribution to the short-circuit can be neglected.
°_Tl._ ‘ yi .... Jvrcurzu
3 l
36. Electro-Mechanical Starting Transient .‘ 3 r
‘6 _. , .*,, ., ‘ _r_ i
Fig. 31 shows the conventional diagram of an induction 3° l 1 l Tgvoros T y
l 1 nous‘ i
motor. In the present discussion the per unit system of w
w
0.5 i
i
1l 1
——
units will continue to be used, in which unit current is the °" 0.4
"’ l l CALCULATED ‘rescued.
current necessary to develop the rated power at the rated POlN’i’S NEGLECTING ‘
; 7 7 vmusurrngmo ennusam
voltage. The unit of iooth power and reactive volt-amperes 0.3
will be the rated kva of the motor and not the rated power rm: dl/dw i
0.2 i-*
either in kilowatts or horse power. This convention is
consistent with the choice of units for the impedances. At
rated slip the volt~amperes input into the stator must be
1_ 1/all /‘r\l\.<
equal to‘ unity but the power absorbed in the resistor -Tigr,
O
0 I
0.4
2 3
0.8
4 5 6 T “;l;n
it. at/aw
roaouz
AND “ME
will be less than unity and will be equal numerically to Fig. 83-~Il1uatrating calculation of speed-time curve of an
the ratio of the rated power of the motor to the rated kva. induction motor upon application of full voltage.
The unit of shaft torque requires special comment. The
shaft power can be expressed as 7'1-
. 1—
Shaft Power in kw=kva..rs.i I3r, 8 8. (129) T in per unit=@i—i—§——7_—~: (133)
(=v.+rv»)’+ (r.+~_;i>
In terms of torque the shaft power is equal to
Shaft Power in kw The crosses close to the torque curve in Fig. 83 were
T in lb ft i.‘Z1r7{rpm),,,»,,.,;,_(1—s)
computed by this expression.
0.746 33 000 . (139) In Fig. 83 is also shown the torque requirements of 8.
particular load such as a blower. Upon applying voitage
Equating, there results that to the motor the diiierence between the torque developed
by the motor and that required by the load is the torque
. 33 000 1-, available for acceieration of the rotor. To convert to accel-
T In fl'i— kV&,‘g,d
eration it is convenient to introduce a constant, H, which
is equal to the stored energy in kw~sec. per kva of rating
If unit torque he defined as that torque required to pro- at synchronous speed. H may he computed by means of
duce a shaft power equal to rated kva at synchronous Eq. (93). WRZ must, Of course, include the WR’ of the con-
speed, then from (130), the unit of torque is nected load.
33 000 Suppose that one per unit torque is applied to the motor
21r(0.746) (rpm),y,,q,_
kV3-"tad which means that at synchronous speed the power input
into acceleration of the rotor is equal to rated kva, and
and equation (131) in per unit becomes suppose further that the rotor is brought to synchronous
speed in one second. During this interval the acceleration
T in p.11. sag. (132) is constant (1 per unit) and the power input increases
linearly with time so that at the end of one second the
For the purpose of determining the nature of electro— stored energy of rotation is (}/Q kva) in lrvwsec. Thus 1 per
mechanical transients upon starting a motor from rest, the unit of torque produces 1 per unit of acceleration if the
first step involves the calculation of the shaft torque as a inertia is such that % kva of stored energy is produced in
function of the speed. Either the conventional method of one second. From this it can be seen that if the inertia is
the circle diagram or expression (132) can he used. In such that at synchronous speed the stored energy is H,
using the latter method it is only necessary to solve the then to develop this energy in one second, tho some acceler-
network of Fig. (31) and substitute the solution of I, there- ation but a torque 2H times as great is required. Therefore,
from into Eq. (132). A solution of a typical motor is shown there results that
in Fig. 83. For most motors the magnetizing branch can he _T— T1,
cc—---fH (134)
neglected, for which case the torque expression becomes
Chapter 6 Machine Clmacteristics 193

500
Acceleration can he expressed as % and its reciprocal
000
as Thus from (134) 500
do:
dz 2H
o"a"~T,, (135) 1%’
1'“
—6
- 0‘
This function is likewise plotted in Fig. 83. The utility of
this form of the expression may be seen at once from the assoum_voumes-voa.rs 8o IO 20 30 40 50 60 70
fact that % is known as a, function of w and the time to Tlhlfi-CYCLES
(.0
Fig. 84-~Decay of residual voltage“ of a group of power house
reach any value of to can be determined by s. simple auxiliary motors.
integration. Thus
i=[(~~~£E)dw (136)
*'°r _ ___
* ML7 ____
W, it\ \ _
*
Li’
do:
6 on
By summing up areas (such as indicated by the shaded CLES MEL
portion) in a, vertical direction, the time to reach any
speed is obtained. The curve of time so obtained is
piotted in Fig. 83.
The following formula can be used to form an approxi-
mate idea. of the time required to accelerate a. motor, i_ ,_ ‘ _
whose load varies as the square or cube of the speed, to E \
5nol Pe?e_n,9, o . \
T
MECON$TANT"CY
half speed L-~———-3soo mm —~ —~ 4....--1
—————————
2
Time to half spmd= in seconds (137) u 8 T__tBOO‘|‘-RPM
I’ t ...-. '1 Wrrrriii W ‘ l W r‘
GROUT
All of the above units must be expressed in per unit. Re- OI
member also that re, should include any external react» OPEN #9444 S00 RPM
.l_ out. - 1*"' "-- " Wo
anoe in the stator back to the point Whore the voltage
oi
___,‘L_-‘4 41‘?
may be regarded as constant and et should be that con- ZOO 300 4-O0 500 TOO IOUO I500
stant voltage. HORSEPOWER

37. Residual Voltage
If an induction motor is disconnected from its supply, it
rotates for some time, the rate of deceleration being de-
termined by the inertia of its own rotor and the inertia of
the load and also by the nature of the load. Because of
the inductance of the rotor, flux is entrapped and voltage
Fig. 85——TypicaI time constants for 2300-volt squirrel cage
induction motors.
appears E}-‘l; the open terminals of the machine. If the volt~
age source is reapplied when the source voltage and residual
voltage of the motor are out of phase, currents exceeding
starting values may be obtained.

ueo 7 *0 0 0 I at h
e t
l

i ‘ __ __ _____ nsou-uooo _
E 30
_ \ 700!-H500
500:-1000
mo
sa 3 O

it +20:-5 » - ‘_-
56 O
Q53co 550$
‘ I t -*"--"' H‘-=7 440 E0 *6
P£RGENToran l 5" ¢ t zos-220 —_
0 440-550
mo __20a-220-440-550 440-eso-2:00 2300 A z_aoo- A;
‘ l 1 2-om-4200
20 40 60 I00 200 '400 600 I000 2000 4000 6000 IOOOO
MOTOR $lZ£ IN HORSEPOWER
Fig. 86—App1-oximate variation of price with voltage and horepower of squirrel-cage
induction motors. These values apply approximately for 8 pulea or lean for 60»cyc1e
motors. Most economical used as base price.
194 Machine Characteristics
Figure 84 shows the decay of a. group of power-house
auxiliary motors". The group had a total rating of 2500
kw of which the largest was 1250 hp. This curve includes
not only the effect oi magnetic decay but the reduction in
voltage due to decrease in speed. The open-circuit time
constant for individual 2300~volt machines is given in Fig.
85. There is a great variance in this constant between
different designs but these curves give an idea of the mag-
nitude for squirrel-cage induction machines.
38. Cost of Induction Motors
The price of induction motors of 2. given rating varies
with the voltage. As the rating increases the most eco-
nomical voltage also increases. To form a basis of iudg-
ment of the effect of voltage upon size the curve in Fig. 86
was prepared.
REFERENCES
1. Power System Transients, by V. Bush and R. D. Booth,
A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 44, February 1925, pp. 80-97.
2. Further Studies of Transmission Stability, by R. D. Evans and
C. F. Wagner, AI Transactions, Vol. 45, 1926, pp. -51—8U.
3. Synchronous M2ichines~»I and II—~An extension of Blondel’s
Two Reaction-Theo1'y-Sl.eady—SLaLo Power Angie Character-
istics, by R. E. Doherty and C. A. Nickle, A.I.E.E. Transac-
tions, Vol. 45, 1926, pp. 912-942.
4. Synchronous Machines—iII. Torque Angle Characteristics
Under Transient Conditions, by R. E. Doherty and C. A.
Niel-file, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 46, 1927, pp. 1-14.
5. Synchronous Machines, IV, by R. E. Doherty and C. A. Nickle,
AJ Transactions, V01. 47, No. 2, April 1928, p. 457.
6. Synchronous Machines, V. Threc~Phasc Short Circuit Syn~
chronous Machines, by R. E. Doherty and C. A. Nickie,
A.I Transaetiona, V0]. 49, April 1930, p. 700.
7. Definition of an Ideal Synchronous Machine and Formula. for
the Armature Flux Linkages, by R, H. Park, General Electric
Review, June 1928, pp. 332-334.
8. Two-Reaction Theory of Synchronous Msehineswl, by R. H.
Park, Al Transactions, Vol. 48, No. 2, July 1929, p. 716.
Chapter 6
Two-Reaction Theory of Synchronous Machines, II, by R. H.
Park, A.l Transactions, V01. 52, June 1933, p. 352.
/1.1 Test Code for Synchrorwus Machines. A.§.E.E. Publi-
cation N0. 503, June 1945.
Discussion, by O. F. Wagner, A.I Transaations, July 1937,
p. 904.
Unsymmetrieul Short.-Circuits in Water-Wheel Generators
Under Capaeitive Loading, by C. F. Wagner, Al Transac-
tions, November 1937, pp. 1385-1395.
Overvoltages on Water-Wheel Generators, by C. F. Wagner,
The Eiectric Journal, August 1938, p. 321 and September 1938,
p. 351.
Damper Windings for Water-Wheel Generators, by C. F. Wag-
ner, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 50, March 1931, pp. 140451.
Effect of Armature Resistance Upon Hunting of Synchronous
Machines, by C. F. Wagner, /¥.I.E.E'. Trarmmzfxions, Vol. 49,
Juiy 1930, pp. l[)11WI024.
Effects of Saturation on Machine Reactances, by L. A. Kilgore,
A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 54, 1935, pp. 545-550.
Determination of Synchronous Mzawhine Constants by Test,
by S. H. Wright, A.I Transactions, Vol. 50, 1931, pp.
1331-1350.
Standard Deorement Curves, by W. G. Hahn and C. F. Wagner,
Al Transactions, 1932, pp. 3534361.
Approximating Potier Reactanoe, by Sterling Beckwith,
A1 Transactions, July 1937, p. 813.
Auxiliary Power at Richmond Station, by J. W. Anderson
and A. C. Monteith, A.I.E’.E‘. Transactions, 1927, p. 827.
Preferred ‘Standards for Large 3600-RPM 3-Phase 60~Cycle
Condensing Steam Turbine-Generators, AIEE Standards Nos.
601 and 692, May 1949.
Regulation of A~C Generators With Suddenly Applied Loads,
by E. L. Harder and R. C. Cheek, A.I Transactions, Vol.
63, 1944, pp. 310-318.
Regulation of A-C Generators with Suddenly Applied L=osds-—-
II, by E. L. Harder and R. C. Cheek, A.I T1-unsaclilons, 1950.
Practical Caleuiation of Circuit Transient Recovery Voltages,
by J. A. Adams, W. F. Skeats, R. C. Van Sickle and T. G. A.
Sillers, A.I.E.E. Transactions, V01. 61, 1942, pp. 771-778.
Bus Transfer Tests on 230‘D—Volt Station Auxiliary System, by
A. A. Johnson and H. A. Thompson, presented before AIEE
Winter Meeting, Jan. £950.
 cnarrsn 1
EXGITATION SYSTEMS
Author:
J. E. Barkle, Jr.

RIOR to 1920 relatively little difficulty was en- on the bus. It usually had sufficient capacity to carry the
Pcountered in the operation of electrical systems, and excitation requirements of the entire station for at least an
operating engineers had little concern about system hour.
stability. As the loads grew and systems expanded, it be- Motor or turbine drive was also used in the individual-
came necessary to operate synchronous machines in paral- exeiter system, but it was not long before it was realized
lel, and diificulties encountered were not well understood. that direcvconnection of the exciter to the generator shaft
In certain areas it became necessary to locate generating offered an excellent answer to the many problems encoun-
stations some distance from the load centers, which in- tered with separately-driven exciters and this system grew
volved the transmission of power over long distances. It rapidly in popularity. The standby excitation source was
soon became apparent that system stability was of vital usually a spare exciter, either motor- or turbine-driven,
importance in these cases and also in the operation of large and in case of trouble with the main exciter, transfer was
interconnected systems. accomplished manually.
In 1922, a group of engineers undertook solution of the Pilot exciters had not been used up to that lime. The
stability problem to determine the factors involved that cxcitors were invariably self-excited. In the common-bus
most affected the ability of a system to tran sfer power from system without a floating battery, the bus was operated
one point to another. The results of these studies were at constant voltage supplied by compound-wouml ll-c gen~
presented before the AIEE in a group of papers"‘ in 1924, erators. Thus, practically constant voltage was obtained
and it was pointed out that the synchronous machine ex- on the bus and control of the individual a~c generator field
citation systems are an important factor in the problem of voltage was accomplished by using a variable rheostat in
determining the time variation of angle, voltage, and power each field as shown in Fig. l. When a standby battery was
quantities during transient disturbances. E. B. Shand
stressed the theoretical possibility of increasing the steady- EXCITER SHUNT FIELDS
state power that could be transmitted over transmission ‘\.A.A.A/"' ,
lines through the use of a generator voltage regulator and
an excitation system with a high degree of response so that
operation in the region of dynamic stability would be poo»
~e»~l
sible. It was not recommended that this region of dynamic
stability be considered for normal operation, but-,tl1at it be ..-1 ,1-
EQl3Ai..;:
considered additional margin in determining permissible
power transfer. EX6 1 S
Improvement of the excitation systems, therefore, ap- SERIES
FIELDS ‘
peared to be at least one method of increasing the stability
l
limits of systems and preventing the separations occurring
during transient conditions. Greater interest in the design
of excitation systems and their component parts developed, l~—----l +~~»-+ ,>---»e gigs
and exeiters with higher speeds of response and faster,
more accurate generator voltage regulators were soon 1 l it sxcziza J ” Z’
introduced to the industry. 1 t ~ f ans T * 1 *
Early excitation systems were of many different forms l" —-~} )—-~-) can sass )~—--) )--~/-~l
depending principally upon whether the main generators
were small or large in rating and whether the installation GENERATOR
was a steam or hydroelectric station. The two broad FIELD
classifications were those using a common excitation bus RHEOSTATS

1 Q it/‘
C;
and those using an individual exciter for each main gen-
erator. The common excitcr bus was generally energized
by several exciters driven by motors, turbines, steam en-
gines, waterwheels, or combinations of these to provide a
main and emergency drive. Standby exciter capacity was A"O GENERATOR FIELDS
provided in the common-bus system by a battery floated Fig. I-—Comm0n-excite:-~bus excitation system using fiat-
"A1 Trarwcucirlons, Vol. 43, 1924, pp. l6-lO3. compounded exclters and a-c generator field rheostats.
195
196 Excitation Systems
floated on the common bus, however, the exciters were
shunt-wound to prevent polarity reversal by reversal of
the scriesdicld current. The a-c generator-field rheostat
required in the common-bus system was a largo and bulky
device, which had considerable loss and required a great
deal of maintenance. Control of voltage was under hand-
regulation.
ln the individuabexciter system, the exciter was a shunt-
wound machine with field control enabling it to operate as
a variable-voltage source. The exciter usually operated at
voltages between 30 and 100 percent, lower field voltages
being obtained with a generator»-field rheostat so that the
exeiter could operate slightly saturated and be stable.
The generator voltage regulators in use at that time were
predominantly of the continuously~vihrating type. The
fact that these regulators were not suitable for use with
the new exciters with fast response and high ceiling voltages
prompted the development of new types of regulators)‘
In the past 25 years, there have been many developments
in excitation-system design and practices. There is an
uncoasing search among designers and users alike to find
ways of improving excitation-system performance through
use of various types of d-c generators, electronic con~
verters, and better controlling devices. The ultimate aim
is to achieve an ideal in rate of response, simplicity, reli-
ability, accuracy, sensitivity, etc. The achievement of all
of these ideals simultaneously is a difficult problem.
A review of the common excitation systems in use at the
present time is presented in this chapter. The design and
characteristics of each of the component parts are dis-
cussed, along with the methods of combining these parts
to form an excitation system having the most. desirable
features. Methods of calculating and analyzing excitation
system performance are also included.
I. DEFINITIONS
In discussing excitation systems, a number of term are
used, the meaning of which may not be entirely clear. The
following definitions are proposed for inclusion in the new
edition of the American Standards Association, Publication
C42, “Definitions of Electrical Terms”.
Excitation System--~An excitation system is the source of field
current for the excitation of a principal electric machine, includ-
ing means for its control.
An excitation system, therefore, includes all of the equip-
ment required to supply field current to excite a principal
electric machine, which may be an a~c or d~c machine, and
any equipment provided to regulate or control the amount
of field current delivered.
Exciter Ceiling V0l£age—-Exciter ceiling voltage is the max-
imum voltage that may be attained by an cxcitcr with specified
conditions of load. For rotating exciters ceiling should be de-
termined at rated speed and specified field temperature.
Nominal Exciter Ceiling Voltage-“Nominal exciter ceiling
voltage is the ceiling voltage of an oxciter loaded with a resistor
having an ohmic value equal to the resistance of the field winding
*A symposium of papers on excitation systems was presented
before the AIEE in 1920 and gives details of equipment and practices
in use at that timer See A IRE Transactions, Vol. 39, Part H, 1920,
pp, 1551»-163?.
Chapter 7
to be excited. This resistance shall be determined at a tempera-
ture of ;
(a) 75C for field windings designed to operate at rating with a.
temperature rise of 60C or less
(b) 100C for field windings designed to operate at rating with a.
temperature rise greater than 60C.
For rotating exciters the temperature of the exciter field winding
should be considered to be 75C.
Ruled-Loud Field Voltage-“Rated-load field voltage is the vols
age required across the terminals of the field winding of an
electric machine under rated continuous load conditions with the
field winding at:
(a) 75C for field windings designed to operate at rating with
a. temperature rise of 60C or less
(b) IOOC for field windings designed to operate at rating with
a temperature rise greater than 60C.
N0-Load Field Voltage-—~l\To-load field voltage is the voltage
required across the terminals of the field winding of an electric
machine under conditions of no load, rated speed and terminal
voltage, and with the field winding at 25C.
In the definitions of rated—load and no-load field voltage,
the terminals of the field winding are considered to be such
that the brush drop is included in the voltage in the case
of an a—c synchronous machine having slip rings.
Excitation System Sialrflity-—Excitation system stability is the
ability of the excitation system to control the field voltage of the
principal machine so that transient changes in the regulated
voltage are effectively suppressed and sustained oscillations in the
regulated voltage are not produced by the excitation system
during steady~ioad conditions or following s change to a new
steady-load condition.
Exciter Response-—Exciter response is the rate of increase or
decrease of the excitor voltage when a change in this voltage is
demanded.
Mdin-Exciter Response Ratio-—The main-exciter response ratio
is the numerical value obtained when the response, in volts per
second, is divided by the rated-load field voltage; which response,
if maintained constant, would develop, in one-half second, the
same excitation voltage-time area as attained by the actual ex~
cit-er. The response is determined with no load on the exeiter,
with the exciter voltage initially equal to the rated-load field
voltage, and then suddenly establishing circuit conditions which
would be used to obtain nominal exciter ceiling voitage.
Note: For a rotating exciter, response should be determined
at rated speed. This definition does not apply to main exciters
having one or more series fields or to electronic excibers.
In using the per-unit system of designating exciter vo1t~
ages, several choices are available from which to choose
the unit.
First, the rated voltage of the exciter would appear to be
the fundamental basis, but for system analysis it has very
little utility.
Second, for specification purposes it has become standard
through the adoption by the AIEE and ASA to use the
rated—load field voltage as unity. It should be noted that
rated-load field voltage is the voltage formerly referred to
as “nominal slip-ring” or “nominal collector—ring” voltage.
Third, the oxcitcr voltage necessary to circulate the field
current required to produce rated voltage on the air-gap
line of the main machine. For analytical purposes this is
the one most generally used and is the one used in the
analytical work in Chap. 6. Under steady—state conditions,
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 197

no saturation, and using this definition, exciter voltage, voltage-time curve of the exciter as determined under the
field current and synchronous internal voltage be-‘come specified conditions. Beginning at the rated—loarI field volt-
equal. age, point a, the straight line ac is drawn so that the area
Fourth, the slip-ring voltage necessary to produce rated under it, aha, during the one-half second interval from zero
voltage at no load or no-load field voltage is sometimes, but time is equal to the area under the actual voltage-time
rather infrequently used. This definition includes the small curve, abdc, during the same interval. The response used
amount of saturation present within the machine at no load. in determining response ratio is the slope of the line ac in
Exciters for turbine generators of less than IO 000 kilo» volts per second;
watts capacity are rated at 125 volts, and those for larger 190 volts
units are generally rated 250 volts. Some of the large units 0-5 SeCUnd~ 200 volts per second.
placed in service recently have exciters rated 375 volts.
The vast majority of exciters in use with all types of syn- The rat-ed~load field voltage is 200 volts, and the response
chronous machines greater than 10 000 kilowatts in oapac» ratio, obtained by dividing the response by the rated-load
ity are rated 250 volts. On this rating the ratedeload field field voltage, is 1.0. The work can also be done by express-
voltage is of the order of 200 volts or 80 percent of the ing the voltages as per—unit values.
excite!‘ rating. The exciter voltage required to produce the The half-second interval is chosen because it corresponds
field current in the main machine corresponding to rated approximately to 0ne—half period of the natural electro-
voltage on the air-gap line is usually about 90 volts or mechanical oscillation of the average power system. It is
36 percent of the exciter rating. Using this value as 1.0 the time during which the exciter must become active if
per unit cxcit-er voltage, the rated-load field voltage is it is to be effective in assisting to maintain system stability.
approximately 2.2 per unit.
The nominal exciter ceiling voltage is defined above and II. MAIN EXCITERS
can be interpreted as being the maximum voltage the ex-
citer attains with all of the fieid»oircuit resistance under The main exeit-or is a source of field current for the
control of the voltage regulator short circuited. On a 250- principal electric machine. Thus, any d-c machine that
volt exciter, the ceiling voltage is usually about 300 to 330 might be used to servo this purpose can be called a main
volts, which is 120 to 132 percent of the cxcitcr rated excitor. Seldom are storage batteries used as main excite-rs.
voltage, or 3.3 to 3.7 per unit. The relative values of those With a main generator of any appreciable size, the diffi-
quantities are shown graphically in Fig. 2. culties encountered in finding room for the battery, in
The construction of the response line in accordance with maintaining the charge, and in keeping the battcryin good
the definition for determining main-exciter response ratio operating condition are such as to make it impractical.
is also included in Fig. 2. The curve aed is the actual Many other types of d-c machines have been developed

u l » [WT I 1 PW’ y
y l 1~~l~-l1@0.‘ §
__._l CEILING VOLTAGE FQRC , l_. l ___

.l__.,_ . . _ _
s____ any m0, i

..—-V rrrrr~ 3407 ,_ _< . .l_

l Y *7”
l
‘ _
‘ac\ CEILINQ
I i\|‘OL‘¥‘lG§
E r FQR
” 1 A*15
1. ‘ . W.-:20 K i
GE l a
e fife-~ _- sou _._ ,i . p c .'
l .
1
f*2’°' l
VOLTA T /
‘ [\\\§\ 1 0.5
l W l mrno
nssvouss
l
l ' i
l l l i i 1 i
‘ e V ~ ’—-- ; ‘zoo I We t_,_4 _ ..-7:{\‘\®\. _ A R1150 vouaszw
l ‘ 1 l I-—— _ —l
. .. WWW. i rrrrr..l_.._... ._.._F;._l_____ 1:40 7;.- -'1 .4»
" '\\ ‘ §\\
— F“-*
"jfl
1
zoo /2'-*=*\~ s s\\Ns\l\\
_" . ‘Rl?ED*LQAQ FIELD VOLTAGE ___ _ 4,

. . 1 4»-rt," I 1 a *= . r - s 1
l i
‘ l _ ,5 . .-.l/l’ 1’, 9/ l l 3
i
_ .»’ l/I i i I 1‘A/'
--- 1.1/I |s°]-—+———l———l-
|< ‘ l;'2
I .-.é={>~l=
~ - kl il ” 7 K >?< ‘

J, ”]/ /I ,' IEO l

/r \- ~_
O l I
+ "I"+ + +
\

_l" “l“ Ti
BER .Ll’.€!T..“L9l-I§.E5.§.§. °.§§l".§E‘. §.Fl.Q“.....
IR GAP E DF MAIN micmu ~l-1-++ *1" "I" "1
r.. . . .

* E
MO

W
P REA obc - Ania olide
1 r l l *
._l
'___
-~;~+w
NO

___; __ _
0.0 OJ 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 C16 0.? 0.8 0.9 L0
TIME IN SZCONDS
Fig. 2-C0n!truction for determining maimexclter response ratio showing relative values of important quantities for 259-
volt main exciter.
198 Excitation Systems
to a high degree of specialization for use as main cxciters
that caller many operating and maintenance advantages
over a battery.
Main exciters, in general, can be grouped into two classi-
fications; i.e., rotating and non-rotating d-c machines. The
most common form of rotating main exciter is the more or
less conventional d-c generator. The term “conventional”
is used with reservation since a d~c generator built for the
purpose of supplying excitation for a synchronous machine
has incorporated in it many features to improve reliability
and reduce maintenance not found on cl-c generators used
for other purposes. Aside from these special features, the
theory of operation is the same as the conventional d—c
generator. A new form of rotating exciter that has made
its appearance in recent years is the maln—eXciter Rototrol.
The Rototrol or rotating amplifier is very different in its
operation from the conventional main exciter. The major
static or non-rotating form of main exciter is the electronic
excitcr.
Each of these cl-c machines, in regard to its application
as a main exciter, is discussed in detail in the sections
that follow.
1. Prime Movers for Main Exciters
Rotating main cxcitcrs are of either the dircclrconnected
type or the separately-driven type. A direct-connected
main exciter is one coupled directly to the shaft of the main
generator and rotates at the same speed. A modification
is the geared or shaft-driven exciter, driven through a gear
by the shaft of the main generator. Problems of gear main-
tenance are introduced, but this enables the two machines
to operate at different speeds. A separatcly~driven main
exciter is usually driven by a motor, the complete unit
being called an exciter m-g set, or it can be driven by some
other form of prime mover such as a steam turbine or a
hydraulic turbine.
I ,oss of excitation of an a-c generator generally means
that it must be removed from service. Hence a reliable
source of excitation is essential. If the main exciter should
stop running while the main generator is still capable of
operating, blame for the resultant outage would be placed
on the main exclter. Considerable expense, therefore, can
be justified to provide a reliable source of power to drive
the main exciter. The type of drive accepted as reliable
depends upon the type of synchronous machine being cx~
cited; that is, whether it be a generator or a synchronous
condenser.
Exciter M-G Set The exciter m-g set can be driven
by a synchronous or induction motor. Direct-current mo-
tors have been used in some cases. The synchronous motor
drive is undesirable, because of the possibility of transient
disturbances on the motor supply system causing insta-
bility. lnduction motors are ordinarily applied where the
exciter In-g set is used. In any event, the motor must be
specially designed to drive the main exciter through any
form of system disturbance.
I?o\ver supply for the motor is, of course, important. The
exclter m-g set might be classed as an essential auxiliary
for operation of the generator, and may rcccivc its power
from the auxiliary powensupply system. Most essential
auxiliaries have a dual power supply comprising a normal
Chapter '7
and an emergency supply, and automatic quick-transfer
to the emergency supply is provided in case of failure of
the normal supply. In some cases, dual prime movers are
used such as a motor and a steam turbine, the turbine
taking over the drive when the motor power supply fails.
The driving motor can be connected directly to the main
generator terminals through an appropriate transformer.
It is then subject to voltage disturbances on the main
system.
The motor is apt to be subjected to voltage distu rbanccs
regardless of the source of its power supply, and it is nec-
essary to construct the m-g set so that it can withstand
these disturbances without afiecting the excitation of the
main a-c generator. The inertia constant of the m~g set
and the pulhout torque of the motor must be high enough
to assure that the speed of the set does not change appre-
ciably or the motor stall during momentary voltage dips.
The response ratio and ceiling voltage of the exciter must
take into consideration any speed change that may occur.
In arriving at values for these various factors, it is neces-
sary that some time interval and voltage condition for the
system disturbance be chosen. A common requirement is
that the exclter In-g set be capable of delivering maximum
forcing excitation to the generator field during a. system
disturbance when the motor voltage is 70 percent of normal
for a period of one-half second. Based on this criterion,
characteristics of the exciter m-g set have become fairly
well standardized as follows:
Inertia constant of the entire m-g set, H =5.0.
Pull-out torque of driving motor, P,,,,,=500 percent.
Response ratio of main exciter when operating at rated
speed, R = 2.0.
Nominal cxcitcr ceiling voltage when operating at rated
speed, E,,,.,,= 160 percent.
When an exciter m—g set is used with e. synchronous
condenser, the logical source of power for the motor is the
system that energizes the condenser. In this respect, the
use of exciter m-g sets with synchronous condensers does
not involve many complications.
Direct-Connected Exciter»»~The most reliable prime
mover for the main exciter is the same prime mover that
drives the a-c machine being excited. This was realized
many years ago when main exciters were first coupled to
the shafts of the generators. The reliability of this form of
drive is obvious and no elaboration is necessary. However,
in the case of high-speed turbine generators, early installa-
tions experienced trouble in operation of the d~c excitcrs at
high speeds. These difficulties have been completely over-
come by adequate design of the exciter, special features
being included for operation at 3600 rpm. Direct connec-
tion of the main exciter is widely accepted in the utility
industry.
2. Conventional Main Exciters
Conventional main exciters, in general, can be classified
according to their method of excitation, being either self-
excited or separately-excited. In the former the field wind-
ing or windings are connected across the terminals of the
machine through variable resistors and in the latter the
field windings with their resistors are connected to a source
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems
9 k
EXGNER
FIELD @ izittis
._._
EXGITER
SHUNT FIELD
R H EOSTAT
In)
EXCITER
SHUNT FIELD
R REOSTAT
oousrmf axcrrzn @ axon-ER
vournez snow!‘
sounc: nan TER”""""$
or
Fig. 3mTwo common forms of shunbexclted main exciters.
(a) self-excited.
(b) separately-excited.
of essentially constant voltage such as a. small auxiliary
fl&lP00IllpOl.1IlCl8(l. excitcr, called at pilot excitcr. The basic
connections of these two forms of main exciter are shown
in Figs. 3(a) and (bl.
The curve oca in Fig. 4 represents the no-load saturation
curve of :1 conventional d»c generator that might he used
as a main exciter. An examination of the curve reveals that
for values of voltage less than approximately 75 percent of
rated armature voltage substantially all of the field current
is expended in forcing magnetic flux across the air gap of
the machine. In this region the voltage output is directly
proportional to the field current, and a, line drawn coincid-
ing with the straight portion of the curve is called the a'£r—
gap line. Above the straight-line portion of the curve, the
voltage output is no longer proportional to the field cur-
rent, and a given percentage increase in voltage output
requires a, greater percentage increase in the field current.
Under this condition, the machine is saturated and a
greater proportion of the field ampere-turns are used in
forcing flux through the magnetic circuit.
The field windings of the main exciter are frequently
divided into two or more parallel circuits and in t-he present
discussion the field current is always referred to as the
current in one of the parallel circuits. For either the self-
or separately-excited cxciter, the terminal voltage is varied
by simply changing the resistance of the field circuit. The
field resistance line GA in Fig. 4 is drawn so that its slope
is equal to the resistance of the field, that is, the ordinate
at any point divided by the field current is the total resist-
ance of one circuit of the field winding. At no-load, the
intersection of the no-load saturation curve with the line
OA determines the operating point, namely a. For the
199
NU l-Q1”
QITURATIQI OIIIVE
Q Q
G
i._..nLm._=z=.==c=r.____ 1 __________
vournssa 9,
, V LOAD snrunaraou ouavz
, l ma cousmn assasmwc um:
mu.-remvein-.e,
0 , ————7q _____________ ~ ' _
cusnaur can HELD amount-i;
Fig. 4-Steady- sta te operating points for untoaded and loaded
self-excited and separately-excited machines.
particular constantwesistance load for which the line odb
represents the saturation characteristic, the operating point
is likewise the intersection with OA, namely b. If some
resistance is inserted in the field circuit so that its resist~
once line is changed to OB, then the operating point is c for
the no-load condition and d for the constant—resistance load
condition. In this manner of changing the excitcr field
resistance, any exciter voltage within limits can be ob-
taincd.
Should the field resistance be increased so that the resist/~»
once line coincides with the air-gap line, the output voltage
theoretically can establish itself at any value between zero
and the point where the no-load saturation curve begins to
bend away from the air-gap line. Operation in this region
is unstable unless some artificial means of stabilizing is
provided.
On the other hand, if the machine were separately-
excited by a pilot excitcr, the field current is determined
by the intersection of the resistance line with the pi!ot~
exciter voltage line. Thus in Fig. 4, for the resistance line
OA and the constant pilot-exciter voltage 6,, the field cur~
rent of the oxcitcr is determined by the intersection at f,
and the terminal voltages for no-load and constant-rcsisv
ance load are at points g and h, respectively.
3. Calculation of Response of Conventional Main
Exciters
It will be observed that the definition of exciter response
is based upon the no-load voltage build-up curve. This
may differ in several essential points from the load condi-
tion which will be discussed later. For the present, the
response will be calculated for the no»l0c.d condition and
will he applied to a self-excited machine.
200 Excitarion Systems Chapter 7

If ' '1 TOTAL 5'/_-

e, w terminal voltage of the exciter and also the voltage - k,_, e,+-kw
across its field circuit 5 O ex
1I;=field current per circuit in amperes 1 . N‘
n “total resistance of each field circuit in ohms §6='8,-fglf=-bf
1,’/=flux linkages per circuit of the field winding in {sr:u=—zxc|rzo mcmui 1' WE T° ""3-“P FWX
10"‘ lines—turns 1 {PROPORTIONAL TO NO~LOAD
$A'ruRA'r:ON CURVE) kue,
then there exists for the field circuits the following equa-
tion: "ԤE"L. rflf once LJNES
r roa we snuz
@.=m".+i'§f <1) NK
cssuus vormea
e, -No-Loan
where each term is expressed in volts. This expression can , sawunxrnou cunvs
I
be rewritten in the following form I
FLUX
on ‘v
L .._” 1...-_-an...-u_.-aw.-“magma-q

%=a—rri: (2)
FORClNG vomaos, e -e, -r; if
The flux linkages, 11/, can be regarded as made up of two VOLTS
AL
on sEL.F—sxcn"l-to mcnme:
components; first, those produced by the useful flux in the
air gap and, second, those produced by the leakage fluxes. F'0RCiNG vomnss FOR SEPARATELY-
The first component is proportional to the no-load terminal TERMN
zxmso sxcmzn ~ e, -r, if
voltage as this is the flux which produces that voltage. The i -b cue TO LEAKAGE FLUXE5
designer can give the useful flux at any particular voltage (EQUIVALENT LEAKAGE USUALLY
or it can be Obtained from the design constants of the axes:-zsszo AS h PERCENT or "rmz
AIR-6AP aux AT RATED M
machine. Multiplying this flux in 10" lines by the turns, vourncz;-kli, .— -
N, linked by the flux, which is equal to the number of
turns per pole times the number of poles per circuit, gives
the total linkages due to this component. These linkages i l W2,’ 7 W *7?" if H
may be designated as kuex, where, to be specific with respect Fig. .'I--Forcing voltages and flux linkages concerned In cal-
to the particular voltage concerned, We may write culating response.
total useful flux linkages number of poles
per pole at rated voltage per circuit Equation (2) states that the time rate of rise of glw is pro-
k..=~ rated voltage
-. -. . (3) portional at any instant to a forcing voltage which is equal
to the vertical distance between the terminal~voltage curve
The leakage component is more complex as not all of the and the fi§I‘a.lgl’1l.-lillfil curve of resistance drop at any given
leakage flux cuts all of the turns. If there were no satura- field current. It shows that the flux within the machine
tion effects in the pole pieces and yoke, the leakage fluxes will increase so long as (e,—rri;) is positive, that is, until
would be proportional to the field current. If, however, the point of intersection of the two curves, as shown in
the leakage fluxes are specified at some definite current Fig. 5, is attained. Beyond this point (e,—~m‘,} be-
such as that required to produce rated voltage at no load, comes negative. If, for any reason, the flux within the
then the leakage at higher currents will be less than pro- machine extends beyond this point, it will decrease.
portional to the current and at lower currents will be more
than proportional to that at the specified point. Inasmuch
as the leakage flux is only about 10 percent of the useful
flux, considerable error is permissible in the leakage com-
ponent without affecting the result significantly. The
leakage flux may be said to contribute the flux linkages
kn} to the total. The coefiicient Ir; can be defined by re- T . 2!.
questing from the designer both the flux linkages per pole W
AND
at rated voltage due to the useful flux and the total flux f
linkages per pole at rated voltage. The coefficient In is
than e,—r Q
U

Total 11/ 1/1 per pole due Number 3|?

per pole at »»- to useful flux of poles )
k W rated voltage at rated voltage per circuit (4)
I 1', at rated voltage
The total flux linkages per circuit are then
11*
I//=ku6='l'7f1i1 (5)
Fig. 6-Graphical determination of response of flux linkages
These quantities are illustrated in Fig. 5. :1; with time.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 201

In other words, the intersection is a, stebie operating as a function of time by taking corresponding points from
point. Fig. 5. The simplest method for obtaining the area. is to
Equation (2) can be transformed to divide the region into a. large number of increments and
then sum them progressively on a recording adding
(fit (6) machine.
@x‘“'7‘£’l£
from which ¢ If the machine is separately excited, the variable ter-
mlnal voltage ex in the expression for the forcing voltage
(7) should be replaced by the voltage e, of the pilot exciter
tmjdtw
0
w__"4’ _
c,_~—r¢1¢ and the forcing voltage then becomes (e.—m}), which is
viniisu illustrated in Fig. 5. The difference in these forcing volt-
By choosing particular values of if from Fig. 5, it is pos- ages shows why separately-excited exciters are usually
faster in response.
silole to plot lb as e function of ; 01‘ £5; Shfiwn in Fig- When systematized, it is found that this calculation is
6. From Eq. (7) it can he seen that 6 can be obtained as quite simple, as wili be illustrated by an example. Let it be
a function of if» by simply obtaining the area. of the vertical desired to determine the exciter response for the separately-
strata of increments, starting from 1,0 corresponding to the excited machine whose characteristics are given in Fig. 7.
starting value of e,. After 1,0 is obtained, ex can be plotted In Table 1, columns (1) and (2), tabulatc the terminal
voltage and field currents from Fig. 7. Columns (3) and
(4) are simply steps in the determination of the total wk of
__ ___ _ _ V K column (5). Columns (6) and (7) are likewise steps in the
I50 I-eéew e 1 cletermiiletion of £2 of column (8). From this point a.
I40 — —'—"' m ' —— ——§ ,Y——=— I choice may be made of two procedures. If the graphical
G method is used, plot the value of gé from column (8) as

120 1~;—*—1—l — 1 L —~ ordinate against the value of ip from column (5) as abscissa
4, _49
l 1 l -|-)- l
1 1 * 0.045 W cu e 1 _ ,_ , flw_n ‘ _
_ l __
0l_
5I _! l,

HALVOLT3 ‘ at t i v
WO 10DE07 0910? M i
‘ODSST 00244, , l l
0A040~»»--~ 0.o| 45 0.0381\-»~—»~—»-~»jl-—--~—l
1 ioo|45 0.05:-sz i
w--»--»-4, oorso
oosaz i *
00:55 ones? U
'4OOO
E
G!
QRMATURETERM
,oo:eo 0.099? 3 \
ooas¢_-Access 0.l I 62}»———--—-<‘-——--
so e W p *3 QME
hIT
I l 0.0 1 Y2 0.1334 ‘ pl
‘

l__m"0o17? OJ 5» x \yM_W_p"_W_WJ;:_WM l
40 e ~ >1 W 7' oozes 0.1691‘ é N l
3 00:96 0.: ass‘ \ ,3"; 1 1
so ~ ~ N - 0.4 o.oao}M_-~ 0.0208 O2lOl~——————<———~ K
l ooze: 02:24 l i‘ l
ao~— — _ W — »ooe42 0.25651 l
l
oozes 0.Z83l 1‘ 1
l
1
|Q ,— —= i
tuon
‘
nnel _l____l
2 ooze: 0.3124] V‘
O — W
O5 QO25f—~—qOQ33O o.3454l»--»--»»»-~‘ »—»-
O 2 4 6 8 l 00380 o.aa 34‘ t
FELD CURRENY PER MROWT i ooaeo 0.42343 p _\ i
Fig. 7~»ExampIe for calculation of response of exciter.
0.2 0.0203
167 kw, 125 volts, 1200 rpm, 6 poles
Separately excitecl——ea =~=l25 volts
Three circuits—-two poles per circuit l iilim i ‘ l
Ceiling voltage-165 Volts.
1‘; at ceiling voltage =8.l6 amperes per circuit 0.: o.o|5le 5hl l
Resistance per ci:-cuit= 15.3 ohms
Two field windings =6.8 ohms
External resistance per circuit -8.5 ohms
‘_ ___ ___», to o _
Total external resistance #23 ohms 3 _ _ W W7 __i7 __ "ll =
:1» per pole at 125 volts due to useful fiuxm18 O omoao 7 W357" W 30 T V 45’ W7 W7 50 f
Total 11 per pole at 125 volts $20.3
£13><2 E _ (20.3 -18)2 _ Fig. 8—Auxiliary curves for calculation of response for exam-
i‘" 125 “"288 '°‘ ' 4.4 "L05 pie given in Fig. 1.
202 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

TABLE 1

0) <2) rs) 1 no ; <0 <0) <0 <0) l <9) 00> {ll} (12)

0, l 1, l cue,‘ \ /mo, .l 1}» ‘ rm p e,-—m‘; l Alb Mean%1 At . t

ln SEC.

‘ 0.28S><(1)1.05><(2)—-(w3)+(4) l5.3><(2) 125~—(6) rec. of (7) 1 from {5} irom(8) <0)><(10lzp 2:01)
100 3.00 p 20.3 3.5 3 32.3 50.5 l 74.5 0.0104 3 . . . . .. ‘ . . . . .. 50
110 . 3.70 * 01.1 . 3.0 0 35.0 50.0 00.4 0.0140 0.014 O . 0462 0.0402
120 0 4.14 0 34.5 p 38.8 03.4 01.0 0.0102 1 0.0l54 U . 0493 l 0.0005
130 . 4.00 07.0 1 42.4 71.0 03.1 0.0100 \ 0.0174 ~ 0.0020 p 0.1501
140 5 34 y 40.2 45 0 s1 7 43.3 0.0231 ‘N 0.0200 l 0 0123 0.2000
150 0.20 l 43.2 I 40.8 95.0 20.2 0.0042 0.0201 ‘ 0.112 y 0.043
105 p 0.00 lp 44.0 51.?" 104.0 21.0 0 . 0476 O. 0409 0.010 l 0.421
100 7.40 ‘ 40.1 ‘ - ! ~:7>i;I§4k;8=> 0 >-c:>c=<o: 53.9 114.0 11.0 0.001 1 &.}|-rt’:-‘l('A3%'AC»9©\3 lQ¢Q£DU‘¢3>i\9€0 0. 0693 0.102 0.013

giving the curve shown in Fig. 8. Time can then be de- excited excitcrs or the ceiling voltage in the case of selfi-
termined by integrating this curve. One method of doing excited exciters. The former is usually accomplished by
this is by means of the table constituting the insert of this paralleling the field circuits placing at the same time re-
figure. This is found by dividing 30 into increments of sistors in series to limit the current. Thus, if the parallels
unit width, except for the first element for which A511 is are doubled, the number of poles and likewise J1 per circuit
only 0.8. This is done to obtain convenient divisions. are halved. It is necessary to add more resistance to the
Increments of time At are enumerated in the first column. external circuit so that the resistance per circuit remains
The second column represents time, the summation of the the same. ln Eq. (7) the only change is that 11/ is one-
Al column. O11 the other hand, the same integration can be haif and, therefore, the terminal voltage rises twice as
accomplished in tabular form. Continuing in Table 1, fast.
column (9), the difference of successive values of 1]» from
column (5), constitutes the base of increments of area of 4. Calculation of Response Under Loaded Con-
ditions
curve £ in Fig. 8. Likewise, column (10), the mean of
Most of the cases for which the exciter response is desired
successive values of column (8), constitutes the mean of are concerned with sudden changes, such as short circuits,
elementary areas. The product of these two values tabu- in the armature circuit of the synchronous machine. Asso-
lafied in column (11) is the increment of time. Column ciated with these changes one usually finds that the field
(12) is merely at progressive summation of (11) and gives current of the alternator has increased a considerable
actual time. By plotting column (E) against column (12), amount, perhaps in excess of the armature current rating
the response curve is obtained. of the excite-r. Because of the high inductance of the field
For higher speeds of response, the eddy currents pro- circuit of the synchronous machine, the armature current
duced in the solid yokes can retard the buildup of the flux. of the exciter can usually be regarded as remaining sub-
The extent to which this is eilective is given by the curve stantially constant at this increased value during the period
for which the response is desired.

_ Fem
Eo When current flows in the armature, the phenomenon of
armature reaction must be taken into consideration except;
for those machines that have 0 compensating Winding. The
<9 C‘) function of the compensating winding, which is wound into

nepnoxMATE
morcoamozcnron
CD O
. 1 Hi ,._ _

CALCULATED NOMINAL RESPONSE-“UNITS

ii. the pole face of the field winding, is to annul the effect of
the cross-magnetizing mmf of armature reaction. However,
for machines without compensating windings, the mmf of
armature reaction produces an mmf that varies linearly
Fig. 9»-—C0l'rection factor to be applied to calculated response from the center of the pole piece, one side being positive
to include efiect of eddy currents, according to W. A. Lewis.‘ and the other side negative. This ellect is shown in Fig.
10 (0) in which MN represents the maximum magnetizing
in Fig. 9 by VF. A. Lewisl. This curve supplies a correction mmf at one pole edge and PQ represents the maximum
to be applied to calculated responses. demagnetizing mmf at the other pole edge. Fig. 10 (b)
Separately-excited excitcrs are usually, but not neces- represents a section of the no~load saturation curve in
sarily, faster in response than self—eXcited excitcrs. They which O represents the generated voltage on the vertical
do, however, have other advantages, such as being more co-ordinate and the field mmf on the horizontal co-ordinate.
stable at low voltages, voltages at which self-excited ex- If A and C’ are so laid ofi" that OA and OC equal MN and
citers may have a. tendency to creep. Improvement in PQ, respectively, from Fig. 10 (0), then because of the
speed of response can be obtained by two general methods; linearity of QN of Fig. 10 (0), the abscissa of Fig. ll} (la)
(1.) decreasing the time constant of the field circuit, and (2) between CA represents the mini distrlbutioii along the pole
increasing the pilot-exciter voltagein the case of separately- face. Further, since the generated voltages are proper-
Chapter 7
mcL£m'sER 4 or-'PE05
POLE
P_~_____ _ o _, _-,_ _fl__REACTION
~--_,._,,,,,,,,,__¢..----
° i
(<1)
I
I
vormcsé
usarutFLUX
‘GENERATED
O .
r_ ~~~~ ~— c
-
i mm? cue to ARMQTURE
U
'4
'3 5-4
"QfL5>A2cw
Fig. ll)~—Eflect of armature reaction in reducing total flux
across gap. (a) Shows distribution of armature mmf; (bl Sec-
tion of no-load saturation curve.
tional to the air-gap fluxes, the section of no-load satura-
tion curve shows the effect of the superposed armature
mmf upon the density of air-gap flux across the pole. The
higher mmf does not increase the flux on the right-hand
side as much as the lower mmf decreases the flux on the
left-hand side. As 9. result, the total flux and consequently
the generated voltage are decreased from the value indicated
hy CA to that indicated by PG, which is obtained by
integrating the area under the curve DOB and drawing FG
so that the two triangular areas are equal. The extent to
which the average flux or voltage is decreased can be in~
dicated by a “distortion curve,” such as shown by the
dotted curve of Fig. 11. This effect is most pronounced in
the region of the knee of the saturation curve as at both
higher and lower field currents, there is a tendency to add
on the one side of the pole just as much flux as is subtracted
on the other. The terminal voltage is reduced still further
by the armature resistance and brush drops, resulting in a
loud saturatlon curve for constant current, such as shown
in Fig. 1}.
From this same curve it can be seen that for a given field
resistance line, the forcing voltage (e, —-mi) 501' 9» B€1f~8X6itBd
Excitation Systems 203
NO LOAD
‘ SATURATION CURVE
N 1
MMF OF 1
ARMATURE
ISTORTION CURV€
FDR CONSTANT
ARMATURE CURRENT
VOLTAGE
TERNHNAL VOLTAGE FOR
"ll. l
CONSTANT ARMATURE CURRENT
FIELD RESISTANCE uni
lg ‘V7 H
SECHON TAKEN Fig. 11-—Load saturation curves for exciter assuming constant
FROM N0-LOAD armature CU1"I€flt-
SATURATJON CURVE
U machine is very much smaller under load than under no
/i. load. In calculating the flux linkages in accordance with
Eq. (5), the distortion curve should be used for ex. Except
for these two changes, the load response can be calculated
I I "I1
in the some manner as the no load response.
For separately-excited exciters, the forcing voltage re~
mains unaltered by the loading on the machine as it is
independent of the terminal voltage. The armature resist-
REACTION AT zoos or-' ance can be regarcled as part of that of the main field wind-
POLE. [um FROM (0)1 ing. There remains only the distortion effect to consider
which amounts to only several percent. For machines with
compensating windings, this effect is negligible.
5. Efiect of Difierential Fields on Response
Differential windings are provided to reduce the exciter
voltage to residual magnitude or below. They consist of a.
small number of turns wound on each pole, so connected
that the mmf produced thereby is opposite to that of the
main windings. Fig. 12 (a) shows schematically such an
arrangement. If the differential windings are not opened
when the regulator contacts close to produce field forcing,
the differential circuit reduces the response of the exciter.
The extent to which this is effective may be calculated
as follows: Let
=number of parallel paths in the main winding.
-=numbcr of parallel paths in the differential winding.
=numher of turns per pole of the main winding.
= number of turns per pole of the differential winding.
2$l.<‘aO"Q =total
number of poles of exciter.
immcurrent per circuit of main winding.
iyecurrent per circuit of differential winding.
The resistors Rm and Rd in series with the combined main
and differential windings, respectively, may be included in
the calculation by increasing the actual resistances in each
of the main and differential circuits by oltm and bR¢, re»
spectively. V\7ith these increases the resistances of each of
the main sud differential circuits will be designated by the
 204 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

If (10) and (11) are inserted in (8) and (9), then

A \ r r r r r r 3:’: (Ra+rm}(i+%Jd)+Rbi¢+%-lg
e==Rv1(i+%i¢)+(Rb+m)i.i+alibe 53’
<12)
<13)
, Rm dt

re" R b d . .
By multiplying (13) by 55, 3% can be eliminated by
subtracting from L12}. The current id can then be solved
Qllllll in terms of ii. Upon substituting the expression for id
into (12) there is finally obtained that
drm a b
(u)
[ 7 _ _ _
“U;
A e,=
1+R(E"'"E) . er
Aeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee"1".»@+ die
<14)
in which
l ad? 1 b2 2
A=1~»»w E[r,,,+($-e)R:| (15)
l Isl lm T ls
Equation I4 shows that the ordinary flux-linkage curve
s»-sex
R ~ for the exeiter and conventional method of calculation can
be used if the coefficient of 2' be used as the resistance of each
Ulm+-bid oireuit,i be the current read from the saturation curve, and

1'“ 1‘ 1*“ I 1‘ id the voltage across each circuit be muitiplied by the c0—
efficient of ex. In other words, the calculations should be
carried out as though the differential winding were not
present, except that instead of using the expression
1 (b) (ex - nil) to determine the forcing voltage, ex should be mul-
Fig. 12——Schematic diagram for main and difierential
windings. tiplied by (1-%)/A, and 1», by [1+R(5-+3)]/ A.
<1 Tm Ts
symbols rm and rd, respectively. Referring to Fig. 12 ('0) 6. Three-Field Main Exciter
the following equations can be written
The three-field main exciter shown schematically in Fig.
@X=R(<11l.n+l>@'¢)+1"mim+% (8) 13 is of conventional construction so far as mechanical
details and armature winding are concerned, but it is built
with three electricaliy independent shunt fields. Field 1
eeR<m1m+bn> +idii+9§i‘ (9) is connected in series with a variable resistance across the
in which wk and 1]/,1 are the flux linkages in each of the
MAIN
two respective circuits. EXGITER
If all the field flux cuts all turns, then

If/=%C>< (flux per pole in 10"‘ lines)

%
REVERSIBLE 7 “CHER
¢a=%dX(fiux per pole in 10* lines) VARIABLE
VOLTAGE 2 3 I ® TERm"‘“'s
or souscz
_ “dip
IPa—~ bc . (IO)
STABlLlZlNG______i 55 F..5xg|Tg|)
If it be assumed that the two windings be replaced by “EL” ‘""E° my """' Fri-L0 an-1:0
another winding having the same number of turns ané l
circuit connections as the main windings, then the in-
stuntaneous mmf of this winding is the same as that of 9
the combination if its current, 5, is '5E‘;"$§’,j§,§§" necunmcnl.
. . d. WTERLOCK
1 = 2,, ——z4 ETWEEN
C REED ARMS
from which Fig. 13-Schematic diagram of three-field main exclter. Field
I is self-excited and provides base excitation, field 2 la a
t.=l"+‘§s (11) separately-excited controlling field, and field 3 is a small»
capacity battery-excited stabilizing field.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems
main terminals of the exciter and operates in the manner
of the self»excited fieid discussed in Sec. 1. Field 1 provides
the base excitation for the machine. Field 3 is a small
separatelymxcited shunt field that obtains its energy from
a station battery or any other source of substantially
constant d-c voltage. It is capable of suppiying 5 to 19
percent of the normal total excitation requirements of the
main exciter, and its purpose is to provide exciter stability
at low voltage output under hand control. Field 3 is used
only when the exciter speed of response or range of voltage
output makes it desirable. Field 2 is a shunt field that is
excited from a reversible variablewoltage d-c source under
control of a voltage regulator. This field also provides for
stability of the exciter when the voltage regulation is under
control of the voltage regulator.
Fieids 1 and 3 have rheostats in their energizing cir-
cuits. These are usually m0t0r-opcrated under manual
control. The rheostat arms are mechanically connected
together so that resistance is added in one field circuit as
it is removed from the other. Thus, when the sclf~cnergizcd
shunt field is carrying a high excitation current, the scpa~
rately~»excited field 3 carries a. negligibio current. The
combined effect of fields I and 3 is shown in Fig. 14 and
can be explained by assuming that the current in field 2 is
zero. When the field rheostat is adjusted to give a voltage
output greater than that represented by the distance Uc,
all excitation is supplied by field 1, and the relation between
the oxciter terminal voltage and the total field ampere~
turns is represented by the line oh. Operation in this region
is the same as a self-excited exciter. If the resistance in the
circuit of field E were increased to give a value of ampere-
turns less than Od in Fig. 14, and if field l were the only
field excited, the machine would be unstable as pointed
out in Sec. 1.
To obtain a terminal voltage less than Oc, such as Of,
the resistance in the self-excited field circuit would be in-
creased to reduce the ampere—turns produced by that field
to Oj. These ampeieturns would cause a generated volt»
age equal to Oh. However, at the same time the current
in field 1 is reduced, the current in field 3 is increased,
and the generated voltage due to field 3 being energized
is represented by hf. The ampere—turns of the two fields
and the generated voltages add so that the distance Of is
the total terminal voltage. Since the current in field 3 is
controlled by the amount of current in field 1 through the
mechanical coupling of the field-rheostat arms, the total
terminal voltage can be plotted as a function of the ampere-
turns in field 1 alone and is represented by the curve cirab
in Fig. 14. If the fieldwesistance characteristic of the sclf~
excited field is plotted on the same curve, there will always
be a positive point of intersection between the resistance
line and the saturation curve ellub and stable operation can
be obtained for any voltage greater than Oc. The voiiage
represented by 0c is usually less than 10 percent of the
rated voltage of the exciter. Operation at smaller values
would not ordinarily be necessary except in the case of a
synchronous-condenser exeitcr. Smaller terminal voltages
are obtained by holding the current in the s<>lf~exci'r.erl field
to zero and reducing the current in sepurutelymxcitcd field
3. Exciter polarity can be reversed by reversing both
field circuits when the currents are zero and building up
205
i b
E
V0LTAG
__ ----——-»—— cu
_ maul
TERT£RM
MAL
EKG 9 __:'~
MAN
o0
4::
. ._ _. _ .- O n.L- - - - -
OURR£NT 1?! SELF-EXCITED FIELD
Fig. 14—Equlva1ent nodoad saturation curve of three~field
main excites showing effect of stabilizing field 3. Field 2 la
open-circuited.
in the opposite direction. Thus, manual control of voltage
is possible over the complete range necessary.
“Then the voltage of the main oxclter is under the control
of a voltage regulator that varies the magnitude and polar-
ity of voltage applied to the separately-excited field 2,
the manually-operated field rheostat in field 1 circuit is set
to provide some base amount of excitation. This setting
is determined by the operator, but is generally high enough
to supply sufficient field current to the a-c generator field
to maintain stea.dy-state stability. The current in field 3
is usually negligible with such asetting of the rheostat-when
the generatoris carrying any load. The polarity and magni»
tude of the voltage applied to field 2 are then regulated so
that the flux produced by field 2 either aids or opposes the
flux produced by the base mzcitation in field l, thus, either
increasing or decreasing the excitcr terminal voltage. Since
the eiiect of field 1 is that of a conventional sclfwexcited
machine, a small amount of energy input to field 2 can
control the output voltage over a wide range. The opera-
tion of the thrcc~field main excite)" is made stable by sepa~
rate means for the two conditions of operation: by a
separately-excited stabilizing field under manual control,
and by the voltage regulator controlling the input to field
2 under regulator control.
The three-field main excitcr has an advantage over the
singlc—ficld separately-excited main cxciter described in
Qec. 1 in that control of the excitor terminal voltage is
not completely lost if any trouble should occur in the
separately-excited field circuit. The trouble might involve
the varlalilo-voltage source for field 2 or the voltage regu~
later that controls it, but even though the current in the
field should become zero, the cxcitcr will continue operating
at a Terminal vol’rngo clctcrminctl by the setting of the
rheostat in the self-energized field circuit. The only effect
on the a»c generator would be a change in its internal
voltage which would cause a change in reactive loading of
206 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

the machine. Under similar circumstances of failure with terminal voltage, the total useful flux at any later instant
the single-field exciter, the source of excitation for the a-o of time is
generator field would be lost and a. shut—doWn of the unit ¢'=K(N1i1'+N213z'+Nsia')- (17)
would be necessary.
The change in total flux per pole is the difference between
7. Calculation of Response of Three-Field Main these two values,
Exciter ¢=¢’_¢c=KlN1'i':+Nai2+Ns5a)- (18)
A method of calculating the response of a single-field
The basic formula for the self»inductance of any of the
exciter is given in Sec. 2. The method uses St€p~l)y-step
field circuits is
integration to take into account the saturated condition
of the cxciter. If additional fields are present, damping L 2 gifliiqhenms,
currents flow in those fields during voltage changes. Their
effect is to reduce the rate of change of flux in the excitcr and since the flux is expressed as Maxwells per pole times
iron paths. The following analysis presents a means of £0“, the self-inductance of the circuit of field 1 becomes
replacing the assembly of several fields with one equivalent
fieid so that the response can be calculated. r.i=§%@mPKN1a. <19)
The specific fields involved in the three-field main exciter I

are the self-excited field 1, the battery-excited field 3, and The time constant of the field circuit is the total self-
the separately-excited field 2 as shown in Fig. 13. The inductance divided by the totai resistance,
three fields are wound to form a single clement to be
__L;__PKN1*)\ 20
mounted on the field pole, so that the mutual coupiing is 11-" R! —~ R1 - ( )
high and can be assumed to be 100 percent with small
error. Also, the same leakage coefficient can be applied to Equations similar to Eq. (19) can be written for self-in~
each of the fields. In the following symbols the subscript ductances L-1 and L3 and similar to Eq. (20) for time con-
indicates the particular field to which the symbol applies. stants 52 and ls.
Thus, N4 is the turns per pole of field I, N; the turns per The voltage applied to each of the field circuits is
pole of field 2, etc.
absorbed in Rt drop in the circuit resistance and N% drop
M Number of poles, assumed to be connected in series.
%Number of turns per pole in the field winding. in the circuit inductance. The voltage equations at any
= Total useful flux per pole in Maxwclls times 10‘. instant of time are
“Initial useful flux per pole in Maxwells times 103. E,’ =c¢’ = R1i1'+N17\Pp¢’ (21)
=Change in flux per pole=q5'—¢@. E2’ =Ruli’+N27\PP¢' (22)
=»Total amperes in field circuit.
=lnitial amperes in field circuit. Ea’ =Rs1-s'"l'" Na)\PP¢"-
‘=Change in amperes in field winding='i'-—-i<,. During the initial steady-state conditions, when the total
=Inductance of field winding in Henrys. useful flux is constant and pq’>u=0,
Hm~:we§%2w =Flux proportionality constant Ezu=¢¢o=R1i1u"l*N1hP9¢0
=Max\vells><10" per pole
E20 '1'“ R2520 "l" N2}\PP¢9 (25)
Ampere turns per pole
Em” Raiac“l‘Na7\PP¢o- (26)
l\=Flux leakage factor w 1+1—~—————eakage
flux
useful flux Subtracting the two sets of voltage equations, a set in
c = Voltage proportionality constant terms of changes from steady»statc conditions is obtained.
mg terminal volts Since the voltage E3’ is supplied from a. constaetpotential
Maxwells X 10$ per pole source, E; —Ea0= 0.
R =Resistance of the complete field circuit, ohms. Cd) = (27)
ts-“Time constant of complete field circuit, seconds.
E2 = R2T'2+N2>\PP¢ (23)
E{==Terminal voltage applied to field 1.
Ew.=lnitial value of terminal voltage.
0= (29)
E; = Change in terminal voltage = El’ - Em. If Eqs. (27), (28), and (29) are multiplied by -2%-ti,
E2’ =Voltage applied to field 2. 1

E’¢0=Initial value of voltage applied to field 2. KN;

and -EM, respectively, and added, the result obtained after
E¢wChange in voltage applied to field 2. 3
E,'mFixed voltage applied to field 3. substituting from Eqs. (£8) and (20) is
p w Differential operator ll; lg ___
FN_t>\¢¢+%Ei—¢+(:1+t+c)p¢- (30)
The initial or stea.dy—state value of total useful flux per
pole is Rearrsnging the terms in Eq. (30) ;
¢o=K(N1i1o+N252o'i"Na%'ac)- (15)
When the field currents are changed to force an increase in
Ff-;;Eim[(1~%)+<:i+c+:i>p]¢. on
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 297

When solved, Eq. (31) expresses ¢ and hence the terminal Eliminating 55:’ by using Flq. (40)
voltage as a. function of time if saturation and the con-
sequent change in constants are neglected.
The three fields on the excitor can he assumed to be E, l2N1
t1N2E2. (42)
replaced with a. single equivalent self-excited field as shown
in Fig. 15. The quantities referring to the equivalent Equations (38) and (31) can he solved only if saturation
is neglected. However, for a small interval of time, it can
—~——-:E,. c__777777 is
be assumed that the machine constants do not change, and
REGULATOR
the change in flux calculated by either equation will be the
VOLTAG€
same. If at the end of the first time interval, the machine
mew *1‘ constants are appropriately adjusted to new values
p|g-19 TERMINAL
y|"L"1'. VOLTAGE applicable to the next small interval of time, the flux
change can be calculated for the second interval and will
be the same by either equation. Thus, the flux rise cal-
culated from the equation for the single equivalent field
R I by using the normal step»by~step methods that take into
EOUIV‘ RES account saturation will be the same as the actual flux rise
Fig. l5—Self- excited single-field equivalent of three-field main
with the assembly of several fields. The various time
exci tar. constants for the machine in the unsaturated condition
may be used to determine the constants of the equivalent
field are designated by the subscript e. The field has field.
applied to it a voltage equal to the terminal voltage 12¢’ The above equations can be generalized to the case of a.
plus an equivalent voltage E,’ supplied by the regulator. machine having any number of the three types of fields
considered. Letting tr, E’, and N, refer to all coils to which
During steady-state conditions,
regulator voltages are applied, and t, and N , refer to all
Eso+¢d>o=Rei.o+NJ\PP<bo~ (32) coils which are self excited, Eq. (31) in the general form
At any instant of time, becomes
(as) t,E, __- [(1 _ 6 2 P-—-M)+p2l]¢
2 PM-WWNJ‘ z. (43).
Ea’ "l"¢¢’ “ Rois’ +NJP19¢’-
Subtracting Eq. (32) from (33)
whore Etwsum of time constants of coils of ell types. The
Er?-c¢ = R.,i.+N.7\PP¢. (84) sum of the time constants should also include s. value for
Using the relations the frame slab, which acts as a short-circuited turn, and
eddy currents in the slab cause e delay in the flux rise.
¢ = KNJQ om For d—c machines of the size used as main exciters, the
frame»slab time constant may approach 0.2 second.
Le= = PKN.."h (36) The constants of the equivalent self-excited field are
determined from the following:
5 =PKN.}’)\ in =22: (44)
e ‘“‘“R*. "4 (37)
is
N-S__2;-
Eq. (34) reduces to
ll, ___' ___ Ole
WE» '- [(1 Pflr-"—-N87‘) 'l"teP]¢- (38)
Le is determined by Eq. (36)
Equation (38) is of the same form as Eq. (31), and by L.
Re m T
comparing similar terms, it is derived that
:.=»i+s+s (39) and the regulator voltage to be applied

N.=iQ».. (40) 1:.. J/1 _’5.*_

in 2 N23,. (41)
:1
The self~inducte.ncc of the equivalent field is given by If no self-excited fields are present in the machine, the only
Eq. (36), and the resistance is requirements to be satisfied are given by Eqs. (44) and
(47). Any value of Ne can be used provided the appro-
R.Ji‘f. <41) priate value of Re is calculated from lilqs. (36) and (46).
to When no self-excited fields are present, the equivalent
The applied regulator voltage is field is not self-excited and has applied to it only the
regulator voltage.
t2N If no regulator-controlled fields are present, the require—
E.,@--~5E' .
QN2 2 meets to be met are given by Eqs. (44), (45), (46), and
208
(47), and the equivalent field is a self-excited field with no
regulator voltage applied.
Using this equivalent single-field representation of the
muitiple~field main exciter, the voltage response can be
calculated by the step-by~step method of Sec. 2. The volt-
age E is determined by the source of voltage under regu~
later control. For example, if the regulated field is a self»-
excited field, the voltage E becomes equal to the excitcr
terminal voltage at each instant of time.
8. Main-Exciter Rototrel
The most recent development in the field of rotating
main cxciters is the adaptation of the Rototrol rotating
amplifier as a main exciter. Any generator is in fact a
“rotating amplifier” in that a small amount of energy input
to the field is amplified to a large energy out-put at the
generator terminals. However, the name rotating amplifier
has been specifically applied to a form of rotating machine
possessing an unusually large amplification factor. In such
machines, the change in input energy to the field is a small
fraction of the resulting change in energy output of the
armature. In the ordinary d-c generator, the change in
field energy required to produce 100~perccnt change in
output energy is usually within the range of 1 percent to
3 percent of the machine rating. Thus, the amplification
factor might be between 30 and 100. In the case of the
Rototrol, the amplification factor can exceed 10‘ depending
upon the design of the machine.
The main-exciter Rototrel is not adaptable at present to
use with generators operating at less than I290 rpm. The
principal field of application is with 3G0O~rpn1 turbine gen-
erators. The two~stage maimcxcitcr Rototrol can be built
with sufficient capacity to supply the excitation require-
ments of the largest 3600-rpm generator, but when used
with l800- or 1200-rpm generators, the maximum rating
of generator is restricted. In any event, the Rototrol is
dircctmonneeted to the generator shaft.
The slower the speed of a generator, the larger the physi-
cal size. For a given voltage output, the reduction in speed
is compensated by an increase in the total flux, requiring a
larger volume of iron to maintain the same flux density.
~--- »~ ~ ~— ~--———~ ~_»--»»~-a--W---.~qf~...>-.-»-.. V ~..,.(_~,.,, . . _ ,m..........___..
Fig. 16--A 210-kw, 250-volt, 4-pole main-exciter Rototrol for
direcvconnection to generator shaft at 5608 rpm.
Excitation Systems Chapter 7
The excitation requirements, therefore, arc greater for
sloW~speed generators. The main-exciter Rototrol has not
been built in capacities large enough to supply the excita-
tion requirements of large slow-speed a—c generators. Fur-
thermore, as the Rotetrol rated speed is decreased, its
excitation requirements also increase and a larger centroi-
ling energy is required. The combination of these factors
has largely restricted the use of the main-exciter Rototro!
to direct—connecti0n with 3609-rpm turbine generators.
A 210-kw, 250-volt, 3600-rpm main-exciter Rototroi is
illustrated in Fig. 16, and to all outward appearances it is
a conventional type of d—c machine. The mechanical de-
tails such as the enclosure, brush holders, commutator,
etc., are of conventional 3600-rpm exciter construction,
but the electrical connections are quite different. The
armature winding is of the lap form but has no cross
connections, and there are a number of specia1ly—connected
field windings to provide the high amplification factor.
A detailed discussion of the theory of operation of the
Retotrol is beyond the scope of this chapter, and can be
found in the References. The discussion here will be con-
fined to a description of the operating principle as it applies
to use of the Rototrol in excitation systems.
A schematic diagram of the main~excit;er Retotrol is
shown in Fig. 17 (a), and the equivalentschematic diagram
is shown in Fig. I7 (b). The Rototrol can be built with one
or more stages of amplification, and the main exciter Roto-
trol is of the two~stage type. The field connected between
terminals F3—F4 is called the control field, and windings
appear en only the two south poles, 1 and 3. The circuit
between terminals F5-F6 energizes a field similar to the
control field, and it also appears on only the two south
poles. This field operates in the same manner as the con-
trol field in controlling the Rototrol terminal voltage but
it is called the limits field. The control field is energized
by the voltage regulator and normally has control of the
voltage output. However, the limits field is energized by
devices that restrict the maximum or minimum voltage
output, so that the limits field can, under certain c0nrli~
tions, overcome the effect of the control field. The output
terminals are L1-L2, and it should be noted that the circuit
,..___A,_ ,_ .
between the brushes of like polarity energizes additional
field windings that are compensating and forcing fields and
also serve as series fields. The windings energized by the
circuit between terminals F1-F2 are shunvfieid windings
used for tuning purposes as discussed later. As far as ex~
ternal circuits are concerned, the main-exciter Rototrol can
be represented as shown in Fig. 17 (c): the control field is
energized by some exciter-voltage controlling device, the
limits field is energized by a device for limiting the max-
imum or minimum output er both, and the line terminals
supply voltage to the load in series with the series field.
The operation of a conventional self-excited d—c gener-
ator is unstable when the field-resistance line coincides with
the air—gap line of the saturation curve as shown in Sec. 1.
Although this characteristic is undesirable in the self-
excited generator, it is an important part of the Retotrol
principle. Reasoning identical to that in Sec. 1 can be
applied to a series-excited generator where the self~excited
winding is in series with the load and both the load and
the field can be considered as a shunt across the armature.
Chapter '7 Excitation Systems 209

ARMA?UR E ROTATION COMPENSATWG

FIELDS

RMATURE REAOTWN GENERATOR

- 4 ' 0 I §
ARMATURE REACTION FIELD
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9 v SERIES
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FI£LD
A
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,
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REACTION _
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ourvur
* 4*-POLE *’ SW"?
FIELD
TERMINALS
\
CONTROL FORUMS
“Q FIELD

FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE

r¢.,.\\@>\\ \___:/./’
J }§_@§?
5
lb)-EQU£Vl\LEN'l' CIRCUIT OF TWD“
STNSE NIAIWEXGITER ROTOTROI.
I

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F3 v —~ * W rvw ~ ——
g@_.. . ._ C 01"‘ '11 OI
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<>W mouom-zs amwrsou or FLUX nus TO cameos. nu-:|_o (Cl-'0iROUlT REPRESENTATION OF MAIN-
¢- mnmrrss nmzcno» os aux nus T0 LOAD cunm-:m' SXGITER RO?0TR0l.
Q co aausn POLARITY mom couraoz. FIELD excmrrlou
Q ® eausu POLARETY moucao av ARMATURE azacnou
» mus aencnon as Tm: as-zsuu or we eunnsm" FLOWING
an "rue §RMATI-IRE eewwsan ma POSITIVE anusuzs
(0)-$0H£MA'¥'lC DIAGRAM OF ROTQTROL EXOITSR
SHOWING ALL FIELDS EXCEPT INTERPOLE FIELDS
Fig. 17—Two-stage main-exciter Rototrol, complete Schematic diagram and equivalent representations.

The series-field current then is directly proportional to the It is particularly significant that under steady-state
armaiure voltage in the same way as the shunvfield current conditions, the self-excited field of the Rototrol furnishes
in the self—excited shunt-wound machine. all of the ampere-turns required to generate the terminal
The Rototrol is operated on the straight portion of its voltage. However, the control field forces the change in
saturation curve and the adjustments necessary to meet ampere-turns required to stabilize the machine or to change
this condition are termed tuning of the Rototrol. This is and establish the tesminal voltage required for a new load
usually done by adjusting the resistance of the load or an condition. The ampere-turns of the self-excited field and
adjustable resistance in series with the load, but can also those of the control and limits fielde are superimposed, and
be done by varying the air gap between the field poies and the algebraic sum of the ampere-turns on all of the Roto—
the-rotor surface, which shifts the position of the air-gap trol fields determines the terminal voltage.
line. Thus, the series~field circuit is tuned so that the
resistance line of the circuit coincides with the air~gap line. 9. Operating Principle of the Main-Exciter Roto-
Exact coincidence -of the resistance line with the air—gap trol
line cannot always be obtained by these two means so 3. The fundamental principle by which a small amount of
smallwapaeity shunt field is provided to serve as a. vernier energy in the control field forces a. large change in Rototrol
adjustment. The resistance of the shunt-field circuit is output is that of unbaiancing the ampere-turns on two
adjusted to change the position of the terminal vol$a.ge~ poles of like polarity; in this case, two south poles. A
series-field current relation to tune the machine perfectly. current in a given direction in the control field wiil weaken
 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

I‘ 5 ggrmrlgn "
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Q \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \, \ \ \ \ ~b
Q»on \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ ‘
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(0) smP|.|:=1Eo VIlNDiNG~OEVELOPMEN? DIAGRAM or-' TWO-STAGE ROTOTROL
saowms cunnsm now wme common. new ENERGIZED

DIRECTQON OF OlRCUL.\T!NG
BRUSH PQAINTY FROM ASSUMED CURRENT MZTWEEN
CONTROL FIELD EXGITATION POSITWE BRUSHES

_\
=2
% 2

Qt)“ RUTOTROL EXGITER CONTROL FIELD WINDING 16) ROTOTROL EXOITER FORGING FIELDS OONNEOTED
IN $ERlE$ B£TW£EN THE POSIYIVE BRUSNES

D!RE$TION OF GIRGULATING
DiREQT|QN OF D|REc"|°~ of c;RGULAT|NG BIRECTION OF CURRENT BETWEEN THE
WAD cunnzur Gum-,5“? GETWEEN Posmvg was unnam" nssmve anususs
_ 0, snusnss ‘\.‘__,,_____/'
couPEusn|us , * . gal’, , mwrflllrw
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cURR£N'r or LOAD . QT,»
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Fgggmg ' REACTION _ Q 1- ' ~
HELD FLUX , ' - ‘. "4;-» coumzusxrms FIELDS ‘ ' ¢4;,Q'*;... °°'4P*'~"5“'"°
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"1" sums new cunaaur

ldl-ROTOTROL EXGITER FOROING AND GOMPENSATMG FEELDS (HROTOTROL EXCITEQ OOMPENSATING FIELDQ CUNNECTED
CONNECTED 1N SERIES SETWEEN THE POSITIVE BRUSHES IN $£RIE5 BETWEEN THE NEGATIVE BRUSHES

-Z0 FLUX DUE T0 LOAD CURRENT

""-"<7 FLUX DUE T0 CONTROL FIELD BEENG ENERGRED

Fig. 18--Principle of operation of twowtage Rototml,

Chapter 7 Excitation Systems
one south pole and strengthen the other, and by virtue of
the form. of the armature winding, causes a difference in
polarity between two brushes of like polarity. Current-
direction arrows and corresponding flux-direction arrows
are shown in Fig. 1? (a), and the operation can be under-
stood best by describing the sequence of events for a given
operating condition.
A current is shown flowing in the control field in Fig.
18 (b). The current is in a direction to cause an increase in
the terminal voltage of the Rototrol and produces fluxes as
shown by the flux arrows to strengthen south pole 1 and
weaken south pole 3. Reversing the polarity of the voltage
applied to the control field would reverse the eiiect and
cause a decrease in terminal voltage. The resulting un-
balance of the south-pole fluxes causes a phenomenon that
is suppressed in the usual d-c generator; and that is the
unbalance of voltage generated in the armature when the
magnetic flux densities in the field poles are unequal. The
eliect of the unbalanced south poles on the armature wind-
ing can be analyzed by assuming the unbalanced fluxes are
the only ones present in the machine.
The winding-development diagram of Fig. 18 (a) is drawn
for the control-field flux in the direction sh own in Fig. l8 (b).
So far as the control-field flux is concerned, pole I is a south
pole and pole 3 is a north pole; thus, the flux direction
under pole l is out of the paper and under pole 3 is into
the paper in Fig. 18 (3.). For clockwise armature rotation,
the conductor moves under poles l, 2, 3, and 4 in that order,
so the current directions in the armature conductors are as
shown. The result is that the positive brush under pole 1
is raised to a higher potential than the positive brush under
pole 3. The relative polarities of the two positive brushes
arc, therefore, as indicated by tho encircled polarity marks.
Further analysis shows that the positive brush of higher
potential is always under the south control-field pole for
the conditions of Fig. E8.
The potential difference between the two positive brushes
is used to energize another special field called the forcing
field, as shown in Fig. 1.8 (cl. For controbfield current in
the direction shown, the fluxes produced by the forcing-
field windings are in a direction to increase the flux densi-
ties in all four poles as shown by the open-headed flux
arrows, which is in the direction to increase the terminal
voltage of the machine. VVith t-he opposite control-field
polarity, the forcing—ficlcl mmf’s decrease the flux densities.
The forcing-field current also flows through the armature
winding as shown in Fig. 18 (a). The two conductors in a
common slot under poles ‘2 and 4 carry currents in opposing
directions. The conductors under poles l and 3, however,
carry currents in a common direction. Thus, an armature
reaction is developed which is in the direction to weaken
north pole 2 and strengthen north pole 4. The effect is
similar to that caused by current flow in the control field,
except that the unbalance in generated voltage appears
between the two negative brushes with polarities as shown
by the encircled marks in Fig. 18 (dl. The resulting current
flow between the two negative brushes would cause an
armature reaction in opposition to the control field, greatly
reducing its effectivciicss if compensation were not pro-
vided in some way. The compensating windings in series
with the forcing fields in Fig. 18 (d) oppose the armature
211
reaction caused by current between the positive brushes,
holding to a minimum the voltage difference between the
negative brushes and minimizing the armature reaction
that would oppose the control field.
A group of compensating fields are also connected in
series in the circuit between the negative brushes, and
serve a purpose similar to that of the compensating fields
between the positive brushes. These are shown in Fig. 18 (e).
All of these currents and fluxes are summarized in Fig.
17 ia), which shows all of the field windings and the current
and flux arrows for the assumed condition. Tracing the
circuit of the load current reveals that the load current
must flow through the forcing and compensating fields.
The coils are wound on the field poles in such a direction
that the load current cancels so far as any magnetizing
effect is coricerned, while the magnetizing effects of the
unbalance currents add. This is verified in the circuits of
Figs. I8 (c), (<1), and (e).
In addition to the field windings described above, a set
of commutating-pole windings are included in the ltototrol.
These windings produce the proper mini in the commutat-
ing poles to assist commutation of the current in the
armature.
The overall effect of current in the control field is shown
in Fig. 1'? (bl, the equivalent circuit of the two-stage main-
excitcr Rototrol. The Rototrol is represented as three
separate generators; two of them are tw0~polc machines
and the third is a lourwpole machine. The difference in
potential between the two positive brushes caused by cur-
rent in the control field is represented as 2. two-pole gen-
erator excited by the control field and is the first stage of
amplification in the Rotot-rol. The output of this machine
is fed into the field of the four-pole generator which is the
second stage of amplification. The four-pole field windings
are the forcing fields of the Rototrol. Current flowing in
the lirst—st-age machine sets up an armature reaction rep-
resented by a tw0—pole armature-reaction generator. The
armature reaction is represented by a. field exciting this
generator and the compensation for armature reaction bo-
twecn the positive brushes is another field on this same
machine. The mmf’s produced in the armature-reaction
and compensating fields are in opposition.
The armature reaction establishes a potential difierence
between the negative brushes as shown, and the current
flowing between these brushes energizes additional com-
pensating windings on all four poles. Two of these wind-
ings appcar as compensating windings on the armature-
reaction generator since they further compensate for the
armature reaction produced by the current between the
positive brushes. The remaining two compensating wind-
ings compensate for the armature reaction caused by the
current flowing between the negative brushes, this arma-
ture reaction being in opposition to the control field exciting
the first stage.
10. Series-Field Effect in Main-Exciter Rototrol
The definition of main-excitcr response ratio given in
Part I docs not apply to main cxciters having series fields.
Thus, the response ratio of the main-cxciter Rototrol cau-
not be stated in the conventional manner. As stated in
Sec. 7, the series field of the Rototrol supplies all of the
212 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

ampere-turns necessary to generate the terminai voltage in the generator field winding. The induced current is in
under steady-state conditions. The response-ratio defini- the same direction as the current already flowing in the
tion also states that the test for voltage response should be field circuit and serves to maintain constant flux linkages
made under conditions of no load on the cxciter, which with the field winding. This occurs when the generator
would seriously hamper the rate of voltage build-up in the voltage is low, and if the induced current were sustained
Rototrol, because there would be no mmf produced by the at its initial value, the internal voltage of the generator
series field. would be at a high value when the fault is removed. The
As shown in Chap. 6, Part II, a short circuit at the function of a quick-response excitation system is to in-
terminals of an a-c generator induces a large direct current crease the exciter voltage as rapidly as possible under such
conditions, in order to keep the field current at as high a
A-C SUPPLY value as possibie. The same effect takes place, although
to a einalier extent, when a load is suddenly applied to the
A e 0 x generator terminals. Removal of a fault or sudden reduc-
tion of the load causes an induced current in the opposite
direction due to removal of the armature demagnctizing
E2v effect. Thus, a current of appropriate magnitude is induced
QUXILIQRY in the field Winding of an a-c generator when there is any
ramsronuaa change in the terminal conditions, but this current cannot
be sllstaineti by conventional main exciters because their
voltage cannot ordinarily be increased fast enough.
The main-exciter Rototrol benefits directly from this
‘___ “L
m H2Ai us
‘i_ " _ -11 induced current through its series-field winding and im-
m mediately increases the mmf produced by that Winding.
R R3
V no 5lX- PHASE gm
l SHAFT— DRIVEN
H2 1 AL_T[f_RNA‘|'Qfl ALTERNATOR
1 ] RECTIFIER R; 4 Fl ELD
l mmsronmea N TERWNALS
as R2 l AF2
l as R5
l
RI R4 R2 R5 R3 R6
R5 R3
as

jlm a4 R2 R4
as as fie] i *7’

l
AUX
TRANS?

-~~~< -( ANODE
BKRS
l

= * : .
To ----< e----4 <-M--4 g:gg=

o»\ k
IGNITRON
‘ l TUBES

KF -@r,_
I N ITR
snounoms §U3550“
-<]|1 SWITCH *4‘, ..-rg. litsmtmnm N6 \ 1 l

, NEGATN£
_

POSITIVE
l

O NEGATWE
I -la sw -l|-

POSITIVE
._:,i@i
~l

TERIWM. TERMINAL TUYMINM. TERMINAL

Fig. l9—Simplified circuit of electronic main excite: supplied Fig. 20—SimpIlfied circuit of electronic main exclter supplied
from the a-c generator terminals through a rectifier trans- from a six~phasc alternator direct-connected to the main
former. generator shaft.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 213

FIELD-FLASHING The Rototrol terminal voltage is raised to a value that can

BREAKER sustain the induced current. If the induced current is
caused by a. short circuit, it gradually decays in magnitude,
$lX—Pl-IASE “F‘ _ and the Rototrol voltage follows the decay in current. The
ALTERNATOR FORE E result is that the Rototrol terminal voltage follows a mag-
FIELD Apg -"'-' nitude dependent largely upon the induced current in the
RI
"3
R5
41x >--Zsgwlq|_ generator field winding, and it cannot be duplicated in a
voltage-response test with the exciter unloaded.
The series-field effect in the Rototroi is a desirable phe-
nomenon in improving the response of the excitation sys-
tem and in aiding to maintain system stability. It enables
the main exciter to anticipate the change in 21-c generator
mvmnaou excitation voltage required. As the series-field mmf is fol-
RECTIFIER $6 $1 lowing the induced current, the voltage regulator delivers
"ramsroaucs energy to the control field to increase further the Rototrol
terminal voltage. There is some time delay before the control-
$5 N 52
field current is effective in changing the terminal voltage,
OR whereas the series-field effect is substantially instantaneous.
MOTOR
$4 $3 OPE8 11. Electronic Main Exciters
RHEO
0|. Power rcctifiers of the ignitron type have been used for
many years in industrial 3.ppll(:3.l.l(J1lS and have given reli-
able and efficient performance. Their use as main exciters
for a—c synchronous machines has been limited, principally
THYRATRON because they cost more than a. conventional main exciter.
TUBES The electronic main cxcitcr, however, offers advantages

»-o-Q --o-r °%—*"e—~*~'=*=%—~—~s5%-*—~s. ""‘*-"*3*

---{Q
§ '-.'8
—---L‘ »—-—Ql »-—Ll
B -,>a
—+_‘
s~
»-- - I
TRANSF
over rotating types.
An electronic exciter consists essentially of a. power recti-
fier fed from an a-c source of power and provided with the
necessary control, protective, and regulating equipment.
The coordination of these component parts presents prob-
£0} lems that must be solved in meeting the excitation require-
ments of a. la.rgc a.-c generator.
FORE I FIELD INSGHARGE RESISTOR
The output of 9. rectifier is only as reliable as the source
of a.-c input power. Thus, this a.-c source might be con-
sidered a. part of the rectifier, and so for as service as an
5iX~PHA$E “H
ALTERNQTQR FORE excitation source is concerned, it must be reliable. Three
Flew “.2 sources have been used in operating installations:
1. A-c power for the rectifier taken directly from the term-
inals of the a-c generator being excited.
SELENIUM 2. A-c power taken from a separate a—c supply that is essen-
RECTIFIER tially independent of the a-c generator terminals.
3. A-c power taken from a. separate generator which supplies
power to the rectifier only, and which has as its prime mover the
some turbine that drives the main a-c generator.
In the first of these, the electronic main cxcitcr is self-
excited, since its power supply is taken from its own out-
SI S2 S3
put, and in the second and third forms, it is separately-
3
PERMANENT" excited.
Ma\GN£T A'C 3| When power for the rectifier is supplied by 0. high-voltage
GENERATOR source such as the generator terminals, 21 rectifier trans-
S former must be used to reduce the voltage to the proper
magnitude for the rectifier. The transformer is connected
lb!
delta on the highwoltage side and six-phase star on the
Fig. 21-Two methods of supplying excitation for the six- secondary side. No transfoirner is required when the six-
phase alternator. phase shs.ft—driven generator is used as a power source,
(8.) Self-excitation using o thyrctron rectifier supplied from six- since the generator can be designed for the proper voltage.
phase alternator terminals through a rectifier transformer. A A simplified circuit diagram of an electronic exciter and
voltage regulator is used to hold the alternator field voltage
approximately constant. The battery is used to flash the (b) Separate-excitation using a three»ph,ase permanent-magnet
alternator field to start operation. generuzbor and cl:-y~type rectifiers.
214 Excitation Systems Chapter '7
WM. 1A¢yy@wq¢~4UM»»'~¢ N1 ‘.—\*~*/V--~—W'**‘W -»~»»»~»~-
rectifier transformer is shown in Fig. l9. The rlelta primary
of the t,ransformer can be energized from the '0Cl‘ITllIl8,lS of
the main :;L—C generator, from the plant 2J.UXill?.11'y power
».
Mus. >“:“"'X22‘‘, supply, or from some other independent source. The recti-
‘ .5 ‘Y.
fier (?()I1'1pI‘lS(!S three groups of Lwo iguitron tubes each, the
t
two tubes of each group being connected to riiametrieally
" new
opposite phases of the six~phase transformer secondary
¥,l1r01:gh a two—pole, high~spee(l anode circuit breaker. Thus
1 ‘II Ebb if IL breaker is opened, both tubes of a, group are demer-
gizerl. Each pole of the anode breaker is equipped with a,
reversmeurrent trip zit-taehmene and the breaker is auto-
in-I§m 1"‘
iv
matiezflly reelosecl. If an igriitron :i.r<=.»l'aa.(:i< should ()(‘l3i1r,
the breaker‘ is ant-omatieally opened at high-speed and
Qi reclosed wiien the &TC*l)2i(‘l( has been cleared. Should 21
i second §1l“(3—l)£lCi{ occur within :1 shore time, the anode
films breaker again opens and locks in the open position to
permit inspection of the unit.
The simplified circuit diagram of the electronic exci£er
Fig. 22-Installation photograph of electronic main excite:-. supplied from zi six-phase aiternator is shown in Fig. 20.

R3 x

as
AUX TR
1» Z " ~ 1 il
i IBPS —

GRID
rn
sms ems
2 3 vnamcs TR

n N 4
RE R4 R2 R5 R3 R6

l e l em s 5 I//4
_ 5 --l 1
FEFHNG
TUBE
I H

i FiL TR l ems RECTOXES

+
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MVR
A R“ -=:* B _"1;2=.“ e
£ IGMTRONS
[24I- e e or
Rcsl\LE: “"""""—/I \%"" Fl. J
ELECTRONIC
REGULATOR
less
RC5-REGULATOR CONTROL SWITCH IN POSFTION FOR MANUAL CONTROL

Fig. 23*Method of controlling release of the thyratron firing tube to regulate the main-exciter voltage. The firing control
circuit for ignitron tube 6 is shown.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems
So far as the main-exciter rectifier is concerned, the details
of the circuit are the same as Fig. 19. A complication is
introduced, however, since it is necessary to provide for
excitation of the six-phase alternator. Two methods of
accomplishing this are shown in Fig. 21. In the method
of Fig. 21 (a), the excitation is provided through e six-phase
thyratron rectifier, which receives its power input from the
same source used to supply the main-exciter rectifier. A
permanent-magnet a-c generator is used as the power sup-
ply in Fig. 21(b). It consists of high-quality permanent
magnets mounted on the same shaft with the main a-c
generator to serve as the rotor and a conventional three-
phase armature winding on the stator. The output of the
permanentqnagnet generator is rectified by a three-phase
bridge-type selenium rectifier and fed directly into the field
of the siiophase alternator. While the shaft-driven gener-
ator in Fig. 20 is shown with six phases, it can be a standard
three-phase unit in which case a rectifier transformer would
be required to convert the ignitron rectifier input to
six-phase.
Each group of two ignitron tubes with its anode breaker,
cathodeuiisconnecting switch, firing tubes and associated
controi circuit is located in one of three individual com-
partments of the main rectifier cubicle as shown in Fig. 22.
Ignitron Firing Circuit and D-C Voltage Control
»kThe firing circuit for each ignitron tube is of the anode-
firing type as shown in Fig. 23. A thyratron tube is con-
nected in parallel with the ignitron through its ignitcr.
The thyratron is made conductive when its anode voltage
is positive with respect to its cathode and its grid is re-
leased. Current then passes through the ignitron igniter
which initiates st cathode spot and fires the ignitron. If the
ignitron should fail to conduct for any reason, the thyra»
tron attempts to carry the load current but is removed
from the circuit by the thyratron anode breaker.
The magnitude of the output voltage of the electronic
exciter is varied by controlling the point on its anode volt-
age wave at which the ignitron tube is made conductive.
This point is determined by releasing the control grid of
the firing thyratron, which is controlled by a sine-Wave
grid transformer, a Rector; supplying a fixed positive bias,
a Rectox supplying Variable negative bias for manual con-
trol, and an electronic regulator supplying variable negative
bias for automatic control. The circuits of these devices
are shown in Fig. 23.
The grid circuit of the thyratron firing tube can be
traced from the cathode of the thyratron through the
ignitrou to rheostats RPB and RNB and through the grid
transformer to the control grid of the thyratron The volt-
age E; appearing across rheostat RPB is a positive grid
bias, while the voltage E2 appearing across RNB is a nega-
tive grid bias. The sine-wave voltage EQAQ impressed on
the grid of the thyratron is delayed almost 90 degrees from
the anode voltage and is connected in series with the
positive and negative biases. These voltages are shown
in Fig. 24.
Rheostats RPB and RNB are initially adjusted to give
the desired values of positive and negative grid-bias volt-
ages. Manual control of the cxcitor voltage is obtained by
changing the setting of rheostat M VR which varies the
negative bias. The bias voltages E1, E2 and EQAC add to
Z15
1
1 "—\_. I.. cm
>\
Q s“/
_I__.___'___________________..... __
EA-FIRING TUBE ANODE. VOLTAGE
Eg5'"CR!TICAI. GRID VOLTAGE OF FIFHNG TUBE
E¢,;¢—PHASE SHIFTED A-G GRID BIAS VOLTAGE
fip-FIXED POSITIVE GRID BIAS
Ky-VARIABLE NEGMTIVE GRlD BIAS
E<;—~TOTAL GRID BIAS VOLTAGE
(II-ANGLE OF GRID DELAY
Fig. 24—-Control grid voltages applied to thyratron firing tube.
give a total grid-bias voltage represented by EG and vary-
ing the negative bias determines the point at which the
total grid voitage becomes more positive than the critical
grid voltage EGG of the firing tube releasing the tube for
conduction. The ignitron is then made conductive by cun-
rent in the igniter and remains conductive for the remain-
der of the positive haif-cycle of anode voltage. The angle
or in Fig. 24 is defined as the angle of grid delay.
The use of it positive and negative grid bias in this
manner provides for a wide range of control of the angle
of grid deiay, and consequently, for a wide range of control
of the exciter output voltage. When the exciter voltage is
under control of the automatic electronic regulator, the
lnanuallymontrolled negative bias E2 is replaced by a.
variabie negative bias voltage from the regulator.
I2. Electronic Exciter Application Problems
Modern a-c generators have proven their capability of
continuous operation over long periods without being shut
down for maintenance. It is necessary, therefore, that
main excite-rs and excitation systems be capable of similar
operation and that wearing parts be replaceable Without
requiring shutdown or even unloading. The ignitron and
thyratron tubes in the electronic exciter are subject to
deterioration and eventual failure and replacement, and it
is essential that such a failure and consequent replacement
be sustained without interfering with excitation of the
a-c generator.
In its usual form, the electronic main exciter is designed
so that it can suppiy full excitation requirements continu-
ousiy with two of the six ignitron tubes out of service.
With all six tubes in service, the capacity is approximately
150 percent of the requirements. Furthermore, the over-
load capacity of the ignitron tubes is such that the rectifier
216 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

can supply full excitation for a. short time with only two
of the six tubes in service. Should a tube failure occur, the
! /
/=
ignitron anode breaker, grounding switch, and firing;-tube /

anode breaker are opened enabling replacement of the /

l I
ignitron or firing thyratron of any group without disturb-
\ /
ing the continuous operation of the remaining two tube /
groups. I
I
For the electronic exciter to be completely reliable, it
I
must be provided with a reliable source of a—c power. When Recrmsn
VGLTAGE u If b
selfwexcited from the terminals of t-he main a~c generator, cEn_iNG
the input to the rectifier is subject to voltage changes ER I VOLTAGE
I
during system disturbances. Thus during nearby faults I
EXCT
on the system when it is desirable to increase the generator
excitation as much as possible, the rectifier voltage output l / T\ EQUIVALENT
/ nssvousfi
may be low duo to the low a-c voltage. To compensate for l /-' :.mE
the low voltage, the rectifier can he designed for a voltage
output much higher than that required during normal /’ scrum.
operation; thet is, the rectifier may be designed to produce
. I a£sPon$E
/
normal ceiling voltage when the a—c input voltage is 75 1 s _......* ‘ .
percent of normal. Under normal load conditions the volt- O 0.5
TIME IN SECONDS
age is reduced to that required by control of the firing
point. This method of compensation requires a larger Fig. 25-~Response of the electronic main exciter.
rectifier transformer and means that the firing is delayed
longer during normal operation. fore, the actual rate of voltage increase exceeds 10 per unit
When separatewexcitation is used to supply power to the per second.
rectifier, the input is no longer subject to variation during
disturbances on the main system. It is possible that a III. PILOT EXCITERS
disturbance in the system supplying power to the rectifier
may cause a disturbance in the excitation of the a-c gen- When the main exciter of an a.-c synchronous machine is
erator and a. consequent dist-urbaricc on the main system. separatelypxcitcd, the dwc machine which supplies the
This is overcome by making the rectifier power supply as separate excitation is called a pilot exciter. A main exciter
reliable as possible. Since the same philosophy applies to can be supplied with excitation from more than one source,
the system used to supply the powerhouse auxiliaries, as is the three-field main exciter, which has a self-excited
this system can be used to supply the rectifier. The field and two separately-excited fields, but the sources of
shaft-driven l.hree— or six-phase alternator, however, separate excitation are still considered as pilot exciters.
offers the most reliable solution. It is also possible to Older excitation systems used a storage battery as a pilot
use duplicate supply with automatic changeover during exciter, but maintenance problems soon prompted its re-
disturbances in the normal supply, but this is not justi- placement with rotating types of d~c machines. Two gen-
fied normally. eral classifications of pilot exciters are constant-voltage and
variable-voltage types. The constant-voltage type is used
13. Response of the Electronic Main Exciter where control of the main exciter voltage output is by 2.
The lgnitron rectifier has the ability to increase or de- rheostat in the exciter’s separately-excited field circuit, and
crease its voltage output with substantially no time delay. the variablewoltage type is used Where the pilohexciter
Compared with the rate of voltage build~up of other types voltage must vary to give variable voltage on the exeiter
of dec machines, it might be considered instantaneous. If field.
the response ratio of the electronic excitcr were expressed
in accord with the definition given in Part I, it would I4. Compound-Wound Pilot Exciter
convey a false impression. The line O0. in Fig. 25 represents The most common form of constant-voltage pilot excite:
the actual voltage response of the electronic excitcr. The is the compounc1~wound d~c generator. The circuit diagram
line ab represents the ceiling voltage. The lino Oc is drawn $581-E3
FIELD
so that the area Ocd is equal to the area Oabd under the ._ _ _ _FYYY\ —— ——
actual response curve during the 0.5ssec0nd interval. Ac-
cording to the definition, the rate of response is the slope
of the line Os, which implies that the exoiter voltage has SHUNT _
not reached its ceiling value at the end. of a 0.5-second F1€Lo TERMINAL
VULTQGE
interval.
If the distance Oa is set equal to 1.0 per unit, then the
distance dc almost equals 2.0 per unit. The rate of voltage RUEU
build-up is do divided by 0.5 second or 4.0 Der unit per
second. The actual time required for the voltage to in~
crease from O to a is much less than 0.1 second, and there- Fig. 26-—Compound-wound conventional pilot exciter.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems
is shown in Fig. 26. The pilot cxciter is invariably a 125-
volt machine with a self~excited shunt field and a series-
excited field, adjusted to give substantially flat~compound-
ing. Thus, regardless of the load on the pilot exciter,
the magnitude of its terminal voltage is practically con-
stant.
The compoundmround pilot exciter is normally mounted
on the shaft of the main exciter, and where the main excitcr
is direct-connected, the a-c generator, main cxciter, and
pilot exciter all rotate at the same speed. A rheostat, either
under the control of a voltage regulator or under manual
control, is connected in series with the output circuit of the
pilot excitcr to regulate the voltage applied to the field of
the main exciter.
15. Rototrol Pilot Exciter
The Rototrol, described in See. 8 as a main exciter, is
also used as a variable-voltage pilot eXCll36I‘. Depending
upon the excitation requirements of the main exciter, the
Rototrol pilot exciter may be of either one or two stages of
amplification. Generally, when the main exciter and Roto-
trol pilot exciter are direct-connected to the generator shaft
and operating at 3600 rpm, the pilot cxciter has a single
stage of amplification When the pilot. cxciter is operated
at a speed lower than 3600 rpm, such as 1800 or 1200 rpm,
it is of the two»-stage type.
The single-stage Rototrol is a stabilized series—excited
d-c generator as shown in Fig. 27. The control field is a
SERlES
FIELD
CONTROL TERMINAL
FIELD ‘ vomez
RO1’O-
Toot
LIMETS
FIELD
Fig. 27-Equivalent circuit of single-stage Rototroi pilot
exciter.
separately-excited shunt field. The principal difference
between this and a conventional series-excited d~c genera-
tor is the fact that the Rototrol is operated in the unsat-
urated region, that is, on the air-gap line. Under steady-
statc conditions, the sustaining series field supplies prac-
tically all of the ampere~turns required to maintain the
Rototrol terminal voltage. The input to the control field
acts as a stabilizing force to hold the voltage at any point
on the straight-line portion of the saturation curve.
IV. GENERATOR EXCITATION SYSTEMS
In the ten—year period following 1935, two basic types of
generator voltage regulators filled substantially all needs
of the electrical industry. These were the indirect-acting
exciter-rheostatic regulator and the direct-acting rheo-
static regulator. Excitation systems are now in the midst
217
of a period of changes by reason of progress in the develop-
ment of regulating and excitation systems. Efforts have
been directed particularly toward the development of more
reliable, more accurate, more sensitive, and quicker~act.ing
systems. Consequently, there are now many dilierent ex-
citation systems in use, each filling a specific need of the
industry.
The preceding sections have discussed the various types
of main and pilot exciters in use at present. The remainder
of the chapter will be a comprehensive discussion of the
application of these d—c machines in excitation systems in
coniunction with various types of generator voltage
regulators.
Four types of voltage regulators are being used to con-
trol the excitation of synchronous machines:
1. Direct-acting rheostatic type
2. lndireciwaoting exciter-rheostatlc type
3. lmpedancenetworlr or static-network type
4. Electronic type.
Each of these are described in their application in various
types of excitation systems in the order named.
I6. The Direct-Acting Rheostatic Regulator
The Silverstat generator voltage regulator is a common
and widely used form of the direct- and quick-acting rheo-
static type of regulator. It is specifically designed for the
automatic voltage control of small and medium size gen-
erators. For generators rated above 100 kva, the Silvcrstat
or SRA regulator is available in five sizes, the largest being
used with generators as large as 25 000 kva. A typical SRA
regulator of medium size is shown in Fig. 28 (a).
The direct-acting rheostatic type of regulator controls
the voltage by the regulator element varying directly the
regulating resistance in the main exciter field circuit. The
different sizes of SRA regulators are suitable for the auto-
matic voltage control of constant—speed, one-, two- or
three-phase a~c generators excited by individual seif-excited
exciters. The exciter must be designed for shunt-field con-
trol and self-excited operation, with its minimum operating
voltage not less than 30 percent of its rated voltage. Each
regulator is designed for and limited to the control of
one exciter.
Where a—c generators are operated in parallel and are
within the range of application of this regulator, the prac-
tice is to provide each generator with an individual oxcitcr,
with the exciters operated non-parallel. Each generator
and its excite-r is provided with an individual regulator and
suitable cross-current compensation provided between the
regulators.
Sensitivity-The sensitivity of a generator voltage
regulator is the band or zone of voltage, expressed as a
percentage of the normal value of regulated voltage, within
which the regulator holds the voltage with steady or grad~
ually changing load conditions. This does not mean that
the regulated voltage does not vary outside of the sensi-
tivity zone, but does mean that when the regulated voltage
varies more than the percentage sensitivity from the regu-
lator setting due to sudden changes in load or other system
disturbances, the regulator immediately applies corrective
action to restore the voltage to the sensitivity zone.
Regulator sensitivity must not be confused with overall
218 Excitation Systems Chapter '7

yv»v\~~/W . MW ..
é? regulation, which involves not only regulator sensitivity
but also the time constants of the machines and the char-
acter and magnitude of the voitage changes. The magni-
tude and rate of load ohango determine how far the voltage
deviates outside of the reguiator sensitivity zone, and the
time constants of the machines chiefly determine the time
required to restore the voltage to the sensitivity zone. For
these reasons only sensitivity can be specified so far es the
voltage regulator is concerned and not overall regulation,
at»ml
. .n_.->M_,.~;X.
which involves factors over which the regulator has no
2 control.
ii The rated sensitivity of the SRA voltage regulators
depends on the size of the regiilator. The SRA-I and
=3
2 SR/J&*2| the two smaller sizes, have rated sensitivities of
plus or minus 21/2 and 1% percent, rospootivcly. The
>4
larger SRA—3, SRA-4 and SRA-5 regulators are rated at
plus or rninus }*§ of 1 percent sensitivity.
17. Operation of the Direct—Acting Rheostatic
Regulator
The silver-button assomhly, Fig. 28 (b), provides the
%1i~
means for changing the resistance in the exoiter shunt-field
circuit under control of the regulator. This basic assembly
consists of a group of spring-mounted silver buttons so
arranged that the buttons are Separated. from each other

4 s SILVER
W -.-..~.,»..~..-.. Wm. M. WWW.-.W.u.........i /BUTTONS

REGULAT ING RESISTANCE

REGULATOR
COIL /ARM
//"/1

Ii]
‘ ARMATURE

i/
REGULATING RESISTANCE PUSHER

I W
VOLTAGE
i
ADJUSTING
HHEOSTAT

, XRR 2 R Rt o-—ii-—~
l

H V DT2 NT

Fig. 28~(a) SRA-4 Silverstat generator voltage regulator. Fig. 29~Schemati<: internal diagram of SRA-3 Silveretat
(1)) Silver-button assembly of Siiverstat regulator. regulator.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems
normally, but can be closed or opened in sequence by a.
suitable driver having 2. travel of a fraction of an inch. The
springs or leaves that carry the silver buttons are insulated
from each other and each leaf is connected to a tap on a.
resistance element as shown in Fig. 29. Varying amounts
of the resistance are short circuited by closing of the silver-
button contacts. One or more -of these hasio elements are
used in regulators of different sizes, four being used in the
SRA-Lt regulator illustrated in Fig. 28 (al.
T he eontroi eiement of the regulator is a d-c operated
device. A spring-mounted armature is centered in the air
gap of the electromagnet as shown in Fig. 29. ln regulating
a-c voltage, a fl1ll—WZlV€ rectox rectifier is used to convert
the a-c to vi-e for energizing the control clement.
A typical excitation system under control of on SR-A
regulator is shown schematically in Fig. 30. The regulating
Exc suuur GEN HELD
FIELD — RHEO
@ —®ql
I. EXO
DAMNNG
HELD TRANS
RHEO
COMPEN-
HXED 1 SATlNG
RESIS “E5
REGULATING
RESISTANCE
REGULATOR
COIL
Fig. 30-Self-excited main exciter controlled by Silverstat
regulator. The compensating resistance is used to provide
cross-current compensation during parallel operation of n-e
generators or to provide line-drop compensation.
resistance is connected directly in the excitcr shunt~iield
circuit. At one end of the travel of the moving arm, all of
the silver buttons are apart from each other, placing max-
imum resistance in the field circuit. At the other end of
the travel, the buttons are closed and the rcsistulico is
short circuitcd. The moving arm cam hold the 1"esist:i.nco
at any intermediate vuluc and, since the imvcl is short,
all the resistnnce can be inserted or removed from the field
circuit qui<~kl_v. 'l‘he speed of 0pl*!'zL€i()I1 of the Z‘0gL1lzLting
element depends upon the rnagnitude and rate of cliange
of the operating force. With at sudden drop in a-e voltage
of 101,0 12 percent, the time required for the regulator to
remove all resistance from the cxciter sluinbfield circuit is
app1'oximat(.\ly 0.05 second or 3 (:}'r'l¢\.s on LL (ill-cycle basis.
The regulating action of the SKA rcguiutor is that of a
semi-static device that operates only when a correction in
219
voltage is necessary. For a given value of regulated voltage
and load on the machine being regulated there is a corres-
ponding value of regulating resistance required in the field
circuit; and a corresponding position of the moving arm
and silver buttons that gives this vaiile of rr>.sistance. lfnder
such conditions the rnagnetic puil on the moving arm is
balanced against the spring pull at that position of its
travel. When there is a change in load on the machine
being rogulzuoil. a corresponding cliange in voltage results,
and the volt.-age is restored to its correct value by the
moving arm and silver buttons taking a new position.
Since the pressure on silver contacts determines the resist-
ance of the contacts, an infinite number of steps of regulat-
ing rcsistzmce are obtained. If the required value of cxciter
field resistance should lie between two of the tapped points
of the rcgiilniing resistance, the pressure of the silver con-
tacts changes to provide the correct intermediate vaiue
of resistance.
The fixed resistance in the exciter field circuit in Fig. 30
is used when it is desired to limit the exciter sl1unt~field
= current when the maximum or ceiling current is such as to
interfere with the host performance of the voltage regulat-
ing equipment. The exciter shunt-field rheostat and the
generator field rheostat are provided primarily for control
of the generator excitation when the regulator is not in
service. Excitation current in the generator field can be
regulated liy changing the cxciter output voltage or by
holding the exeiter voltage constant and changing the gen-
erator field resistance. When the voltage regulator is in
. ... . . ..,.__._.,1
E
K
‘ é
i
i
=
i
5
2
1
K
x
1
. W,, i Z
1
x
Fig. 31 Silverstat regulator damping transformer and recto:
rectifier assembly.
220 Excitation Systems
operation and controlling the generator voltage, the exciter
shunt-field and generator field rheostats are ordinarily
turned to the “all out” position so that the regulator has
full control of the excitation voltage.
Damping-—To stabilize the regulated voltage and pre-
vent excessive swinging under various conditions of excita-
tion change, a damping effect is introduced into the regu-
lator coil circuit by means of a damping transformer as
shown in Fig. 30. The damping trarislormer is illustrated
in Fig. 31. The use of this device eliminates the need for
dashpots or similar mechanical anti-hunting devices.
The damping transformer is of a special type having a
small air gap in the iaminateddron magnetic circuit. One
winding is connected across the field of the generator whose
voltage is being regulated, and the other Winding is con-
nected in series with the voltage regulator coil. When there
is a change in excitation voltage as a result of the regulating
action of the regulator, energy is transferred by induction
from one Winding to the other of the damping transformer.
This energy introduced into the circuit of the reguiator
coil acts by reason of its direction, magnitude, and time
relation to electrically damp excessive action of the moving
arm, preventing the moving arm from carrying too far the
change in regulating resistance and consequent change in
generator excitation. Since the damping transformer oper-
ates only when the excitation of the generator is changing,
it has no effect when the regulated voltage is steady and the
regulator is balanced.
Parallel Operat1'on—As is true with most generator
voltage regulators, the SRA regulator can control only one
exciter at a. time. Where several a~c generators operate in
parallel and all the generators are excited from one common
exciter, a single Silverstat regulator can be used, provided
the exciter is of a size that is within the range of application
of this type of regulator. However, where a-c generators
operate in parallel, the usual practice is to provide each
one with an individual exciter controlled by an individual
regulator. This scheme of operation requires that the ex-
citers be operated non-parallel, and it is necessary to supply
a means of assuring proper division of reactive lava between
the generators. The division of the kilowatt load among
paralleled a-c generators is dependent upon the power
input to each generator and is controlled by the governor
of its prime mover. Thus the division of kilowatt load is
practically independent of the generator excitation. How-
ever, changes in the field excitation of paralleled a-c gen-
erators do affect the reactive kva or wattless component
of the output, and the division of the reactive kva is directly
affected by the operation of the voltage regulators.
Thus, Wattless current circulates between the paralleled
a—c generators unless some provision is made whereby the
generators are caused to properly divide the reactive lcva.
This is accomplished by means of crosscurrent compensa-
tion, which functions to cause each generator to shirk
wattless current by means of a slight droop in the regulated
voltage with increase in the wattless component of current.
The effect of the small droop required is usually negligible
under operating conditions as found in actual practice.
For three-phase a-c generators with the SRA regulator,
the compensation is obtained by a standard current. trans-
former conncctcd in one lead of each generator being regu-
Chapter 7
lated as shown in Fig. 30. The current transformer is
connected to an adjustable resistance in the a—c supply
circuit to the regulator operating element. The adjustable
resistance permits adjustment of the compensation to suit
the application. The current transformer is connected in
one generator lead, While the potential transformer that
operates the regulator is connected to the other two leads.
Thus the phase relationship is such that for lagging re-
active kva, the voltage drop across the compensating re-
sistance adds to the a-o voltage energizing the regulator
and subtracts in the case of leading reactive kva. This
action tends to cause the regulator to lower excitation for
lagging reactive kva and raise excitation for leading reac-
tive I-rva. In this manner each generator tends to shirk
reactive kva, and the wattless power is automatically
divided in proportion among the paralleled a-c generators.
In many applications, reactance in the form of power
transformers, bus reactors, etc., exists between paralleled
a-c generators. If each generator is excited by an individ~
ual exciter under control of an individual voltage regu-
lator, and if the rcactance is such as to cause from four
to six percent reactive drop between the two generators,
then stable operation and proper division of the wattless
component can usually be obtained without using cross-
current compensation between the regulators. This is be-
cause the reactance produces an effect similar to that ob-
tained where cross-current compensation is used.
18. Indirect-Acting Exciter-Rheostatic Regulator
In recent years the increase in capacity of generating
units, the extension of transmission systems, and the inter-
connection of established systems, have reached a. point
where quick-response excitation is valuable for improving
stability under fault conditions and large load changes. On
applications of this kind the type 3i regulator is particu-
larly adapted to the control of a-c machines employing
quick-response excitation. The BJ regulator is of the
indirect-acting exciter-rheostatic type for the automatic
control of medium and large size a~c generators.
The indirect-acting exciter-rheostatic type of generator
voltage regulator controls the voltage of an a-c machine by
varying the resistance in the field circuit of the exciter that
excites the a-c machine. The exciter is preferably sepa-
rately-cxcitecl from a pilot exciter or other source. If the
exciter is self-excited, its minimum operating voltage must
not be less than 30 percent of its rated voltage if stable
operation is to be obtained. When lower voltages are
necessary, the main exciter must be separately-excited.
A schematic wiring diagram of the BJ generator voltage
regulator and its auxiliary contactors is shown in Fig. 32.
This diagram in conjunction with the simplified schematic
of Fig. 33 is used to describe the operation of the device.
The main control element of the regulator is energized
from two single-phase potential transformers connected to
the a—c machine leads. Two sets of contacts are on the
moving lever arm of the regulator element shown in Fig.
32, namely, the n01‘ma.l-response contacts R~L and the
quick-response contacts AR-AL. The n0rmal—response
contacts control the rheostat motor contactors NR and
NL, to raise or lower the a-c machine voltage, respectively-
The quick-response AR and AL contacts control the high-
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 221

speed contactors QR and QL, which are the “field forcing
up” and “field forcing down” contectors, respectively.
When contactor QR in Fig. 33 is closed, all external resist-
ance is shorted out of the main-exciter field circuit, and
when QL is opened by energizing its coil, a block of resist~
once is inserted in the field circuit.
Normal Response“-When the s-c voltage is normal,
the regulator lever arm is balanced and in this position
T0 or
T lit
°"
E23
$-
neither the normal-response contacts R-L nor the quick-
response contacts AR-AL are closed. Should the a~c volt-
age fall below normal by 2, smelt amount, depending upon
the sensitivity setting of the regulator, the n0rme.1~response
contact R will close, energizing the rheostat motor control
contactor NR. The contacts NR energize the rheostat
motor which then turns the rheostat in a direction to
remove resistance from the exciter field circuit, thereby
increasing the voltage applied to the exciter field.
The rheostet-motor control contactor NR has three con-
tacts that close in independent circuits simultaneously.
The one circuit is that just described which operates the
rhcostat motor. The second is the circuit of the anti—
hunting winding NH of the regulator rnain control element
and the third set of contacts complete a timing-condenser
circuit. The anti»hunt device operates to increase the gap
distance between the contact faces of the regulator contacts
R and L, thereby opening the circuit at the R contacts.
This change in position of the R contact is equivalent to
changing the regulator setting to :1, lower voltage so far as
the raise contacts are concerned, and to a higher voltage
so far as the lower contacts are concerned. Where the
deviation from normal voltage is small and within the
recalibration efiect of the anti-hunt device, the immediate

0-c_cos1'no1.igos if of _ i +___]

REGUI-1\TOR
GO ILS
is
"R" -- '4 " QR 0|.
N8
1 ca ca 1 NL
es E» ma N1,

Fig. 32_Schematlc diagram of the BJ regulator cont:-olilng the voltage of a aeparatelywxcited main excitct.

Ac MM"
{M
MAW
_ PE.
IR I ® ® arr; ‘: Our;
Q HELD
SHUNT
HELD
RPSHUNT FIEL.D FIXED R
i'lru'FlELD Foncms—uP R
anso Rn,=FIELO
R’ B FORcmc~ DOWN R
RM Rg,¢'M0T0R~0PER ssum mate
_ CROSS-CUPREN7
RHEO co~rsou.r»:o av
COMP ENSAYOR
PE. Rtcuuroa NORMAL-RESP
Rm SEMES conucrs
FIELD Rm-mrr new men n
llIi
QR
om ascuunroa QUlGK~RM5E
@ I. R"
roncmc councron
OL - REGULATOR QlJlCK—LOW£R
1 VOLT roncms courncroa
I ADJ l
RHEO QL 7‘,-%R 5
VOLTAGE
REGU tnon

Fig. 33-Main-excite: circuits under control of BJ Jeguiator in Fig. 32.

222 Excitation Systems
result of the closing of the contacts on contactor NR is to
cause the opening of the regulator R contact, which in turn
opens the circuit to the coil of contactor NR, to stop the
motor of the exciter field rheostat and thus stop the rheo-
stat moving arm. However, contactor NR does not im-
mediately open due to a time-delay circuit around its coil
that maintains the coil voltage. Thus the rheostat arm is
permitted to move a definite distance, for example, from
one button to the next on the rheostat faceplate, and at
the end of its time delay, contactor NR opens to stop the
rheostat motor and deenergize the anti-hunt device.
After the rheostat motor stops, it is desirable to provide
some time delay to allow the a-c machine voltage to reach
its final value. Such delay is obtained by a dashpot on the
anti-hunt device that prevents the regulator contacts from
immediately returning to their normal position. After this
time delay has expired and the contacts have returned to
their normal position, the normal response cont-act R again
closes if the a-c voltage has not returned to normal. This
starts another cycle of operation such as iust described and
these cycles continue until the normal value of regulated
voltage is established.
Where the original voltage deviation is large enough the
regulator contacts remain closed continuously even though
the anti~hunt device changes the contact setting. ln this
case the regulator arm is caused to follow the change in
contact position made by the anti-hunt device, and the R
contact and the contactor NR remain closed. This causes
the rheostat motor to run continuously until the a—c volt~
age is within the zone for which the anti-hunt device is set,
at which time the notching action takes place to bring the
voltage to normal.
By means of the continuous or notching action of the
rheostat, dependent upon the magnitude of the voltage
change, time is allowed for the a-c voltage to come to rest
between each voltage correction as the voltage approaches
its normal value. The action of the dashpot is also such
that the time required for the contacts to remake is longer
as the lever arm approaches the normal voltage position.
This results in a decreased motor speed as the rheostat arm
moves nearer to its new position, preventing overshooting
of the rheostat position and bringing the a-c voltage to
normal in a minimum length of time.
When the a-c voltage rises above the regulated value,
an action similar to that described for low voltage takes
place, except that the regulator contact L closes energizing
the rhcoslat motor control contactor NL, which operates
the rheostat motor in a direction to increase the resistance
in the exciler field circuit.
Quick Resp0nse—-When a large drop in voltage occurs,
such as might, be caused by a large block of load being
thrown on the system or by a fault, the normahresponsc
contacts R on the regulator close, lollo\ve<l by closing of the
quickwrcsponse contacts AR. Contacts xi if close the circuit
to the high»speed field-forcing-up Conl.act0r QR, which
short circuits all of the external resistance in the excitcr
field circuit, applying lull exciter voltage to the field circuit.
This causes the a-c machine voltage to start to return to
normal very rapidly by forcing action.
When the field-foi‘cing~np contactor QR closes, an aux~
iliary contact on this contactor closes at the same time in
Chapter 7
the circuit of the anti-hunt device QH, which operates to
spread the AR and AL contacts in the same manner as
described for the NH device and the R and L contacts.
Therefore, if the deviation from normal voltage is within
the recalibration effect of the QH anti~hunt device, the
field-forcing-up contactor closes and opens rapidly while
the rheostat arm approaches the required new position. If
the deviation from normal voltage is greater than the
re-calibrated setting of QH anti-hunt device, the fi8l{l-fOI‘(3-
ing-up contactor closes and remains closed until the a-c
voltage is brought within the recalibrated setting.
As the a~c voltage comes Within the setting of the AR
contacts and they no longer close, the normal response
contacts R take control and by notching the rheostat,
return the a-c voltage to normal. Since the rheostat moves
at maximum speed while the quicloresponse contacts are
closed, it takes only a minimum of additional movement
after the normal-response contacts take control to return
the voltage to normal.
When the main exciter has a differential field as shown
in Fig. 33, a contact in the QR contactor opens the differ-
ential-field circuit. In this way, the clamping effect of the
differential field in slowing the exciter response is removed.
19. Sensitivity of the BJ Regulator
The rated sensitivity of the BJ generator voltage regu-
lator is plus or minus % of one percent. The sensitivity is
adjusted by varying the spacing between the regulator
contacts R and L. The quick-response contacts are set to
a wider spacing than the normal-response contacts so that
larger deviations from normal voltage are required to close
them. The usual range of settings of the quick—resp0nse
contacts is from plus or minus 2% percent to plus or minus
10 percent, the setting depending somewhat on the setting
of the normai»responso contacts and upon the operating
conditions of the particular installation.
The main coil of the control element in Fig. 32 consists
of a voltage Winding energized by a d-c voltage, rectified
from the three-phase a—c source being regulated. Thus, the
coil is energized by a voltage equal to the average of the
phase voltages and the regulator holds this average voltage
within the rated sensitivity zone. The level of the regu-
lated voltage is set by adjustment of the voltage-adjusting
rhcostat ; resistance being added in series with the regulator
voltage coil to increase the level of the regulated voltage,
and resistance being removed to decrease the level of the
regulated voltage. The normal range of adjustment is
approximately plus or minus 10 percent from the normal
generator voltage.
20. Gross-Current Compensation with BJ Reg-
ulator
When cross—current compensation is required to give the
voltage regulator a drooping characteristic, one compen-
sator and one current transformer are required, connected
as shown in Fig. 32. The compensator is designed to supply
a 0Ompor1satlng voltage in two phases of the three-phase
rcgulat,or potential circuit. This insures applying a bal-
anced tlm-e—pliase voltage to the regulator element, which
would not be the case if only one leg was compensated.
The vector diagram of the compensating circuit is shown
Chapter 7
I -nu-6
Eta Ea: gixllzp.
5 Z
E32
En El’ £3
5|:
Fig. 34-Vector diagram of cross-current compensation used
with BJ regulator. Circuit shown in Fig. 32.
in Fig. 34, the potential transformer secondary voltages
being represented by E21, E32 and E13. The current applied
to the autotransformer of the compensator in Fig. 32 is
taken from the secondary of a current transformer in phase
2 of the a—c circuit. Two compensating voltages are pro-
duced; one between terminals X1-X2 designated as E1 on
the vector diagram and the other between terminals Y1-Y2
designated as ER on the vector diagram. Voltages ER and
Ez are 120 degrees apart in time phase and, therefore, can
be added to a three-phase set of voltages without unbalanc-
ing it.
The vector diagram shows E’; and ER for zero power
factor, under which condition maximum compensation is
obtained. As the power factor approaches unity, these
voltage vectors swing through an arc of 90 degrees and
give zero compensation at 100 percent power factor. At
zero power factor, vectors E7, and ER add directly to vec~
tors En 8-Hd Eu, respectively. For power factors greater
than zero, only a proportionate component of these volt-
ages Ez imd ER add directly to voltages E11 and E13. The
addition of these compensating voltages to the line voltages
as the load increases or the power factor changes gives the
regulator element a high voltage indication resulting in a
reduction or droop in regulated voltage. Usually the com-
pensator should cause from four to six percent droop in
voltage at zero power factor full load on the a-c generator.
21. Line~Drop Compensation with BJ Regulator
The wide use of interconnected power systems has elim-
inated to a large extent the need for line~drop compensa-
tion. Ilowevcr, it is sometimes desirable to regulate for a
constant voltage to be maintained at some point on the
system external to or distant from the station where the
a-c machine and its regulator are located. The principle
by which this is accomplished is shown by the circuit and
vector diagrams of Fig. 3-5.
The voltage regulator is to maintain the voltage E2
constant. if it were possible to supply the regulator with
pilot wires so that it could measure the voltage at the load
center, the regulator could adjust the excitation of the
generator to maintain Er constant. Since in actual practice
1t_1s impractical to use pilot wires, the regulator potential
Winding is energized from the generator bus voltage E1, and
the tvvo components XI and RI are subtracted from it
artificially by the compensation. The resultant voltage E,
IS then supplied to the regulator. If the components XI
Excitation Systems 223
LOA D
®\f%TTj lie. &3'r'“LU E= 10- r" ;,'*" "1 EH1’
LE
VOLTAGE
REG
Er
E‘ IX
IR
I
VECTOR DIAGRAM OF’ SYSTEM
Fig. 35—Principle of line-drop compensation.
and RI are proportioned to and in phase with the corres-
ponding values of line reactance and resistance voltage
drops, the regulator controls the voltage as if it were
connected by pilot wires to the load center.
In general, since the reactance component XI of the line
predominates, it is necessary to compensate mainly for this
component of the line drop, the resistance component RI
having; a relatively small eilect.
Parallel operation of a-c generators, each under the con-
trol of a voltage regulator, requires a droop in regulated
voltage with an increase in wattless load. On the other
hand, reactance line~drop compensation requires a rising
characteristic for the regulated voltage with an increasing
wattless load. In order to compensate for reactiveeross
current between machines and for complete line drop when
machines are operating in parallel in the same station, three
current transformers and two cornpensators with suitable
auxiliary equipment must be used for each machine. In
any event, the XI line—drop compensation must never
exceed the XI cross-current compensation; i.e., there must
be a net droop in regulated voltage with increase in watt~
less load.
Complete line-drop compensation is not always neces-
sary, and a simple compromise solution is available to
provide approximate line-drop compensation and reactive-
droop compensation. The RI-drop compensation is set to
approach the XI drop of the line for some average power
factor. When the RI~drop compensation is so set, the
XI-drop compensation can be adjusted independently to
provide the required cross~current compensation, and there
is no interference between the two compensstors.
22. Synchronous Condenser Excitation with BJ
Regulator
The type BJ generator voltage regulator can also be used
to control the excitation of a synchronous condenser. The
circuit is essentially the same as that shown in Figs. 32
and 33.
When the excitation of a synchronous condenser is in-
creased above a certain value, the condenser furnishes a
lagging (overexcited} current to the system thereby caus-
224 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

ing the voltage to rise. In a similar manner, decreasing the
excitation lowers the voltage. Thus, when a generator
voltage regulator is appiied to a synchronous condenser,
it regulates the line voltage to a constant value by varying
the excitation of the condenser, provided the condenser
has sufizcient corrective rkva capacity.
It is often. necessary that the condenser furnish leading
(underexcited) rkva as well as lagging (overexcited) rkwa,
and it is necessary to reduce the excitation to an extremely
low value. “There the minimum value is loss than 30 per-
cent of the main exciter rated voltage, it is necessary to use
:2. separately-excited main cxciter. In many cases it is
necessary to reverse the excitation voitage to obtain full
leading rkva capacity from the condenser. This is accom-
plished by the differential field in the conventional main
exciter, and by reversing the pilot exciter voltage in the
case of the Rototrol piiot exciter.
In the operation of a synchronous condenser under ab~
normal conditions, a situation may occur where the con-
denser does not have sufficient corrective rkva capacity to
handle all, or the most severe, system requirements. At
such a time, the regulator in trying to hold the line voltage
overexcites the condenser, causing it to carry excessive
current and become overheated. To protect against this
condition, a current-limiting device is used to limit the
maximum excitation voltage to a level that does not cause
damage due to continuous overloading of the condenser.
When the BJ regulator is used to control the excitation
of a synchronous condenser, a timc—dc1ay current-limiting
device is used. The equipment is designed to recognize two
conditions; first, the case of a. slowly rising load current to
a predetermined limiting or unsafe value, and second, a
sudden increase in load current such as might be caused
by a system fault.
Protection against overcurrcnt is provided by a current-
operated device having its operating coil energized by the
Eine current and having its main contacts connected in
series with the main control contacts of the voltage regu-
lator. if the synchronous condenser load is gradually in-
creased, the current-limiting contact in series with the R
contact of the regulator opens the “raise” control circuit
and prevents any further increase in excitation. At the
same time, a second contact of the current—limiting device
energizes the “lower” control circuit of the regulator, caus-
ing the excitation and load current to be reduced to the
safe limiting value. This protection against a gradual in-
crease in load operates in the normal—rcsponse R»L circuits
of the voltage regulator.
in the case of a sudden increase in load current, an
instantaneous overcurrent relay set to pick-up at a higher
vaiue of current than the current~1imiting device closes its
contacts. One set of contacts initiates a timing cycle, and
the other set deenergizes an auxiliary relay. De-energizing
the auxiliary relay allows the contacts of the voltage»
regulating clement to remain in control for the time setting
of the timing relay, thus permitting the use of both norms}-
and quick-response excitation for stability purposes under
fault conditions.
Control of the excitation is automatically returned to the
voltage-regulator control element when the overload dis-
appears. Should the decreasing overload remain for a time
below the setting of the instantaneous overcurrcnt relay
but Within the setting of the current-limiting element, the
latter maintains control to prevent increase in excitation.
23. Impedance-Type Voltage Regulator
The excitation system shown in Fig. 36 employs a 1'nain~
exciter Rototrol to supply excitation to the 21x-(J generator.
With the high degree of amplification obtainable with a.
Rototrol, the energy requirements of the control field are
sufiiciently srnali that they can be supplied by instrument
transformers. The intelligence transmitted to the control
field of the Rototrol as a function of the generator terminal
voltage is determined by the voltage-regulator potential
unit, voltage adjusting unit, and automatic control unit.
These voltagewregulator devices consist entirely of imped-

EP
or-2»
votmss ‘C RG5 CONTROL Fl-D
arc. new _____ _Z 1
AUTO. M5 ® H _ , g ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,H “Am /" ‘ ”” " , “ "
°°"TR°L I zxcmza ‘*'° 1 --. 2
UNIT Rcg um'rs____ gomraog, GEN , ‘ ' ‘

MGR MGL an _ ,.,-',~.:‘ ___ N M O

MANUAL R55 S g;,U‘O Q O
CONTROL 59 -
UNIT 5;" . .. H H V...
“"‘ E“ E’ Jinn!
VOLTAGE
aoausrmc
—'MEL “'"‘"""
9""
‘ EXCHTATIDN VI _
V3 !
3 y
*
UMT
1 “C5 votmss
""""" V“ REGULATOR
_ _ Po‘rermA1.
ii if we UN1T G5

Fig. 36rBlock diagram of the impedance-type voltage regulator as used in a main-exciter Rototrol excitation system.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 225

ance elements and from this consideration the combination Potential Unit-—'I‘he voltage-regulator potential unit,
of devices in Fig. 36 is referred to as an impcdancatype shown schematically in Fig. 37, consists of a potential
or static-type voltage regulator. transformer, a filter reactor and a set of resistors. The
The voltage regulator potential unit is energized by the output voltage of the potential unit is directly proportional
generator line-to-line voltage and the currents of two to the positive-sequence component of the generator ter-
phases. Its output is a single-phase a.-c voltage, applied minal voltage, and therefore, the voltage regulator is not
to the series connection of the voltage adjusting unit and affected by generator voltage unbalance and regulates to
the automatic control unit. The automatic control unit is constant positive-sequence voltage. The circuit is a nega-
a voltage-sensitive device, the output of which is a d-c tive-sequence voltage-segregating filter so connected that
voltage. The polarity and magnitude of this d-c voltage the negat-ive~sequence voltage is subtracted from the line
are determined solely by the magnitude of the impressed voltage which, in the absence of a zero-sequence component,
a—c voltage. The output of the automatic control unit is yields positive-sequence voltage.
the control signal that energizes the control field of the The primary of the filter or mutual reactor is energized
maineexciter Rototrol. by the phase 1 and 3 current transformers. The flux
When the generator output voltage is exactly at the produced thereby induces a voltage in the secondary wind-
regulated value, the output voltage of the automatic con- ing which is added vectorially to the phase-3 drop in the
trol unit is zero. If the generator voltage increases above
the regulated value, the cl-c output voltage is in the rlirec~ £$l
tion to decrease the excitation voltage, working through
the Rototrol exciter. When the generator voltage falls 1|
below the selected value, the d—c output voltage of the
automatic control unit is in the direction to increase the
a.»c generator excitation.
When the voltage regulator is not in service, manual
control of the a-c generator excitation is by means of the 5|:
manual control unit. To guarantee synchronous machine
steady-state stability, that is, insure adequate excitation
for all kilowatt loads, a minimum excitation unit is used. I, ll
The minimum excitation unit used with the Rototrol ex-
citation systems is of a form that provides a variable
minimum limit depending on the kilowatt load.
la, 11,4-r, lx, 5::
la)
Cl ca: - cc 0 cs
T:
an p
I I1'§'I;
ll id E,“ l Eu
I‘ Ell .._£R;
l'_ Ex: A l— 5:3
En E12 g lgli
V2
En‘ 5|:‘l'5c
a _ _
VIZ (bl
(<1)
0
EL __=—*?_7
_ ""5.
I‘ En‘ E|:"’En:*Exg
51:: ‘ 5:3 4' 5:: El: V 5‘

El:
E18
an -Ens E3 LWUS”
1|
:1
5n'5i:'l‘ 56
(bl
(cl
Fig. 37——Impedance-type regulator potential unit.
Fig. 38-Vector diagrams showing how cross-current com-
(a) Schematic diagram. pensation in obtained with the potential unit of the imped-
(b) Vector diagram. ance-type renulator.
226 Excitation Systems Chapter 7
\ _______________ . .. .
resistor RC, the sum being proportional to the negative-
sequence voltage at the generator terminals. This negative-
sequence voltage is the component of the three-phase volt- l csencnoné é
age that represents the unbalance in voltage resulting from ‘ ll i~SULATiNG
load unbalance. It is subtracted vectorially from the gen- ramsrosmen
erator voitage to give the desired positivesequence voltage
across the terminals V11 and V12. Vu
The potential unit can also provide compensation for ACR
parallel operation of a~c generators when each machine is GI.
equipped with a voltage regulator. Reactive-droop corn- VI 2--------
pensation is obtained by adjustment of the resistance RC % snrusarms
in the potential unit in Fig. 3?. The vector relations of l REACTOR 1.
the generator line currents and terminal voltages are shown
in Fig. 38 (a). if the ohmic value of the resistor RC is 100
percent, the voltage equation of the circuit and the vector
diagram are those shown in Fig. 37. If the ohmic value of
RC’ is reduced to 50 percent, the vector diagram becomes
that shown in Fig. 38 (b). ER and E13 no longer are iden- (cl
tical, although for unity power factor their difference in
magnitude is of negligible proportion. The difference vec-
tor Ec can appropriately be called the reactive-droop
compensator voltage. Assuming a given lagging power
factor generator load, the vector diagram of Fig. SS (c)
shows how the generator terminal voltage Em must vary
for the automatic contro1—unit input voltage En to remain
constant. As the generator load increases, EC also increases
Eat _____________ --
and E12 must decrease, since ER remains constant in mag- m_

nitude. Thus the generator voltage is given a drooping E_v _ -__-_ _} L

characteristic with increase in lagging power factor load.
Voltage Adjusting Unit»-The voltage adjusting unit I

in Fig. 36 is a rheostat that enables the operator to set the

a~c generator regulated voltage at any value within a band
of plus or minus 10 percent of the rated generator voltage.
By means of the voltage adjusting unit, the resistance
between the generator terminals and terminals V11 and
V12 of the automatic control unit can be changed, causing
a directly proportional change in voltage drop in the cir-
cuit. The drop requires a change in a—c generator voltage
to produce the regulator balance-point voltage across the
terminals V11 and V12.
Automatic Control Unit*The automatic control
unit is the voltage-sensitive element of the impedancetype
voltage regulator. It measures the voltage to be regulated
and delivers energy to the main-exciter control field only
when necessary. The voltage-sensitive circuit in Fig. 39
consists essentially of two psxaliel-circuit. branches; one
containing a capacitor and the other a saturating reactor.
The voltage—current characteristic curves of the capacitor
and saturating reactor are shown in Fig. 39 (b). The curve
of the reactor indicates that its current increases more
rapidly than voitage, and the currents through the two
branches of the circuit are equal at only one value of volt-
age where the characteristics intersect. This point of inter-
section is called the balance point of the two impedances.
The operation of the voltage regulator depends upon the
fact that when the voltage increases above this point, the
current in the reactor is greater than the current in the
capacitor. When the voltage decreases below the balance
point, the capacitor current is the greater.
The output of the reactor circuit and the output of the
capacitor circuit are rectified by siI1glc—pha.So iull-wave
I
LTS
O
V
_. L __._
. . 1_. _. 1;] l lch :'4—-_. ._ ._ U‘
QMPERES
Fig. 39»Impedance-type regulator automatic control unit.
(a} Circuit diagram.
(b) Intersecting impedance characteristics of saturating reactor
and capacitor.
dry-type rectifiers, which are connected with additive re-
lation in series through a resistor and smoothing reactors.
The control field of the Rototrol is connected between a
mid-tap on the resistor and the opposite side of the rectifier
circuit. When the applied voltage is at the balance point
and the capacitor and reactor currents are equal in magni-
tude, the output currents of the rectifiers are equal and
circulate between the rectifiers. Under this condition there
is no potential difference between the terminals ACR-ACL
of the Rototrol control field and no current flowsin the field.
Should the a-c voltage become low, however, the rectified
current of the capacitor circuit is large compared with that
of the reactor circuit raising the potential of terminal ACR
above that of ACL and causing current to {low in the com
trol field in a direction to increase the excitation voitage and
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 227

raise the a,-c voltage. For an increase in a-c voltage, the z r 1: an Fl z no 1,-1, O
direction of current flow in the control field would be ___
reversed causing a reduction in excitation voltage. Thus
with normal a-c voltage applied to the automatic control x I RI
M N? S
unit, the c0ntrol~field current is nearly zero and any devi- ------av
ation in a.—c voltage causes s. corrective current to flow in E121
the control field. .. 1,. ——-

The current in the control field of the Rototrol is directly

fie 5|:
proportional to the horizontal dilierence between the ca-
pacitor and saturating reactor volt-—ampere characteristics CAPACFTOR _'_ _-
in Fig. 39 (lo). Examination of the curves shows that the X:
control-field current is approximately proportional to the — W2
Y
THREE" LEGGED
130‘
SATURATI N6
racy REACTOR
i
uol O-LEAD
no l
5 0 ' 5|: ' 5m
l
sol
_!,!Ii.I._ 51¢ uu rrv
3°:
/l\"~~__ PF
‘IO
II 1* E;_““ 10%
60 LAG
PF
60 O"'LA6
T
ROLUN
Fig. 4i-Scl1ematic diagram of the impedance-type minimum
40
com excitation unit and vector diagram showing how variable
30
minimum limit is obtained.
A-0vows
20 The schematic diagram and vector diagram of the min-
C
TOMAT imum-excitation unit is shown in Fig. 41. A saturaiale
IO All BI-
PUT-'
reactor with coils on the three legs of a. B-shaped core
*3OO -200 *iO0 O l0O 200 300
is used. The two outside legs are connected in parallei,
AUTOMAYIC CONTROL UNIT OUTPUT such that at any given instant, both windings produce an
MILLIAMPERES a—c flux in the same direction through the center leg of the
Fig. 40--Typical output curve of automatic control unit as core. The Winding on the center leg is the d-c control coil.
function of a-c voltage. The d~c current in this Winding controls the saturation of
the iron core, thereby controlling the inductance and react-
change in a.-c voltage for small changes. The control-field ance of the two outer a.-c windings. When the d-c control
current as a function of the a-c voltage applied to the current is low, saturation of the core is slight, and the
automatic control unit is shown in Fig. 40. Maximum cur- reactsmce of the a—c coils is high; and when the d~c current
rent in the direction to raise the Rototrol terminal voltage is high, the core has e, higher degree of saturation and the
occurs when the a-c voltage is approximately 85 percent reactance of the a.~c windings is low.
of the balance-point voltage. The small current output of The center-leg winding is energized by the main-exciter
the automatic control unit is sufficient to control the Roto- Rototrol output voltage as shown in Fig. 36. When the
trol output over the entire range of the Rototrol capability. a~c generator is operating at normal voitage and the ei<cita~
Minimum Excitation Unit—Like other units of the tion voltage is normal, the current in the reactor control
impedance-type voltage regulator, the minimum-excitation winding is relatively high, and consequently the reactancc
unit noriiially used is comprised of impedance elements. of the c,-c windings is low. A substantial amount of s.—c
The minimum-excitation unit establishes a minimum current is allowed to flow through the reactor windings
point or limit below which the excitation of the a—c gen- under this condition. The relatively high a-c current
erator cannot be lowered. The minimum point can be a through resistor R1 causes a large voltage drop such that
fixed limit or a variable limit. On machines that carry the a.-c voltage appearing across X-Y is relatively small.
considerable real or kilowatt load it usually is desirable to When the voitage is Iow across the series circuit composed
make the minimum limit vary approximately directly pr0— of the saturating reactor, capacitor and rectifier, current
portional to the kilowatt load, thereby maintaining a mar- in the series circuit is substantially zero. However, because
gin of excitation current above that at which the machine of the impedance characteristic of this series circuit, there
would pull out of synchronism. Since the main-exciter is a voltage at which the series-circuit current begins to
Rototrol is limited to use with 3600-rpm turbine gener- increase rapidiy with small increases in voltage.
ators, the minimum excitation unit is of the varic,ble~limit If for some reason system conditions shouid cause the
type. voltage regulator to introduce current into the control field
228 Excitation Systems
of the Rotot-rol to reduce the excitation voltage, the current
in the reactor control winding is also reduced. The re-
actance of the a-c windings increases, and the current
through resistor RI is reduced, causing less voltage drop
in the circuit and increasing the voltage across X-Y. If
the voltage across X—Y rises to the conducting point of the
series circuit, a~c current increases sharply in this circuit,
and this current rectified is supplied to the minimum ero-
citation control field of the Rototrol exciter. The minimum
excitation control field is the limits field in Fig. 36. The
direct current supplied to the minirnun“ excitation control
field is in the direction to raise the excitation voltage, and
the minimum excitation unit thus begins to regulate for a
preset minimum eXnit.2.l.i()n voltage to keep the circuit of
the unit balanced. When system conditions cause the auto-
matic control unit to increase the excitation above that
provided by the minimum excitation unit, the regulator
again takes control and holds the voltage for which it
is adjusted.
The variable minimum excitation limit is obtained by
the compensating circuit shown in the left-hand portion of
Fig. 41. The voltage E11 across terminais V1-V2 is held
constant by the automatic control unit under balanced
load conditions. A compensating voltage that is a function
of line currents 12-11 is added vcctorially to E12 such that
the a~c voltage applied to the saturating reactor is equal
to EC. The currents 1] and I2 in the vector diagram of
Fig. 41 are drawn for the unity power factor condition and
the resulting magnitude of E6 is represented by the vector
drawn with a. solid line. If the magnitudes of the line
currents are held constant and the power factor changed
to 70 percent lagging, the voltage EM; is shifted such that
the magnitude of Ec becomes that represented by the
dotted vector. Thus, the magnitude of the voltage EC is
dependent on the magnitude of the in-phase component
Of the line current, and hence varies with the kilowatt load
on the generator. The locus of the magnitude of Ec for a
particular magnitude of current at various power factors
is represented by the semi-circle as shown. Therefore, since
the voltage input to the saturating reactor is a function of
the kilowatt load, the voltage across X-Y applied to the
series circuit also varies with kilowatt load. The minimum
excitation limit becomes a variable quantity dependent
upon the kiloivatt load of the generator.
The individual and combined volt-ampere character-
istics of the saturating reactor, capacitor and resistance
(equivalent resistance of the reactor, rectifier and load)
are shown in Fig. 42 (a). As the voltage across X-Y is
increased, the combined characteristic shows that the cir-
cuit conducts practically no current until the voltage E1 is
reached. The current then undergoes a large increase to
the value I1. When the volt—ampcre characteristic of the
resistor RI is included, the combined characteristic is modi-
fied to that shown in Fig. 42 (bl. The sudden large increase
in current shown when voltage E1 is reached in Fig. 42 (a)
is eliminated, but the current increases rapidly and linearly
with increase in voltage in the range above E1. The prac-
tical operating range of the unit is determined by the
intersection oi the capacitive rcactance line X9 with the
saturating reactor line XS. Two ratings of minimum-ere
citation units are available; one giving an operating range
Chapter '7
T:
2, —
. /--,.,
a
i COMBINED
VOLTAGE
I
cunmzrrr ‘
lo)
CONBWED
*c
‘ RI
—~ 7 x‘
R
VOLTAGE OPERKHNG
RANGE
t
CURRENT
Fig. 42M-Volt-ampere characteristics of individual compo-
nents of minimum excitation uni r and combined volt-ampere
characteristic.
(a) Efiect of R1 omitted.
(1)) Effect of R1 included.
of (H300 milliamperes, and the other giving an operating
range of 0450 milliamperes. The unit having the larger
operating range is used with the main~-exciter Rototrol.
Manual Control Unit—The manual control unit used
with the maimcxciter Rototrol excitation system of Fig. 36
is a bridge—type circuit as shown in Fig. 43. Such a. circuit
is required to reverse the direction of current in the control
field as required to raise or lower the Rototroi voltage. In
addition, the unit is a d~c voltage regulator in itself, maln~
taining essentially constant main-exciter voltage and con-
stant a-c generator voltage for a given load.
The bridge circuit consists of two fixed resistors, a
potentiometer and two selenium rectifiers connected as
shown. The main exciter terminal voltage is applied across
two terminals of the bridge and the control field of the
Rototrol is connected across the other two terminals. The
exciter terminal voltage is adjusted by changing the posi-
tion of the potentiometer. The seienium rectifiers form the
controiling element of the bridge circuit since the voltage
drop in this Eeg of the bridge is practically independent of
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 229

E"-p—--------—-——Mm: EXCITER ————<iI~

E" '1 ’—--i’MIi§§F€i>€EEEs aorornot mt 0'
TE.RMlN|hl.. VOLTNGE no - some lMP£DANCE TYPE REGULATOR-it
we —---:N0rR£c'r ACTING Exam-LR RHEOSTATIC
TYPE “ea-:50“ REGULATOR __““
M 9
Q VVV___ __ 7 ,q ___ E‘ é-I % ace; ‘—SUDDENLY APPLIED tom APPROX 20% —-———‘
G mg parse consent AT log POWER moron , Z
ii |
|
w
POTENTLOMETER
_
R3 N.2 ,0;T 1
ll I I "
ll .
n‘

E
_\
_ ‘\
\\
\

$0-lf"O< 9' ...?.0 IV’,

l
R: ‘ 1 j‘,_r
'—."*-<1‘
will 6
(0
104%;Q1—
1,9 e l qiq

s2e' —
ML
so-I 11 — \ gl
l-—-Er
Fig. 43-Schematic diagram of the impedance-type regulator
crctas-—o l slo sic izo
l

manual control unit. 5ECQND5"0 "

the current through the rectifiers, and will remain sulo~
stantially constant. Thus the voltage E2 in Fig. 43 can be
considered constant.
For a given setting of the potentiometer, the bridge
circuit is balanced when the voltage E; is equal to E2 and
under this condition there is no current in the Rototrol
control field. If the main exeiter voltage should increase
for any reason, the current through the bridge increases,
which increases the voltage drop E1 so that MGR is positive
with respect to MCL. Current then flows in the control
field in a direction to reduce the exciter voltage until the
bridge circuit is again balanced. For a drop in exciter
Voltage, the control field current would he in the raise
direction. Thus, the a-c voltage may be adiusted for any
vaiue from zero to maximum, and the manual control unit
holds the excitation voltage constant.
24. Main-Exciter Rototrol Generator Excitation
System
The Rototrol with its two stages of amplification can be
built with large power output capabilities while the control
field energy requirements are sufiieientiy smail to be sup-
plied by instrument transformers. Also, since the Rototrol.
is a high-speed machine with air-gap dimensions the same
as any other form of d-c machine, it can be directmonnected
to the shaft of a turbine generator. The directmonnected
rnain-exciter Rototrol is a step toward simplification of
turbine generator construction, operation and maintenance
by completely eliminating the pilot exciter. The circuit of
the main-exciter Rototrol excitation system is that shown
in Fig. 36.
The effect on the maimexciter Rototrol of induced field
current caused by changes in generator load was discussed
in Sec. 10. Evidence of the importance of this eliect and
illustration of the comparative performance of the main-
exciter Rototrol excitation system is given in Fig. 44. The
solid line shows the time variation of the a—c generator
voltage under control of an impedance-typo regulator and
a main-exciter Rototrol, and the dashed-line curve shows
the variation under control of an indirect-acting; exciter-
rheostatic type of regulator and a conventional main ex-
citer with 0.5 response ratio. In each case. a three-phase
rcactance load was suddenly applied to the generator to
In-»-S
_ IN .5?-—§j—~ wg--——— u.a.1n_ _ ~1—0 o-'15’-— -h Mi-
or
Fig. 44-Voltage-recovery performance of main-exciter Roto-
trol excitation system compared with performance of con-
ventional main-excite: system under control of BJ regulator.
Approximately 20 percent of generator rated amperes at 0
percent lagging power factor added at zero time.
cause approximately 20 percent of rated generator amperes
to flow in the circuit. The rapid recovery of the voltage
under control of the impedance—type regulator and main-
exeiter Rototrol is an important factor in maintaining
system stability, particularly during the period of over~
siioot when the generator voltage is greater than 100
percent.
The main~exciter Rototrol excitation system has the
advantage of a voltage regulator without moving parts,
without cont-actors, and requiring no large motor-operated
main-exciter field riicustat. The overall performance of the
system shows marked improvement in voitage dip and
recovery time when compared with a conventional main-
exciter excitation system. The system also eliminates the
use of any pilot exciter.
25. Rototroi Pilot Exciter with Sir1gle»Fie1d Main
Exciter
The simplest form of an excitation system using a Roto-
trol pilot exciter is shown in Fig. 45. When the speed of
rotation of the main a~c generator is 1200, 1800 or 3600
rpm, the main exciter and Rot-otrol pilot cxcitcr can be
direct-connected to the generator shalt. A second p0ssi-
bility is to have the main exciter mounted on the shaft of
the a-c generator and the Rototrol separately-driven by a.
small motor, the m-g set having sufiicient inertia to carry
through system disturbances without appreciable speed
change. This arrangement might be used Where the gen-
erator speed is iess than 1200 rpm. A third arrangement is
to have the main exciter and the Rototrol pilot exciter
driven by a motor and operating at 1200 or 1800 rpm.
The latter arrangement is applicable with a generator of
any speed.
In the conventional excitation system, the pilot exeiter
is a constant-voltage generator. The Rototrol pilot excite:
is a variable voltage pilot exciter and the method of operat-
ing the excitation system of Fig. 45 is essentiaily no differ-
ent than the operation of conventionai exciter-rheostatic
230 Excitation Systems Chapter 7

systems, except that no regulator-controiled, motor-open $ELF~ E N ERG.

ated exciter-field rheostat is ‘used. Variable voltage is sup-
plied to the main-exciter fieid by the Rototroi pilot exciter, CONTROL GEN
which is connected directly to the field and is under the
FIELD
‘\ F‘
no.2 5/ /’ rte“‘
C -r
T

control of the voltage reguiator automatic control unit or .=‘?E’<l+ 8*“ ‘-3
the manual control unit. no lllfi
The voltage regulator potential unit, voltage adjusting
unit, automatic control unit. and the manual control unit _- i>.r.— '
‘ new I
are those described in Sec. 23. RHEQSTAT
The llototrol pilot exciter used in this excitation system vomcr
can provide either one or two stages of amplification, ‘Ti’
LOW-£NERGY \]Q[__“'[A(;E
REGULATOR
depending on the energy requirements of the main-cxciter 0-0 sounoz /.\[),3_ P°L%":.,l"“'
shunt field. The Rototrol can easily be constructed to uwr
VOLTAGE
provide rates of response and ceiling voitage equai to or RKGULATOR "l ‘vice. com:
in excess of those obtained with conventional dwc machines. AUTOMATIC u / sw.
CONTROL UNIT ' 7’

SELF~£NERG. Fig. 46* Excitation system with Rototrol buck-boost pilot

RQTQTRQL SERIES FLO. MM" EXG excite: and three-field main exciter.
CONTROL suum FLO.
HELD GEN. OI
votmss F‘-'1 --- citation in the main exciter, and the excitation provided
REG mow by field 2 adds to or subtracts from this base excitation
AUTO
CONTROL E 5 .. to vary the output voltage. Thus the Rototrol must be
um? capable of bucking or boosting the main exciter base eX-
are
03$;
MANUAL
_\
e REG.
“SQ? 1'
-
'iT'W“

R
13$ ii!
VOLTAGE
U AT
citation to give the necessary range of main exciter voltage.
The Rototrol—excited field of the main exoitcr also acts as
a stabilizing field under regulator control.
All of the voltage regulator component parts in Fig. 46
°°.'.“.I'%°‘- "°r.umr
;*:,~f=E \ Pg('lEi|ilTI2€ are those described in Sec. 23. The manual control unit is
not required, since manual control is obtained by operating
Q15 1111111..4i.~.._.-. the main cxoiter as a self-excited exciter with a stabilizing
. W .. .. .:i.....zllllll.. field, and voltage control is by means of the shunt-field
Fig. 45--Excitation system with Rototrol pilot-excite: and rheost-at.
single-field main excite: controlled by impedance-type Since the main excite!‘ base excitation is supplied by the
regulator. self-excited field, complete excitation is not lost or is the
continuity of the load disturbed upon the occurrence of
The excitation system shown in Fig. 45, therefore, provides any trouble in the Rototrol buck-boost pilot exoiter cir-
performance characteristics at least equal to those obtained cuits or in any part of the impedancetype voltage regu-
with conventional excitation systems. lator elements. Even in the event of a short circuit or open
The Rototrol pilot exciter in Fig. 45 supplies all the circuit in the pilot excit-or output circuit, the preset base
excitation requirements of the main exciter. In this respect excitation remains rheostat controlled and undisturbed.
this system is identicai with cxcitorerheostatic systems If a circuit failure occurs when the awc generator is carrying
using pilot exciters. The essential advantage is the elim- a load other than that used to determine the rheostat
ination of the comparatively complicated exciter-rheostatic
regulator with its moving parts and elimination of the MAW EXGWER
motor-operated main-exciter field rheostat. As is the case sumo Fi£LD$ CT Tgifggi:
with the exciter-rheostatic excitation system, loss of the
pilot exciter through a short circuit or open circuit causes 2 3 IIII
loss of excitation on the a-c generator. E®lIll§3I_IIll
|| ma
26. Rototrol Buck-Boost Pilot Exciter \
cu"!jif- .779
I ___ Fl£l_D W _"'L_-"~ -"..=:
“ RHEOSTAT yQ|_1'AGE
The buck-boost Rototrol excitation system using a two-
or three»field main exciter, as shown in Fig. 46, offers a.
vow-oz Rssotmon
T0 o-c. Aw. POTENTIAL
number of advantages over the single-field main exciter ouac: VOLTAGE um”: UNIT
system described in Sec. 25. In the system of Fig. 46, the ROT. ROT.
¢é>L,g_ §§3E,§,,’§,‘f§T
fig
;s.c.sw.
Rototrol pilot exciter operates in a different manner from v con L um
that in Fig. 45.
The operation of tho threefield main excite!‘ was de-
scribed in Sec. 6. The Rototrol buck-boost pilot exciter
supplies the proper voltage to field 2 of the main exciter
A-C *
. * *
..- moron

Fig. 47-—Excitation system for hydroelectric generator with

to control the output voltage. Briefly, the excitation pro- motor-driven Rototroi buck-boost pilot exclter and three-
vided by field 1 is set by the operator to give a base ex- field main exciter.
Chapter 7 Excitation Systems 231

setting, the a»c generator continues to carry its kilowatt
load, but at a different power factor.
27. Rototrol Excitation for Hydroelectric Gener-
ators
It is impractical to direct—c0nnect the Rototrol to the
shaft of 2. waterwheei generator, because of the multiplicity
of speeds and sizes involved. The Rototrol pilot exciter,
therefore, must be driven by a smelt motor, introducing
the problem of e, reliable power supply for the driving
motor. The three-field main exeiter and Rototrol buck-
boost pilot exciter excitation system of Fig. 46 is readily
adaptable to use with slow-speed generators and is shown
in Fig. 47.
During start-up of the generator when no outside source
of supply is available for driving the Rototrol motor-
generator set, the main exciter is operated as a self-excited.
machine and provides excitation for the main generator.
As soon as a~c voltage is svaiiable, the Rototrol can he
started and the voltage regulator placed in service, or
operation can be continued under hand control with the
operator controlling excitation with the selfwzxcited shunt
field rheostat.
Under short-circuit conditions on the s-c system, the
TO OAMPING
~ TRANSFORMER v W” J Wei.
Pi 5593
i
R5
- i
A ¢
cs
Q_\ “P;-, x x l
o‘
+'
excitation system must be capable of supplying full ex-
citation to the generator field. With the system shown in
Fig. 47, this is accomplished by building suflicient inertia
into the Rototrol m-g set to carry it through such disturb-
ences with very little change in speed even under severe
forcing conditions.
28. Rototrol Excitation for Synchronous
Condensers
The Rototroi excitation system for synchronous con-
densers is similar to that shown in Fig. 47 for waterwheel
generators. I--Iowever, in the usual case, the rosin cxciter
for the condenser is also motor-driven so that the motor
supply circuit has to he modified to supply sufficient power
for the motorwgenerator set. Electrically, the circuit is the
some as Fig. 47, but the main and pilot exciters are
normally on the same shaft and driven by a large motor.
Where some form of current limit is desired as discussed
in Sec. 22, at static current-limit device can be used with
the Rototrol excitation system. The circuit of the current-
limit unit is similar to that of the minimum excitation unit
shown in Fig. 41. The rectified e-c load current of the
condenser is used to energize the center or control winding
of the three-legged reactor, and to control the magnitude
u-
We ;_ O~24
svsef l
VARIABLE
u 2| NEGATIVE
h
G!
BIAS
O
‘ Ir -1-25
+
R8 i ‘ "'
nsrsnencz ;
l

- votnss *-
. 6 1 - +

R6
.

4)
W c...._..
VRIO5

ca
1.
\
‘ R5 ¥VOLTl6E ADJ. RHEO. 1-"*G4 A |_1‘----------j ca I L3

1~-=
L-
we-4»-WWJ Lwmm
r -L-——-—i
C5

YSGT
L2
+
l 01

SYSGT
U
+

%%~ 4
..._.......\
r...,...........

" x x Y Y
l
a-c eenssnos l , l 1 i l U I i
VOLTS FROM
POTENTML TRANSF. ‘r: Z Z T2 Z i
Fig. 48%Schematic diaéram of the electronic generator voltage rcgula tor. The variable output appearing across terminals
24 and 25 can be used to control the firing point of an electronic main excite: or can be adapted to control a Rototrol
excitation system.
232 Excitation Systems
of the voltage applied to the series reactor~capacitor-
rectifier circuit. At a certain magnitude of a~c current,
the series circuit begins conducting a rapidly increasing
current, which is applied to the limits field of the Rototrol.
The current in the limits field is in the direction to lower
the excitation voltage. Should the control field be con-
ducting current in the raise direction, the combined effect
of the two fields is such that the excitation voltage is held
constant at the limiting value. Time delay can be provided
in the limiting circuit to enable full forcing of the condenser
excitation during transient overloads.
29. Electronic-Type Voltage Regulator
Electronic-type voltage regulators are available in many
different forms, a. typical one being shown in Fig. 48. This
particular regulator is used with the electronic main exciter
in Fig. 23, but it can be modified for use with Rototrol
excitation systems.
A d~c voltage proportional to the average three-phase
a—c generator voltage is obtained from a three~phase bridge-
type rectifier, the output of which is applied to a volt-ago-
adjusting rheostat and a modified Wcin bridge-type filter.
The bridge, comprising resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4, capac-
itors C1 and C2 and potentiometers P2 and P3, filters the
360-cycle ripple voltage in the d-c output of the rectifier.
Thus, the output of the bridge circuit, which is the input
to the regulator, is a smooth d-c voltage. The bridge-type
filter provides a high degree of filtering without adding
unduly long time constants to the regulator input circuit.
The generator voltage regulator consists of two d-c
amplifiers and a reference voltage. Regulation is obtained
by comparing the rectified generator terminal voltage with
the reference voltage. The first d-c amplifier is a high-gain
voltage amplifier using a 5693 tube, which is an industrial~
type tube with characteristics the same as a type 6SJ7
tube. The output of the voltage amplifier is fed into a
power amplifier using a (SVGGT tube. The high-gain volt-
age stage gives the regulator its high degree of sensitivity
and the power amplifier supplies the variable negative bias
voltage for controlling the thyratron firing tubes in Fig. 23.
A full-Wave rectifier {5Y3GT tube) is used to supply the
plate voltage of the 5693 tube. The rectified output of
transformer T1 is fed into a two-section condenser input
filter giving a smooth d-c voltage with polarities as indi-
cated. The d-c reference voltage is obtained from the
voltage drop across a type VR-105 voltage regulator tube
connected in series with resistor R6 across the d-c power
supply. The reference voltage is also a smooth d-c voltage
that remains constant for Wide variations of supply voltage.
The rectified generator voltage is connected differentially
with the reference voltage and applied to the grid circuit
of the 5693 tube. This circuit can be traced from the grid
of the tube through the grid resistor R5 to the negative side
of the rectified generator voltage ; from the positive side of
the rectified generator voltage to the positive side of the
reference voltage; and from the negative side of the refer-
ence voltage to the cathode of the 5693 tube. The amplified
voltage from the 5693 tube appears across the load resistor
R7 with polarities as shown and this voltage drop is applied
Chapter 7
to the grid of the 6V6GT tube. The grid circuit of the
GVBGT tube can be traced from the grid through resistor
R?’ to the cathode. The variable negative d-c voltage out-
put of the regulator is obtained across the load resistor R9
of the 6V6G'I‘ tube and applied to the grid circuits of the
thyratron firing tubes in Fig. 23.
Under balanced conditions when the a-c generator volt-
age is equal to the regulated value, the grid of the 5693
tube is established at a particular bias voltage depending
on the magnitudes of the reference voltage and the rectified
a-c voltage. This grid bias establishes the current in the
5693 tube and the drop across 12?, which in turn establishes
the grid bias of the SVBGT tube. Current in the 6V6G'l'
tube is thus fixed, as is the drop across load resistor R9.
The voltage output is constant as long as the a—c generator
voltage is equal to the regulated value.
Should tlie a-c generator voltage increase above the
normal value, the differential connection of the rectified
generator voltage and the reference voltage makes the grid
bias of the 5693 tube more negative than previously, which
reduces the current in the tube and in resistor R7. The
lower voltage drop across R?’ reduces the negative bias
voltage on the grid of the GVBGT tube and causes an
increase in current through the tube and load resistor R9.
Thus, the negative voltage output across terminals 24 and
25 is increased. Reference to Fig. 24 shows that the in-
crease in negativebias voltage on the thyratron firing
tubes causes an increase in the angle of grid delay, which
reduces the main-cxciter voltage. In a similar manner, low
a~c voltage causes the grid bias of the 5693 tube to be less
negative than previously, which causes a reduction in the
voltage across terminals 24 and 25 ancl a. consequent
reduction in the thyratron firing tube angle of grid
delay.
REFERENCES
1. Quick-Response Excitation, by W. A. Lewis, The Electric
Journal, Vol. 31, August 1934, pp. 308~312.
2. Determining the Ratio of Exciter Response, by A. van Nielcerk,
The Electric Journal, Vol. 31, September 1934, pp. 361-364.
3. The Exciter-Rlieostatic Regulator, by A. G. Gower, J12, The
Electric Journal, Vol. 32, February 1935, pp. 73-75.
4. The Generator Rheostatic Regulator, by A. G. Gower, Jr.‘ The
Electric Journal, Vol. 32, April 1935, pp. I43-144.
5. Recent Developments in Generator Voltage Regulators, by C.
R. Hanna, K. A. Oplinger and C. Fl. Valentine, A.I.E.E. Trans-
actions, Vol. 58, 1939, pp. 838-844.
6. Static Voltage Regulator for Rototrol Exciter, by E. L. Harder
aud C. E. Valentine, A.I.E.E. Tmnsactiorts, Vol. 64, I945, pp.
601-606.
7. The Multistage Rototrol, by M. M. Liwschitz, A.I Trans-
actions, Vol. 66, 1947, pp. 564r—5fi8.
8. Twwstagc R/01/0Ll‘0i for Low—Energy Regulating Systems, by
A. W. Kimball, /l.I.E'.E. Transactions, Vol. 66, I947, pp. 15073-
151 1.
9. Rototrol Excitation Systems, by J. E. Barkle and C. E. Valen-
tine, AI Tmnsaclious, Vol. 6?, 1948, pp. 529~534.
10. Main Exciter Rototrol Excitation for Turbine Generators, by
C. Lynn and C. E. Valentine, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 67,
1948, pp. 535-539.
 CHAPTER 8

APPLICATION OF CAPACITORS TO POWER SYSTEMS

Author:
A. A. Johnson

The shunt capacitor afiects all electrical equipment and

I. SHUNT CAPACITOR FUNDAMENTALS
circuits on the source side of where they are installed. If
f I ‘HE function of a shunt capacitor applied as a single the capacitor kvar is small, say ten percent of the circuit
unit or in groups of units is to supplylagging kilovars rating, it is usually suflicient to make an analysis on the
to the system at the point where they are connected. circuit involved for the application. However, where the
A shunt capacitor has the same effect as an overexcited capacitor kvar is large, its effect on each part of the system
synchronous condenser, generator or motor. It supplies back to and including the source should be considered.
the kind of kilovars or current to counteract the 0utrof- In determining the amount of shunt capacitor kvar re-
phasc component of current required by an induction quired, it must be recognized that a voltage rise increases
motor as illustrated in Fig. 1. the lagging kvar in the exciting currents of transformer
and motors. Thus, to get the desired correction some addi-
E“ z=R+;x IL E" M3" tional capacitor kvar may be required above that based on
initial conditions without capacitors. If the load includes
vw ’o66¥ ~-*-O synchronous motors, it may be desirable, if possible, to
FEEDERS SAJT increase the field currents to these motors.
can Icl I suuur CAPACITOR Shunt capacitors are applied in groups ranging from one
capacitor unit of 15 kvar to large banks of these standard
units totaiing as much as 20 000 kvar. Many small banks
of 45 kvar to 360 kva are installed on distribution circuits.
Ir Eu Banks of 520 kvar to about 3000 kvar are common on
distribution substations of moderate size. Larger hanks of
7:: 5000, 10 000 and 15 000 kvar are in service in a number of
larger substations. Usual voltage ratings of capacitor
In banks start at 2400 volts and range upward for groups of
capacitors connected in series for 46 kv. Consideration is
Fig. l—-Shunt Capacitors supplying kvar required by an in- being given to voltages up to and including 138 kv. This
duction motor.
is feasible provided the bank is sufficiently large in kvar.
Shunt capacitors applied on the load end of a circuit
supplying a load of lagging power factor have several 1. History
ellects, one or more of which may be the reason for the
application: Shunt capacitors were first applied for power-factor
correction about 1914. Their use, however, was limited
1. Reduces lagging component of circuit current.
2. Increases voltage lovci at the load. during the next twenty years because of high cost per
3. Improves voltage regulation if the capacitor units are kvar, large size and weight. Prior to 1932 all capacitors
properly switched. employed oil as the dielectric. At about this time the in-
4. Reduces IZR power loss in the system because of reduction troduction of chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbon im-
in current. pregnating compounds (askarels) and other advances in
5. Reduces I“X kilovar loss in the system because of reduction the capacitor construction brought about sharp reductions
in current. in size and weight. As shown by Fig. 2 the present weight
6. Increases power factor of tho source generators. per kvar is less than 5 pounds compared with over 20
7. Decreases kva loading on the source generators and cir~ pounds in 1925.
cults to relieve an overloaded condition or release capacity Before 1937 practically all capacitors were installed in-
for additional load growth.
8. By reducing kva load on the source generators additional doors in industrial plants. Extensive utility use started
kilowatt loading may be pieced on the generators if tur~ after the appearance of outdoor units, which eliminated
binc capacity is availabie. steel housings and other accessories. By 1939 capacitor
9. To reduce demand kva where power is purchased, C0;-rec- costs had been reduced almost proportionately with weight
‘don to 100 percent power factor may be economical in and they had been proved in service. Starting in 1939 and
some cases. continuing to the present, capacitor use has increased
10. Reduces investment in system facilities per kilowatt of phenomenally year by year, as shown in Fig. 2. The
load supplied. acceptance of capacitors has been due to the following:
233
234 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 3

131—~ ~ 1 ~fi 7. Due to the large volume oi production during the war and
l l
|2l;»~—li;——-é. ‘_-
since, the economics of using capacitors is favorable.

47_%. i I 4
2. Capacitor Failure Rates
“ l . Z will.
. ' e iV ((((((s—we%l ._ _. _§_.__;
cm?! N
l ‘
,qm_+_WFnn suuuWu+mWMmTm_.mm= ‘ sc masn 1 To evaluate the operation and economics of shunt
capacitors, it is helpful to predict the number of unit
. 1 ‘ 1
-~--~--1-_~"- ¥ 4-? &-_---, _-M-_<‘
faiiures that may occur. Not only do unit failures mean
the ioss of the units but also, under certain conditions 2.
‘P_ unit Failure may damage other good units. Prediction of
ei-k*e--~m»»--»~— -~»~.~~W-»-~ P--1 failures can be based on past experience, such as given in
NUSE
AR
AND
LUME
KV ~4‘W E, . .............l M 1 l Curve A, Fig. 4. This curve gives cumulative unit failures
V0 per 3000 units in service regardless of how or where they
__
GTOR
0'} !........_.%___,
RELATIVE
._........ _uul“_...l
‘ ‘
... ‘
are installed or how they are protected. Curve i3 repre-
HTOR sents unit failures of small groups of capacitors distributed
SIZE ‘ over a system without iightning protection and subject to
__ ca ~___ “n. ........._._..- ._._..._

G
WE FCA?A
... ___ f
. i l4 ‘ i i
AT
VE / R l
Q1
-P
"
ONS
L.
O l ' . l l 35 12 l “M
REL
' N _.......L...W_l.___._h__...__r..l.-.-»--
ML. l ll“/“R
‘ \ i umr uurs 5 .
"\-

,_m_mmL_umW¢s-hnn -._.
onr l‘ O
i .l J
O ....... .. ,-E»-—' ’_;_ . l _ *1i’/W
R000 1 c%'T 1
l 9lO I918 I926 I934 E942 I950 P
,1 Y %/T/- l cl E.
YEAR
Fig. 2——Evaluation of the size and use of Shunt Capacitors. CUMULATED I_l_ \4’ 'i is ' l
l/' l ‘ l
/ ‘ ‘ l
lb
NL
U
\
E. Reduction in selling price. FA
E
LURES I / p \ }
2. improved design and manufacturing methods resulting in
small size and weight. OO N U1 -5 ‘-,|_ 5;». __‘_ Q w_ 6_
3. Development of outdoor, pole-type units and standardized
mounting brackets. YEARS IN SERVICE
4. Reduction in failures. Fig. 4—~FaiIure rate of shunt capacitors.
5. Better understanding of system benefits that accrue from
their use.
6. By force of circumstances, during the war emergency of A—Average of all types of installations.
1939 to 1945, manufacturing faciiities for capacitors were B——A\/"erage of unprotected, exposed installations.
more available than other means of supplying kilovars. C-“Average of wail protector} larger installations.
Also less critical Ineteriai was required for capacitors than
for other kvar generators.
other hazards. In view of the benefits 2. performance as
given by Curve B has been oonsiclered economical and
satisfactory. Curve C represents performance of large
banks of capacitors where careful attention has been given
to operating conditions and protective devices. For such
performance each unit should be inspected and tested at
the instaliation to weed out units damaged in transporta~
tion. Individual capacitor fuses are also essential
for best performance as discussed later under Capacitor
fusing.

3. Fundamental Effects
To illustrate the effects of shunt capacitors, assume that
s. 100-kva circuit or piece of apparatus has to carry 100 kve.
at various power factors. By adding shunt capacitors at
the load, the kva from the source is reduced materially.
Fig. 3--~Cut-away view of 25 kvar 2400 volt outdoor capacitor The lower the load power factor, the more effective the
unit. capacitors are. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 5.
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 235
CAPACITOR KVAR gcsts. (If the load should be 10000 kva at 70 percent
(iII:I@!1lI power factor, then adding 4000 kvar of capacitors permits
cmcuw Lonoeo AT l I I-0" the kw to be increased from 7000 to S700 without increas~
ALL was To mm-:0 mm T KY“ ing the circuit loading above 10 000 kva. The load kva can
thus be increased to £2 400 kva at 70 percent power factor.)
(A) Shunt capacitors can be viewed in two lights. Adding
3 INCREAS€ IN LOAD KVA capacitors releases circuit capacity for more load, and
adding capacitors relieves overloaded circuits.
The capacitor kvar per kva of load increase, Fig. 5(E), is
1
OCH‘ SUPPLY
"
”s U5 HUNT CAP. K\/Afl
of particular interest, because multiplying this quantity by
the cost per capacitor kvar, the product is the average cost
,vo"° TOTAL
/ _____*_ xvii! of supplying each additional kva of load. This cost, neglect-
9$AN6;_E | KVfi.Fl Fsou ing other advantages of the capacitor, can be compared
Q tsfilfi" with the cost per kvs. of increasing the transformer or
I-<—|NI?|AL K supply circuit rating. Thus if the load power factor is 70
KW AFTER percent and a capacitor kvar of 40 percent is added, the
*1@F?_!'SE °**“$< . capacitor kvar per increase in kva of the load is 1.65. If
l ll I iigl capacitor cost is $7.00 per kvar, then the increase in
ability to supply load is obtained at a cost of 1.65 times
$7.00 or $11.55 per kva. The incremental cost of adding
transformer capacity may be much greater per kva of
OAO_i{. F. V
O l i increased capacity.
uo-~--r ~ V l —--;-»~ isms)»,
l The same data apply equally well to any equipment
l other than transformers in which current might constitute
{OD L——~ 1 * ~ l a limiting factor such as generators, cables, regulators, as
,,|oo, s - -~ 1: —————~ well as transmission and distribution lines.
90 N- In the example taken (Fig. 5) as the load through the
transformer approaches unity power factor, smaller and
"'_ 5 5 >r*vV V V V V VW' IWm
ID '5lso!"30E-(J. '1. .__
"'T-1‘ F’ AD P. F.
‘J0
_ smaller incremental gains in load are obtained for in-
cncur
~~—v0,:_ l.
'l‘loll
‘w0,,.
7.
LOADxvn KVA= AGToR_ ii
\-¢- - HF cremental incresscs in capacitor kvar. The incremental
s 10:”
/K
88
~ 8.\i
O’!
li
L
»M4M-—
@- 4 M_4%o_ d
é_.o capacitor kvar required for an increment in kva of the load
is Fig. 5(}*'). Expressed mathematically, the ordinate in this
—l—l—l¢—'\¢~\-Mum-nwau
O
Ii Wo....w.__,_.i_.. .
mm THE POWUT
_ ‘$907. LOAD F>.F.§ l ~ CIRCUIT
(at _ mm T" W‘ l ______
- , l so ‘ l
2 1 m_mg WW JO CAPACITOR 1, LOAD

L
cncPPv ,Hs*;r.n.....r;;.....l_.____._ n n n...m.,.s<2........,£H. Q
cmKvm Nucesasa SU
P£R 0 _____ _ ____ "___ 1 i .
E O0 —

- 5 ‘ 90 5 l ‘ l
-_ p%Zl__o.3,6W,A__i,__,,T7, l
___“ l 90% er. or LOAD
AD oz
ASE LOKVA 2
N
E l i __ ' E
(CAP.KVAR ' _ | v CT
$1
....
1.--I on LOAD as
E l 1 B0 j
d
~
NCR
l r '——7' —~ r Wré (F) Q
0: oop 3 , """"""""""""""
0 20 40 50 80 K30 1 70 ‘
CAP. KVAR IN 9L OF’ GRCUIT KVA
on VALOFPERCUENT onsGAPA
NG
ADD . . 1---
Fig. 5»-~Fundm-nental effects of shunt capacitors on power Fa
xix -FO

circuits.
ORE
Increasing the capacitors lessens the current carried by LOSSNBEF ra O ,,,, 3 ,
the supply circuit from the source (Fig. 5(D) ), up to the
ultimate point at which capacitors supply all of the kilo-
vars required by the load and the circuit supplies only the
kilowatt component. For a constant load in the circuit, O - sssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss W —
O 20 40 60 BO IOO
adding various amounts of capacitors allows the useful
load to be increased. By adding 40 kve of capacitors to a CAPACYFOR KVA IN PERCENT OF 0lRCUiT KVA
100-kva load of 70 percent power factor, tho load can be Fig. 6~Reduction in losses in the source circuit to shunt
increased from 100 kva to about l24= kva, as Fig. 5(C) sug- capacitors.
236 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8

A 15 O00-kva, 70 percent power factor load is supplied over

curve is equal to £T(Tn5f_é;(;:I;li;Z:g)~k%é5. These curves 15 miles of 33-kv circuit. Without shunt capacitors the
chow that the final increment is attained at much greater generators must supply 19 900 kvs. at a power factor of 62
expense than the initial increment. percent, Whereas with the use of 6000 kvar of capacitors the
Capacitors applied to a, given load reduce the FR and generator power factor is raised to 82 percent. The 6000
PX loss in the supply circuit in accordance with Fig. 6. capacitor kvar reduces the loading on the generator by
For a '70 percent power factor load with 40 kvar of capaci- 5850 kva, which is almost equal to the capacitor kvar. The
tors added for each 100 kva of circuit capacity, the PR and 1% loss in the circuit is reduced by about 800 kw (1900-
PX loss will be 59 percent of its former vaiue. This loss in 1100) and the PX losses are reduced by about 1600 kvar
the particular circuit supplying the load can be calculated (4000-2=lOO). Curves are also shown for half load or 7500
directly and may be a big factor, particularly if the circuit kva at 70 percent power factor.
impedance is high. The resistance and reactance losses are In the case cited, it is desirable to switch part or all of the
also reduced in all circuits and transformers back to and capacitors off during; lig;ht.-loa(1 periods. The voltage and
including the source generators. power factor at the generating end determine Whether
To illustrate the effect of shunt capacitors applied to a. switching in steps should be applied. As Fig. 7 indicates
large load, the curves in Fig. 7 awe shown Where it is as- the voltage at the generator would have to very from 13.8
sumed that the load bus voltage is maintained constant at kv at full load with 6000 kvsr of capacitors to 12.1 kv at
4160 volts and the generator voltage varies with load. half Eoad with 6000 kvar of capacitors, assuming a constant
voltage of 4160 at the load. By providing 3 steps of
4150 V capacitors and removing 4000 kvar from the system at 1/z
load, the remaining 2000 kvar gives a voltage of 12.9 kv at
fitafiv _¢1M1ce—§s Ky L°*° the generator; removing all capacitors from service, 9,
4/0 Assn
generator voltage of 13.4 kv is required for 4160 volts at the
15,000 xvn 15,000 mm 5"'~'"T
5% 5% T CAP- load.
sau. KVA LOAD aw LOAD as one i<v,m 4. Voltage Drop
|s,9oo I5,000 70 1; 0
9,500 1,500 ro 1: o The voltage drop in feeders or short lines can be ex-
T ' ' ' ' ' *' ' ' ’' ' ' ' *""""7"'7"" "2 pressed approximately by the relation
0 GEN. VOLTAGE
Voltage drop = RI,+XI, (1)
* li l‘i %i
where R is the resistance, X the reactance, I, the power
~ soool7'“*~—_‘or I0 - component of -the current, and I, the reactive component
. tV"
-v|¥LTA
‘ W L Q2 ---£527‘,
GENVOLTAGE-KV s 5:
GI
5
5:3 L 7°00 _ i____ _ _ ___ ____ __ __ R X LOAD-LO PER UNIT
'-"""""'""FUl.L LOAD SOURCE I
_""'“_ZHALF LOAD __
0.8
l s1-sum cnmanroa

9
:- O
0
l*4*|

GEN.
KVA
I ,_,.,. "'”f1‘éi u"~— 1. l i
(cl
Ian:
=‘

GEN.P.F. " x / P.5-

0.64 SN on ooo lr £’5"'5fl . —1 W I I 1‘
, ma

_~ Inn.“ snvmss m a z .-v y W Ric XI B

w’ ‘I i § § * W "" ""-
7 GEN. KVA 0 4'" " “ xi,
§{
no Q ooo‘ ~~ ~ ;__# W —— R1; XI;
l . , W _.; __ _ _ _, xx
S
SAV
A819
N6 \ I
on O00 r * * kY
\,_ . _.__;._ 71/
O-\'- VOLTAGE AT LON) -fig

WJ,
OB" VC'LT>\GE AT SENDWG END WITHOUT C~APfl6lTOR~'- E;
LOSSE 0 hm» 1 OC- VOLTAGE AT SENDING END WIYH CAPAClTOR—Eg
7 I ‘ L05 ta lb}
52000 ‘ \ 1 I / 1‘‘ \
FX
[ _ Fig. 8—Effect of shunt capacitors on voltage drop in source
I 1 -D l i
circuit.
‘:4 ” ' / 0*” W I l
i KW as shown in Fig. 8. If a. capacitor is placed in shunt across
moolq 1; 1 _ Loss \
l “T 3 W ’% l the end of the line, the drop immediately decreases or the
'- ___ ;'*}§—~<.1Pi-Q §
__ ‘___ ___ ... voltege rises. The new voltage drop becomes approxi-
mately:
Q ‘, , , itif jg 1.
0 2 4 s a no Voltage drop» RI,+XI,—XI,, (2)
SHUNT CAPACITOR KVAR X 1009
where L, is the current drawn by the capacitor. Thus if L,
Fig. 7-~Eflect of various amounts of shunt capacitors at full be made sufficiently large, both the RI, and the XI, drops
and half load on a practical system problem. can be neutralized. This expression also shows that if the
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 237
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PERCENT DFRCUIT REACTANCE X PERCENT CIRCUIT REAGTANCE X PERCENT CiRCU|T REACTANCE X

Fig. 9-Shunt Capacitors required for various power factor loads to give 0, 5 or 10 percent voltage drop in the source cir-
cuit. All percent values are referred to full load kva as 100 percent base.

Voltage drop is compensated at full load with permanently illustrate their use, assume a. 20~miIe, 33-kv line of 2/O cop-
connected capacitors, than at light loads I,. and I, become per conductors which steps down through a, 10 00D~kva, 7-
smaller and the line is overmompensated becailse L, is percent reaotance transformer to 13.8 kv. Assume the full
dependent only upon voltage and not upon load. Regula- load is 10 000 kva at 80 percent power factor. Also assume:
tion of the line is practically unchanged by the capacitor line impedance 9.62+j15.36 ohms or 0.0886+j0.l42 per
because the capacitor effects an increase in voltage both at unit on 10 090-kva. base; transformer impedance 0.008-{-
light load and at full load. At. light loads the voltage rise j0.07 per unit; total impedance 0.096%-jO.212 per unit.
might be so much in excess of normal as to represent em
undesirable or even intolerable condition; a solution is to Therefore, ratio R/X = =0.45. Referring to Fig. 9
provide manual or automatic switching to add or remove for R/X ratio of 0.45 and a circuit reactance of 0.212 per
groups of capacitors as desired. unit, the shunt capacitor kvar required for a 10 percent
The curves of Fig. 9 show the amount of shunt capacitor voltage drop on the line is 0.54 per unit. In this case 1.0
kvar required for loads of three power factors and for O, 5 per unit is 10 O00 so 5400 kvar of shunt capacitors are
and 10 percent voltage drop over the supply circuit. To necessary. These data and the capacitor lcvar required
238 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8

for 0 and 5 percent voltage drop are given in the following 6. Standard Ratings and Tests on Capacitors
table. In addition, calculated losses in the circuit are given, Table 2 gives the standard ratings of capacitor units for
as well as the power {actors at the sending (ES) and re- indoor and outdoor types. Table 3 gives the standard
ceiving (ER) ends of the circuit with the selected capacitor ratings of indoor and outdoor housed capacitors. Table 4
kvor in use. To give n more complete view of the use of gives the factory test voltage which are applied to capaci-
Fig. 9 curves the shunt capacitor kvar required for 5000» tors.
kva 80~porccnt power factor load is included in Table 1. The average operating loss for capacitors, in kw, is onc-
third of one percent of the kvar rating. Each capacitor has
TABLE 1—~DATA FOR Z0 Mime 33 Kv LINE Wrrn TRANSFOR- a built-in high resistance device which automatically dis-
MATION TG 13.8 Kv Loon Bus charges the capacitor for safety. The ambient temperature
Capacitors _ _ Percent
TABLE 3“-STANDARD RATINGS FOR Innoon AND Ournoon.
At the Loari Clmfllt Power Factor At Henson CAPACITORS BANKS
Voltage -------————~-————-~-" Loss
Vomaoo AND Kwn RATINGS
Conditions Per Uniti Kva Kw "=5ulna
10000 K vn, 80 Iif} Tr:
P. if”
nod 4800-?200~7occ
Es-ER 1.0? ‘ $0,700 020 l€)5.1lcad '§<ifJ _
230 v l
400575; v__ 2400~4100v I3 12,470-13,80{JV
no J7
E@=1.05 En 031 8,100 0‘S7 E 90.72006‘ 00 7 lead 15 30 30 600* 90 600*
Es=1.10 E,,gW0_§4 __7§,ii00 017 5 §)7.3f>§=ig 0, 00.?10g 30 so 1 45 900 *l1s0 900'
_ 5000 Km, soc; 111-‘. Loud 45 90 60 1500* 360 1500*
133:2“ l 1 01 5,050 ‘ 10-1 { 04.00».-, Q- 88. 0 lead 60 120 90 2100" 540 2100*
Ea =1.05 0 50 2,500 150 I 019 lag CL‘LG .2 lag 90 180 ~ 135 2700* 720 2700*
E~1.l0E l 0002 100 23-4 T7.5IfiLg 81 .0ilo.g 135 270 180 3300* 1080 3300*
130 360 I 2?0 4200* 1260 4200*
2"r’0 540 j 360 }440 5100*
For 5000 km the circuit reaetance is 0.106. The ratio 360 720 ‘ 540 1 800
R/X remains constant for all loads. Thus the capacitor 540 1080 720 2160
kvar can he determined, for a given voltage drop in tho 630 I260 1080 2520
circuit, for any part of full load by using the per unit 1 ..
5 1200
reactance based on the partial load. *Using 25 KVAR Units

5. Overvoltage on Capacitors TABLE 4—FAC'l‘ORY TEST Voursoss on CAPACITORS

Capacitors are designed for operation on circuits whose
average voltage over a 2%-hour period does not exceed the V<>lw»l§‘= T°1'mi"’11‘l'°“ Termine]-to»Grounc€ Test Voltage
Rating of Terminal "
rated vollage by more than 5 percent. The variations
Capacitors Test, Voltage j Indoor Outdoor
above the average may go to 115 percent in the case of 230,
460, and 575 volt capacitors, or 110 percent in the case of 230 500 3000 10 000
higher voltage units. For short periods of time, shunt 460 1000 5000 I0 000
capacitors can safely \\-'itl"1stand higher voltages, For 575 j 1200 5000 10 000
example, during the starting of largo induction motors the 2 400 5000 10 000 10 000
voltage rating of capacitors applied in shunt with the 4 [60 0000 19 000 I9 000
4 800 10000 20 000 26 000
motor may he as low 67 percent of tlm voltage applieijl 7 200 15000 20 000 20 000
to the motor, which means that the voltage applied to the 7 000 10000 20 000 26 000
capacitor is 150 porcent- of its rating. The maximum 12 470 25 000 34 000 34 000
momentary voltage, such as in welding applications, should 13 800 28 800 34 000 34 000
not exceed 165 percent of the rated voltage. Application period: 3600 cycles—2-5 or 60 cycles.

TABLE2-—$'1‘ANDARD CAPACITOR Rnrmcs iimit covering all capacitors is -10°C; for outdoor open
" ’ * mounted units it is 50°C and for housed units between
Indoor Type _”_ O}‘f‘1<>°F;1}”{f‘fm _ 40°C and 50°C depending on rack type.
Volts KVAR Phase Volts K V All Phase
230 5-7}/§ 1&3 230 ._- 1&3
II. CAPACITOR ON INDUSTRIAL PLANT
!\'r\
400 10 & 15 1&3 460 no L?
P" »- C. P‘gs» '\I
>-- or'~.- l&3 CIRCUITS
5'35 10 & 15 1&3 5?5 5, 10 as 15 1&3
A capacitor can be installed in shunt with any load of
2 400 15 & 25 1&3 2400 10, 15 & 25 1&3
4 160 25 <5: 25 1&3 4l00 10, 15 & 25 1&3
low power factor to supply the magnetizing current required
4 800 15 & 25 1&3 4800 15 & 25 1&3 by the load. The load may be 0. single motor, or it may be
7 200 25 & 25 1 T200 15 & 25 1 a large industrial plant. The capacitor can be chosen to
7 960 15 & 25 l 7000 15 .025 1 supply the magnetizing current under peak load conditions,
12 470 15 1 12470 15 or it can be chosen only large enough to supply the reactive
13 800 15 l 13800 15 >-il—l kva hours accumulated over the month. It can he located
Note: 25 Knit unis arc only singlc prim W at the service entrance, thus removing magnetizing current
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
from the utility system only; or units can be applied to the
individual loads, thus removing magnetizing current from
the plant circuit also, reducing their loss, and increasing
their load capacity, and better maintaining voltage at the
loads.
The selection of the capacitor size, and its location is
dependent on what is to be accomplished. This varies with
Fig. 10--Enclosed indoor bank of 2400/4160 volt shunt capaci-
tor units with protective screen removed. This is one step
voltage control with a RCOC oil contractor.
the power rates,‘ and local conditions. An outdoor bank of
capacitor units 1s shown in Fig. 10.
7. Location of Capacitors
Many factors influence the location of the capacitor such
as the circuits in the plant, the length of the circuits, the
variation in load, the load factor, types of motors, distribu—
tion of loads, constancy of load distribution.
The Bapacitors can be located in many ways as follows:
(2.) Group correction~—at primary of transformer.
(b) Group correction-at secondary of transformer.
(c) Group cm-recti0n—out in 9. plant, as for example for one
building.
(d) Localized correction on small feeders.
(B) Localized correction on branch motor circuits.
{f} Localized correction direct on motors, or groups of motors
and switched with the motor.
8. Group Correction
_ The two principal conditions under which group correc-
tion is better are:
239
1. Where loads shift radically as to feeders.
2. Where motor voltages are low such as 230 volts.
If the power flows from the service entrance to various
Witloly-scparultcd parts of the plant and if the loads shift
about a great deal from one feeder to another, the correc-
tion may be needed first in one part of the plant and later
in another. A centrally-located group capacitor in this
case would be an advantage since it would tend to be the
same distance from the loads at all times.
If a group capacitor remains connected during light
loads the voltage rise is less if this capacitor is installed at
or near the transformer bank since the rcactance of the
plant circuits does not contribute to voltage rise. In this
case, application of capacitors to individual motor would
represent a. larger investment because of the diversity
factor. It, therefore, would be better for the operator to
switch 0E portions of the central capacitor to meet the
varying load conditions. Exceptions will arise where
feeders are long and where the gain from individual load
application Warrants the greater initial investment in
capacitors. Because of the higher cost of low-voltage
capacitors their application to 230-volt motor circuits may
more than double their cost. This gives considerable ad-
vantage to group installation if this can be on the primary
side, 2400 to 7200 volts. Capacitors placed ahead of the
main bank of transformers do not benefit the transformers;
no trausforriier kva. is released. Thus, use of the 230~
volt capacitors on the feeders or near the motors is fre-
quently warranted.
9. Localized Correction
Capacitors should be placed as near the load as possible
or near the ends of feeders for three main reasons:
1. Losses are reduced in the circuits between the Ioads and
the metering point.
2. Voltage is raised near the loads, giving better motor per-
formance.
3. Capacitor kvar can be reduced automatically as the load
drops off by installing some of the capacitors direct on
loads so they are switched off with the loads.
The first point can be evalnatecl easily by investigating
the length of the circuits, and the transformations, if any.
Whatever gains are found in released transformer capacity
and reduction in losses in transformers and circuits are
added gains.
The effect of the capacitor is to raise the voltage per-
manently at any given point where it is connected. This
voltage boost, superimposed on the normal voltage, is
practically constant from no load to full load on the feeder.
16. Rates and Capacitor
For the purpose of analyzing the different types of rates
a typical application can be considered, such as an in~
dustrial plant with a day load averaging 960 kw and 67
percent power factor, with peak loads running up to 1200
kw and 75 percent power factor. It is obvious that a. large
magnetizing current is drawn from the line, and con-
siderable savings can be made by supplying this magnetiz-
ing current with capacitors. The size of the capacitor or
the merits of their use can only be determined by systema-
tic analysis.
240 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8

One of the following conditions may exist. 960 kw at 67 percent power factor. Assuming this is to be
(9.) Power factor is not considered in the rates. brought up to 95 percent power factor, '?20 kva. of (3&p8.Cl-
(b) Power factor is taken into account in demand charge. tors are required as follows:
(c) Power factor is checked by test and used to determine
energy charge thereafter. ~9-6-Qfi’- = 1430 kvs.
67 percent
(cl) Power factor is determined by the ratio of kw hours and
rkva. hours and is used in different ways to calculate the Reactive kve at 67 percent power factor
demand charge or energy charge or both.
=1/143U2~9l§li§=1035 kvar
(e) If power factor is not taken into account in the rate
structure, the capacitor can be used only to secure savings kva at 95 percent power factorm% x 1010 kva.
in the plant, such as to reduce current in circuits, reduce
loads on transformers, and to reduce loads on customer» Reactive kve at 95 percent power factor
operated generators. The capacitor shouid usually be = \/10T<iZi;dii'= 315.
located near the loads of low power factor. The sine Cttfl be
determined by calculating the reactive kvu. By using a Capacitor required is I035 minus 315 which equais 720
capacitor large enough to supply all or pert of this reactive kvan
kva, the current in the circuit is reduced to the desired (d) A method commonly encountered in industrial
figure. plants takes into account monthly power factor obtained
(b) If the rates include e kva demand charge, the irva. can hy integrating kw hours and rkva hours. Assuming the
be reduced by raising the power factor during the demand plant mentioned above is billed for 322 250 kw hours, and
peak. With a. demand of 1200 kw at 75 percent power that the reactive kva hours equals 346 000. This ratio
amounts to a power factor of 68 percent.
factor the kva demand is ) -= 1600 kva.. Assuming that rates indicate that it will be Worthwhile
to reduce this rkva hours to a point corresponding to 95
If the power factor is raised to 95 percent the demand kva.
percent power factor.
is =1260 kva. The size of the capacitor required to kva hours at ()5 percent power factor = = 339 O00
accomplish this is determined from the reactive kva. at the
two vaiues of power factor as follows. Reactive kva hours at 95 percent power factor
Reactive kvs. at 75 percent power factor m \/1fi}M(?()7jt§22 250*= :06 000
= \/'itF6iTi§6iii = 1060 Using 730 hours per month the capacitor kvar required
Reactive kva at 95 percent power factor equals or 319 where the kvar meter has
wV = 387
no ratchet so that full credit results even if the power
Kvar rating of capacitor is 1060 minus 387 which equals
673 kva. zoo 1 _~~ I _
The reduction in the lcva demand from 1690 to 1260 may
result in either 2. reduced kva demand charge, or it may l pi/c W iiiiiiiit
reduce the energy charge depending on the rate structure.
Some rates involve several energy charges for successive I50 # B» ~ J~ MOTOR ;
blocks of power, the size of the blocks depending on the i ‘ SATURATION ‘
kva. demand. For exampie: i‘ i“vrvr71/,7? p carve .
\
Size of hlockm (70) ><(kva. demand). \ _4

1st block~—~5c per kw hour

2nd bl0ck—11/Le per kw hour / 1 l / 1 p
3rd bl0ck—~1c per kw hour P E ‘/ 1* l ‘ 4
Additional %c per kw hour 1/ /
In this case the energy cost is reduced by a. decrease in vcr msz TED 3'8 i-_4
PER
camRA ibun,

kva demand, because if the blocks are smaller, the lower

rete E1-pplioS to a. larger proportion of the energy consumed.
~ _ ppp
l .
(c) Sometimes 2. check is mode on the average power \ l ‘ l ‘
factor under day load conditions, and the billing there» Q) 50 W’ IOC H I50 200
after based on this check until some future check is made. PER GENT RATED CURRENT
The energy charge, or the net biliing is adjusted up or down
Fig. !l—Self excitation of induction motor with various
according to this power factor. In such cases it is neces~ amounts of shunt capacitors when supply breaker is opened.
sary to determine how this check is to be made, and under
what conditions, in order to install capacitors to raise the A——Capacitor current less than motor current ct no load rated
volt-age.
power factor as high as warranted by the expected savings. B--Capacitor current aqua! to motor current at no load and rated
Such a capacitor usualiy is made proportional to day load voltage.
requirements. In the case above, the day load averaged C-——Ce.pacitor current equai to 100 percent.
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitms to Power Systems 241
V W.” at ...,,, .. .. . ‘M . N. .. mM,......~.._...“.._l,\,_,........~»»-»-@---.~.o-~----lg-»;z~»»»v-F-;;<;o,@.v---ya

factor is leading at times. When the meter has a ratchet 1

the capacitor must be large enough to build up accumu~ ~ 2

lated kvar-hours while the power factor is not leading.
Detail analysis of the load and its variations at each
plant, taking into consideration the type of rates, should ,-¢~"*"

be made to obtain the greatest benefit from using capaci- ..--

tors. In some cases part of the capacitors may have to be
switched off during light load periods to prevent excessive
voltage on plant circuits.
11. Capacitors on Induction Motor Terminals
Capacitors frequently are installed across the terminals
of induction motors and switched with the motor. The
amount of kvar so connected should be limited to values
that do not cause excessive voltage at the motor due to self-

TABLE 5—MAXlMUM CAPACITOR Kvne FOR Use WITH OPEN

TYPE THREE Puasn 60 Crete INDUCTION Moron
1 3600' 1800* 1200* 1 900* 720* 690"
Mvlvr RPM RPM l RPM A RPM RPM PM Fig. 12-180 kvar, group-fused, pole-mounted capacitor
installation.
Rallnglmw l‘ ‘ " l Y” \ l '
HP Kvar “” Kvari ""‘ Kvar "'* ‘Kvar ** Kvar “ lKvar **
‘ ‘ ~ -— -- -7... ‘- - _ ;
10 y 17 5 za 1.5 2s low, a largo reduction in feeder current or kva can be
an
15 IQ SJ! 1 ml 7.5 21 10 ‘cc obtained as indicated by the curves in Fig. 5. If the load
20 Pi1‘P—' 15:10 12ol12.s@
‘-I\I UIUI 24 power factor is high, shunt capacitors cannot materially
25 mmno 10 1410 ll9 15 22 change feeder loading. Where voltage is the limiting fac-
ac :25 in 13 12.511845 21 tor, the capacitor kvar to decrease voltage drop is do-
40 1c i2.5‘12 15 £6 17.5 19 pendent not only on load power factor but also on the
so 112 cncw 12.51 s\12.s ll5 in 20 15 22.5 17 ratio of resistance to reactance of the distribution feeder.
co 15 :1.5“11 22.5 14 25 16
75 l1'7.5 ‘ 20 11 27.5‘13 3|) 15 12. Application Factors
1col22.5 p no 125 10 as 12 31.5 14 In applying shunt capacitors to distribution circuits,
125 125 y 27.51 30 \ 9 40 11 47.5. l3 certain system data are required.
150 2.2.5 <o=.c<o c=o<wc0<|:>wco 31.5‘ 9 41.5 ll 55 l is
200 42,5 9 M gois-T-»c-TuMpoi
paw0
»->-¢ c>~:¢or
0:n:ca>¢0- : MA ._=~_-QO®0.M)0O_c <.OC-5 €D>-1.~lq 45
co:c>o¢o><oc-o>-—c f>3$§§i~1cwn:3Gn»s> orcncnanor l 9 co 10 67.5 lg 1. Determine variation, preferably by graphic instru-
"‘Synchronous speed _ _ ments, of kw and kva on each feeder for a typical 24-
"Percent reduction in line current. using capacitor KVAR ghpwn hour period at both minimum and maximum daily
loads. Usually the minimum reactive kva. determines
excitation when the breaker is opened, as Fig. 11 shows. the amount of fixed capacitors to apply without
Table 5 gives the maximum recommended capacitor kvar automatic control. This gives about unity power
for direct connection to the terminals of induction motors factor at minimum load. In certain cases more fixed
taken from the 1947 National Electrical Code. capacitor kvar can be applied where voltage condi-
tione at light load permit and Where leading power
III. CAPACITORS ON DISTRIBUTiON factor is not objectionable.
CIRCUITS 2. Obtain actual voltage measurements on the feeder
during full load and light load at a sufiicicnt number
Shunt capacitors offer a convenient and practical means of points to determine the optimum location for
of relieving lines and source equipment of wattleee current. capacitors. Fixed shunt capacitors raise the voltage
They can be installed in relatively small banks and placed level at the point Where they are applied on a. given
near the load points. They usually are arranged in three- circuit by practically a constant value as given by
phasc banks of 45 kvar or more and are distributed over XIQ in Eq. 2.
the system at distribution voltage, usually 2400 volts and
up, in accordance with local requirements. A 180 l§V3.I‘ in- To calculate the voltage at various points on the
stallation is shown in Fig. 12. At present it is not econom- feeder the circuit characteristics and the load dis-
ical to apply capacitors on the secondary side of distribu- tribution must be known. Where the individual loads
tion transformers because of the much greater cost. are not known, it is reasonable to assume they are
Where the transformers are expensive, such as network proportional to the installed transformer capacity for
units, secondary capacitors may be lustified. minimum and maximum feeder load. To simplify
The capacity of a distribution feeder can be limited by calculations single-phase loads can be grouped to-
current or by voltage drop. Where current is the limiting gether to form balanced three-phase loads and ad-
factor, the elfect of capacitors in reducing the current is jacent three-phase loads can be grouped to simplify
dependent upon load power factor. if the power factor is the calculations.
242 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
3. It is desirable to supply the kvar required by the load
as close to the load as possible to reduce feeder
losses. Therefore, capacitor units should be located
at load centers or near the ends of feeders. Ideally
each load point would have the exact amount of
capacitor kvar to supply the necessary load lrvar.
This, however, is not possible because standard size
units must be used. Also it is more economical to use
the large size units, namely, 15 or 25 kvar. Oven
compensation of feeder branch circuits with capaci»
tors to obtain a higher voltage results in increased
copper losses because at lower and lower leading
power factors, the current increases.
4. Calculate the released feeder capacity in kw and kva
for the capacitor lcvar installed. This may involve
capacitors installed at several locations on a given
feeder. Released substation, transmission, and gen-
erator capacity is also immediately available.
5. Calculate the reduction in kw losses and the reduc-
tion in kvar losses in the feeder. The effect on all
equipment back to and including the source genera-
tor should also be evaluated when the total capacitor
kvar become appreciable relative to the total source
circuit or system reactive kva.
6. Summarize the tangible effects namely, the released
feeder capacity, the released capacity hack to and
including the source generator, the reduction in
losses, the effect on voltage, etc. and evaluate the
economics to determine whether or not capacitors are
justified. Also compare the cost of capacitors with
other ways of doing an acceptable job, such as con-
struction of a new feeder, installation of voltage regu-
lators, raising the distribution voltage, etc.
From the above brief summary on applying shunt
capacitors to distribution systems, it is evident that no
fixed rules can be stated regarding the location of capaciw
tors nor can tl1'c degree of importance of each of their
effects be stated. Each case is dilierent and requires a
complete study in more detail than has been given in this
general discussion.
IV. LARGE CAPACITOR BANKS
Shunt capacitors have been applied at substations and
at the ends of primary feeders in banks rangingdn size up
to about 20 O00 kvar. The usual large sizes are between
5 O00 and 10 O00 kvar. A capacitor bank can be switched
all in one step. but general practice is to provide switching
so that a large bank is connected to the system as needed
in several equal steps. Three equal steps are quite common
although more or less steps are used, depending on the
voltage change per step and the variation in load.
Several typical layouts for switching large capacitor
banks are shown in Fig. 13. Fig. 13(a) is for one group of
capacitors switched by one automatic circuit breaker.
Fig. 13(1)) shows four automatic breakers controlling four
equal steps in a large capacitor bank. The circuit breakers
must he capable of handling short circuit currents. Figure
13(0) shows three equal steps where one automatic breaker
supplies the entire bank and trips for short circuits in any
one of the three groups of capacitors. Two norvautomatic
Chapter 3
AUTOMAHC
BREAKER
AUYOMATW AUTOMAHG NON-AUTQ
BREAKER BREAKERS BREAKER
I Till ill
AUTOMATW BQEAKER
¥USE5
‘ 2 3AUT0MATl¢ wow ‘AUTO.
sneaxsns essences
»<——i gee
2e->
M, lllllll EQUAL KVAR
PER STEP
Fig. 13---Schematic arrangements for switching large ca-
pacitor banks.
breakers are provided for controlling two steps, the third
step being controlled by the main breaker. Figure l3(d)
is a scheme in which three groups of capacitors properly
proportioned provide seven equal steps. Switch 1 gives
‘/1 of the total; switch 2 gives 2/1; switches 1 and 2 give 3/1,
and so on for all three switches giving the full capacity of
the bank. The disadvantage to this scheme is that during
the switching process, large changes of capacitor kvar are
made to get from one kvar to another. The Worst condition
is changing from 3/: to ‘/1 of the total kvar where switches
1 and 2 must he opened, thus, disconnecting all capacitors
before closing switch 3, or switch 3 must be closed putting
all of the capacitors in service before switches 1 and 2 are
opened. If the voltage change during these changes can be
tolerated, then seven steps in capacitor kvar can be ob-
tained with three circuit breakers. Figure 13(0) is another
scheme where one automatic circuit breaker supplies a
number of non-automatic breakers which control equal
amounts of capacitor kvar. Each non-automatic breaker
has a high-capacity fuse that will clear s, faulted capacitor
group ahead of tripping the main supply breaker. There
are many combinations of the use of automatic breakers,
non-automatic breakers and high—capacity fuses for capaci-
tor banks that can be applied, depending upon the operat-
ing requirements and economics.
13. High Voltage Banks
Supplying kilovars direct to high-voltage circuits is often
desirable to meet certain system requirements even though
a greater portion of the system is benefited by placing the
capacitor nearer the load and on lower voltages. For many
years, transformers were used to step down the voltage to
the range of the capacitor unit ratings. A few years ago
the practice of connecting io\v»voltage capacitors in series
parailel groups and directly to the high-voitage line was
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
established because they are more economical than the use
of high-voltage capacitors or transformers and low—v0ltage
units. One of the first such installation consi..=:t.cd of six
groups of 2400—volt outdoor capacitor units operating in
series on the phase to neutral voltage of 9. 24-kv circuit.
Each group 0E 2400~volt units consisted of 10~£5-kver
LINE
UNET
__ l 2 l _ 3 W _____ Mu __
scour 1 EFUSE it it E is called upon to carry the total phase current. Second,
. T UT . become excessive with the operation of one fuse in a. group.
N Ul I through the fuse may be so low that it will not blow, or
GROUP 2
I I——lI—w—I§ I I-+——,-9<,;’>-—~——-_*l 4~he"~g>-
M"!
i {lit
I I
I I
HI 2 __1 3 M
NEUTRAL
Fig. 1§-~Connection for fused capacitor units for one phase
of a three phase bank. Symbols apply to Eqs. (3) to (11).
X»-Number of capacitor groups in series.
M—N-ormai number of capacitor units per group
N—Nu1nl>er of units out of one groug.
ex —Aetua1 voltage across group 1.
eelfiftatcd voltage across group 1.
e_ —-Norrnal system voltage Lo neutral.
units in parallel, and these 150 lrvar groups were supported
on insulators to take core of the line to ground voltage.
Figure I4 shows how capacitor units are asscm hicd for one
phase of at bank.
Initially, operation of capacitor units in series W35 looked
upon as risky due to the evcwprcsent pos-zsibility of sub-
Jecting capacitors to ovcrvoltuge as a result of changes in
voltage distribution either due to a change in impedance of
portions of the phase leg or due to grounds at some point
on the osecmlfiy. Most of these risks are minimized or
entirely elimimtted, however, when proper thought is given
to such factors as fusing, number of units in parallel,
connection of one bushing of ca,p&Clt.Qr {Q the insulated
P1B~li'0rm on which it rests and means of detecting un-
halancc conditions before the unbalance hecoincs exces-
sive. Elacli capacitor unit in a high-voltage hunk should
be provided with a fuse of the indicating type. Tlicse fuses
need not be of high interrupting capacity because there
are aiways two or more capacitor groups in series, and,
243
when a unit becomes short circuited for any reason, the
current through the fuse is iimitcd. With individual fuses
a. faulty unit can he located without resorting to the risky
procedure of sezucliing for the source of noise or arcing,
or making inc0[1V(u'1iOnI; tests. It is also cosy to make 2.
check and determine if all units in the bank are operating
properly. The fuses can be omitted but at a. sacrifice in the
protection to the capacitor hank.
The number of units in parallel in a single group is im-
portant. Severn] things affect this. First the number should
he sufficinntiy large to insure that the fuse on :2. single unit
blows when the unit becomes short circuited and the fuse
the voltage on the remaining units in rt group should not
If the number of parallel units is too small, the current
take too long in doing so. An are of 50 ampcrcs inside a.
CzLp&(:iI;Oi‘ unit may rupture its case if allowed to continue
for a long time and such a rupture may cinlarigci" other
units in the bank. After considering the size of fuses that
must be used to avoid operation on switching transients,
and taking into account the arc energy required to rupture
the capacitor case, it has been estnblishecl that the current
through the fuse when a, unit becomes shorted should
,,. Wt. ..n W, .u... W ._-....M.._..._.m.....,..._..».,,.W,.Wt "-"- WM”-, W
i
Z
\
. x . ._ . . _. .si
,7;
W"
’~m¢>4“ "N
\\<.
WN-Wm. _,.
Fig. 15A~6000 kvar 34.5 kv outdoor capacitor bank with bus-
mounted fuses.
never be less than 10 times the normal capacitor current
through the fuse.
It is also (l£‘SlI'21-l‘»l8l.() avoid voltages in excess: of I IO pm»
cent on the remuirzing units in :1 group iollowing the 0})(‘!'£L—
tion of one fuse. This assiinics that in the rose of the
minimum size hank not more than one fuse operation is
pCrtni€.lc‘.(i. To accomplish this, periodic <:i1e<:1-as are
l'I€’§t".(?.‘€Ii2'll“§-'.
Tlic zunollnt of current that flows througli 21 fuse when &
unit is slzurtcd is also aifccted by the number of series
244 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8

groups and whether or not the neutral of the capacitor ‘°. 1; no /5--—wumazniorisno1i|>'él
bank is grounded. 1 1 1 IN $551551
‘ E
Tables 6 and 7 show the recommended minimum num-
ber of fused capacitor units that should he used in parallel scours
.. n n on 1/“ 1‘
\
(D‘D
for a. given number of groups in series in each phase leg, for
ungrounded or grounded-Wye connections respectively
TABLE 6”»-Uncnounnen Wm Cnrncrron Cnmuzm AND
Vommcn RELATEONSHIPS wrrn SHORTENG AND Renown.
— Q ’/ /(limo
or ONE Umr m ONE Pnnse Leo

Number Minimum
Current
During Fault
Voltage on
Remaining
/_.
\\ ._, ._ 1
Groups Units per 1 Through Fuse 1 Units in Group
Series 1 Group Times Normal Percent
12.0 ‘ 109
l 12.0 100 4
l coco» 11.6 109.5 TSN
ONREMANNGUN
OVERVOLTAGE
9 10.3 no % m Q.~oNIi_ _g1
3?.
O_
....,.,
4
F_4_

6 W12’
l
I6
. .1,
éfi
,
24
.
‘ 10 11.5 ‘ no
10 11.2 . 110 PERCENT UNITS REMOVED FROM GROUP
10 11.0 110 Fig. 16——Ungr0uuded wye connected shunt capacitor bank.
UJRIQMRWNM 10 10.9 110
Curves give the percent overvoltage across the remaining
9 11 11.9 Less than 110 units in a group.
10 11. 11.8 Less than 110
11 11 11.7 Less than 110
12 11 11.6 Less than IEO periodic checks of fuses are necessary to avoid abuse of
13 11 11.6 Less than 110 good capacitors as result of a, faulty one. The voltage
14 11 11.5 Lees than 110 across the remaining capacitors can be determined from
15 11 11.5 Less than IEO Tables 6 and 7, the curves of Figs. 16 and 17 or calculated
16 11 11.5 1 Lessglefnfllfl from the equations given below. For all equations the
system impedance up to the capacitor bank was neglected.
TABLE 7—GRoUNm-:0 Wm CURRENT AND VOLTAGE RELA- Refer to Fig. 14 for identification of symbols in the fol-
’1‘ION$HIPS WITH SHORTING AND Reuovm. or QNE UNIT lowing cquafsions. The equations simplify quickiy ; all units
IN Owe P1-use Leo have the same voltage rating.
l Current Voltage on
Number Minimum During Fault Remaining "if 1 T|e a 4 . 2;’
Groups Units per Through Fuse Units in Group
Series Group Times ormnl Percent
Line Fault
12 109
12
12
109
109
l ‘ __ unezns or .
FO<O O 5r-1 11.2 109.8 . 1 snows 1N SERIES
9 10.8 1101) O!
10 11.7 109.4
10 11.4 119.5
¢OW'~lO> '!|¥-‘~b3 .‘J>-» 10 11 .2 l Less than 110
10 10 1 11 . 1 Less than 110
-P»
11 10 11.0 Less than 111)
12 10 10.9 Less than 110
13 10 10.3 Less than 110 T " 3'
1 . \
14 I 11 11.8 Less than 110 2 1 ;
15 11 11.8 Less than 118
16 11 11.7 Less than 110
‘F8
%
ONREMANN6UN
OVOLVERTAGE <0<2:0|-4
based on meet-ing the previously discussed requirements.
All capacitor units are assumed to be the same voltage
and kvar rating. 00% iijflw W 8* I2 I6 1 7 20
Very often large banks contain many more than the PER CENT UNITS REMOVED FROM GROUP
minimum number of units in parallel. When this is the Fig. 17——-Grounded wye-connected shunt capacitor bank.
ease, more than one fuse can operate and still not seriously Curves give the percent overvoitage across the remaining
raise the voltage across remaining units. In such cases units in a group.
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 245

14. Ungrounded Neutral Capacitor Bank

Normal voltage across group 1 is em: ~ii‘-<>
(M1-—N,) 8"
""
N1 eel
(9)
(;%)(ea) (6 ll/I1)( 2) (:32 eaC‘!

em’ W '%l—‘—"“"-:-
eel ed
.............._.|____.
M. 242+ U4",
With N1 units removed from group 1, the voltage e1 across
the remaining units is
ea:
(3) 6(M1--Ni) +M2+ +M..
. . . ._.._..
The current in the fuse of a completely short-circuited
capacitor unit in group 1 of one bank of two similar banks
with the neutrals solidly connected and ungrounded in
terms of normal current. in one capacitor unit is

_ (@§3ml<@»>
”*'<3M.<i*.><e2.>+@:.+i?;;2:. <4) If: (Mi)
K’-Z1
\ M. +M,+
62
622

82
951:
+M,.
62
‘=1 L2 . . . . 3
3M;(M,-N,) M, M, 6M1+M2+ +1!/I,
With N1 units removed from group 1 the voltage shift of The current in the neutral connection between two sim-
the neutral of the capacitor bank em, is ilar banks of capacitors, with N units out of group 1 in
2 one bank, in terms of the normal current through one
El Ii (ea) capacitor is
_ M. M,-N, p p 2
6‘No"'" " i - eel
(gll,/!1"'ih/1)C€1 Eli: l .

all-iillx
A T
N

The current through the fuse for a completely short-cir~ 6{M1 " N1) M, M‘
cuited capacitor unit in group 1 in times normal operating
current is 17. Protection of Large Banks of Shunt Capacitors
Lin +922 P3‘ The usual typos of protection for large capacitor banks
M. 1112+ “iii; E-['81

I’=(M1) . .+§“z_‘i (6) . Individual capacitor fuses.

3154.1 Mg M; . Capacitor group (or bank) fuses.
Q\3l\?>-' . Overcurrent relays or trip coils to trip a. bank circuit
breaker.
15. GroundedwNeutral Capacitor Bank 4. Potential transformers connected across each phase or each
Normal voltage e1 across group 1 is same as for un- series group per phase of ungrounded Wye banks to trip the
bank circuit breaker on phase or group voltage unbalance.
grounded neutral bank as given in Eq. (3).
This scheme can be used for delta or wye grounded-neutral
“lith N1 units removed from group 1 the voltage 61 across bunks that have two or more groups in series.
the remaining units is 5. Potential or current transformers connected between the
neutrals of two or more Wye ungrounded banks to detect
6 W (<M._N.>)
821 .
-~—---~ (ea) unbalance in one bank and operate a relay to trip a single
breaker through which all banks, in the protective scheme,
1 _ 6:1 +¢i2+__+6Zx (7) are suppiied.
3'11 “Ari 1112 M3; 6. Potential transformer placed between the neutral and
ground of a Wye ungrounded bunk connected to a grounded
The current through the fuse of a completely short-oi!» system to operate a relay and trip the bank breaker on a
cuited capacitor unit in group I in times normal operating shift in the neutral voltage.
current for a groundedmcutral capacitor is Large capacitor banks can be connected in Wye un~
grounded, Wye grounded or delta. However, the wye un-
€_g+e_é+ . . . “pig: grounded connection is preferable from a protection stand-
1-1 M l/1,.
Ii=<M1> en? ecx
on point. Individual single-phase 15- and 25—kver capacitor
units are protected usually by c. fuse whether installed in
M2 +114, an outdoor or indoor bank for any type of capacitor con-
nection. For the Wye ungrounded system of connecting
single capacitor units in parallel across phase-to-neutral
16. Two Identical Capacitor Banks with Neutrals
voltage the fault current through any fuse is limited by
Solidly Tied Together and Ungrounded the capacitors in the two sound phases. In addition the
The normal voltage across any group of capacitors in an ground path for harmonic currents is not present for the
installation consisting of two similar groups with the ungrounded bank. For wye grounded or delta-connected
neutrals tied solidly together and ungrounded is e1 as given banks, however, the fault current can reach the full short-
by Eq. (3) for any bank. With N1 units out of group 1 in circuit value from the system because the sound phases
one bank the voltage across the remaining units in group 1 is cannot limit the current. Thus, with the Wye ungrounded
246 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8

connection smaller fuses and less material are needed for

protecting the capacitors. With two or more groups of
capacitors in series per phase, the short-circuit current is 0 I 0
limited by the capacitors in the unfaolted group. The
capacitor bank should have 2. protective device to dis~ BREAKER
connect the bank from the system if individual units be-
come defective thereby causing a bad unbalance of capaci-
tor kvar among the three phases.
Two protective schemes for Wye connected ungrounded 7 uuv "
banks for all voltage classes are shown in Fig. £8. The
scheme shown in Fig. 18(a) is preferred because the poten-
tial transformers serve the dual purpose of protecting
against unbalanced capacitor kvar per phase ieg as Well as

__________________an e eeeeeeeeee rowan cmcurr

TO BREAKER
TRIP COILS

it
MEAKER
iIlfi _. I,!l
cmoulr

i ii
$“""7 Tl“? aasnxsn monnouau. cu-neuron
—o.<mo-il- FUSES

Fig. 19—De1ta-connected, fused capacitor units usually used

at 2400 volts or less.

providing a discharge path to dissipate quickly charges

left on capacitor units when the supply is disconnected. A
current or potential transformer connected between the
neutral points of two equal parts of a group of capacitors
provides protection for unbalanced kvar per phase as
shown in Fig. 18(b). In addition, however, two potential
transformers connected in open delta should be used on
POWER CIRCUIT automatically controlled banks across the supply ieads
to the group to provide a fast discharge path when the
TU BREAKER
TRIP (JOILS
capacitors are de~energized. One of the potential traz1s~
formers can also be used for an indicating lamp to show
when the group is energized.
A delta-connected bank of capacitors, Fig. 19, usually
955"“ cmcunr applies to voltage classes of 2400 volts or less. Individual
$HUNT TRIP BREAKER
capacitor fuses are provided for each unit If the bank is
controlled automatically, potential transformers should be
-’""""
iNDlVlDUAi.. CAPACIYOR
FUSES
applied across each phase leg to provide fast discharge
when the group is dc-energized. The individual capacitor

l We1,._.,*he.-;:. 3?
units have a very high resistance provided across the termi~
nals inside the case to discharge the capacitors in five min-
utes after being disconnected from the source. This time

i "3"._"Z"
<%__
1-’\-P" of five minutes is considered to be too long for banks
--il-'\--j ‘-9 :-) r-)1-’\"" —-l -W" ~*% that are controlled automatically because when the group
1- '- -l -" \'- *i"‘ 1~—-ai- ---—-)::3% is switched on again before the charge is dissipated high
transient switching currents result. In special cases such
as for indoor capacitor banks, it can be compulsory that
§_).;i_q_,._i potential transformers be applied for rapid dissipation of
Fig. !8—Two protective schemes for large banks of 1111- charges remaining on capacitor units.
grounded wye-connected capacitors.
(a) Residual voltage trip in event of unbalance among the three
18. Capacitor Fusing
phases due to failure of capacitor units. G'eneral—Each capacitor unit contains a large area. of
(b} Residual voltage trip in event of unbalance between the two insulation and the probability of unit failures must be
3-phase groups of capacitors. Current flow between the two recognized even though the record is good, as shown in
groups can also be used for protection. Fig. 4. When the number of units in a single installation
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 247

300 r — Y ‘"1"~-e ,~.— ~~— W usually does not result in case rupture or damage to other
units.
so
IV a
l i‘ ; I
11 Large capacitor banks are generally on circuits capable
‘ l uuossnmeus of producing high fault current, and additional problems
i 1 R ANGE ‘ are created due to the close association of large numbers
as l7 7 ---” .................--
of capacitor units,
The ability of e short-eircuited capacitor to pass current
is limited by the currenl;-carrying capacity of the thin
zo ~ aluminum foil that forms the electrode surfaces. If these
foils are allowed to carry heavy fault current, the foil
5W / __ __ __ __ ________ __ may act as its own fuse. This has considerable bearing
on the fusing problem because e fault within a capacitor
25 jjjjjjjjj~ I can melt the foil rather easily and the fault tends to clear
and sometimes restrike. The presence of other capacitors
in parallel with and discharging into the shorted capacitor
_/1 _ _ I increases the tendency to melt the fault clear. Under cer-
tain conditions the are restrikes each half cycle, thus al~
lowing the adjacent capacitors to be repetitively charged
9 an and discharged. This may damage the cur1"ent-ca.rrying
COND5 connections of some adjacent units and cause simultaneous
SNE 0.25
oesmnarz
l\ _> or later failure. The current a capacitor unit can pass
before case rupture is likely to occur is shown in Fig. 20.
ll]
Z cause If the fault current in a capacitor is limited to a few hun-
2-
Q! ‘~1 ____1 I ,4“ dred amperes, the pressure builds up slowly and many
l l
cycles of current flow may be endured before case rupture
takes place. When the current exceeds about 3000 am-
o.os 1111111111 ;~”—11111111111111111111~
pcres a rupture results in mechanical damage to adjacent
units and often in short-circuited bus connections; the
0.025 greater the shormzircuit current the more violent the case
rupture.
If the arc in a capacitor unit is allowed to persist until
0.01 , the case is ruptured, other units and parts in the bank may
be damaged either mechanically or by consequent arcs.
0.005 " ’’’’’’’’ V,, W ,7 It is, therefore, desirable to provide adequate protection
against short»circuited capacitor units. The function of
this protection is:
QOO25' 1 v 11111111111as __ -_ _
(a) To protect the circuit and capacitor bank so as to mini-
mize the chance of an outage.
§ l (h) To protecé other C£1,p3.Cli)OI‘S in the bank against electrical
0.001 6' i O " , * l
~ v» 8 3 8 8 damage due to current transients.
N an O (c) To protect the other units in the bank from mechanical
2500 sooo opoc damage due to a unit case rupture.
CURRENT IN AMPERES RMS 60 GYC-LE3
(d) To minimize the hazard to the operators and maintenance
Fig. 29--Capacitor fault current and its relation to case personnel.
rupture.
Protection Inherent in Breakers—Breakers with
Curve A—Where fault currents are cleared in a time to the left. of overload protection, and adequate interrupting rating pro-
this curve the case is not likely to rupture. tect the circuit, but usually do not protect the capacitors
Curve B-~Wherc.fcull; currents are on for ii. time to the right of this against damage in case of a short-~circuited unit, unless
curve the case is likely to rupture with Blllllfilfilll, force to damage supplemented by individual capacitor fuses, or relay means
0Lher units.
to trip the breaker as a result of current or voltage un-
Area AB—-Fault currents in this area may open case seams. This
area may be used for fuse selectivity with reasonable safety.
balance. Use of breakers alone, however, does not remove
the hazard associated with a bank where unit fault cur-
rents are high.
is large the probability of a unit failure of insulation is A breaker should be considered primarily as a switching
greater. The removal of faulted units is important for device and circuit protective device, and not as protection
the protection of the remaining good units. against high fault current within an individual capacitor
flbout sixty-five percent of existing capacitor kvar on unit. ll, may, however, be considered as back-up protec-
utility systems are “pole type” and usually toeal about 180 tion in case the individual unit protection Or other pro-
kvar per installation. These are usually on circuits where tection fails.
the fauit currents are moderaie and group fusing has been Group Fusz'ng——A shormirouited capacitor is in re-
satisfactory. When a. capacitor unit becomes shorted, it ality a conducting path having timeunelting character-
248 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8

istics, which has a bearing on the maximum size of the
group fuse. The size of the group fuse is also determined
by the normal current of the bank and harmonic currents.
In general, the following rules are recomrnended for
group fusing:
(a) It is preferable not to apply group fuses greater than 85
amperes in rating {on a. 100 per cent rating basis.)
Cb) The circuit is protected adequately by group fuses if they
have sufficient interrupting capacity.
(cl To minimize the danger of mechanical damage, group
fuses should be supplemented with individual fuses when
the unit fault current is expected to exceed 3000 amperes,
even though the group fuse interrupting rating is ade-
quote for the expected fault current.
(f) They permit uninterrupted use of the capacitor bank since
a. faulty unit need not take the bank out of service.
‘Table 7 shows there is a minimum number of capacitor
units required in parallel per group to give sufficient cur-
rent for positive operation of an individual fuse on a failed
unit. Likewise there is a. maximum safe number of indi-
vidually fused capacitors that can be placed in parallel
per group because if a unit fails all other parallel units dis-
charge their stored energy, at high current, through one
fuse to the fault. If too many units are in parallel per
group, the current is high enough to cause mechanical
rupture of the fuse with the possibility of damage to other
100*" l‘ K i i ’<~"

Large banks of capacitors have been installed with de-

pendence placed solely on group fuses or breakers. Where so ‘ D ——‘ 1 — i 1
fault currents are high, the failure of one unit is likely to
damage other units in the bank, thereby multiplying the co
damage considerably. Other units may also fail at a later O
date when the reasons are not immediately apparent. “M49;
Some of those large capacitor banks Without individual
fuses are Wye connected with the neutral ungrminded, or
"1‘ 8
. ‘ c do 1
are made up of series groups, so that the problem of high .5} . ‘i
fault currents does not exist. Unbalanoe in these cases is
detected by voltage transformer and relay schemes so as
to trip the breaker under abnormal conditions such as 2.5 e ——
might occur if a unit becomes short~circuited. The objec- A’?
tion to this arrangement is that it is diflioult to identify a CONDS
defective unit and there is the possibility of electrical
NSE
damage to parallel units before the breaker do-energizes . .
the bank. Individual capacitor fuses give indication of a l l _
... $3 9" F ‘
blown fuse and give electrical as well as mechanical pro- THE
tection to parallel units.
Individual Fuse——'I‘he individual fuse rating is de- 0.25 * — 1 ‘ _ M

pendent upon the normal current rating of the capacitor

unit, harmonic currents and the number of times in rapid
succession a fuse must carry discharge current from a good 0.: W 1
capacitor unit to a defective unit. To provide for the later
requirement, the current rating of the fuse is usually at
least twice the current rating of t-he capacitor. l
: eel ee W
Individual fuses are used primarily to remove units
following failure of the dielectric. Since only one fuse is
0.025 I
used with each unit, this fuse is not expected to clear for l
ground faults within the unit. Relaying should be pro- _ 1 l
vided where possible to detect ground faults even though °'°'o
_
in
N
o
in
o
9 Z185 8 00
their occurrence is very rare. 520~ 2 25
Individual capacitor fuses should be used, particularly AVAILABLE GURRQNT lN AMPERE5
in large banks, so that a faulted unit is disconnected Fig. 21~e'I‘ypica\l type BAG capacitor fuse characteristics for
promptly from the circuit for a number of reasons: use with housed units where the fault current is less than
15 000 amperes from the system.
(a) Their current rating is small and coordinated with the Fuse A——416O volt delta connected 15 kvar units.
time~currcnt cha1'acteriutics of the capacitor. 4160 volt ungrounded Wye 15 kvur units.
(b) They indicate the defective unit. 7200 and 7960 volt imgrounded Wye 15 kvar units.
(c) They reduce to a minimum the chance of unit case rup- Fuse 13-2400 volt delta connected 15 kvar units.
ture and subsequent mechanical damage. 2400 volt grounded wye 15 kvar units.
(cl) They remove a short-circuited unit before the inside foil 4160 volt delta connected 25 kvat units.
material is fused to the point where repetitive clearing 2775 volt ungrouncled Wye 15 kvar unite.
creates high transient current in adjacent units. 4160 volt ungrounded Wye 25 kvar units.
(e) They protect units against transient currents set up by 7200 and 7960 v. ungroundod Wye 25 kvar unite.
parallel arcs in the bank such as bus flashovcrs, roof busiv Fuse C----2775 volt ungroundcd Wye connected 25 kvar units.
ing fiashovers, or failures in potheads or accessories, or Fuse D-—2400 volt delta connected 25 kvar units.
arcs in shorvcircuited units in the bank. 2400 volt grounded Wye-connected 25 kvar units.
 Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 249
{got W Y ‘ ‘i __ [ energy to blow the fuse on the faulted unit. If it were not
for the current from the parallel units the system short-
so-~~ V,» ______W 1 - cireuit current would have to be iimit-ed to about 3000
emperes to prevent rupture of the capacitor case. The
discharge current from the parallel capacitors is high in
magnitude as shown in Fig. 28 and reaches haif value in
about 0.02 second or less.
ml e T (((((((( l Where the fault current exceeds 15 000 amperes from
the system, individual capacitor current limiting fuses
(CLO) are used, the characteristics of which are shown on
Fig. 22.
‘J; "vs
svo f 7 7” 77"’ H ”””W: I {bl Housed Banks (Ungrounded Wye)
2.5’ —

1‘
‘,
E
‘

‘
t l
7 *

1
_l

l
Housed banks for circuit voltages of 4800 volts and
above are usuaily Wye connected with the capacitor neutral
i l l
LO *" ——' ‘ We _ W __ ____ i l ungrounded, whether or not the source neutral is grounded.
SECONDS \ l l \
I00 l ~ 1 l —— i r
EN 0|
.9
TM
5 l mp W
0.2s—1~— » ‘
25‘ ‘V w e
OJ — l

0.05 _ ,,,,,,,,,,,» i
l o I ‘
*1
5 l l
0.025 1111N ZZZZZZZ H

2“ Ul A
0.0!; l , _ _
9 e 2 3 .31 ____W § , 3 ECONDS
O
2500 |.o1— l 1—— ~
AVAILABLE CURRENT m messes
Fig. 22“-Typical type CLC current limiting fue characteris» s
tics for use where the fault current is high or in excess of
_ .00: l V ___ ,,_ , -_
TME
NS
15 000 ampercs from the system.
Fuse E~—2"l0() volt delta connected 15 kvar units. o_25l‘_____i!__.. . . . ................. . . . ___............ __-,
2400 volt grounded Wye 15 kvar units.
Fuse F——-2400 volt delta connect-ed 25 kvar unite.
2400 volt grounded Wye 25 kvar units. ml \ _L 1
units. Therefore, on large banks of capacitors, when the
number of units in parallel per group exceeds two or three o.os§ —eeeeeeA‘ eeeeee~ —
times the minimum required number, special considera~
tion should be given to t-he application particularly with 0.0251 I
l

regard to arrangement. VVl1e:'e such limitations are in- __ 1

volved, the bank can be divided into two or more parts
where there are two or more groups in series. Lower Qoil if . ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,_,
voltage units with a fewer number in parallel per group 0 o
with more groups in series may be a solution also.
2 -O O 8N 8in 8Q O0
25 5000
Individual Fuse Characteristics AVAILABLE CURREN? IN AMPERES
(#1) Housed l3a.nks—2~100- and 4160-voit delta-connected
and 2400-volt Wye-connected grounded-neutral. Fig. 23—Typical UT fuse characteristics used on ungrounded
wye-connected outdoor capacitor banks.
Housed banks usually contain indoor-type individual
Fuse G—4i60 volt 15 kvar units
unit fuses. l-Vhere the fault current is less than 15 O00
7200 volt 15 kvar units.
WIDQPBS type BAG fuses are used, the characteristics of Fuse H--2?75 volt 15 l(V8J‘ units.
which are shown in Fig. 2}. Actually the discharge cur- 4160 volt 25 kvar units.
rent from the good capacitor units operating in parallel 7200 volt 25 kvar units.
with the faulted unit supplies a considerable portion of the Fuse I—»2775 volt 25 kvar units.
250 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter S

This arrangement limits fault current and the type BAG
fuses are used, the characteristics of which are shown on
Fig. 21.
(c) Outdoor Structural Type Banks (Delta or Grounded
Wye)
Where the fault current is likely to be high as for a delta
connected or grounded Wye, outdoor bank current limiting
individual fuses (CLC) are desirable. This applies to
delta connected 2400 volt banks, wye connected 2490 volt
and delta connected 4160 volt banks of capacitors. The
characteristics of the fuses are the same as for similar
indoor banks as shown on Fig. 22.
(d) Outdoor Structural Type Banks (Ungrounded Wye)
ous and involved, but their operation is accurate, reliable,
and thoroughly proved by many applications.
Where the need for capacitor kvar follows a fixed
schedule, the capacitors can be switched by a time relay
that initiates on or of at predetermined times.
20. Inrush Current
When the first step of a capacitor bank. is energized, it is
possible for a large instantaneous current from the system
to flow. Curves in Fig. 24 show for several line—to*line
W“ l vi or 2/
20.00011 we’-5*?*E~.@ l a I or -a 1 . b

P-
Outdoor structural type banks for voltages of 4800 volts
and above are usually wye connected with the neutral of ‘Z900 \ ‘I f—* , ' ' J 1 1 '4
the capacitor ungrounded, whether or not the source “ 3 OQF l
8000 WA‘ 1 g ,\o9 1-:-_,3PHASE 5.0.
neutral is grounded. This arrangement limits fault current W" ‘,' lcunesnr mom
and permits fuses of lower interrupting rating. The charac- I §_ svsrsm AT
teristics for these fuses are given on Fig. 23. “°°° f’ caeacaron
' '/ i i BANK
19. Automatic Control for Capacitor Banks 'l 4000 i sooo i szpoia V "aspoo zopoo A
The intelligence required to switch hanks of shunt O00 . .
capacitors automatically depends upon the reason for
their use. If they are used primarily to control voltage,
then the capacitors can be switched on when the voltage
§O __ _ _l__ .._ E0006 F\

nssxv srsremi N
is low or off when the voltage is high, and a voltage relay 000,1»————~11 **** f ~ Y ~- Q0. °o*‘A
supplies the control. If the system voltage is regulated
by other means and the capacitors are used for power- ow; l
1
.
\
‘
1
1‘ ‘/Z
~ e \o°°°5"’ }

factor correction, then the load kvar or total current must

01onr»000.‘
Q-& 1 ~ J ~ \ — ;
be used as the means for control.
It is always desirable to use the simplest type of control 200clL-—--l/ --- ~»~— \ ———J———~'.—-;
that will accomplish the desired result. Current control
is commonly used where the voltage is regulated by other
means and the power factor is practically constant through
M %\R
(AUSH1.NEc
MPS.RMSl uns m "O
p I

wide variations in load. Kvar control is used where the _ 00 i 4000 i aooo 12,000 onto 20,000
load power factor varies over a wide range as the load
changes. MA on °°° la” VI
Whether the control is accomplished. by voltage, cur- 40
24 xv SYSTEM ‘ O Q00 9‘ .
rent, or iwar, the control systems are similar. In addition
to the master control relay, other devices are required in 300 0 1 L __,l _ Y-.°»°°°_. _m‘ \ r
the control scheme such as time~delay relays, control \ 00° I
switches, etc. For one-step automatic control the master 2000 l_ _ . W . 500
relay energizes the “closing” element of a time-delay relay,
_l .
and if the master—relay contacts stay closed for the time I000 K p l l
required for the time-delay relay contacts to make, then
the operating circuit is energized and the capacitor breaker °o
1 4000 sooo
F Izpoo
l l
l6,000 20,000
l
closes. common xvac (3 Punsr: emu
A similar process in reverse trips the capacitor breaker.
Fig. 24—-Inrush current from system when energizing capaci~
For a. two-step control the sequence is the same as for tor bank.
one—step control except that auxiliary contacts on the No.
1 breaker set up the circuits for the control of the second voltages the maximum rms inrush current for different
step. lf the No. 1 breaker is closed, the circuit is set up system short-circuit currents available at the capacitor
to either trip N0. 1 or to close No. 2. The sequence of terminals. This current can be calculated using the ['01-
operation is the same in all cases, that is, No. l breaker lowing formula:
always closes first and trips last.
For more than two-step control, each additional break- _ Eu; if
er, by means of auxiliary contacts, sets up the control cir- I“Xc"XLl:1+\/El (12)
cuits for the next operation whether it be to add or re~ Where Em is line~to~ground operating voltage on the
move capacitor kvar. The control circuits become nurner— capacitor bank.
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 251

X, is the capacitive reactance in ohms of one
phase to neutral of the capacitor bank.
X1, is the inductive reactance in ohms per phase
of the source.
The above formuia applies to delta—conneoted capacitor
banks if Xi is determined as the reactance of the equivalent
line-to-neutral capacitor kvar. The current values are
for the first step of a bank. If one or more steps in the
capacitor bank are already energized, then the maximum
peak current that flows into the next capacitor group to be
energized is determined largely by the momentary dis-
charge from those capacitor units already in service.
The breaker controlling the last step in e bank of ce.pa,ci~
tors is the one that is subjected to maximum peak current
when this step is energized. The peak currents if no charge
is on the step being energized, can be determined approxi-
mately by using the following equation:
Ipes<=<1-2) we (zmfi)
If the step being energized is fuliy charged, the peak
inrush current can be about twice this value. Em is rms
line»to-neutral voltage applied to the capacitors. C is the
total capacitance per phase of the capacitors already ener-
gized combined with the capacitance of the step being
energized. For e three step bank with two steps energized
and with the third step being energized then
g = __1__,___
.._1_+.L
C1-l-C2
For delta-connected banks the equivalent single-phase-to-
ground capacitor l{V&1‘ must be used as though the bank
was Wye connected. L is the inductance between the step
being energized and that portion of the bank already
energized. This value of L is difficult to determine ac-
curately, but, due to inductance in the capacitor leads and
bus structure, the estimated L is usually a. low value rather
than s. high one, thus giving a. current that is too high and,
therefore, on the safe side. The 1.2 factor is applied to
account for some feed in from the system and also possible
current unbalance due to unequal pole operation of the
breaker.
The inrush current and frequency when a. bank of
capacitors is energized in parallel with one or more
existing banks is given in Fig. 25. To iliustrate its use
assume a 13.8-kv, three-step capacitor installation con»
sistrng of three 2520-kvar banks, two being energized and
the third step to be energized. The percent capacitive
reactance for each step on 2520 lcvar is 100. The two
capacitor steps already energized in parallel are 50 per-
cent on 2520 kva. These two steps in series with the one
cs) step to be energized are 150 percent. So the XO for use
with Fig. 25 is 150 percent. Now assume that each capaci-
tor step has e. scrics inductive rcoctance of 0.0076 ohm in
all of its leads between the capacitor units and a common
point on the bus which is 0.01 percent expressed on 2520
kvar. Two such units in parallel plus one in series gives
0.015 percent XL for use with Fig. 25. Using this data the
X1, (Xe/100) equals 0.0225 which for switching in the
third 2520 kvar step of capacitors allows e. maximum peak
inrush current of about 69 times normal rrns rated current
of each step or 69><105, or 7250 amperes. The frequency
<14) of this current is about 6000 cycles. If the inductive
ca reactance of the leads is less than 0.0076 ohm, the maxi-
mum inrush current is greater than '?250 amperes.
Where the inrush current when switching banks of
capacitors is excessive, it can be limited by the insertion
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3 4 5; u |6°
Max‘/loo):
Fig. 25———Ma§,nitude and Frequency of transient lnruah current when energizing a bank in parallel with one eriatlnf
bank.
252
FIXED L
is x 10"‘ HENRY
Io,ooo-
no-zaoor/'5'
8°00
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sec was
:92,uF
OOO
O00
1%01
PEAK
CUR ENT-AMPERES 2000
l" it
O 0.2 0.4 0.6
R£‘$|STANCE “ OHM$
Fig. 26 —Test results indicating the effect of reactance and
resistance on limiting energizing inrush current.
of reactance or resistance into the circuit. Reactance is
much more effective than resistance The curves in Fig.
26 give the results of tests showing the effect of adding
resistance or rcactance in reducing the peak inrush cur-
rent. D-c voltage was used to charge one group of capaci~
tors; the voltage was then removed and when the switch
was closed between the two groups, the peak current was
measured.
2}. Voltages When Switching Off Capacitors
Since the current goes out at normal current zero when
de—cnergizing a hank of shunt capacitors, the rms voltages
resulting can be calculated. The voltages to ground, re-
covery voltage across circuit breakers, and the line-to~
line and linc—to-neutral voltages across the capacitors are
important. The voltages of Table 8 expressed in percent
of normal peak line to neutral voltage are obtained when
the supply system is grounded solidly and does not suffer
neutml displacement while s\\"it;ching a \vye~connected
uugroundcd capacitor bank. For a normal breaker open-
ing, one phase is interrupted first cvcn for a well adjusted
breaker, at current zero, and 90 degrees later the other
’f/W0 phase currents arc iixtcrrupted simultaneously at
current zero by the clearing of either B or C breaker con-
tact.
TABLE 8
Phase of Wye Connected Bank
Sequence of Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . .
Maximum E to Ground after Opening. . . . .
Zlfmilnulu E across Corresponding Breaker
I’olc..l..... _ _ _ , _ _ . _ _ ‘ _ , , ‘ , _ , _ , , H
Maximum Voltage across Capacitor Leg
r I‘_Oll(l\§'illg Interruption . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .
Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8
The voltages of Table 8 are brought about by the fact
R 1, that 100 percent voltage is left on A phase, the first phase
to open. The very instant A phase opens, a charge
of 50-percent voltage is left on phases B and C because the
T
360 KVAR
instantaneous voltage across these two phases is 50 per-
cent. The neutral point of the capacitor bank remains at
a potential of 50 percent above ground, which appears
:92 ,uF
across the capacitance to ground. The subsequent voltage
applied across B and C when B or C clears is K23 percent,
(1-E\/-Q
half of which is across B capacitor and half across C capaci-
tor. But the 50-percent charge left on these two phases,
ADDED L when A opened, is still present and adds or subtracts from
OI-{M5 AT half of 173 percent giving a net of 37 percent or 137 per-
G0 CYCLE$ cent. Similar analyses can be made for delta-connected
O capacitors.
0.0] The voltage across the contacts of tho circuit breaker is
- 0.!
important because if the recovery rate or the magnitude is
too great, restriking occurs across the contacts. Such re~
striking cause switching surges that may produce peak
0.8 l.O voltages of several times the normal peak voltage to
ground. Special consideration should be given to this
problem in each case. The problem is more acute at volt-
ages above 15 kv. Careful adjustment of the breaker can
make an otherwise unsatisfactory condition one which is
acceptable. Special treatment with respect to the oil flow
in the breaker grid during interruption usually S0lV8S the
problem. In extreme cases it may be necessary to limit
restriking on deenergizing by inserting in series or parallel
with each phase of the capacitorcircuit a suitable resistor
just prior to the operation of the circuit breaker to de-
cnergize the bank. A careful analysis of the problem
should be made for each application; laboratory and field
tests may be necessary.
22. System Harmonic Voltages
Since the reactance of a capacitor varies inversely as the
applied frequency relatively small harmonic voltages cause
relatively large current-wave distortion. Capacitors are
therefore built to permit combined harmonic and 60-cycle
kvar to equal not more than 135 percent (AIEE Standard)
of the capacitor nameplate rating. The kvar loading of a
capacitor expressed as a fraction of its rating with har-
monic voltages applied can be obtained as follows:
KVA=EF+3E'3’+5E'r2+ . . . . . . where all voltages are
expressed as a fraction of the rated voltage. If only one
harmonic is present, it can have a value of
EN = /1.35-Eff
n'_'“' (15)
where n is the order of the harmonic.
The standard margins in capacitors are usually more
Percent of than sufficient for the amounts of harmonic voltages
Peak Voltage present in most systems and, therefore, very little trouble
is experienced. The principal cause of harmonic currents
A l B C
in capacitors is the magnetizing requirements of system
lst 2nd 2nd transformers. If the transformers are operated near their
150 87 87 rated voltages, the harmonic voltages are limited to
minimum values. Capacitors do not generate harmonic
250 187 187 voltages.
Harmonic frequencies usually encountered are the third
100 _s7 127 and fifth. The capacitor has lower reactances to higher
 Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 253

frequencies and therefore allows proportionately larger sizes of capacitor banks, the discharge current reaches half
currents. Figure 27 shows the amount of totai rms current, value in about 0.02 second, or less. Breakers normally
fundamental and one harmonic, which standard capacitors applied with capacitor banks are capable of handling
can carry, depending on how much total rms voitage, these currents.
fundamental and harmonic, exists at the same time. For
example, suppose the fifth harmonic and the fundamental 24. Harmonics and Coordination with Telephone
are present and the total rm voltage is 105 percent. Then Circuits
The principal cause of harmonic voltages and currents
220 4 M as A - .4 e. in capacitors is the magnetizing requirements of trans-
u __l_ formers. Because of the lower impedance of capacitors at
higher frequencies, the harmonic currents may become so
zoo 9),’; —[1—"—1 —
O ‘W3 high as to endanger the life of the capacitor, or cause
i M" 2,” "“u;.,6F ’ * excessive fuse blowing, or overheating of breakers and
50 re. e. we We e es W W a. s. switches. The standard margins built into capacitors,
1 ONLY FUNDQM N}. which were mentioned previously, are usually sufficient
1 4 €/y *_i
so that for the amount of harmonic voltage present in
3 Di —— —— L —— ‘V0 FUND gr —'—'—‘

W
*or 1
ONLY flu ‘MSW’-4 most systems no undue amount of trouble is experienced.
OXF ATED 4N 9 Pu I For the transformer magnetizing current the third har~
5
YGE.E.CURRENT TAGE 1
N60—0A?RVOL
= ‘
\
T
M‘
,_ _ manic components and their multiples are supplied usually
N?
iii
1%:ll/1,0/A0t_ by circulation around the delta connected windings. The
higher harmonics are usually so small that they give no

S
CURRE
520
, 4.5id? __._. ____n,_ appreciable trouble as long as the transformers are operated
near their rated voltage.
an An unbalanced fault on a system supplied by water-
_§
8
_, :9 5 5 wheei generators Without damper windings may produce
nus MEASURED vows manor RATED VOLTAGE harmonic voltages. By resonance or partial resonance with
capacitors these voltages can be magnified. While the
Fig. 27»»—Perm1ssible harmonic currents. For 135 percent kvar duration of the fauit, might not be sufiiciently long to
for different fundamental voltages without exceeding ther- injure the capacitor, it may result in blowing of capacitor
mal limits. fuses all over the system. This hazard is reduced by proper-
ly designed damper windings and system arrangement.
the total current the capacitor can carry is 161 percent. Considerable study has been given the eiiects of shunt
This is made up of about 102-percent rated ampercs at capacitors on the inductive coordination of power systems
fundamental frequency and about 125-percent rated
amper-es at fifth harmonic. The corresponding voltages 320,000 ’"’
c *—"— W —— — —’ —
are 102-percent fundamental and 25-percent fifth har» BUS
IIXOIIIG. V I LI-.ZNG?H
Breakers applied with shunt capacitors must have
suflicient continuous current-carrying capacity to handle ‘ as PHASE
°°*°°°l ' CAPACITOR
expected harmonic currents along with the ruterl~i'requency . ‘ \ T BANK
current.
i i‘ Ffigofifl THREE‘”PHASE FAULT
23. Discharge Current 0,000
When a capacitor is short circuited, either at its termi-
-»-iooo MGM sus cowoucron ‘
" --1 ----. as an >1 ‘
nals or through a length of feeder, it discharges its stored -~~-—- 250 -- »- ~- \
energy determined by - 0000 V — —
l
Stored energy =% CE’ (16)
\ ‘l
. ._ \ \\ .
If the-‘short circuit. occurs at the instant the voltage on the 0,000, 3 \ ~ 1
capacitor is a maximum, then the stored energy is a ma.xi- \ I. 20.000 was emu,
.
I ‘" '1 I II i 3 fl*A_5E,, J
mum‘. The stored energy is dissipated in the resistance of
the circuit which includes the capacitor and the feeder up ‘~. - _ “R '\ i u¢><>os‘r~“-
I
to the short circuit. The peak current, the frequency of the LLATNGC4>m
PEAK
OFOSC
VALUE Uon 0,000
yoR ENT-AMPS. -_-___.’
7*'"¥=-=—.e__
current and the time constant of the circuit can be calcu- ‘1
iatcd for a given situation. Figure 28 shows the peak value
of current calculated for various lengths of bus consisting Q _ ,
of single-conductor cables with an equivalent delta spacing 0 50 IOO I50 200
of four feet. The peak current is high in magnitude but l.ENGTH OF BUS"FEET
sfncefhe frequency is high and the time constant of the Fig. 28---Peak current supplied to a three phase fault through
circuit low, the current decreases rapidly. For all practical various lengths of bus from shunt capacitor banks.
254 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
and exposed telephone circuits at noise frequencies. These
studies have been carried on by the Joint Subcommittee
on Development and Research of the Edison Electric In-
stitute and Bell Telephone System. The results of their
preliminary study of the problem were included in an
article published in the August, 1938 issue of the Edison
Electric Institute Bulictin. it has been found that the use
of capacitors may be either detrimental or beneficial from
the inductive coordination standpoint, depending on the
particular conditions in each case. Advance planning by
the power and communication industries has reduced the
number of troublesome situations to a small percentage of
the capacitor installations. Where capacitors have resulted
in increased noise, it has generaily been practicahie to
improve conditions by relatively simple measures applied
to either the power or communication systems or both.
A summary of the available measures is included in the
article mentioned above and in Chap. 23 of this book.
25. Portable Capacitors
Portable capacitor units such as shown in Fig. 29, are
effective in relieving overloaded facilities until more per-
manent changes in the system can be made. Two single-
Fig. 29——Po1:tabie capacitor bank.
phase mobile capacitor units can be used to reduce the
overioad on open-delta banks of transformers occasioned
by the failure of one transformer of a three-phase delta~
connected bank. In the open-delta application the most
effective use of the capacitors is to plan twice as much
capacitive kvar across the phase lagging the open side of
the delta as is placed across the open side.
26. Capacitors and System Stability
Shunt capacitors reduce the static stability limits of
generators (and systems) because they reduce the field
currents used for a given kw load and terminal voltage.
The effect is noticed by an increase in generator power
factor as more and more shunt capacitors are added. Ac-
tually many factors are involved in determining the Static
stability limits of generators, some of which are difiicult
to evaluate. However, the effect of shunt capacitors can
he determined rather directly.
The static stability limit of a generator for a given set
Chapter 8
of conditions is directly proportional to the voltage on the
air-gap lino of the generator corresponding to the excitation
current. Therefore, as more shunt capacitors are added
to 21. system, the power factor of the generators increase
and consequently the exciting current decreases. As the
exciting current is decreased, the voltage on the generator
air-gap line decreases. The static stability limit is therefore
proportional to generator exciting current. Generally on
turbo-generators, if the operating power factor at fuil load
is no greater than 95 percent lagging, experience has shown
that the operation is safe. in some cases generators are
operated between 95 percent lagging and 100 percent
power factor with satisfactory performance. Few, if any,
generators are operated consistently at power factors in
the lead unless the generators are designed specifically for
such service. Hydrdgenerators may also be affected by
shunt capacitors, but usually these generators are so far
removed eiectrically from capacitors that the generators
are affected more by other factors such as the character-
istics of transrnissiou lines and the sending of puwor over
relatively long distances.
Any generator, regardiess of its prime-mover, may be
ailected by system shunt capacitors and therefore the prob-
lem should always be taken into consideration. This is
particularly important where large amounts of shunt ca-
pacitors are planned for systems where generators are
already operating at high power factors. A few power
systems have this problem now and more will probably
have the problem as future plans are made to get better
overall system economy by taking advantage of the char~
actcristics of shunt capacitors. This problem also has a
direct bearing on how much capacitor kvar can be per-
manently connected through rniniInum—l0ad periods with
few generators in service and how much capacitor kvar can
be installed with switching to provide needed kvar during
maximum load periods and lnaxirnum generation.
27. Surge Protection of Shunt Capacitors
On circuits exposed to Eightning it is recommended that
lightning arresters be provided on all deltamonnected ca»
pacitors either housed or hanger type large or smali banks.
Likewise arrest-crs are recommended for all wyoconnoctcd
capacitor banks Where the neutral is ungrounded. Vi/here
the capacitor bank is switched, it is best practice to provide
arresters on the capacitor side of the circuit breaker.
A capacitor bank connected in Wye with the neutral
grounded has the ability of sloping off the front and reduc-
ing the crest of traveling waves, so that it affords added
lightning protection to the capacitor bank itself and to
transformers and other adjacent equipment. Thus there
is some question as to whether or not arresters are needed.
In addition, for those surges Where arrestcrs are required
there is also some hazard to the arrester because the ca-
pacitor discharges through the arrester when the arrester
operates. When the capacitors are connected to a bus with
transformers and other circuits, arresters are required to
protect this other equipment whenever the capacitor bank
is disconnected. The arrestcrs are therefore avaiiabie and
in service at all times. “There the capacitor bank is the
only load on a transformer winding the arresters can be
omitted if the transformer is removed from service when
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
all capacitors are disconnected. Where the capacitors are
supplied from a. third Winding of the transformer, arresters
may be required on this winding if all of the capacitors are
to be out of service at times.
From a surge-protection point of view for greatest safety
to the arresters, Wye—c0nnected capacitor banks shouid be
operated ungrounded. For best surge protection of the
capacitors, the neutral shouid be grounded and arresters
provided. There are other problems with capacitor banks,
however, which make the Wye»-grounded bank undesirable.
The grounded-neutral bank provides a path for the third
or residual harmonics, thereby increasing the probability
of communication interference; if a capacitor unit becomes
shorted, where there is a single unit between line and
neutral, the fault current can exceed the ability of the fuse
to clear before the capacitor unit is ruptured.
Lightning arresters protecting high—voltage capacitor
banks above 15 kv are subjected to switching surges, when
the capacitors are switched, whether or not the capacitor
bani: neutral is grounded. With restriking across breaker
contacts, which may occur, the arresters may be damaged.
Therefore it is necessary to provide means of limiting the
restriking in the breaker to protect the arrestcrs. The
solution in a given case may require special field tests to
determine the proper adjustment of the breaker or to
determine what changes are necessary.
28. Capacitors Versus Synchronous Condensers
In large units synchronous condensers constitute a com-
petitor of shunt capacitors. The following points should
be considered in comparing these two types of equipment.
1. A standard synchronous condenser is capable of sup~
plying kvars equal to its rating to the system as well as
absorbing them to an extent equal to 50 percent of its
rating. For those applications requiring these character—
isties, the comparison should be on a basis of the synchro—
nous condenser against the capacitor at full kvar pius a
shunt reactor of 50 percent kvar.
2. The fineness of control of the synchronous condenser
cannot be dupiicated by the capacitor unless a large nun1~
ber of switching steps are used.
3. An instantaneous drop in terminal voltage, within
practical limits, increases the kvar supplied to the system
in the case of a synchronous condenser whereas a similar
change in the case of capacitors decreases the kvar supplied
to the system. In this regard the synchronous condenser
has greater stabiiizing effect upon system voltages and
likewise tends to maintain synchronism between machines.
Its mechanical inertia, in general, has a further stabilizing
effect upon the other synchronous machines comprising
the system. By reason of these same characteristics, a
synchronous condenser reduces the effects of sudden load
changes or rapidly varying loads, such as drop in system
voltage occasioned by starting of a large motor or operation
of large welders.
4. For short periods the synchronous condenser can
supply 1-War in excess of its rating at normal voltage,
whereas this is not the case for capacitors.
5. The losses of synchronous condensers are much
greater than those of capacitors. For synchronous con-
densers the full load losses vary from about 3 percent of
255
the kva rating for 3000 kva units to about 1% percent for
very large units of 50 000 to 100 000 kva. For capacitors
the losses are about one-third of one percent of the kva
rating. The no—load losses of air—c00led synchronous con-
densers are about 60 percent of the full-load losses and for
hydrogeu-cooled synchronous condensers about 40 per-
cent; therefore, at fractional loads the losses of the syn-
chronous condenser are not in proportion to the output in
kva. For a capacitor, however, the losses are proportional
to the kvar connected to the system.
6. A comparison of the cost of synchronous condensers
and capacitors involves an evaluation of the losses. Figure
30 gives an idea of the relative cost of air-cooled outdoor
L2 ~ ' ~ ‘ W — -
to ~ 1 f
lwurnour tosses
F3 cn
CT
CAPAORSSYNCOND
RAT0
.0
b
LOSS avacumso
COST ; A-AT tnso PER KW
in 1 8-~A1' $250 PER KW
Qal. l _ 1 .
O W. eeeeeee~ ~»rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrdd
O IO 20 30 40 50
NEVA R AT I N G
Fig. 30—-Approximate relative coat of shunt capacitors and
synchronous condensers. (Capacitors connected in wye and
switched in five steps. Costs do not include main circuit
breaker, land space, foundations, or space parts, but do
include freight, automatic control. erection, capacitor fuses,
coolers on synchronous condensers, and so forth.)
synchronous condensers and capacitors. Three evaluations
for losses were assumed 0, $150, and $250 per kw. The low
losses of the capacitors should not be evaluated as highly
as those for the synchronous condenser because, as just
mentioned, at fractional loads the losses decrease more
rapidly than for the synchronous condenser.
7. Capacitors lend themselves to distribution at several
locations throughout the system, which is difi"icult to do
economicaliy with small synchronous condensers. Thus,
capacitors can be located at points closer to the load and
be more efiective.
8. The kvar rating of a capacitor installation can be
increased or decreased as the loads and system require-
ments dictate, which is impractical With synchronous c0n—
densers. Capacitors can be installed easily. By moving
256 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
capacitors from point to point as required, the installation
of other equipment such as transformers, may be deferred.
Foundations are less important than for synchronous
condensers, and auxiiiaries are fewer and simple.
9. A failure of a single fused unit in a bank of capacitors
affects only that unit and does not jeopardize operation
of the entire bank. A failure in a condenser removes the
entire ability to produce kva. On the other hand, failure
of a synchronous condenser is less likely to occur than
failure of a single unit in a bank of capacitors.
£0. Synchronous condensers add to the short-circuit
current of a system and may increase the size of breakers
required. This is rarely, if ever, the case with shunt ca-
pacitors. On the other hand, breakers used in the switching
large banks of capacitors may involve large currents of
short duration. In generai, however, these currents fall
within circuivbreaker ratings dictated by the power
system.
29. Capacitors and Synchronous Condensers
Banks of shunt capacitors have been used in coniunction
with synchronous condenser where fluctuating loads of low
power factor are prevalent or where the steps in the ca-
pacitor bank were too coarse to give the desired fineness
of voltage control. In this way the economy of using shunt
capacitors for part of the kvar correction can be had by
using one or several steps of capacitors with breakers.
Where the voltage of the bus is controlled by the com-
bination of capacitors and condenser, the master control
would he from the bus voltage. It is more likely though
that the bus voltage will be controlied by other means such
as a tap-changing~under»l0ad supply transformer, and that
the object of using the kvar corrective equipment is for
power~factor regulation. In such cases the control of the
kvar must be accomplished by a power—factor regulator.
V. SERIES CAPACITORS FUNDAMENTALS
Like the shunt capacitor, the series unit has application
on transmission and distribution lines. Behavior of the
shunt capacitor is generally well understood and can be
accurately predicted. The same is not always true of the
series type. Many questions are stili unanswered and
many problems are still unsolved. However, developments
and experience of recent years are bringing new knowieclge
and maturity to the science of applying series capacitors to
improve conditions on distribution and transmission iines.
Constructionwise, shunt and series capacitors are iden-
tical. In fact, should the need for a. series capacitor dis-
appear, the capacitor units can be removed and reinstalled
as shunt units. The two types differ in their method of
connection. The shunt unit is connected in parallel across
full line voltage. The series unit is connected in series in
the circuit and hence conducts full line current. While
the voltage on a. shunt instaliation remains substantially
constant, the drop across the series bank changes instan-
taneously with load, as with any series device. It is this
characteristic, which produces an eiiect dependent on load,
that makes the series capacitor extremely valuable in cer-
tain applications by compensating for line series inductive
reactance.
Chapter 8
A series capacitor in an a-c circuit introduces negative
or leading reactance. Current through this negative re-
sctance causes a. voitage drop that leads the current by
90 degrees. This drop is opposite from that across an
inductive reactance. Thus a series capacitor at rated fre-
quency compensates for the drop, or part of the drop,
through the inductive reactance of a feeder. The effects
of this compensation are valuable in two classes of appli-
cations: one, on radial feeders to reduce voltage drop and
light flicker; and, two, on tie feeders to increase the ability
of the feeder to transfer power and help the stability of
the system.
30. Effects on Radial Feeders
The action of a series capacitor to reduce voltage drop
is illustrated in Fig. 31. The voltage drop through a feeder
is approximately
IR cos 9-i-IXL sin 8 (17)
where R is feeder resistance, X1, feeder reactance, and 0 the
power-factor angle. If the second term is equal to or
Es En V55
(a) ‘ Vs,‘ .-tie. i . ER -53"-
IQ-4
I IRCos9
1X|_Si1-:6
as E;
(b) { ~33/t %~_|(
X Kc
l \;l" ea 'T¢_E5
[-----0
I Di C
IRCUS 9
“XL-Xe} Sin 9
Fig. 31--VoItage vector diagrams for a circuit of lagging
power factor la) without and (b) with series capacitors. The
series capacitor increases the recelvingmnd voltage, thus
reducing voltage drop.
greater than the voltage improvement desired, a series
capacitor may be applicable. The magnitude of the second
term is a relatively larger part of the total voltage drop
where power factor is low and where the ratio of feeder
resistance to reactance is email. With a series capacitor
inserted, Fig. 31(b), the voltage drop becomes
- IR cos 19-i~I(XL—-X0‘) sin 8 (18)
or simply IR cos 6 when XC equals X L. In most applica-
tions the capacitive reactance is made smaller than feeder
reactance. Should the reverse be true, a condition of over-
compensation exists. Ovcrcompensation has been em~
pioyed where feeder resistance is relatively high to make
I{XL-Xcl cos 6 negative. However, overcompensation
may not be a satisfactory condition if the amount of ca-
pacitance is selected for normal load, because during the
starting of a large motor the lagging current may cause an
excessive voltage rise, as shown by Fig. 32. This is harmful
to lights and introduces light flicker.
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 257

9 E E Step voltage or induction voltage regulators, also, are not

viii
s
I a ‘in
sufficiently rapid to follow sudden voltage fluctuations.
The voltage dip cannot be prevented by slmnt capacitors
or regulators as the dip itseli is used to initiate the
correction.
I U,_c:z».
32. Effects on Tie Feeders
Fig. 32*'f‘he high lagging current due to motor starting Series capacitors can be applied to tie feeders to increase
rapidly raises the receving-end voltage of a circuit which is power—transfer ability and improve system stability rather
ovencompensated with series capacitors. than to improve voltage regulation as on radial feeders.
The vector diagrams and Eq. (17) and Eq. ( 18) still apply
The power factor of the load current through a circuit but the emphasis is now on power transfer and stability.
must be lagging for e. series capacitor to decrease the VOil3"* For simplicity, assume the feeder impedance consists only
age drop appreciably between the sending and receiving of inductive reactance. Since the effect of resistance is
ends. If power factor is leading, the receiving-end voltage small in most tie-feeder circuits, it can be neglected with-
is decreased by the addition of a series capacitor, as indi~ out materially affecting the results. Referring to Fig. 34,
95 Es
‘Q 4
‘*
,8 | IXL COS Q
E5 Sm £3
----II1
l -
j /,/l~—-[xxL Sin e
R 5:: N? I\ I‘
Fig. 33-»~When the load power factor is leading, a series ca~ \\\ 1/
pacitor is undesirable because it decreases the receiving end \/
voltage. Fig. 34-—Vector diagram for a tie feeder in which resistance
efiects are neglected.
cated by Fig. 33. If the power factor is near unity, sin 9
and consequently the second term of Eq. (18) are near the simplified equation for the amount of power transferred
zero. In such cases, series capacitors have comparatively through a tie feeder is:
little value.
When properly applied, a series capacitor reduces the E’ ' E E .
P=E'R—?-Xiigs-€(c0s 9) -—'-—§:I~‘~§ sln B (19)
impedance of a line and thereby raises t-he delivered volt-
age. This increases the kva capacity of a radial feeder and, where B is the angle bot-ween the sending (E5) and receiv-
for the same delivered load kva, slightly reduces line cur- ing (ER) voltages. With a series capacitor, the expression
rent. A series capacitor, however, is not a substitute for for power transfer is
line copper.
P: ESER

31. Light Flicker XFXC

Series capacitors are suited particularly to radial circuits
Whore light flicker is encountered due to rapid and repeti~
tive load fluctuations, such as frequent motor starting,
varying motor loads, electric welders, and electric furnaces.
A transient voltage drop, which causes light flicker, is
reduced almost instantaneously in the same manner as
voltage drop due to a slowly increased load. To predict
accurately the reduction in volt-age flicker by series ca-
-— S in :9 ( 20 )
Therefore, for a given phase-angle cliiierence between the
voltages, the power transfer is greater with a series ca-
pacitor. Thus by making possible a greater interchange
of power, the normal load transfer and the synchronizing
power flowing during transient conditions are increased,
thereby helping stability. This is illustrated in Fig. 35,
250 """"""""

pacitors, the current and power factor of the sudden load E? \-/

increment must be known. It is obvious that to improve

voltage conditions or reduce light flicker at a given load
point the series capacitors must be on the source side of
that point. The series capacitors must compensate for line
_, (2) \
inductance between the source and the point where it is
desired to reduce light flicker. This sometimes makes the
application of capacitors difficult because one feeder from
a bus with several feeders may have a fluctuating load that Power
AblMy
ll.-..

veTransfer
888
A1
“
~~ ~~~~—~~~-@\c--
produces suflicient voltage change on the bus to cause light Re
a
U!

9__
flicker on all feeders. To use series capacitors to reduce
the flicker, they must be installed in the supply circuit no 20 40 so so 100 120 :40 we I80
or circuits to the bus. Angle 19 —DegreeS_
Shunt capacitors cannot be switched fast enough to
prevent light flicker. In fact, an attempt to use shunt Fig. 35—'I‘he power-transfer ability of a tie feeder may be
increased from curve (a) without series capacitors, to curve
capacitors for this purpose might aggravate the situation. (b) with series capacitors.
258 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
which shows that for the same angle, a series capacitor
effects a 40—percent increase in power—transfer ability“
and also the maximum power that can be transferred.
Furthermore, to transfer the same amount of power
through the tie feeder, angle ;3 is smaller, which aids
stability of the system.
A series capacitor on a radial feeder is inefiectual unless
the load power factor is lagging. This is not as important
in most tie feeders as can be seen from Eqs. (19) and (20).
Power transfer is aifected primarily by the angle between
the sending and receiving voltages and not as much by
power factor.
33. System Power Factor Improved
The iagging kilovars supplied by 2. series capacitor im-
prove system power factor, just as a. shunt capacitor or an
over-excited synchronous machine, but to a much smaller
extent. In efiect, the capacitor compensates for the I‘X1,
“lost” in the feeder reactance. The amount of compensa~
tion varies, of course, as the square of the current since
the kilovars supplied equal PXO. At half load, for exampie,
only one»qu:-irter rated kilovars is provided.
34. Relative Effect of Power-Factor Correction
A shunt capacitor improves load voltage by neutralizing
part of the lagging current in a. circuit, thereby reducing
the lino current and voltage drop. A series capacitor im-
proves load voltage more effectively by compensating
directly for part of the feeder reactance, which causes the
voltage drop. Consequently, the same voltage correction
is obtained with a smaller rating of series capacitors than
shunt, usually in the ratio of one half to one fourth. How~
ever, because the amount of power-factor correction in»
creases with capacitor kvar rating, the shunt capacitor
corrects power factor to a greater extent.
For example, on a 10 000-kva circuit having c Iced power
factor of 89 percent and an R/X ratio of 0.3, 1100 kilovars
of series capacitors are required to limit the voltage drop
to IO percent. This capacitor raises the source power factor
from about 74 to about 78 percent. If a shunt capacitor
i used in this circuit to obtain the same voltage correction,
3800 kilovars are required, but the source power factor is
raised from 74 percent to 91 percent lagging.
To increase materially the source power factor as well
as improve voltage, shunt capacitors at or near the load
offer the best solution. Usually shunt capacitors must be
switched in one or more groups to keep within desired
voltage limits as load varies. Shunt capacitors do not
reduce light flicker because they cannot be switched on
and off fast enough to counteract rapid fluctuations in
voltage.
VI. APPLICATION OF SERIES CAPACITORS
_In general, series capacitors are applicable to radial
circuits supplying loads of about 70 to 95 percent lagging
power factor. Below 70 percent, shunt capacitors are more
advantageous (unless the power factor changes over such
a. wide range, making it impossible to switch shunt ca-
pacitors fast enough to supply the kver required by the
load). Above 95 percent, the small value of sin 9 limits
Chapter 8
the beneficial effect of series capacitors. Applications to
radial circuits supplying loads of 70 to 90 percent power
factor are most likely to be successful.
The application of series capacitors differs materially
from that of shunt capacitors. VVhere voltage correction
is the primary function of shunt capacitors the correction
is obtained by raising the power factor of the load. To
determine the shunt capacitor kvar required, the most
important data needed are the magnitude of the load, its
power factor and the impedance of the source circuit.
While similar data. are required for voltage correction with
Series capacitors, the effect of series capacitors is to reduce
the reactance of the source circuit. Series capacitors affect
power factor to a limited extent as compared with shunt
capacitors because usually the kvar in a series capacitor is
much smaller, being one—fourth to one-half of the shunt
capacitor kvar for the same change in load voltage. ln
addition, the series capacitor contributes its kvar to the
system as the square of the load current.
35. Determination of Capacitor Rating
A threephase circuit containing e. series capacitor con-
sists of line resistance, line inductive reactance, and ca~
pacitive reactance. The kva ratings of these components
are 312R, 31“X L, and 3I”X¢. These values as a percent of
the total circuit. rating are useful in considering the usefu1~
ness of series capacitors. The percent rating is obtained
by dividing the kva rating of each element times 100 by
the total circuit kva. rating (\/§E,-J) which must be known.
The percent rating of the capacitor equals 300 IXC/\/§E,,_
(or 173 IXC/ER) where I is full-load rating of the circuit
and ER is the load line»to~1ioe voltage.
Calculation of kva ratings as e. percent of circuit rating
can be extended to voltage. The voltage drops, IR, IXL,
and IXC times 100, are divided by the circuit voltage
rating ER/\/3. The percent of the capacitor again equais
173 IXC/ER. Consequently, the percent ratings of each
component on a kvo base and on o. voltage base are iden-
tical. Therefore, a series capacitor rated 20 percent on the
base of circuit kva is also rated 20 percent on the base of
circuit voltage. These ratings mean that at full load, the
capacitor “consumes” 20 percent of rated circuit kva. and
the voltage drop across its terminals is 20 percent of rated
circuit voltage.
The rating of a series capacitor (kilovars, voltage, and
current} for a. redial feeder depends on the desired voltage
regulation, the load power factor, and the amount of resist-
once and reactance in the feeder relative to each other and
to the circuit rating. The capacitor kilovar rating can be
determined for 80 or 90 percent load power factor and 5
or 10 percent circuit voltage drop from data given in the
curves of Fig. 36. To use these data, the feeder rating is
taken as 100 percent kva. and all other figures are calculated
in percent on this base. For example, assume a. 10 000-kva.
feeder having an inductive reactance of 20 percent and a
ratio of resistance to reactance of 0.3 supplying e. load
whose power factor is 80 percent. From Fig. 36, to limit
the voltage drop to 5 percent at full load, the series ca.-
pecitor must be rated 20 percent of the circuit rating. This
is 20 percent of £0 O00 kva. or 2000 kilovars. The capacitor
voltage rating is also 20 percent of the rated circuit voltage.
 Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 259

°°*e5§1;»sfc,;~Ji” i ” *rS=§iofc,; i ' *°° rather than load transfer may dictate the capacitor rating
"" -Load Powerl »Load Power .4" 50 for a tie-feeder application.
Factor=90% ‘P/' Q? Fa<:tor=90% L’
u 40
ng S$
0
Rat
it $.06
_ 36. Arrangement of Capacitor Units
1P/£0
L

-5; .1i ,,e.

_ ‘_ W
r ,___ W Q“ \ 4 30 When the kilovar, voltage, and current ratings of the
I’ ‘l " ‘
bank are known, capacitor units are arranged in series—
parallel connections to obtain the desired values. Series
— V l e~ ~ F—‘w connection builds up the voltage rating and parallel con-
__l___o nections the current rating. Each bank must be “tailored”
20 30 40 I0 zo so 40
to fulfill the requirements of that specific application.
Capacitor banks can be assembled for any current rat-
fEg;i_5§’ER *7 """""“") 1 ‘Es,'1_]5*g; A \ ‘"5" ing and for almost any voltage rating, standard or non-
. . . . . l
‘i»L o P -~ -1. d P so standard. lf the voltage across the bank is less than 230
w“r1li@r5:§§§rrl ‘l’ SQ r‘llio.e5§'§5sr I gs
si'¢
79 r <z~+"
- 40 volts, it may be economical to install a series step—up trans-
former to permit using standard capacitor units of higher
—— i — s so voltage and lower cost.
l}.1\‘
— ‘Z0
37. Location of Capacitors
... Yf
*1?“ ‘io
In general, a series capacitor can be located at any
CiRKva
onerCapac
Ser
qucicsreud-Pericteonrt 25
3
__4§__
g_Ag
'5
20
¢--0_— A‘8 ,--h“t
§‘\ 8 i '5,
i
Circuit Rcactance--Pcrcent on Circuit Rating
8 40
0
convenient place on a feeder provided that certain require—
merits are met. First, the voltage level at the output
Fig. 3o~Kilovar and voltage ratings of a series capacitor for a terminals of the bank must not be too high for the line
radial feeder may be determined for many cases from these insulation and lightning arrcstcrs; and second, a. capacitor
curves.
on a radial feeder must be located between the source and
Thus if the circuit is rated 20 000 volts, phase to neutral, the load whose voltage is to be improved. Where a radial
the capacitor is rated 4000 volts. If a voltage regulation circuit has a number of tapped loads distributed through-
of 10 percent is permissible, only 1100 kilovars (at 2200 out its length, the best location of the series capacitor is
volts) are required. Had load power factor been 90 per- at about one third of the electrical impedance of the feeder
cent, 2200 kilovars {at 4400 volts) would be necessary for from the source bus. If a feeder is long, two banks of
5-percent regulation and 990 kilovars (at 1800 volts) for capacitors may be preferable as more uniform voltage is
10~percent regulation. obtained throughout the circuit. Where Sl1OlT'l.-ClI’Cl1ll1 cm-—
Other factors being equal, the ratio of R/X1. has a large rent is high, it may be advisable to locate the capacitor
effect on capacitor rating, as Fig. 36 indicates. Higher so that fault current through the protective gaps and
ratios require more capacitors; this is seen vectorially in switches is a minimum.
Fig. 3?. A series capacitor located in a substation can be con—
The current rating of the capacitor equals that of the nected in each phase on the neutral ends of Wye-connected
circuit because the bank must be able to carry rated circuit transformer windings to permit use of a lower voltage class
in the capacitor insulation. However, this practice raises
E ES the voltagc~t0—g,round level of the transformer windings.
This must be checked carefully. The effectiveness of a
V series capacitor is independent of whether it is connected
Ea W IR on the neutral ends or on the lino ends of the transformer
i I windings.
Fig. 37—Rad1al feeders having a higher ratio of resistance to
reactance (for the same percent reactance) necessitate more VII. PROTECTION OF SERIES CAPACITORS
capacitors.
38. Protection During Line Fault
current continuously. In addition, when circuits supply For most circuits in which series capacitors are applied,
relatively large motors, the capacitor must be able to carry the currents and corresponding capacitor voltages during
temporarily the starting current of the largest motor plus fault conditions are several times the maximum working
the current of other loads already in service. The total of value. As standard capacitor units can withstand about
the transient and steady—state currents through the ca- 200 percent of their rated working voltage for brief periods
pacitors should not exceed 1.5 times rated. Without damage to the dielectric, it is necessary to use
The rating of a series capacitor applied to a tie feeder capacitors with continuous current ratings equal to 50 per-
is determined from a study of the powentransfer and cent of the maximum current that may flow during a fault,
stability requirements. No definite rules can be stated, or to use a voltage-limiting device. For a given reactance,
buttm general, the capacitive reactance o€ a series ca- the cost of capacitors increases approximately as the square
pacitor is less than (probably not more than 70 percent) of the rated current so that it is more economical to use
the inductive reactance of the tie line. if the maximum capacitors whose ratings are based on the working current
transient current during at system dist-urbance is greater and to limit the voltage that can appear across their
than about 1.5 times rated current, stability requirements terminals by means of auxiliary apparatus.
260
Care must be used that the voltage rating of the series
capacitor and its associated protective equipment is made
high enough so the capacitor is not by—passed during work-
ing loads. On radial circuits to insure availability of the
series capacitor during motor starting currents, when its
effects are most useful, the capacitor rating must be at
least 67 percent of the greatest motor inrush current that
may be imposed on the line plus other operating load.
Wlith protective devices set to by-pass the capacitor at
200-percent rating, the capacitor remains in service during
such transient loads.
The device used to protect a series capacitor during a
fault should limit the voltage rise to about twice the rated
value even for a short time. The capacitor must therefore
he by-passed during the first half cycle of fault current.
A properly designed gap (shown in Fig. 38) fulfills this
A B
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ST E E L. F R A M E
Fig. 38%pmlal gap for parallel protection of series capacitors.
requirement and materials can be selected to give a st-able
arc and a low ax c drop without repetitive restriking. Under
most conditions, some means must be provided for shunt-
ing this gap and transferring the are current to another
path. After the circuit current again falls to normal, the
‘oy~pass equipment must open to transfer current, back
through the capacitor. This commonly is done with a
thermal or magnetic contactor or by an automatic circuit
breaker that closes to by~pass the gap and capacitor and
opens some time after the fault has cleared to restore the
capacitor to service. If the installation consists of two or
more groups of capacitor units in series within a bank,
each can be protected by its own parallel gap.
Where the insulation class of the series capacitor is low,
for example, where 230-volt capacitor units are used and
the gap must break down at 460 volts, it is not possible
to set the gap for sufficiently low breakdown voltage. In
such instances, a trigger circuit is used to initiate the
break-down of the gap.
On large series capacitors in transmission tie lines special
gaps or special high~speed circuitibreakers or both may be
required to protect the capacitors and re-insert them into
the circuit within a half cycle or a cycle after the fault is
Application of Capacitors to Power Systems Chapter 8
-W"
13
¢¢*""#{
esouze
Fig. 39—A typical series capacitor on a distribution circuit.
cleared. This is necessary to enable the series capacitors
ELECTRODE to provide system stability. If the capacitors are not re-
-\
inserted within a cycle or less, their full benefit cannot be
:<f' realized and their usefulness on tie lines would be reduced
materially both electrically and economically.
/ //
39. Protection Against Continuous Overload
\\\\;\/2/>
\
‘. .
Standard series capacitors should not be used for con»-
ELAIN tinuous operation at an average more than 105 percent of
6/
//
EU 41:0CID F0 ATOR
their rated voltage. Consequently, average working cur-
\ rent through a series capacitor should not exceed the rated
I/
working current by more than five percent. The short-
ICU circuit protective device is not designed to function at less
than 200 percent of the rated current; therefore, it is some»
times desirable to provide overload as Well as short-circuit
protection. The overload protective device should have
an inverse time-current characteristic that can be co-
ordinated with the capacitor to allow momentary overloads
but not continuous ones. Series capacitors have a 30s
minute rating of 1.35 times rated current and a 5-minute
rating of 1.5 times rated current. A thermally operated
switch can also be used for this purpose.
This special type of protection usually is not warranted
except on large series capacitor banks The absence of
overload protection on small distribution installations fur-
ther emphasizes the need for care in choosing the contin-
uous current rating.
40. Dielectric Failure Protection
Dielectric failure protection rarely is used except on
large banks. This also is a feature that is sacrificed on small
distribution series capacitors in the interest of simplicity
and low first cost. V
Dielectric protection is a means of detecting a. faulted
capacitor unit in a seriesmapacitor assembly. In an un-
fused capacitor bank a short—circuited capacitor may sus-
tain an internal arc,,which causes gas to be generated in
the unit. Continued operation causes the internal pressure
to reach a value that rupture the ease and possibly damage
Chapter 3 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
other units and equipment. If the units are equipped with
individual fuses“—-and they should be——a fuse operation to
remove a faulted unit increases the reactance of the bank
and operation at the rated current of the original bank
subiects the remaining units to overvoltage. Protection
is afforded by detecting with proper relaying when the
currents become unequal in two equal branches of the
capacitor. When the unbalance in current exceeds the
selected value, the capacitor is by-passed until the de-
fective unit is replaced.
41. Circuit Relaying
On radial circuits, fault-protection relaying usually is
not affected by the addition of series capacitors. Fault
currents practically always considerably exceed twice rated
current. Consequently the parallel gap breaks down on
the first half cycle of fault current. This happens faster
than most types of relays operate and thus relay and
circuit-breaker operations are the same as without capaci-
tors. Relaying of line-to-ground faults is accomplished
usually by residual or neutral current, which is not affected
greatly by a. series capacitor. Fault-protective relaying on
a tie feeder, however, may be affected considerably by the
installation of a series capacitor. Detailed studies must be
made for each case prior to installation of the capacitor.
VIII. OPERATING PROBLEMS
Along with the desirable characteristics of series capaci-
tors, there is the possibility of undesirable phenomena,
usually involving some kind of resonance, which until re-
cently has deterred the installation of large banks of series
capacitors even where they otherwise could solve difiicult
system problems. In many cases the dlfi'lCUll3l€S can be
anticipated and suitable precautions taken to make an
installation practical.
Three maj or phenomena may be encountered in a circuit
employing a series capacitor: sub~»synchronous resonance of
a motor during starting, ferro-resonance of a transformer,
and hunting of o. motor during steady-state operation.
One, two, or all of these may occur.
42. Sub-synchronous Resonance During Motor
Starting
When an induction or a synchronous motor is started,
(the latter as an induction motor) through 2. series capaci-
tor, the rotor may lock in and continue to rotate at a speed
below normal or synchronous. This condition is known as
sub-synchronous resonance. It is caused by the capacitor,
whose capacitive react-ance in conjunction with the induc-
tive reactance of the circuit and motor establishes a circuit
resonant at a frequency below that of the power supply.
The rotor, in effect, acts as a stable asynchronous gener-
ator. It receives power at rated frequency from the stator
windings and transposes it to the sub-synchronous fre-
quency, wiiich it returns to the circuit containing the ca-
pacitor. This circuit, being resonant, imposes a minimum
of impedance to the sub-synchronous voltage and conse-
quently conducts a large current. A motor operating under
these conditions may be damaged by excessive vibration
or heating.
261
The sub-synchronous frequency is dependent on the
relative sizes of the motor and the capacitor. The capacitor
rating is determined by the circuit rating (other conditions
remaining the same, the ratings are proportional). Con-
sequently, the resonant frequency is related, indirectly, to
the rating of the motor in proportion to that of the feeder.
This frequency is usually 20 to 30 cycles for a 60-cycle
motor whose rating equals half the circuit rating.
As the motor size decreases with respect to the capacitor
and circuit ratings, its react-ance increases. During reso-
nance, capacitive and inductive rcuctance are equal. Be-
cause capacitive reactancc increases with decreasing fre-
quency, the sub-synchronous resonant frequency is lower
when the motor requires a smaller proportion of the circuit
rating. A motor requiring less than five percent of the
circuit rating can be resonant at a sub-synchronous fre-
quency of five cycles or less if it starts under load.
The most common method of preventing sub—synchro~
nous resonance is to damp out this frequency by placing
a resistor in parallel with the capacitor. While the resist-
ance to use can be calculated, the results thus obtained are
usually one half to one tenth the values that experience
proves necessary. Calculations are inaccurate because of
the difficulty of giving precise consideration to such vari-
ables as inertia of the motor and load, starting load, speed
of acceleration, the type of starter, and other load on the
circuit. For example, load elsewhere on the circuit, when
a motor is started, reduces the possibility of sub-synchro-
nous resonance by providing a damping effect similar to
that of parallel resistance.
The resistance should be as high as possible in order to
hold to a minimum its continuous losses, which are equal
to the square of the voltage across the capacitor bank
divided by the resistance. It is common practice, then, to
apply resistors that are adjustable over a predetermined
range, particularly in the larger installations.
When low ohmic resistance is used, the resistor can be
disconnected after the motor reaches full speed and the
risk of resonance has passed. Switching could be accom-
plished manually or by remote control over a pilot wire
or power-line carrier channel with clcctrically~opcra.tcd
switching equipment.
Suosynchronous resonance can also be avoided by use
of parallel resistors across only two phases of a three-phase
series capacitor. Such a solution is permissible where the
omission of resistors from one phase does not unbalance
the voltage appreciably. The amount of unbalance is de-
termined by the resistance. The higher the resistance, the
less the unbalance. But the resistance necessary, not the
degree of unbalance, determines the ohmic value. At least
one such installation is in service and is operating satis-
factorily.
Sub~synchi-onous resonance can exist only during motor
starting. Hence, resonance can be prevented by inserting
resistance in series in the supply leads to the motor instead
of in parallel with the capacitor. A contactor is required
to short circuit the series resistance after the motor reaches
full speed. if the circuit contains only a. few motors such a.
scheme may be more economical than a. single large resist-
ance in parallel across the capacitors. To be effective, the
series resistance must be in the stator circuit of the motor.
262 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
Resistance in the rotor circuit of a. slip-ring motor does not
give the desired damping but affects primarily the amount
of slip between the sub—synchronous frequency and the
frequency of the current through the rotor circuit.
If motors are started infrequently, sub—synohronous res-
onance can be avoided without using resistance by short
circuiting the capacitor during starting. If a temporary
unbalance is tolerable, the same result can be achieved in
some cases by short circuiting only one phase of the bank,
which simplifies the switching equipment.
The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional
to frequency, while that of an inductor is directly propor-
tional. Hencc, in a series circuit consisting of capacitance
and inductance the voltage drop across the former in-
creases as frequency is reduced. Therefore, a condition of
suosynchronous resonance in a. power circuit causes an
increase in the voltage drop across the capacitor. This
voltage may be large enough to cause the protective gap
in parallel with the capacitor bank to flash over, thus short
circuiting the capacitor. This halts the resonant condition
and permits the motor to accelerate normaliy to full speed.
After a time delay the capacitor is autoznatically restored
to the circuit. This sequence of operations may make it
possible in some installations (particularly Where motors
are started rarely) to use the gap alone to prevent sub-
synchronous resonance and perhaps eliminate the nccd for
parallel resistors. However, heavy-duty gaps in series with
resistors to dissipate the energy stored in the capacitors
may be required.
The gap is set to break down at twice rated current
(twice rated voltage) at rated frequency. Consequently,
during sub—synchronous resonance at half rated frequency
the gap flashes over at rated current since the capacitive
rcactance is doubled. The lower the frequcncy the smaller
the current required to break down the gap.
In general, the possibility of sub-synchronous resonance
should be checked for all circuits in which the largest motor
requires more than five percent of the circuit rating. Ex»-
pcricucc indicates that standard motors rated less than
ten percent of circuit rating encounter no difficulty if
started at no load. In fact, motors rated up to 20 percent
usually accelerate satisfactorily if started at no load and
across the line. However, when high-inertia loads are in-
volved, the circuit must be checked for sub-synchronous
resonance even if the power requirement of the largest
motor is as low as five percent of the circuit rating.
43. Ferro-Resonance in Transformers
A transformer bank when energized draws a high tran-
sient exciting current. If a, series capacitor is in the circuit,
it may create a resonant condition that causes the high
current to continue. This is known as fcrro-resonance.
Ferro-resonance is cured automatically in most cases by
the parallel gap. The magnetizing inrush current is prob-
ably of sufficient magnitude and low enough in frequency
to cause a. voltage drop to appear across the capacitor (and
across the gap) high enough to break clown the gap. As
the transient period approaches its end, the current in the
gap decreases. The steady-state current through the gap
for a short period is usually too small to maintain the arc
and therefore the gap clears, restoring the capacitor to the
Chapter 8
circuit. The possibility that the gap alone can prevent
ferro-resonance is checked by oscillographic tests after the
capacitor is installed.
If tests indicate that the gap is inadequate, £crro-rcso-
nance can be eliminated by shunting the capacitor with a.
resistor or by having a certain minimum load on the trans-
former side of the capacitor when the bank is energized.
Of course, a parallel resistor applied to prevent sub-sym
ch ronous resonance of motors also prevents fcrro-resonance
of transiormers.
In some cases, such as 2400- or 4160-volt circuits, the
voltage rating of a series bank would be very low (and its
cost high) if installed directly in the line. To permit appli-
cation of a capacitor having a higher voltage rating, a
transformer in series with the line is sometimes employed
to step the voitage up from the required drop in the line
to the capacitor rating. Such transformers must be de-
signed carefully to prevent fcrro-resonance.
A series capacitor, when installed in a long circuit sup-
plying a transformer of abnormally high steady-state
exciting current, may resonate during normal operation
at a frequency corresponding to a harmonic component
of the exciting current. Fluctuating loads may cause such
resonance even though it does not appear when the trans-
former is energized. Resonance in this case is eliminated
by a parallel resistor, by changing the transformer winding,
or by replacing the transformer with another having a.
normal exciting current.
44. Hunting of Motors During Normal Operation
Hunting of a. lightly-loaded synchronous motor can be
caused by disturbances such as switching of power circuits
and changes in load or excitation of the motor itself. Such
hunting cannot be directly attributed to resonance. The
principal factor in predicting hunting is the ratio of feeder
resistance to total feeder reactance (including the series
capacitor) between the power source and the motor ter-
minals. If the ratio is less than one and is not negative,
hunting is unlikely. Violent hunting of a. synchronous
motor was encountered upon application of a series ca-
pacitor in one instance because the ratio of feeder resistance
to rcactance was approximately four.
A synchronous motor, when fed through a long line
excessively compensated by a series capacitor, may hunt
if started during periods of light load. Such hunting is
avoided if the powewfactor angle of the load (after the
motor is started) is equal to or greater than the impedance
angle of the circuit (including the capacitor). The tang-
ent of this impedance angle is the ratio of total circuit re-
actance (feeder rcactance minus capacitor reactance) to
feeder resistance.
Hunting is not limited to synchronous motors. Series
capacitors should not be applied to circuits supplying
either synchronous or induction motors driving reciprocat-
ing loads such as pumps or compressors. In addition to
problems of sub-synchronous resonance, the motors once
started may hunt, causing objectionable light flicker. The
frequency of hunting is sometimes equal to, or a direct
multiple of, the frequency of power pulsation, which
further aggravates the situation. A cure for hunting may
be the installation oE a heavy flywheel to increase the
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems 263
WW..........._........__ ... . WM“. .. ...................,....
tion of the capacitors, the voltage at the bus dropped from
’§ 12 U00 volts at no load to ll) U00 at fuil load. The full-load
voltage is now about ll 300 volts. Furthermore, voltage
conditions at the tapped point (Fig. 42), which was pre-
viously used only as an emergency supply to a nearby
town, are so improved that this source now provides every~
day power service.
The series capacitor compensates for 57 percent of the
total circuit rcactatncc up to the I1-kv steel-plant bus. This
decreases by over 50 percent the mn.gnit.udc of the change
in voltage level during; periods of heavy load and also

\._\ . 53>‘ I I I 1111

.=S‘\ 5.
‘l E
“ 1
Fig. 40—19 900 Kvar series capacitor in 66-kv line showing - Volta
large capacitor housings with somewhat smaller housings for
parallel resistor units.
*uiQ nfl Wil i? will _. ...
rotating mass. However, this solution may enhance the /“\ 21 ./1
E
§ VolMed
tage
possibility of SIllJ‘~Sy1'1(3llI‘0110LlS resonance, which is equaliy
undesirable. .. . . O Mans
~ — }~ *— ' ~ IUD

IX. 10 000-KVAR SERIES CAPACITOR

Midnight 10 PM
l Ml
a PM
l . ...
6 PM
A 10 00O~kvar series capacitor is in service on a 66-kv
Fig. 42—Voltage conditions at tapped load point (a) before
radial circuit having a rated load of 500 amperes. Each and (b) after the 10 000-kvar, 66-kv series capacitor was
phase of this capacitor bank consists of 240 standard 15- installed.
kvar, 2400evolt units, divided into 3 groups connected in
series. Each group, which contains 80 units in parallel, reduces flicker voltage. Kowever, the capacitor compen-
is protected by its own gap and accompanying by-pass sates for 100 percent of the total reactance up to the
thermal switch. tapped load point. As a consequence the change in voltage
This series capacitor, Fig. 40, was installed because the level is reduced even more (about 80 percent} than at the
desired voltage improvement is obtainccl more efficiently steel-mill bus. Furthermore, the sudden fluctuations at
and at less cost than by any other method. The principal the tapped point are almost entirely eliminated.
function of the bank is to improve the voltage levci and In addition to the furnace load the steel plant has
decrease flicker voltage at a steel plant where the bulk of several motors, the largest being; a 4009»hp wound»rot0r
the load consists of four 10 U00-kva electric—arc furnaces. induction motor. A 4.()O~ohm resistor across the capacitor
The heaviest load normally encountered is approximately gives sufficient damping for successful motor starting and
37 000-lava at about 78 percent power factor. The change prevents self~excitation or sub-synchronous resonance.
in voltage conditions effected by the series capacitor is Such phenomena sometimes occur when large motors
shown in Fig. 41, which indicates that the fluctuations are ( relative to the circuit rating) are started through a feeder
reduced and the average voltage level during periods of containing a series capacitor. The resistor, because of its
peak load is increased about 10 percent. Before installa- continuous losses, is undesirable but experience has in-

- .\ \ <a»\ \ dicated that. it is essential for successful motor starting.

This large series capacitor has been successful. Had a
syn ch ronous condenser been installed at the load instead of
F-4 5 a series capacitor, the initial cost would have been at least
§ doubled and the continuous losses would have been much
ltr; l I 1 Wiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiis 1 90 age--Volts
greater. The installed cost of such a capacitor is estimated
to be about sixteen clollars per kilovar.

_
\ .<b>\ii i i i i \-_ ...- NH OO X. PROGRESS OF SERIES CAPACITORS
e ~-~ no MeasVo
:ured About 100 installations of series capacitors are in service
l -W -— J ---------- ---ion on power circuits throughout the United States. The
best results are obtained where there are no relatively large
1 2'A'1\'}I' I I 1AMfso motors and where the capacitive reactance provided by
Fig. 41-——Vo1tage conditions at the steel-mill bus (a) before the series capacitor is less than the inductive reactance of
and (b) after the series capacitor was installed. the circuit up to the principal load point.
264 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems
Good results have been obtained with capacitors in
circuits supplying electric-arc furnaces, one of the worst
types of industrial loads. Series capacitors are ideal for
resistancewelding devices where they can reduce the kva.
demand by 50 to 75 percent. Welders can be provided
with built-in capacitors. If a series capacitor is applied to
an existing welder, modifications to the welding trans-
former must be made to prevent excessive current flow.
While most of the improper operations of series capaci-
tors are due to the fact that circuits with series capacitance
resonate at some frequency, some trouble with protective
devices has been encountered. But with new developments
and information and experience gained on recent applica-
tions, more reliable performance is now expected. Some
types of equipment should not be supplied through series
capacitors because of difficulties that at present cannot be
overcome. Ovcrcornpensation except in very special cases
should be avoided as it produces undesirable results.
Twenty years ago shunt capacitors were used to a very
limited extent. Today they have been universally ac-
cepted as practical, reliable, and economical solutions to
many problems involving voltage level, power-factor cor-
rection, equipment loading, etc. Many shunt capacitors
rated over 5000 kva and a few over H0000 kva arein
operation. Undoubtedly the same evolution is now in
process with series capacitors. Scvcral scrics capacitors
rated over 1000 kva and one installation of 10 000 kva
have been installed. Perhaps the “ice” has been broken
and other large installations will follow. Experience gained
on the 10 000-kva installation certainly indicates that
large series capacitors applied carefully are economical
and successful in operation. Still further progress is likely
to result from studies now being made on the application
of large series capacitors to extra—high-voltage transmis-
sion lines. A large series capacitor is now being installed
and tested in a 230~kv line in the Pacific Northwest.
REFERENCES
Shunt Capacitors
1. Capacitors Reduce Losses and Raise Voltage, W. H. Cuttino
Soutlwrn Power and Iindustry, October 1941.
2. Use the Right Capacitor with Induction Motors, J. B. Owens,
Factory Managcment and M'a1'ntem1nce, May 1945.
3. Safe Capacitor Selection for Power Factor Improvement, J. E-
Barkle, Power, April 1943.
4. Uses of Capacitors, R. E. Marbury, Electric Journal, Vol. 33,
July 1936, pp. 303~306.
5. Capa.citors—Design, Application, Performance, M. C. Miller,
Electric Light and Power, Vol. 16, October 1938, pp. 46-50.
6. Shunt Capacitors Reduce KVA Loads, C. M. Lytle and S. I-I.
Pollock, Electric Light and Power, Vol. 15, November 1937,
pp. 52-54.
7. Capacitors Defer $135,000 Investment in Synchronous Unit,
J. F. Roberts, Electrical West, Vol. 83, October 1939, pp. -£2-43.
8. Shunt Capacitor Application Problems, J. W. Butler, General
Electric Review, Vol. 43, May 1940, pp. 206-212.
Chapter 8
Current Control Broadens Capacitor Application, A. D. Caskey;
Electric Light and Power, Vol. 18, February 1940, pp. 49-51.
Seventeen Systems Report Smooth Capacitor Performance,
M. C. Miller, Electrical World, Vol. 113, January 27, 1940 pp.
289, 339-340.
Facilities for the Supply of Kilowatts and Kilovars, Hollis K.
Sela and Theodore Seely, AJ Transactions, Vol. 61, May
1942, p. 249.
Kilowatts, Kilovars, and System Investment, J. W. Butler,
A.I Trcmsactmns, Vol. 62, March 1943, pp. 133-13?.
Mobile Capacitor Units for Emergency Loading of Transfonnera
in Open Delta, H. B. Wolf and G. G. Mattison, A.I Trans»
actions, Vol. 62, February 1943, pp. 83-86.
The 13,500 KVAR Capacitor Installation at Newport News,
E. L. Harder and V. R. Pnrrack, Southeastern Meeting of
AIEE, Roanoke, Va., November 16, 1943.
Analysis of Factors Which Influence the Application, Opera-
tion, and Design of Shunt Capacitor Equipments Switched in
Large Banks, .l. W. Butler, AIEE Great Lakes District Meeting,
Minneapolis, Minn., September 27-29, 1939.
Extending the Use of Shunt Capacitors by Means of Automatic
Switching, W. H. Cuttino, AIEE Summer Meeting, St. Louis,
Missouri, June 26-30, 1944.
Tests and Analysis of Circuit Breaker Performance W'hen
Switching Large Capacitor Banks, T. W. Schroeder, E. W.
Bochne, and J. W. Butler, A.I.E.E', Transactions, Vol. 62,
1943, pp. 821, 831.
Automatic Switching Schemes for Capacitors, W. H. Cuttino,
11.1 Transactions, Vol. 56, 1947.
Power Capacitors (Book}, R. E. Marbury, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., lnc., New York, N. Y., 1949.
The Why of a 25eKVAR Capacitor, M. E. Sooville, Generol
Electric Review, Vol. 52, No. 5, May 1949.
Series Capacitors
Series Capacitors, R. E. Marbury and W. H. Cuttino, Electric
Journal, March 1936.
Analysis of Series Capacitor Application Problems, J. W. Butler
and C. Concordia, A1 Transactions, Vol. 56, 1937, p. 075.
Series Capacitors for Transmission Circuits, E. C. Starr and
R. D. Evans, A.]’.E'.E. Transactions, Vol. 61, 1942, p. 963.
Characteristics of 400~Mi1e 230~KV Series Capacitors, B. V.
Hoard, /l.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 65, 1946, p. 1102.
Design and Protection of 10,000-KVA Series Capacitor for
66~KV Transmission Line, A. A. Johnson, R. E. Marbury,
J. M. Arthur, A1 Transactions, Vol. 67, 1948.
10 000 KVA Series Capacitor Improves Voltage in 66-KV Line
Supplying Large Electric Furnace Load, B. M. Jones, J. M.
Arthur, C. M. Stearns, A. A. Johnson, A.I.E.E. Transactions,
Vol. 67, 1943.
Design and Layout of 66-KV 10 000-KVA Series Capacitor
Substation, G. B. Miller, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 67, 1948.
New Series Capacitor Protective Device, R. E. Marbury and
J. B. Owens, AJ Transactions, Vol. 65, 1946, p. 142.
Self-Excitation of Induction Motors with Series Capacitors,
C. F. Wagner, A.1'.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 60, 1941 p. 1241.
Steady-State and Transient Stability Analysis of Series Capaci-
tors in Long Transmission Lines, Butler, Paul, Schroeder,
A.I Transactions, Vol. 62, 1943, p. 58.
Series Capacitors Approach Maturity, A. A. Johnson, Westing-
house ENGINEER, Vol. 8, July 1948, pp. 106-111.
Application Considerations of Series Capacitors, A. A. Johnson,
Westinghouse ENGINEER, Vol. 8, September 1948, pp. 155-455-
 CHAPTER 9

REGULATION AND LOSSES OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Original Author: Revised by:
G. D. McCann R. F. Lawrence

HIS chapter deals with problems relating to the
I performance of transmission lines under normal
operating conditions. The analytical expressions for
currents and voltages and the equivalent circuits for trans-
mission lines are first developed for “short” lines and for
“iong” lines (where the effects of distributed line capaci-
tance must be taken into account}. A simplification is pre-
sented in the treatment of long lines that greatly clarifies
their analysis and reduces the amount of work necessary
for calculations. Problems relating to the regulation and
losses of lines and their operation under conditions of fixed
terminal voltages are then considered. The circle diagrams
are developed for short lines, long lines, the general equiv-
alent 1r circuit, and for the general circuit using ABCD
constants. The circle diagrams are revised from the previ-
ous editions of the book to conform with the convention
for reactive power which is now accepted l)y the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, so that lagging reactive
power is positive and leading reactive power is negative.
When determining the relations between voltages and cur-
rents on a three~pl1ase system it is customary to treat them
on a “per phase” basis. The voltages are given from line
to neutral, the currents for one phase, the impedances for
one conductor, and the equations written for one phase.
The three-phase system is thus reduced to an equivalent
singlephase system. However, vector relationships be-
tween voltages and currents developed on this basis are
applicable to line-to-iine voltages and lirie currents if the
impedance drops are multiplied by \/3 for three-phase
systems and by 2 for single-phase two-wire systems.
Most equations developed will relate the terminal con-
ditions at the two ends of the line since they are of primary
importance. These terminals wiil be called the sending end
and receiving end with reference to the direction of normal
flow of power, and the corresponding quantities designated
by the subscripts S and R.
I. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR
TRANSMISSION LINES
1. Short Transmission Lines
For all types of problems it is usually safe to apply the
short transmission line analysis to lines up to 30 miles in
length or all lines of voltages less than about 40 kv. The
importance of distributed capacitance and its charging
current varies not only with the characteristics of the line
but also with the diflerent types of problems. For this
reason no definite length can be stipulated as the dividing
point between long and short lines.
265
Neglecting the capacitance a transmission line can be
treated as a simple, lumped, constant impedance,
ZER-i-jX:zs=rs+jxs
Where
z =series impedance of one conductor in ohms per mile
fiwresistance of one conductor in ohms per mile
x"=inductive rcactance of one conductor in ohms per
mile
s=length of line in miles
The corresponding “per phase” or equivalent single~phase
circuit is shown in Fig. 1 together with the vector diagram
Z*zs'(r-l-ix):
Z=R+jX 5*
Y Iii“, ? jIX
I
E‘ ER E. IR
EQUIVALENT TRANSMESSION
CIRCUIT TO NEUTRAL
Fig. l—Equivalent circuit and vector diagram for short trims»
mission lines.
relating the line current and the line—to~neut1-al voltages at
the two ends of the line.
The analytical expression for this relationship is given
by the equation:
Es = En + Z1' (1)
Throughout this chapter, the following symbols are used:
Q——z's a vector quantity
E-Wis the absolute magnitude of the quantity
E»-118 the conjugate of the vector quantity
2. Long Transmission Lines
The relative importance of the charging current of the
line for all types of problems varies directly with the voit-
age of the line and inversely with the Ioad current. To
appreciate this fully it is necessary to consider the analysis
of “long” lines.
A “long ” transmission line can be considered as an in-
finite number of series impedances and shunt cepacitances
connected as shown in Fig. 2. The current IR is unequal to
IS in both magnitude and phase position because some
current is shunted through the capacitance between phase
‘These quantities can be obtained from the tables of conductor
characteristics of Chap. 3.
266 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines Chapter 9

.1‘. R+§X ,_ .53.. in which

I

Z=zs and Z’=€~.

E9 '~jX R
J T T T T T L B= \/Z2 Sinh <3‘/5)“/2? sinh <11)
$ENDENG RECEIVING
am: ENQ C m \/Q
1 smh
- (avg)
/Z m._}__c
Vfi smh - ‘E
Z, (3 2)
Fig. 2~—Diagram representing long transmission lines.
The values of the hyperbolic functions can be obtained
and neutral. The relationship between E5 and ER for a from tables’ or charts“ or from evaluation of their equiv-
“long” Eine is different from the case of the short line be- alent series expressions
cause of the progressive change in the line current due to i 92 9‘ 9“
cosh (sN|g)=cosh 6=(1+é»~!-¥-I!-i"€i+ ' ~ - (13)
the shunt capacitance. If E5 and ER are considered as
phase-toneutralvoltages and Is and IR are the phase our-
rents, the classical equations relating the sending—end volt»
ages and currents to the receiving—end quantities are: no —e ~— i.—~ —————————~— ———~ T
15"-‘n*l°: l
E5=-ER cosh (s\/;3;)+IR\/5 sinh (s\/5) <2) o.:;= Gil‘ T\ !
‘ “2 . ll
Olw _ _ .
15:5: Si!1h(S\/5;”)-l-1g cosh (S'\/Zy) (2)
\/y -0.5
-1.0 . -~—..
L. l
~T»
‘T

— *—
~
The susceptance, 3/, heretofore has been used most fre- T .

quently in these expressions. However, with the advent of T

the new form of tables giving characteristics of conductors, 4oo--.._.— .. 1 T
the shunvcapaoitive rcactance is obtained as a. function of b
the conductor size and equivalent spacing. The reciprocal wvi ‘ l l la
of y, which is z’ is therefore a more convenient quantity to * TB-i=.+m l
use. For this reason the oncept of shunt-capacitive re- 200 7.... —.
actance is used throughout: this chapter. Eqs. (2) and (3)
I00 ~ T
then become: l b T ‘
O 1 ,,_ , ,,
E5 =EB, c0sh(s\/ii,-)+IR\/.;zi7 sinh. (ed?) (4)
z z "500 -.. ...:...... __\_ _ 3

Is =€Pf§ sinh +13 cosh (5) -200 -. .5 l - -

..30Q l _
where z is the series impedance of one conductor in ohms
per mile, z’ is the shunt impedance of the line in ohms per
mile, s is the distance in miles. --zoo. - . {AL

9
z'= —-jx‘(10)“
w’* secapaoitive rcactanoe in mcgohms per mile. .003 . - 32as
MLES‘ 2959.se
Equations (4) and (5) can be written conveniently in .002} ~~- js
ME.€.sS4“‘ '9 LES _-gggm. ..
terms of the conventional ABCD constants.‘ For the case ; C=c|-I-50;
of a transmission line the circuit is symmetrical and D is oon ‘ ~—
equal to A. {Refer to Chapter 10, Section 21 for definition
of ABCD constants.)
Es=11En+BIn (6) .._QQ|

Is=C’ER+DIR=CER+AIR (7) -.002 . -. T T .

ER=AEs-BIS ' gs)
-.005 ~~ T . ~ 4
IR= —~CEs~}-DIS» -~CES+AIs (9) |/4 a/2 a/4 I
whore LINE LENGTH-WAVE LENGTHS

A = cosh <s\/5:) = cosh J; (10) Fig. 3 —Variatlon of the real and imaginary components of A,
B, and C for a 795 000 circular mils ACSR, 25-foot equivalent
spacing, transmission line.
if
This quantity can be obtained from the tables of conductor char- r =-01]? ohm per mile.
acteristics in Chap. 3. It is given in megohms in tables as it, is then :1! :O.'i'836 ohm per mile.
of the same order of magnitude as the inductive reactance. a:' =0.l859 rnegohm per mile.
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses of Trammission I/mes 267

£2. 1“ is...
sinh (sJ€)@sinh
Z’. a=(e+§+§i+§1+
3! oi rs - - - (14) SENOING U 1 RECEIVFNQ
Egg t ll; lg‘ END
Expressed in terms of their equivaient series expansions, E, 2',“ 2'“ E,
the ABC constants become
A=[1+:Z'+ g2’z+*‘zs +7 Z4 13...] (15)
ZZ 242 YZOZQ 4Q 320Z
Fig. 4-Equivalent at circuit for representing long transmiar
B=Z[1+ BZZ*;+ 120Z"z
23+ 504OZ"“
Zi*+ 362Z5j j j j +-~:l(16)
SSOZ“ sion lines.

1 Z Z 2
Z 3
Z‘
By equating like coefficients of the equivalent Eqs. (18)
C_z'l:1+cz'+120z'=*+5o4oz*=+sc2 se0z~+ ll”) and (6)
The series are carried out far enough so that the ABC’ Z,“-—=B (20)
constants can be determined to a high degree of ac-
curacy. However, for lines approaching one quarter wave 1+2;
@= A <21 >
length, the series do not converge rapidiy enough. In such
a case it is better to determine the ABC constants for the Giving for the equivalent impedance Z1“
iine in two sections and combine them as described in B
Chapter I0, Table 9. -Z; Q =-----
A H1 (22 )
The ABC constants can be determined easily for any
length of line by an evaluation of the cosh and sinh func- Expressed in terms of the corresponding hyperbolic
tions using the hyperbolic and trigonometric functions. functions and their equivalent series the equations for the
The procedure is outlined briefly here.
impedances are
0 = s\/ L» 01+is Mr" . Z Z Z”
Z,q=\/ZZ’ smh J%=Z(1~l"(T,+fiO?7§
where cu and B are in radians. zi z4 (23)
cosh 9=cosi1 oz cos 6+3’ sinh oz sin B + 50402“ + 362 8802“)
sinh Owsinh a cos ,6-1—j cosh or sin 5
where: -“"7 . Z
1 6G+ 6"‘!-I
Z’ _\/ZZ s1nh\/2:222’ 1+ Z _ Z:
cosh a
2 °°—( J?) l2Z’ ?20Z'*
cosh 2; -1
. e°‘——e""“
B11111 a=------
2 z= z~ _ cc
Figure 3 shows the variation of the ABC constants as a +30 240213 1 201 s0cz'~=+ )
function of line length for the line of Fig. 18. The real and
imaginary parts of A, B, and C are shown for a complete 4. Equivalent T of a Transmission Line
wave length. Another equivalent circuit for a transmission line is
3. The Equivalent 1r of a Transmission Line shown in Fig. 5. The equations for the impcdances of this
circuit are
There are several equivalent circuits that represent the
above transmission line equations and thus can be used A-—1 z 1--~+--M-»—-_-
z-,=---=_ z 2:1 1vz=
for the representation of transmission lines. One such 0 2( 122' 1202“ 201602"
circuit is the equivalent 1r shown in Fig. 4. 3124 ) (25)
Referring to this figure the equations relating the +§mm§1""
terminal conditions for this circuit are
i Z 7Z’ 3lZ“
En
I R 'm-~,-
Z” Zi=a=Z'(1"azP+.§e§"*z~*“1Ho2-Ti
1272* ) (26)
ES%ER+Zeq(IR+*EL,E)
Z“
+@,'@1;§Wz~""'
Es=1i’R(1 +513-@)+z,q1R (18)

VL
5'1 SENDING RECEIVING
Es
sun I t sun
I5 '
Zéé 2, fl Z; 2,,
Is=1n“l"In'+Is' =§-;i3'~~i“%+In
Q GU

i3 5 8 Z_ Fig. 5-—Equ1valent T circuit for representing long transmis-

I“(Z;q+Z;:)E“+(1+Z§i>I“ (19) sion lines.

<1
268 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines Chapter 9

5. Comparison of the Equivalent 1r vs. ABCD Con- Z’

SlIfl!'llIS
The choice of the use of the equivalent 11' vs. ABCD con- This term is thus about 0.6 percent of one {the first term).
stants in celcuiating transmission-line constants is largely a For the third term in the expression for Z1-.
matter of personal preference. llowever, each offers cer~
Z2 ,
tain advantages over the other. When the network calcu- E202” = 0.001 1 -30.00067
lator is to be used, it is necessary to set up an actual circuit
in the form of the equivalent vr. The equivalent tr afifords a. which is about 0.1 percent of one (the first term).
better physical picture of transmissiomlinc performance For all the rest. of the constants the term is less than
and makes the comparison between long and short lines 0.1 percent.
and the effect of charging current easier to visualize. Since these terms vary with the fourth power of the
On the other hand, when st problem is to be solved length of the line, they decrease rapidly for lines less than
analytically, the use of ABCD constants has a definite ad- 300 miles in length and can be neglected. For instance for
vantage over the equivalent 1r because of the availability a 150~rni1e line the terms are one»sixteenth as large as for
of the independent check: AD—»BC =1. This is partic- a 300-mile line.
ularly desirable when other circuits are to be combined Thus the above transmission line constants can be ex-
with the transmission lino circuit. pressed sufiiciently accurately by the following equations
The equivalent 1: or A RC1) constants can be used to rep~ which were derived from Eqs. (15), (I6), (17), (23), (24),
resent any line, section of line, or combination of lines and (25), and (26) by neglecting all but the first two terms of
connected equipment. Either one represents accurately all each series expression.
conditions at the two terminals of the system. The equiv-
alent circuit or A BCD c0r1Stants being considered here per- A = (1 -1153,)+11?-,
200:1: 2002;
on
tains only to a. single line or line section. The general
S2
equivalent circuit and general ABCD constants, if so
desired, can be determined by the combination of the
Bw-Z,qw 100rS(1 -£6?)
equivalent circuits for the rest of the system as discussed in
. 9332 T282
Chapter 10. +j190$S(l*EOF;+ )

6. Expressions for Transmission Line Constants by

First Two Terms of Their Series
600:0 600$
When considering the accuracy with which transmission
line circuit constants need be determined, it should be , 2 ’ S’ . ~S’
ZN“ "1§ll‘“1%;6;>)+1i§t"t?l‘°‘ (39)
realized that the resistance, inductance, and capacitance of
a line can rarciy be known to within 3 or 4 percent and 2:82
probably never within one per cent. This is due to con~
ductor sag, its variation with different spans, and the varia~
tion that exists in conductor spacing together with the +»j50es(1wtm”5?$m-~m~M-T232) 1
effects of temperature upon conductor resistivity and sag. 120021;’ 1200z:r:’ (3 )
For this reason equations for the above circuit constants

lll
' 2 2
zTr=__J—f; -1'-'8 ’ TS} 10‘
that are accurate to within 0.5 percent should be satis-
factory. 6001:) 600:1: :l (32)
Thc effect of neglecting all but the first two terms of the In these equations:
series in the above expressions can best be shown by con- S Ilength of line in hundreds of miles.
sidering an actual line. For a 30U~miEe line with 250 000 J; and r are in ohms per mile, and as’ in megohrns per mile.
circular mil stranded copper and a 35-foot spacing the
third term in all of the above series expressions is larger 7. Simplified Method of Determining the Imped-
than normal. ances of the Equivalent 1r Circuit for Transmis-
For this line, from the conductor tables of Chap. 3 sion Lines
r=0.2Z>7 ohms per mile The following method greatly simplifies the dBlZ81‘ITlll'l&“
:c=xfl+1\;=0.487+O.43l 20.918 ohms per mile tion of the impodances of the equivalent 1r circuit and still
enables them to be determined to within 0.5 percent for
ma:u’+.rd’=().1 l1+0.l06m0.217 rnegohms per mile all practical power transmission lines.
NH‘ 2 rs+j.rs = (77.1 +j275.=1) ohms
Equations (28) and (30) can be expressed in the follow-
z'= -;‘l‘_i9f= -1723.3 ohms ing form:
Zea w 1U0rSK,-§-jl00:cSK, (33)
2 _77.1+j275.4_ _ .
ZZQ = 2”’ 104 on
Z2 _ i
fi E 0.1330 -30.0811’? where
2
Kl M 1 __i
For the third term in the series expression for A 300$ (35)
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines 269

K,m1-§(5,-lg) (ac) "°° " ! _ _”. V

5001: 55 .99? _
-. _4._ __ —
$8’
,= --»—-— 37
if 1 12002:’ ( ) V. . -

Ell
kl‘ — 1200s’
rS¢
(38)
ii?
$.-.f~‘l
.,
s
‘
" .7‘
*vvvw—.n I
i
**
.
*
Examination of the above equations shows that for a. IV
given line, the factors K,, K,“ and Ir, differ from 1 hy a.
—g__fiz'eq,I-
-I 1.!
'J-I_ 73'
V
X
=
NFICTORS10illin
UI“iitiT4
term that is proportional to the square of the length of the U‘_ -: 1' ‘
line. However, a study of the characteristics of lines which - Z“. gm + j)(eq= I00 S(rK,+ jxK;} 7
J
it is economical to build and that have been built in the
United States reveals that for e given length the variance Ike -s><'--r -1%¢m IO‘
of these correction factors from 21 mean is very slight. In .90*

addition, it is only the lines with smaller conductor sizes _ A-x,.+i§(I-Kn

and eqiiivulent spacings for which the correction factors
vary appreciably. OFGORRE
2
VALUE GTO
" B‘ z.Q i
J._ L

_ B>>< 10*‘ Y
‘

1U l ‘Y
TABLE 1.~MmuiwM Comaucros SIZES AND Ssrsnarrons iron
-°"y ¢"mm" y J, y . .
l I
WHICH T1-IE MEAN Vnwss or THE CORRECTION Fscross
ARE APPLICABLE T0 AN Accuracy or Wxrmu ONE-
HALF or ONE Pnncs1~zr“’
Length of Line '0 40 so :20 I60 200 240 aso
in #1i.'.¢§=._ ‘-1
.209 ii i300 LENGTH OF cm: tN muzs
G.M.D. (ft.l 10 lé Fig. 6——-Correction factors for, the equivalent 1r transmission
Qoppcrrgurhles Vi i i SOOOOQ fine impeviances and ABC constants at 60 cycles.
_
A.C.S.R. ___ -mm? iiiiiiiii7
\—4 8o¢».€
>""‘l\7U5U‘l
Q 77775007650 77 779577000 S =length of line in hundreds of miles.
An Hollow r “‘COINlUCl,Ol' resistance in ohms per mile.
Cu. Cable i 00°" 00 00 300009 500000 “inductive reuctance in ohms per mile.
eéii. 65551; are =-capacitive reacmnce in mcgohms per mile.
Tym rm ooow coo one 300000 500000
‘U Conductor sizes are in cir. mils or AWG. be expressed to sufficient accuracy as parabolic equations
4” Smallest sizes made. of the type l—KS”. In Table 2 are tabulated the cor~
rection factors expressed in this form. The curves con-
Table 1 gives minimum conductor sizes and spacings for structed from these equations conform closely to t-he curves
various lengths of line for which the use of mean correction of Fig. 6. Table 2 shows that K, can be considered as 1 up
factors will give sufficient accuracy. For lines up to 300 to 50 miles, K, as 1 up to 75 miles, and Ir, as 1 up to 100
miles in length with conductor sizes and spacings equal to miles. Since in practically ali cases the individual sections
or greater than given by this table, the use of mean values of line to he considered are not over 100 miles iong, the
for K,, Ki, and Ir, gives an accuracy of within 0.5 percent. correction f21,cbors can he neglected entirely if an accuracy
The correction factor Ir,‘ is never greater than about 0.005 of better than i% percent is not desired. The largest
end can be neglectedi Thus, the shunt impedance Zgq deviation from unity is in K, which at 100 miles is only
can be considered as o. pure capacitor. 1.-l pc1"ccn?,.
In Fig. 6 are plotted the curves for K}, K," and Ir, as a. Example 1——As an example of the use of this method
function of line length. The values on these curves con- in determining the equivalent 1r of a transmission line, con-
form to those of the most common type of line construc- sider £1. £hree~phuse, G0—cycle, 230—mile line of 500 O00
tion that is used for a given line length. Thus, in most circular mil stranded copper conductors at an equivalent
cases the use of these values will give un accuracy con- spacing of 22 feet.
siderably better than 0.5 percent. The factors can also From the Tables of Chap. 3
TABLE 2-Ielxrzmssrons ron was CORRECTION Fscroxs roe r=O.130 ohms per mile
THE EQUIVALENT 1r Iurcmuces a:=0.8l8 ohms per mile
Cor“-C110“ Values’ Lciigtlis up to
w'=0.l9l7 megohms per mile
i Factors so _\1i. l rs .\!i. E 100 .\Ii. 20cYii7i.7 | soc Mi. From the curves of Fig. 6 for e 230 mile line
K. ___ 1»-0.014182 77 7
__ -KM 1“ i 1—o§coc79s= 7
In _____v L 1-~o.oos_s§* 7 y Kxw-0.964
kw 0
!c,mO.Q82
S is the length of the line expressed in hundreds of miles. From Eqs. (33) and (34) or Fig. 6
270 Regulation and Losses of Transmission I/ines Chapfbf 9

ZN w (0.130)(230)(O.931)+j(0.818) (230)(0.964) Rln X‘ xs

= (27.8+ji8l .4) ohms ---cw
, 2(0.l9l7} Es I a
Z“:

Z;q= —j1635 ohms LRGGING POWER FQQTQR LEADING PQWER FQGTQRJ

The equivalent circuit for this line is shown in Fig. 13.

8. Adaptation of Simplified Method of Determining T ¢ £5 ind

Equivalent ar to Determining ABC Constants nos __
H Enil } '1sm (fin ER IR
The foregoing method can be adapted with an acceptable
degree of accuracy to deterrnining the ABC’ constants of a IR -.-I Enos‘),
transmission line. The ABC ccwitants of the line should be
I jTsm¢R
determined by a more accurate method if the line is to be
combined with other circuit elements. Eq. (27) can be bl FUR KNUWN RECEWING END CONDFTIONS
written as follows: * i
A=KA+j£(1—KA)1 <39)
xS”
where KA 1 200$,
Since K5 is the some form of correction factor as K, (Eq.
(35)), a new curve for the correction factor can be plotted
Q Ea
5 lll

as shown in Fig. 6. The constant A is readily obtained I Ell

from the correction factor KA and Eq. (39). The constant
B is equal to Z,‘ and is determined through the use of the
(bl FOR KNOWN SENDING EHO CONDITIONS
correction factors K, and K, of Fig. 6.
From Eqs. (16) and (E7) it can be seen that Fig. 7—Vector diagrams for determining voltage regulation of
short lines.
B B >< 10"“
C ZZ' arm’-—_7'ra:' (40) to-line voltages are applied to the following voltage equa~
where tions the impedance drop must be multiplied by \/3' {or
r=conduct0r resistance in ohms per mile. three-phase lines or by 2 for singlephese lines.
xwinductive reactance in ohms per milel In the following equations, (41) through (61), the sign of
:c’=capacitive reactance in megohms per mile. the power factor angle 41:, depends upon whether the current
Example 1(0)-wljetermine the ABC’ constants of the is lagging or leading. For a lagging power factor, ¢ and sin ¢-
transmission line of example 1. are negative; for a leading power factor, ¢ and sin ¢ are
From the curves of Fig. 6, for 2. 230»mile line positive. The cos of ¢ is positive for either lagging or leading
KA=0.897 current.
ER = ER = reference
From the curve for KA of Fig. 6 and from Eqs. (39) and
IWI cos ¢;;,+jI sin 963
(40) Z= R-}—jX»rs+_;ixs
_ 0.130 _
A»0.897+_;6:§i§(1 0.897) Es = E’R+IZ (41)
or
==0.897+j0.0164 E§= §_:7n—l-TR cos ¢R- Ix sin ¢,)+j(IX cos ¢B
B=Z,,,,=27.8+jl81.4 ohms (from example 1) -l-IR sin 1351;). (42)
C‘ p_ (27.8Jql'l8l.74)(10fQ7_77
In magnitude
(O.8l8)(0. 1917) —j(O.l30) ((11917)
=== --0.0000()639+j0.001l56 E$= \/(FR +-Tisin ¢R}‘+(l'X cos ¢n—l;I
(43)
II. REGULATION AND LOSSES __ If the TR and TX drops are not over 10 percent of Ea,
E5 can be determined for normal power-factors to within a
9. Analytical Solution for Voltage Regulation of half percent by neglecting its quadrature component.
Short Lines from Known Receiver Conditions Then
The commonest type of regulation problem is one in EBEEYR-‘l-IR COB ¢R"TX Sill (fig (44)
which it is desired to determine the voltage drop for known
receiving~end conditions. For the solution of this problem The voltage regulation of a. line is usually considered
it is more convenient to make ER the reference vector as
as the percent drop with reference to ER.
shown in Fig. 7(a). Unless denoted by the subscript L all Percent Reg. = (45)
voltages will be taken as line»to-neutral voltages. If line- B.
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines
For exact calculations formula (43) can be used with
Eq. 45.
Using the approximate formula (44) Eq. 45 can be
written _ can not readily be solved by analytical methods. For
Percent Reg. e%’§~I(r cos ¢R-»x sin ¢>R) (46)
R
The load in kva delivered to the receiving end of a
three~phasc line is given by the equation
- __acR1_\/231.211
I‘VA_10oo' 1.000 (47)
where EL is the line voltage at the receiving end.
The regulation expressed in terms of the load and the line-
to~line voltage can be written
Percent Reg. = (r cos dig-"13 sin qtn) (48)
1.
These equations show that the amount of load that can
be transmitted over a given line at a fixed regulation varies
inversely with its length. Using the regulation calculated
from thcsc equations to determine the receiver-end voltage
will give this quantity to B/f; percent if neither the resist—
ance nor reactive drops exceed more than 10 percent of the
terminal voltage. The percentage variance of the regula-
tion from its own correct value, however, may be great,
depending upon its actual magnitude and for this reason
such equations are not accurate for determining load limits
for fixed regulations.
Example 2-——The use of these equations can be illus-
trated by calculating the regulation on a three-phase line
five miles long having 300 O00 circular mil stranded copper
conductors at an equivalent spacing of four feet and carry-
ing a. load of 10 O00 kva at 0.8 p0wer~»factor lag and a
receiver line voltage of 22 O00 volts.
1'=€).2l5 ohms per mi and x"-=O.644 ohms per mi.
Applying Err (48)
Percent Reg. E
(100 000)(1O D00) (5)
(22 00032 [(0.2l5)(0.8l <o.c44)( 116)]
Reg. = 5.8%
10. Voitage Regulation of Short Lines from Known
Sending-End Conditions
To calculate tho receiving-end voltage from known
sending-end conditions it is more convenient to use Es as
the reference vector as shown in Fig. 7(b). For this case
E S = ES = reference
ER m E S -- IZ (49)
En”-(E8 —IRc0Sq5s+?Xsin¢s) -—j(TXcos¢>g+.TRsind>s) )
(so
EFF s_-TR
@0S¢s+TX sin <t=i)l+(TX coswos-lrfR SlIl¢g)2
(51)
Neglecting the quadrature component of ER:
E'a=Es—IR cos ¢s+TX sin qts (52)
11. Problems Containing Mixed Terminal Condi-
tions
Sometimes problems are encountered in which mixed
termmal conditions are given, such as load power factor
271
and sending-end voltage, or sending-end power factor and
receiver-end voltage, and it is desired to determine the
unknown voltage for given load currents. Such problems
instance, if it were desired to determine the receiver voltage
from known load power factor, sending end voltage, and
current, it would he necessary to solve for ER in Eq. (43)
by squaring both sides of the equation and obtaining a.
quadratic equation for EB. This is somewhat cumber-
some. Trial and error methods assuming successive values
of one of the two unknown quantities, are often more con»
venient. Also, it is sometimes found easier to solve such
problems by graphical means. The more important prob~
lerns of this type can be solved by use of the Regulation
and Loss Chart as shown in Sec. 28(d) of this chapter.
12. Taps Taken Ofi Circuit
Quite frequently the main transmission circuit is tapped
and power taken off at more than one point along the cir-
cuit. For such problems it is necessary to solve each in-
dividual section in succession in the same manner as dis-
cussed above, starting from a point at which sufiicient
terminal conditions are known.
£3. Resistance Losses of Short Transmission Lines
The total RT’ loss of a tliree-phase line is three times the
product of the total resistance of one conductor and the
square of its current. _
Loss = 3RI’ in watts. (53)
In percent of the delivered kw. load
Percent Loss = ~ (54)
E1, (303 (#3
It is sometimes desired to determine the amount of
power that can be delivered without exceeding a given
percent loss. This is given by
__ if cos” ¢R(% Loss)
KW W 100 0001's (55)
This equation shows that the amount of power that can
be transmitted for a given percent loss varies inversely
With the length of the line and directly with the loss.
14. Regulation of Long Lines from Known Receiver
Conditions
The effect of charging current on the regulation of
transmission lines can be determined from the equivalent
1r circuit. In Fig. 8(a) are shown the vector diagrams for
the case of known load conditions. The voltage drop in
the series impedance Z“, is produced by the load current
IE plus the charging current ‘$75 flowing through the shunt
8
impedance at the receiver end hf the line. For a given line
this latter current is dependent only upon the receiver
voltage ER.
There are two methods of taking this charging current
into account. One of these is to determine first the net
J
current (I§qmIn+%) that flows through ZN together
with its power-factceii angle ¢,,q. Using the equivalent
272 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines Chapter 9

k iqq =ig+!‘n=lg-['5 In 15. Regulation of Long Lines from Known Sending-

___. "i" -—-0
End Conditions
zm U For this case the equivalent current flowing through

i“"ll ‘tllii I
E
mi‘ .-r
Zéq can be determined as the difference between IS and
lg, the current in the shunt reactance at the endingend
of the equivalent circuit. The vector diagram and equa-
Laeoms woven ncron LEABING rowan FACTOR. tions for this case are shown in Fig. 8 (Fa).

1,, 55
16. Effect of Line Capacitance on Regulation Ex»
E’ fl pressed in Terms of a Correction Factor
3!‘
°‘Q Es.
mqx As an alternative method the voltage relations can be
--.
determined in e, form equivalent to adding a correction
‘$1 .. *
‘
L---“ factor to the terminal voltage instead of to the current.
This method has an advantage in that an average value
1,, ll“ can be token for this correction factor which is at function
la
1"" la 1-5+;
only of the length of the line.
Referring to the vector diagram of Fig. 8(a) for known
I ‘
'1'; fl1l‘l4'l(€-3‘ 1 lg ain éq) -1“ can bfit ll“ cl» Q"
-. l . receiving-end conditions and lagging poweofactor, it is
seen that the vector equation for the sending-end voltage
E, - E, + 1,, 2" E5 can be Written in the following form in terms of the
tn roa movm éscewms em: ooaomous
load current IR and receiving-end voltage EB if the cur-
rent IR’ is expressed in terms of ER:
is
E3 = (1 00$ ¢R— XMTR sin $3
lea I-I‘,
911

1': Q 0 I‘
»+-j(+»%~‘f-°5ER+X,qfg cos ¢;;+R.,ql-R sin (fag) (56)
€\ q ___________E§______ ii
-11": ‘ Q“ E 414“
When the quadrature component of E3 is neglected, its
a, n _ magnitude can be expressed as
la 1' "ax
in Es=(1--é;fi)ER+RwTR cos en-xwfn sin 45,, <57)
eQ
l14"i1'§i%‘ From the same considerations that enabled average
as
values to be taken for the correction factors of the equiv-
'l$“‘¢5*l (‘gs t lg mi,’ -T" cos§Nt]l.qslnO.: alent rr impedance discussed in Sec. 7 an average value
E; ' E“"l‘q 1“
Xe .
can be assumed for E73 in Eq. (57).
"ll FDR KNOW" QENDIIIG KY“) ¢°NU|TlON$ 9Q

Fig. 8—Vector diagrams for determining voltage regulation of %=0.o201s= (as)

long lines. Zea
Where S is the length of the line in hundreds of miles. An
series impedance Zgq and this current instead of the load approximate expression can thus be obtained for the regu-
current all of the nnalyticol expressions developed for lation of long lines similar to that of Eq. (46).
short llI16S are applicable. The equivalent terminal con- 1001' . .
ditions to use are shown in Fig. 8 co. App. % Reg. = -E%‘(R,,q c0s¢p,—- X5.1 sindml - 2.0lS* (59)
Example 3-»-As an example of the use of this method R

consider the line of example 1, operating at at line voltage Similar analysis can be applied to problems involving
at the receiver end of llO kv delivering 2t load current In known sending end conditions. A comparison of Eqs.
of 50 amperes at 0.9 power-factor lagging. (59) and (46) shows that when ZN is used for long lines,
En“ (110,000+j0)/\/3 =63,500+j0 the equations are of the same form with the exception of
the correction factor (--2.0182). For lines up to 100 miles
In=5Ue“i“"‘° =5i){cos (—25.8°) +j sin(--25.8°)] in length short line formulas can usually be applied to a
245-j21.8 amps good degree of accuracy by merely adding this term to the
E 110 O00—}—jO . result. This, of course, neglects the correction factors K,
I’R = l
Zéq = »--3.-»eeeA = ampfi
and K,‘ for Zeq.
I.>q=IR+1;=45-j21.8+,13s.s=45+;"17=4s.1d”°~’° 17. Determination of Voltage at Intermediate
Zgq = 27.8+j181.4 =183.5e”“'23° Points on a Line
E5 = 63,500+ (48.1e’”°'7°°) (183.5e’s“”°)
The voltage at intermediate points on a line may he
= 6l,700+j864O
calculated from known conditions at either terminal by
"‘Sine of negative angle is (—), of positive angle is (+). simply setting up the equivalent circuit for the line be-
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines 273
E
tween the terminal and the intermediate point. For the
line thus set up any of the methods given above may be
used.
$1
18. Resistance Losses of Long Lines
The effect of charging current on line losses can he
treated as in Sec. 14 for regulation. Referring to Fig. 8
the loss can be considered to be due to the current
Vi‘ REFERENCE
Fig. 9——Diagram for determining the vector equation for
Ie,,=1;;+1R’=1S—1s’ flowing through the equivalent
power.
resistance (RN).
Thus in terms of the load current
For leading or capacitive power factor, <1: is negative and
Loss=3Req{IR+ IR’)? watts (60)
the imaginary component wili be negative. A complete
W. 2? E‘ . F2 discussion of the direction of the {low of reactive power is
:‘3fgeq{:I£‘“l‘""":_IL% sin ¢>R+=—’-1] watts (61)
Zéq Zéq’ given in Chap. 10, Sec. 2.

20. Current and Power Equations and Circle Dia-

HI. CIRCLE AND LOSS DIAGRAMS grams for Short Lines
Equations for iine currents, power, and resistance losses Using the above notation the per phase power at either
can be expressed as functions of the terminal voitagcs and end of a line is given by the product of the linc~to~neutral
system constants. Such equations and graphical repre- voltage and the conjugate of the current at the particular
sentations of them are found convenient not only for the end in question. if I S is chosen as positive for current
more common types of performance problems but also in flowing into the iinc, positive sending-end power indicates
connection with system stability. The graphic form of power delivered to the line; and if Ip, is taken as positive
the power and current equations are very similar and are for current flowing out of the line, positive receiving-end
known as “circle diagrams.” Of these the power circle power indicates power flowing out of the line.
diagram is the most important. In the past t-his diagram Referring to Fig. E:
has been prirnariiy limited in its use to transmission sys-
Is 3 IR = I
tems. However, it is thought that if its simplicity and the
clarity with which it depicts system performance are P s'i"_?Qs = EST
better understood, it will be applied more frequently to PR+jQR= ER?
both transmission and distribution problems. The current can be expressed in terms of the terminal
voltage as follows:
19. Vector Equations for Power
In previous editions of this book, iagging reactive power I= also imlii-Eli‘ (cs)
was considered as negative and leading reactive power
positive. This conformed to the standard adopted by the Thus
American Institute of llllcctricai Engineers at that time. Eggs ’ Egg};
Ps "i'".7'Qs m
The convention has now been adopted as standard by the Z
Institute that lagging reactive power be considered as
positive and leading reactive power negative. Using this Pn."i*J'Qa m -—W""""-W"—-ERERZ,+
ERES
notation the vector expression for power can be \vrii',ter1 as
the product of the voltage and the conjugate of the If ER be talizen as the reference, _thcn Es --*jE_Self_,an,d
current. E5ER=E5ER656; ERER=Ef1; and EREg=EREg

P+iQ=E1’ (62) e“i". The expressions for scnding- and receiving-end power
become M2 H. l*~*% _
This can be shown with reference to Fig. 9.
PS+J.QS$_I;§__E'3E'R@ia
E=§' cos 0e+iE sill a, (54)
I“! COS Sin 6;

.7=il cos 6;-_7'I sin 6;

ET=El_(cos 6e+j sin 6e)l (cos 0i—j sin 8,)
=E'I [(cos 6; cos 9i+sin 8., sin -9iH~j(sin 6,, cos Bi
--cos 6% sin l9;)]
since, cos (8.-¢—6;) woos 68 cos 6i+sin 6,, sin 61
and sizllfile»-61)=sin 60 (nos 9;—cos 6", sin 6;
Ef=EI cos (6e—9i)+jEI sin (6,,~—9;)
Let 4: be 0,~—6;; then for lagging or inductive power
factors ¢ is positive and
P+jQmET=ET cos ¢+j§f sin ¢».
.
PR-l-JQR“ or n n -@ no,
The sending and receiving end real and reactive power is
the sum of two vector quantities. Furthermore, if the
voltages and ER are held constant, there is only one re-
maining variable, 9. The interpretation of Eqs. (04) and
(65) in the form of power circle diagrams is an important
concept. its simplicity is self evident by referring to Eq.
(C4) and Fig. 10. _
E3 is plotted as shown on Fig. 10 and is
The first term Y,
the vector to the center of the sending end circle diagram.
2'74 Regulation and Losses of Transmission I/zines Chapter 9
on
the coordinates of the diagram are per-phase real volt-
rowan arnperes and per-phase reactive volt-amperes. When ex-
senor
vs pressed in kilovolts, the coordinates become thousands of
\ kilowatts and thousands of reactive kilovolt-amperes.
Total three-phase power is three times the per-phase
power. All oi the expresgiicgis for power written contain
products of Eg, Eli, or ESER. When given in terms of
CENTER OF line»to-line voltages, they are all three times as great as
SENDING END when line-to-neutral voltages are used and thus the
UlRGLE
equations then represent total three-phase power.
b
El
Essi-
'“_-T'-
Referring to Fig. l0 for the operating condition indi-
Z cated by the given angle 9 the point A of the power circle
diagram shows the value of P9 and Q3 being delivered to
r -E “ Pom. the line at the sending end and the point B the value
I-IGGING Of PR and QR drawn from the line at the gecciver end. The
vor.:r messes , difference between PS and PR is the RI2 loss of the line
l p itself for this operating condition.
l 2 7 l nan. The value of Q at each end is the reactive power which
Lssnms __' ' ""55 must be supplied to the line in the case of the sending end
vour r~4>l,'," or drawn from the line in the case of the receiving end in
AIIPERES S p'+ 1°“ order to maintain the chosen terminal voltages. At the
czmsn or B _ E 4' receiving end the reactive power drawn by the load itself
neocwmc sun p at the particular load power factor may not be equal to
caucus ‘ 2 that required to maintain the desired voltage. If a syn-
chronous condenser is used at the receiving end, the dif-
ference must be supplied by the condenser to maintain the
voltage.
It will be noted that for a given network and given
voltages at both ends there is a definite limit to the amount
of power which may be transmitted. If the angle 9 is
increased beyond this point, the amount of power trans-
Fig. 10—-Power circle diagram for short lines. mitted is reduced. The critical value of 6 for this condition
was shown by Eq. G6 to be 6 my. The only way the power
The second term — , which is the radius of the circle limit may be increased for a given network is by increasing
the voltage at either or both ends. Increasing the voltage
is added to this first term so that the resultant is the send- at one end increases the radius of both circles in direct
ing end real and reactive power. A complete sending end proportion and moves the center at that end only away
circle diagram is obgined by first determining the center from the origin, along a line connecting the original center
to the origin, proportional to the square of the voltage at
of the circle from -gé, and second, the rmius~ » that end. Where the network is subject to change, changes
letting 9 = O. in network constants will also change the power limit.
The receiving-end circle diagram is obtained in the same Referring to Fig. 10 and Eq. (66), it is evident that a
manner. decrease in the magnitude of Z will result in an increase in
the power which may he transmitted. Thus any change
Equations (64) and (65) can be reduced in general terms
which decreases the series impedance such as the addition
to Cartesian coordinate form in which the real and reactive
of parallel circuits will increase the power limit.
parts are separated. However, it is simpler to insert the
proper numerical values in the vector and conjugate form Since the conjugate of the phase current, in ampercs, is
and solve by polar and Cartesian coordinates, from which
the per-phase power in volt-amperes at either end divided
by the phase voltage at the same end, either the sending-
the circle diagrams can then be plotted.
If Eq. (65) is reduced to Cartesian-coordinate form it end or receiving-end power circles, when placed in the
proper quadrants, can be used to represent the locus of the
can be shown that the maximum power that can be re-
current with a proper change in scale of the coordinates.
ceived over the line is obtained when 0 is equal to
Referring to the sending end circle diagram of Fig. 10,
'7=tan“* g, the angle of the line impedance. The expres- Ps+J'Qs=ET and for the point A, Q5 is positive lagging
reactive power. Therefore the imaginary component of the
sion for the maximum receiving power is conjugate of the current is positive; the imaginary com-
F51 ESE}! ponent of the current is negative. If the power circle dia-
grams are rotated about the real power axis so that the
It can also be seen from Fig. 10 that P3 is maximum when center of the sending-end circle is in the fourth quadrant
9 = '7. E’ .
When the line-to-neutral voltages are expressed in volts, (-2-? will then be the vector to center), and the center of
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses cf Transmission I/i-nes 275

the receiving end circle is in the second quadrant, then the gether with the quantities for laying out the diagram.
power circle diagrams properly represent the current circle Since the coordinate of the center of the power circles
diagrams if the appropriate change in scale of the coor- depends only on ER which is fixed, all the circles have the
dinates is made. Lagging reactive current is negative and same center but different radii corresponding to the differ-
leading reactive current is positive. ent values of sending end voltages.
if the sending-end circle is used the current is referred Examination of this figure shows, for example, that the
to the sending end voltage as the reference vector and the maximum load at 0.9 power fact-or lag which can be carried
coordinates should be divided by the sending end voltage. by the line at 5 percent regulation without reactive power
For instance, if the sending—end power diagram were con- correction is that indicated by point A or about 2600 kw.
structed using line-to-line voltages in kilovolts resulting in If it is desired to transmit a load of 5000 kw indicated by
power coordinates given in thousands of total three-phase point B, the regulation would be about 11 percent without
l{il0VOli,~&YI1pE3l‘8S, the power coordinates shouid be divided rkva correction. To reduce the regulation for this load to
by \/3 times the line-to—line sending end voltage in kilo- 5 percent would require that the receiver and load condi»
voits giving current coordinates in thousands of amperes. tions be that indicated by the point. C, and it is evident
If the receiving end circle is used, the current is referred to that about 2400 lagging; reactive kilovolt-amperes must be
the receiving end voltage as reference. For the current supplied to the receiver end of the Eine to attain this c0ndi~
circle diagrams the angle 8 still, of course, refers to the tion by having capacitors or a synchronous condenser
angle between the two terminal voltages. supply that amount of lagging reactive kilovolt-ainpcres.
For a study of the performance of a system it is somc~
times found convenient to plot on the power circle diagram 21. Current and Power Equations and Circle Dia~
a family of circles corresponding to various operating volt- grams for Long Lines
ages. The most common case is one in which the line is to Representing long lines by their equivalent 1r circuit as
operate at a fixed receiver voltage and it is desired to de- shown in Fig. ii results in modifying the form of the simple
termine the line performance for various sending-cud volt- short, line equivalent circuit by the addition of the shunt
ages. For such a case the receiver diagram is usually all capacitive reactances at each end
that is needed. z;,, =Z;qv1"°"= ._jXéq
Example 4—An example of this type of problem is
shown in Fig. 11. There the line constants are given t0~ Thus the equations for the terminal currents have an
additional tcrln as shown in Fig. 8.

it L Is= ESZM ER-l“-5,8} is“

9'1 841 eq
ER+£S-
gq
(67)

l H 10 ‘M ANGLE FOR _Es—-ER__&_ _Es"Ea_:E_I_g 6

1 LAGGING LOAD
__ Powsnmoron ‘ IR" Z... Z:...’f“' 2;; (8)
;/ OF as ‘ The sending- and receiving-end power is determined in
l_______ ,_ T; ,*_f the same manner as for the short line.
- -no Y ab * 30
POWER PS+iQS=EJs
m uw no *2 ""2
. l __|Q ..
W251-EiE“+€%. (69)
eq Zfiq Zeq

aI111.re'>alu
Rewriting Eq. (69) in a slightly different form
~ \ E24“é,,p_ ""2 _2 _ “ '8

,i
/I
,____._ 195+JQ S = (..E.§.+§) _§é'.1.’i_ (70)
‘E WEE --20

H“
1411]
..,]
" *
AV
ozggé ‘E1
REC-EWER
Zea Zea
Similarly for receiving end power:
2&1

fa 4\”~2 3xjqo 30 l cmcuzs I

AT CTVE P + =(‘““““.‘.."X‘l“"'““A‘§')“i“*"T"_—»
. E2 E2 EiREg6'3’
71
REA “ JQ“ Z6. 24.. at ( )
1 ceurea T " "_"'§"”" W" " "—‘ Md‘ A comparison of Eq. (70) with (64), and (71) with (65)
*'v»»»»»»>»»»"\i-h °" . . l W . i shows them to be of the same form consisting of a. fixed
1 ; RECEIVING ‘l vector with a second vector constant in magnitude but
cm 01.55 ,_,,_ _____ ___ . _.i _.j ._ ___L__Jr__ c__~_l_.c variable in phase, added to it. The power circle diagram
Fig. 1l—Family of receiver power circles for a 15~mile line with can be plotted as shown in Fig. 12. The circle diagram is
N0. 0008-19 strand-copper conductors and 4-foot equivalent most easily obtained by the numerical and vector substitu-
spacing. tion for the voltages and impedances. The center and the
Receiver voltage ER=22-kv 1ine~tc~line. radius of the circle can then be calculated by reduction
r $0.303 ohm per mile. using a combination of polar and Cartesian coordinates.
x=O.fi65 ohm per mile. Example 5 illustrates the method and shows the power
Z =2s = 10.94 ohms. circle diagrams which are obtained in Fig. 13.
276 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines Chapter 9

s 3'4 a l A 2.,-(am + ;|B1.4) or-ms

Zhq Z'Qq REACTVE.

POWQR
___L__l_..;_..____.l __A TEXT
7 T
T'""”__"+_ VE
REACT Iz',q= -peas onus]:
_ _» ‘

VNAR ‘KOVIER
'1 1" ’ 1 Y l " ‘ ll’
’§7C,@: é csrnan or ssuoauc ~
0£NT€R OF Tl l * '” ; i 1 ti am: cmcca i
'37 4? 5ENDlNG END
l l 1
E52 Es
2
i -—q‘
W cmcu-: ‘ MM_i___L__2°O*mmH =~i--- + -I--lI43.6+;25|.8 i

E E ' g in
NI
n
N ea 1
l
LAGGING T__ 1
VOLT AMPERE$ WE“: *€L§5f“ near l
-l _ ____J~. ‘= 1501 e l— l
:___l . _.-, J "I "‘ .; rowan c E l
*1 1 -'—,_l'---sac-;24ai\~* l * . —
‘
LEADING " ’l§“‘ -El _ K .=, . 10, t
vow 1.. in \ .,.i._ J24 -..’ l
1 - c c c7
loo . l ‘ I-“l°\-"l'°°*”l4°l
<osp.1.!1.o¢o: V
.AMPERE$ csmzn or ‘Q E E-io
lI
I
‘I Pnqqn. V
RECEIVMG -
. n
Z.“
I
‘
_. if (l00+j20) ‘ V
END O1RCLE
nl II 7 V - AL rowan-
l
' l -1<3<>.-;8 1
'4'! ...::=.a * ‘l W W‘
I |0 ;
5 .. ..___[._..:.»..zzzz- I I P,+1o,~ L
l_T§__:E".H;g_d+;gLg I -uoa+i|:n , * .
ii? Q! 23 ‘ ‘

Fl _|Q l ‘,,,,,,,,,
Fig. 12—Power circle diagram for long lines.
l I V 1

In Eqs. (70) and (71) the terms I-—i—— caursn or 7 " l~—~-}— ‘ “
Lu» necswme zno ”_ r I __,_
55- and -Ei
R
§§ 3: canons l t l l
2:11 Zgq .-7- _ K-| --35,0-5190.5 _____-.-. o ~
._,Z-ga Z39_____c l - . ,,,,,,,1 i . . r,
are not a function of the angle 6 and therefore add directly
to the “short line” fixed vector so that the effect is to shift Fig, 13-Equivalent circuit and power circle diagram for a 230-
mlle line with 500 000 circular mil. stranded copper conductors
the center of the power circles in the direction of volt- and an equivalent spacing of 22 feet.
amperes only. The presence of the shunt reactances
Operating voltages; Es =23G-»kv, ER @200-kv, line~»to—line.
decreases the amount of positive reactive volt-amperes put For this line r =-=0.}30 ohms per miie.
into the sending end of the line for a given amount of real x =-43.818 ohms per mile.
power and increases the positive volt-amperes delivered at :1:'=0.19l7 megohms per mile.
the receiving end. This decreases the amount of leading From curves of Fig. 6 for 230 miles
reactive v0lt—amperes which would have to be absorbed by K, $0.931
synchronous condensers or capacitors for a. given load K, = 0.964
condition. It does not affect the real power conditions for kt =0.982
a given operating angle or the load limit of the line. These 2,. = (27.54-1181.4) ohms; z',,.,= 41635 ohms.
factors are determined entirely by the series impedance of
the line. Example 5-Fig. 13 shows the power circle diagram
Referring to Fig. 12, if the radius of the receiving-end constructed for an actual line.
circle for HMO were plotted with the origin as the center, The power circle diagrams are obtained from Eqs. (70)
the vector would be at an angle 7 with the real power axis. and (71). If line-to—neutral voltages in kv are used, the
The angle indicated on Fig. 12 is therefore equal to 7, results must be multiplied by three to obtain real and re~
the angle of the equivalent series impedance. The marc- active power in mw and mvar. If the line~to-line voltages
imum real power that can be delivered over the line occurs in kv are used, the results are three-phase power in mw
when 9= 7. and mvar. _
2 5
The current circle diagrams for the sending- and rc- Vector to center = 55+ 55
ceiving—end currents can be obtained as discussed in Sec. 2&1! Z80
20. The sencling—end current diagram is obtained from the
sending-end power circle and is referred to the sending~
E <2se)* + (230?
end voltage vector as reference. The receiving-end current
27.8—j181.-4 +j1635
diagram is obtained from the receiving-end power circle and ___ (zoo)! + (230?
is referred to the receiving-end voltage. 183.46-181-2*’ 1“6éBF5°
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines 277

-e 2884*“~*8'+32.4¢-19°‘ CENTER OF
5ENDlNG ENU
M 43.6 +j284 --332.4 = 43.6 +j251.6 _ /1 ClRCLE DMGRAM

_ . - ESERGN \
/ I
Radius of the sending end c1rcEe= — ——-~— for 6=0.
ZN l
\
\.1“-’l$"J. . E21;
F _ 22.0><‘2oo = _251 as-=8°= -3s.0-1248 . ésenor
VvE n ' 1'5
. I 5 Z" R
27.8 47181.4 "'1\\
905 POWE
T §| .u,
Ps"i"".ilQs (for 6==0) =43.6+j25l.6 ——38.0--j248= 5.6~l-j3.fi
1 II
l__.'r;_.|. :. N ,. N.I
Similarly for the receiving circle:
E M 2 i 1 \ I

/ (Fe ....
YO
Vector to ccnter= mi“? N

29‘! ZEQ.
w-’. .l¢
NI“ ‘--._-/
at -— (200): _ (200)? =
—-33.0--jl90.5 l Z"/if am
27.8-j181.4 +ji635. / _
I Q ‘gifiejo
. ESFR . H
for 0 = O, Radius = T = 33.0 —l-3248
eq

and PR+jQn E -—~33.0 —jl9U.5+38.0+j248 = 5.0+j57.5

,’
I 5“
Figure 13 shows the power circle diagrams plotted from I
the calculated results given above. Suppose it is desired to ~ /
deliver 3. load of 100 mw at 0.9 power factor lagging; 1
i.o., P+_jQ1~i00»~l»»j48. From the curves of Fig. 13, for a I PQSETEVE
delivered power of 100 mw the angle 6 is 23.5’. The fol- Rantjowen Z
lowing values from the circle diagrams are PS~]-jQ5w 108
+j11 and 193+jQR= 100+j20. These values are indicated Fig. 15—Power circle diagram for the general equivalent a‘
circuit.
on the diagram of Fig. 14. The arrow indicates the direc-
SENDING END RECEIVING END ceiving-end power can be written directly from equations
E,-230 xv E; =200 KV (79) and (71).
occ c c+1.
I06
~ ~~ -... . .=L*>»==*
loo ta ioo
E2 E2 E E’ cl’
P S st."JQ5 =(__§.;___§_)_i_l_
Zeq ZS, Zen
(72)
(n) (20) g (48)
and Pn“l“.7QR = (_Z%_2fi
A E’ ESE‘, er U3)
SY NCHRONOU5
CONDENSER
The construction of the power circle diagrams is the
Fig. l4—Recorded values of power flow as obtained from same as for the long liom as shown in Fig. 12. in the case
Fig. 13 and Example 5.
of the general equivalent 1?, Z 3‘ repiaces Zm,’ at the sending
tion of positive real power flow. Inductive lagging re- end and ZR’ replaces ZN’ at the receiving end. The effect
active power in the some direction is positive and is the of resistance and reactzmcc in the shunt branch at the
value in parenthesis. These designations and nomcr1clo.- sending or the receiving end can be visualized better if the
tare follow prcsont~do,y network calculator practice. impedance is expressed in Cartesian coordinate form.
At the receiving end there is a. deficit of lagging reactive Referring to Eq. (72), the second quantity in the first term
power. A synchronous condenser operating overexcited becomes
'2 ""2 T2 I ‘Y2 1
would be required to supply 28 rnvar. If the condenser is
considered as a load the direction of the arrow can be E%= Rs.E?
Zn -JXs
.=E¥??*e+r§i"l‘
Zea Zea
we
reversed with a, minus sign in front of the value for the
reactive power. The synchronous condenser is then taking This quantity is added to the “short line” vector to center,
negative, or leading reactive power.
E5.
22. Current and Power Equations and Circle Dia- Z1-q
grams for the General Equivalent 1r Circuit
This point as applied to the sending end circle diagram
The circle diagrams are applicable to the study of the is iilustratgd in fig. 15. The complete vector to center is
performance of an overall system. Such :1 system can be F” F12
represented by an equivalent 1r circuit of the form shown shown as —i‘1+¢.3, as the sum of the two individual vector
Zeq Z S! _
in Fig. 15. For such a case the shunt impedances usually 2

are not equal and have resistance components introduced quantities, and as the sum of the vector E155 and the Can-
by the presence of other equipment containing resistance. W2 1 -2 I
EH

If the shunt impedances take the completely general tcsian coordinates and jg-ixi.
form of Z Q’ and ZR’, the equations for sending~ and re- Zég Z32
278 Regulation and Losses of Transmission I/Ines Chapter 9

Referring to Fig. 15 and Eq. (74) the effect of resistance
is to shift the center of the circle in the direction of in-
creased positive reai power. A positive reactance shifts the
center in the direction of increased positive reactive power;
a negative reactance shifts the center in the direction of
decreased positive reactive power.
In the case of the receiving-end circle diagram, the effect
of resistance is to shift the center of the circle in the
direction of increased negative real power.
reactance shifts the center in the direction of increased
negative reactive power; a negative rcaotance shifts the
center in the direction of decreased negative reactive
power.
The current circle diagrams for this case can be de-
termined as discussed in Secs. 20 and 21.
23. Loss Diagram
Although the resistance loss can be taken from the power
circle diagram, it can be obtained more accurately and
conveniently from the Loss Diagram.
Loss = PS — PR
For the case where the transmission line alone is being
considered
L%s=2€fi§R—Emmm%€R(R cos !9-~X sin 19)
E2 E E‘
+§§R»--gziie cos e+x S111. a)
R E,E'
= (E§+E§l;%*—2-~%§R cos 9
The graphical representation of this equation is given in
Fig. 16. _
_l'
‘ LOSS FOR
li LOSS
‘NE FOR
ALONE GENERAL £OUlV. 1'!
l
—-@__ Q
As shown by Fig. 16 this is equivalent to the formula for
the loss on the_transmission line alone except for the terms
E-Ré and -E-'i;—R,’,, which represent the losses in the
(Zé)’ (Z192
resistance components of the shunt impedances Z5 and
Z5.
As was the case for the previous power equations, if
line-to-neutral voltages are used, the loss is on a per
A positive phase basis; and if line—to-line voltages are used the totai
t-hree»phase loss is represented.
An equation for the Eoad which can be delivered at a.
given percent line loss on lines regulated by synchronous
capacity is important in determining their performance.
Upon the assumption of equal sending» and receiving-end
voltages a very simple approximate equation can be de-
rived which gives an accuracy of a fraction of a percent over
the practical operating range of loss and regulation. When
loss is expressed as a percentage of PR1 this equation is:
PR m _ (77)
(100+% Loss) R,,,Zjq
A corresponding equation for QR is
-— X ‘,7 Loss 1
Qt =52 Te“-(1 + -L-__)~_-]
100 Xéq <78>
PR in Eq. (77) is, of course, independent of the load
power factor and from Eq. (78) the required amount of
synchronous capacity to maintain equal sending~ and
receiving-end voltages for the delivered load Pa can be
obtained by subtracting the reactive kva of the load
fI‘0!'I‘1 QR.
(75)
24. Current and Power Reiations in Terms of the
ABCD Constants
In many cases it is desirable to use ABCD ll! constants
because of the desirability of the check AD—BC = 1. This
is particularly true Where there are several combinations of
circuits including transmission lines, series impedances and
shunt impedances. Expressions for sending and receiving
end power can be obtained readily and the circle diagrams
can be drawn.
E3$AER+BIR

Is L" CER+DIR (80)

5,,
2,
-2..l*fir“
2?“-c
can4I
-2 ER='~DEg—BIs (81)
..l IRm-C'Eg+./llg (82l
‘l 1:1
Soiution of the above equations for Is and Ip, gives:
E+2
-2--Q
1S=§Es~5‘; is=§Es—~E-E. <83)
1L
5;? 0. B B E §

Fig. 16-—-The transmission line loss diagram {when _solvlng__for

general equivalent 1: loss, substitute Rm for R and Zeq for Z).
I R =—~—-E
B B R ; In =T~Ts.
E3 /1.
B B R
E3 3
(84)

For the general equivalent tr circuit, the equation for Ps+,7'Qs=Esjs

loss is _ D_E,=,ER
Loss -_ [E5
-. +E;.]i:+
E‘ R9 @129, “E5285 5»
1 _W ESER
+F~W~Zé)2RR 2mm--~22:RM cos 9 (76)
‘For definition of ABCD constants see Chap. 10 Sec. 21.
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines 279

PR'i‘jQR=ER-ifl Further discussion of the use of ABCD constants and

power angle diagrams is given in Chapter ii), Sec. 21.

IV. TYPICAL TRANSMISSION

— A E11E5€_ie LINE CHARACTERISTICS
=—E’RB'l"
~.~ ———————
B ( 86 l
In any detailed analysis of power flow, voltage regulation,
where and losses involving a transmission line circuit, each line
A=A1+].Ag=Z€ja; A“~*A.1""""]'.Ag=ZE']'n should be considered imiividualiy with regard to its
B=B1+jB;#Eel*" B=B,—jB2=§e""5*° specific characteristics. However, for rough app1'oxima—
tions there are certain rules of thumb that apply to an
D=D,+jD,=fio-* o= D1—jI)2=Ee"i‘ “average” line and that can be used for orientation
PBRSOHFE.
The sending- and receiving-end power can be obtained
readily from solution of Eqs. (85) and (86) by numerical A study was made of recently constructed transmission
suhatitiition using polar and Cartesian coordinates. iilqs. lines in the United States in the voltage range from 69 to
(85) and (86) take the familiar form (see Sec. 20) of a fixed 230 kv and Table 3 shows tho results. This table is a good
vector plus a vector of constant. magnitude but variable in representative cross section oi existing lines and gives iin~
phase position. 'i‘E1e circle diagram construction is shown portant characteristics of typical lines. The conductor
in Fig. 17. The maximum real power that can be de~ sizes, spacings, and type of tower construction represent
the most common usage. For the middle value of spacing,
the cliaracteristios of the aluminum conductor and its
REACTIVE copper equivaicnt are given to illustrate the difference
POWER between typos of conductors. In previous years, copper
l conductors were used more frequently although the present
trend seems to be toward the use of ACSR conductors.
The spacings given were modified slightly in some in-
stances so as to follow a smooth curve of spacing vs.
voltage for the di[l'crenL types. of construction. Regardillg
i semen or the type of construction, it appears that the particular
Asanoins am CIRCLE locale dictates the material used. As a matter of fact, in
z*%
‘ B
--
_EsEn £10 certain sections of the world reinforced concrete poles are
8
A
B
used because of the unavailability and high cost of either
steel or wood.
LAGGING E,E,, The fill-cycle series reactance in ohms per mile is given
VOLT memes ——,,—- “AL for each line in the table. The average of these values is
l __ ' 5”“! Poweg 0.79»-ll ohm per miie, which indicates that the rule of
l qr, approximately 0.8 ohm per mile for a transmission line is
LEADING vou Pflifil applicable. Frequently, it is desired to know the per»
AMPERES
Q cent rcactance per mile of a line and for convenience this
M In “"“‘ EA! ‘-jg value is also given. The percent reactance varies directly
w>>>m>
-
K
S
with the kva base so that for some base other than 100
CENTER OF rnva, tho percent reactance can also be determined con-
ECEEWNG END UIRGLE
venicntly.
As previously mentioned, the use of susceptance is less
at present because of the manner in which tables of con-
ductor characteristics are given. The shunt-capacitive
reactancc in megohms per mile is therefore included in this
table. The susccpt-ance can be determined by taking the
reciprocal of the shunt-capacitive reactance. The suscept-
Fig. 17»»Power circle diagram in terms of ABCD constants. ancc is in micromhos per mile. Shunwzapacitive react-—
ancc varies inversely with the distance in miles.
The average value of the shunt capacitive rcactances in
livered occurs when lied, which is the angle of the con- Table 3 is 0.1878 megohm per mile. A good rule is that 0.2
stant B. The angle 5 is indie-at-ed on Fig. 17. megohm pcr mile may be used for the shunt—capacitive
A lJ_!‘9%ll<Cl0Wl1 Of E1218. (85) and (86) into their Cartesian reactance. It is significant to note that regardless of the
coordinate form gives the equation for loss in the form Voltage, conductor size, or spacing of a line, the series
LQ$S“”P5*PRm rcactanco and shuot~capacitivo rcactance are respectively,
approximately 0.8 ohm and 0.2 mcgrohm per mile.
E28 E22: 2E E B cost‘? The cliarging kva per mile of line is a convenient value
§;iB1Dl+BzD2l +?(B1A1+-BZAE} — vi-i%3:;L~%
for reference and is given in column 9 of the table. This
{$7} value varies with the voltage of the line. Some convenient
280 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines Chapter 9

TABLE 3. TYPICAL TRANSMISSION LINE CHARACTERISTICS AT 60 Cvcuas

—— — — — * * W 7 ~ ' ' 1 7'" 7 ' '7" 7' T’ 7 7
Reactonee Per Phase l Shunt- Surge
Conductor Resis(:- Per Mile 1Three Surge
Capacitive Impedance
Circuit Size ance at ~—"--—-—-M ~y~--~~"~--"~"-~——-' Reaotance 1 Phase imp.-.~aJ Loading
Voltage ‘Thousands ‘ ‘Power Equiv. l 50°C Ohms ‘ % on 100 Megohms Charging once (SIL)in
Kv of Cir. Mils C0ust.ruc- Spacing ; Per Phase ‘ Mva, Three ‘ Per Phase iKva Per Ohms i'1‘hree ?haae
l'..~L or AVYG tiou* Feel. Per Mile ‘ Ohms Phase Base l Per Mile Milo l~N
J . Kw

00 2/0 Cu sc»\\- 0.481 0.7843 1.64 1 0.1822 i 20.1 378 12 000

69 336.4 ACSR I)o-s'r 0.306 0.7420 1.55 0.1750 27.2 360 13 200
69 4/0 Cu SC-W 0.303 0.8112 1.70 0.1902 25.0 303 12 100
69 330.4 ACSR sow 0.306 0.7712 1.61 0.1822 26.1 375 12 700
09 330.4 ACSR SO-ST 0.300 0.8083 1.69 0.1913 24.9 393 12 100

115 330.4 ACSR l)C-ST 0.306 0.7622 0.576 0.1800 74.7 370 35 700
115 4/'0 Cu SC-W 0.303 0.8348 0.631 0.1960 67.5 404 32 700
115 330.4 ACSR SC-Vi’ 0.306 0.7948 0.601 0.1880 70.4 386 34.200
115 330.4 ACSR SC-ST 0.306 0.8261 0.624 ‘ 0.1056 67.6 402 82800

138 307.5 ACSR DC-ST 0.259 0.7636 0.401 0.1809 105. 371 51 200
138 250 Cu SC-W 0.257 0.8317 0.436 0.1952 97.6 404 47 100
138 307.5 ACSR S C-W 0.250 0.7857 0.412 0.1864 102. 382 49 800
138 397.5 ACSR S C~ST 0.250 0.8200 0.430 0.19-19 97.7 399 47 600

101 397.5 ACSR DC-ST 0.259 0.7788 0.300 0.1847 140. 379 68 400
161 250 Cu S C-W’ 0.257 0.8383 0.323 0.1068 132. 406 63800
161 307.5 ACSR SC-W 0.250 0.7023 0.305 0.1380 138. 386 67 200
161 307.5 ACSR SC—$T 0.259 0.8250 0.318 0.1901 132. 402 64400

230 705 ACSR I)C~ST 0.1288 0.7081 0.145 0.1821 291. 374 141 000
230 500 HH-Cu SC-‘W 0.1260 0.7436 1 0.140 0.1800 294. 305 145 000
230 705 ACSR SC-W 0.1288 0.7830 0.148 0.1859 285. 381 139000
230 795 ACSR SC-ST 0.1288 0.8007 0.153 0.1922. 275. 394 134 000
Avg . 0 . 7941 f i i A vg. 0.1218 _ ._ Ava-386,1 _
"‘DC~S'1‘—doul>lo clrcuit-—steel tower W 0
SC-W -single circuit -—w0od
SC-ST —-single circuit fisteel to\s'er
”"'J.‘wo-erossnrm constmuction forming triangular configuration.
All other SC-W are H frame construction.

rules are given for estimating charging l(V& in the following
discussion.
The surge imiledanee of a transmission line is numeri-
cally equal to It is a function of the line inductance
and capacitance as shown and independent of line length.
A convenient average value of surge impedance is 400 ohms.
As shown in the table, this value is more representative of
the larger stranded copper conductors than it is for the
ACSR conductors. Conipared to the average value of 380
ohms from the table, 400 ohms is o good approximation.
Surge-impedance loading in mw is equal to
(lCV1',- [)2
Surge Impedance
and can be defined as the unit power factor load that 5-an
be delivered over a. resistancelcss line such that the PX
is equal to the charging kva of the line. lfnder this condi-
tion the sending-end and receiving-end voltages and cur-
rents are equal in magnitude but eliffereul; in phase posi-
tion. in the practical case of a line having resistance, the
magnitude of the sending~end voltage is approximately
equal to the magnitude of the receiving-end voltage plus
the product of *Lhe magnitude of the current and the line
resistance; i.e., ES flER+IR. Surge-impedance loading in
itself is not a measure of maximum power that can be
delivered over a line. Maximum delivered power must take
into consideration the length of line involved, the impe-
dance of sendlng- and receiving-end equipment, and in
general all of the major factors that must be considered
with regard to stability. The relation of surge~impedanoe
loading to line length, taking into account the stability
consideration, is covered in Chap. 13, Part IX.
Following is a. summary of approximations that may be
applied to transmission lines for estimating purposes:
1. Series reactzinee of 9. line=0.8 ohm per mile.
2. Shuntwalmcitive reaol.:.u1ce of a. line=0.2 megolun per mile.
3. Surge impedance of a line=400 ohms.
4. Sl.1rg€~imped:LI1(3e loading, (SIL) in m\v= or in kw=
2.5(kvL_L)".
5. (a) Charging kva for a hundred miles of line is 20.5 percent
of the SIL.
(b) Charging kva of 5. iine is also = 50oo(%)
L
(~35-0~)
l(V1,._1, 2
»
Where L=-line length in miles,
kvL_;,=1ine-to-line voltage in kilovolta.
Chapter 9
~ ’7 . VrrrV
240
I ioox s1i_ . ..
ggQ.50%SIL
7
I
ob
5 Q
@Z’:J';
_
NKV
35
0o . ‘l \.
VOLTA6€
11o
» ~‘
és . \i“¥“r—r—r"1" y
LNETOLME so I ,,,, l
4° it
an
O . __
O 50
Fig. 18--Distribution of voltage and current along a 300-mile
transmission line, 795 000 circular mils, AGSR conductor, 25-
foot equivalent spacing.
...... .. Current
r =0.117 ohm per mile
Z =O.7836 ohm per mile
2' M01859 megohm per mile
The effect of the distributed capacitance of a transmis-
sion line on the voitage and current distribution along the
line is illustrated in Fig. 18. The @s.E¢ula,t.ed results are
based on 9. transmission line 300 miles in length, 230 kv,
795 O00 circular mils, and 25-foot equivalent spacing. The
10¢)-percent surge-impedance loading of the line is 139 000
kilowatts. The current corresponding to this load at 100
percent voltage is 348 ampercs. The volt-age and current
are shown as a function of the line length for 100 percent,
50 percent surgcdmpedance loading at the middle of the
line and for zero delivered load. The voltage at the middle
of the line was maintained at 230 lav and ES and ER were
allowed to vary depending upon the load condition.
At 100-percent surge-impedance loading, the voltages
Es=240 kv and ER=219 kv. The current is a constant
value of 348 amperes. If the surge-impedance loading is
assumed at the receiving end of the lino, the magnitude of
the current is slightly different at the sending end because
of line resistance. The amount of this difference depends
upon the ratio of line reactance to resistance and the length
of the lino. Based on the calculated voltages of Es and ER,
the regulation of the line is 9.5 percent. The value of
regulation as determined from the product of the magni~
tude of the current and the resistance is also 9.5 percent.
For 50-percent surge~impedance loading the current is a.
minimum value at the middle of the line. If the surge-
impedance loading is taken at the receiving end, the cur-
rent decreases to a minimum at the receiving end. ln Fig. I8
surge-impedance loading is taken in the middle of the line
Regulation zmd Losses of Tronsmissimc I/ines 281
V Vrrrrr r- Vrrr r7.‘ 7 ~ . ’ 1* ' for purposes of exposition. Generally the surge-impedance
. . . -- 1-goo L059
_.. mg
1 loading should be considered at the receiving end because
. .. .. _ ..
1
8+ Fr
i
8 Q
Ii Q
EH1’ PE.Fl€$
CURR
AM
the delivered load is usually the quantity of most interest.
V. 60-CYCLE TRANSMISSION LINE
REGULATION AND LOSS CHARTS
l‘-"rm"
$'i I" 5°°
\- The voltage regulation and efficiency of a transmission
cfi l l ‘ 320 line or distribution feeder are fundamental properties of
,I 1 .- 2&0 its performance. In determining these quantities for ex»
isting systems or in designing new systems to meet given
l 240 load requirements, it is thought that the charts presented
F 7 I l
SIE7 »7 r—%‘:I:——u-fl-;L_'JI'- here will save a. great deal of time and labor that would
in many cases be necessary if ans.lytical methods were used.
,w For low voltage lines without synchronous or static
I ‘xir-. _ 1 . I‘ .
capacitors, voltage regulation is usually the more impor—
‘J I20 tant consideration. For instance, in the design of a. lino
to carry a certain load one wishes to determine the proper
"rv 1* 4I
' 4%“
. 80
transmission voltage and conductor size. Based on an assum-
“- /1 40 ed allmvahle regulation several voltages and conductor sizes
*1/- wO
/ I
will be found to transmit the load, the final choice being
I00 I50 200 250 300 based upon economics for which the line efiiciency is de-
DISTANCE IN MILES sired. The performance of higher voltage regulated lines,
however, is determined priuiarily by the line loss.
The charts presented here were developed with these
two points of view in mind. Quite frequently it is desired
.__m.. Voltage to obtain quickiy an approximate solution. The Quick
Estimating Charts afford a simple method for such cases.
For more accurate calculations the Regulation and Loss
Chart is provided. It is important to be able to consider
more than just the line itself. The transformers are often
the determining factor in the choice of the proper line vo1t-
age. The Regulation and Loss Chart is constructed so that
from the knowiedgc of the equivalent impedance of a.
system its performance can be determined.
25. Quick Estimating Charts
In Figs. 19 and 20 are plotted curves showing the power
which can be transmitted at five percent regulation to-
gether with the corresponding percent line loss for various
voltages and conductor sizes. These curves afford the
rapid estimation of such problems as the regulation for a.
known load, the load limit of a line for a given regulation
and the determination of voltage and conductor size for the
transmission of a given load at a given regulation. Fig. 21
is an aid for interpolation between the values of power
factor given on the curves.
The curves of Fig. 22 give the power which can be trans-
mitted for various conductors and voltages at a line loss of
five percent. These curves are most useful in determining
the performance of lines regulated by synchronous or static
Capacitors.
Charts Based Upon Regulation—-—Fig. 19 applies
specifically to stranded copper conductors, but it can be
used {or copper\\'eld—c0pper conductors with an accuracy
of two to three percent. Fig. 20 applies to ACSR con-
ductors. The load which can be transmitted over a line
at a fixed regulation varies inversely with its icngth so that
for a. given lino the aotuai load is the value road from the
curves divided by the line length. For 220 to 440-volt lines
the values on the curves are given in kilowatts times hun-
282 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Limes Chapter 9
Percent Lou Percent Lou

--~ 1
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9-?’ ~300 000-400 mu~50: moonou- use 7 =- _..._i*

Bl . ..
MN 25( 01
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Conductor Size Conductor Sire

Fig. 19-~Quick Estimating Charts Based Upon 5 Percent Reg-

ulation-~Stranded Copper Conductors.
Percent Loss
6.J 5.! 4.! 1.1 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.6 2.3 1.0 I-7 Li Ll
The curves give load in kilowatts >< miles or kilowatts >< hundrecia
01'. feet winch can be received at 5 percent regulation together
‘°° °°° IIIIIIII-I-Inna-In llfi Power Factor ._ _
5... t 5532"“ 7
wxth corresponding line loss.
200000 -2 ow r- .1...
L .—.—l~..—l.—
L L ~ l~

l’ lelww ~ 0 0
>-om.
For a given length of line, power is equal to value read fram curves a'L_____J____ '
divided by length of lino.

ll;
.. .-. .
Power for other regulations is approximately equal to values 100000 —%q_'f*

read from curves multiplied by ~{9—~5I-“Egg.

O‘ .52 “"7!
“W ..~
'3
»,w:l=:¢.+
—-<

For power factors other than given in charts, multiply values read
from curves for unity power factor by fractions given in Fig. 21.
><
cw S ooo
WI
O
Ki! 2 ooo§ W
i’

0 1/1 1
V’ ,1?’-0
_ _

s. ‘J
F‘
on
____

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___ ___ ___s___ _
-

lw-l-< Ll.
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Percent loss for other regulations and power factors than found on

if fir-.l-
[Q1 _
H- "lo 15”’
l>-.-
charts are given by equation '4 o.~ »._

.-.TL-_.l.
+1:
, $3
K J @
(Percent Loss}; = (Percent Loes)1 X §~—W~~€£a'€-9-2 x g,
2 "W3
£0222‘ 14'

(Kw Load); {Power Factor)§

‘Q09
5M
.
- gr: _. 3r":"r;.ez»--7
.1
For single phase lines divide power read from charts by 2 and
percent lose by \/3.
1|:

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l

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7
LL.
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____

Lo.“
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RU
000
_ §

Comiuctor Size
Chaptgf 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission I/mes 233

"4?M»~
Per zen! Lou
-. Percent Los; E"0 5"nu
§!.0 so an 4.! as 4.0 4.9 4.! 4.6 4.1 4.: :4 3.1 3.3 5.0 5.0 0.9 4.! 4.9 1.: 4.1 -L4 4.2 -H 37
$.09 5.5 5.1 4.1 1.4 4.13.! 3.5 3.2 2.5 2.3 2.0 1.9 1-6
EELS 0.: 5.! 5.: 4.; 0.1 4.0 §.e_ :.: 1.6 ;_g u 1.1 1.:
3 I100 000
1" L; if l.
0- _....... "WW" M mo i ~*— Llnity Power Ffctor
16090 *"—~f¢. 3 ; I i r l _%"" _ __
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Conductor Size Conductor Size

Percent Lass Percent Loss

0.3 , 5.5 1.! ‘(.6 4.3 J9 3.1 3.0_ _ _ _ __!.-I 2-! 1.8, 1-5 1-I 5.1 5.0 4,5 g_; , ’4’g_3,7 3,4 3.p_____ 2.1 2.! 1.g_:__W'|_.jI LQ
W WI —»~~»-§—-i I00 M0 ...“.

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Fig. 29~—Quick Estimating Charts Based Upon 5 Percent Reg- dreds of feet. For higher voltages they are in kilowatts
ulati0n—A.C.S.R. Conductors. times miles.
The curves give load in kilowatt X miles which can be received For each voltage a common equivalent conductor spac-
at 5 percent regulation together with corresponding line loss. ing is assumed and the curves are drawn so that it is pos-
For a given length of line, power is equal to value read from curves sible to interpolme to a good degree of accuracy for other
divided by length of line. voltages than those given. In addition the relationship
Power for other reguiaiions is approximately equal to values read that the power is proportional to the square of the volt-
. . ”’- R age may he used. Since the percent loss does not vary
from curves multlphed by
more than about :3. tenth of one percent for each conductor
For power factors other than given in charts, multiply values read size in each set of curves, mean values are given as
from curves for unity power factor by fractions given in Fig. 21. shown.
Percene loss for other regulations and power fasburs xhuu found on
For the same line voltage, conductor, equivalent spac-
charts are given by equation
ing, and regulation ha.Ef as much load can be transmitted
(Kw Load); (Power Factor)? on a. single-phase two~\vire line as for 9. threewphase line.
(Percent Loss) E Percent. Loss ><-~————— ————i—~-
2 ( )1 {Kw Load)lX(Power Facoorfi For this reason the curves can be used to good accuracy
For single phase lines divide power read from charts by 2 and for this kind of line by simply dividing by t\.v0 the load
percent. fuss by \/3. read from them. For this single-phase load the percent
284 Regulation and Losses of Transmission I/mes Chapter 9

LO
$1 IIIIIIIIIIIII flfilflfl Charts Based Upon Loss——In Fig. 22 (a) are plotted
‘FY81 -IIIIIIIIIIII “Q-If curves for short lines which show the power in kilowatts
ANLS I cououcwon SIZES rca_eoePea,on
lll\‘\_.,§ _ - ccepzs EQUIVALENT son A.c.s.n. times miles which can be transmitted under two condi-
,,_,n\\\l\—m tions. The solid curves are based on fivé percent loss and
l\\\‘\\S!Q §IIIIIIIIIIII§___-
mwnauni " IIIIIIII§—--I equal receiving- and sending-end voltages. These are use-
n\\\_»\1nq
nnniynr _ I!lIlIlflflIII
IIEIIIIHIIII ful for lines where little regulation can be aliowed such as
8 mama: IIi§!Q_III on interconnected systems. The dotted curves are for the
§l%EE IIII§$ maximum power which can be transmitted at the given
__ i‘;‘l'¥E
l
load voltage and five percent loss. For this condition the
regulation varies but in no case docs it exceed about five
TV
UN 9
=E¥ percent.

E=§iasses En2
: l i!!!i fii ifllIuau
_\\I‘\I
pawn. 'E?nlIll
Fig. 22 (lo) is for higher voltage lines long enough that
— Mm ‘E
-II-‘I'l -I
n n un n ssqlllulna
llll-Imfil distributed capacitance of the line need be considered.

y'l ldl dlIQIl IFZI IBI IYIlI lIilIiIlfiIlIZlI QIPZI UI IH§IlI%?l§%E§F3l!i{§Imrwilniulnrimnrylmlun nu nu n &-I-.I"‘§II-llIKE-‘I III:-s|_IIIII
C-ARR 9
POWERFRCTOR
ED
AT g Only the condition of equal sending and receiving end
535?.llll
III -I -—
IIIIIsill: voltages is considered here since regulation does not greatly
nunmanna
Illi!nuns;
effect the power for the conductors and spacings practical
to use. For all of these curves an arbitrary coordinate sys-
" -Ell‘Illl§§§
nusunnnan
In D. tem has been used for the abscissa beneath which is
plotted the correct sizes for the various conductors. The
:|_nn:§_Inln
nulllnalll
Inaunnaqn
curves here are based on 10 percent loss.

fir‘I a:.': :a. £:

I'JI I 7°° VVAI
"Q0
I
IlIIi§III§
-I-71
I'llI isglnnanln
nIIli!I_In!l_lIIi.!I_I
IaiIlnllaacnaq-ups
<»°°
Equation (77) was used for determining the curves for
equal voltages at both ends of the line and its examination
shows that, for the practical range of losses, power for
2
3 Inlnllllnsnpsnnl other values of percent loss are very nearly that read from
ON
LOI
FRACTD
OF
WMCHCANBE
Illllluuuuaneqm
Inlulnunnnbmnha
l l l l l l
O, _ l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l ,l l mzmumlu umn| |n m I'I I I I I",I'I!5'}III
=§_I-.IIIIIIIII$H§U_
viii?
F‘!°
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIB
the curves multiplied by . If greater accuracy is
OI‘

3.0 (L9 0.5 0.7

desired the factor i of Eq. (77) can be used.
POWER FACTOR--LAGGING
Flg. 21--Efiect of power factor on load that can be carried at Eq. (55) was used for the curves based on the maximum
a fixed regulation. power at five percent loss. For this case power is directly
Curves apply specifically for three foot equivalent spacing and five porportional to loss. For both sets of curves it is propor-
percent regulation, but can be used with good accuracy for normal tional to the square of the receiving~end voltage.
spacing and regulation range. The power which can be transmitted over a single-phase
line is one half that of a, three-phase line of the same equiv-
loss will be that read from the charts divided by {\/§ alent spacing and line-to-line voltage. Thus Fig. 22(a) can
(or 1.732)]. be used to good accuracy for single-phase lines by dividing
Curves are presented for three common power factors: the values read from the curves by two‘
unity, 0.9 lag, and 0.8 lag. It is difiicult to interpolate for
other power factors, however, especially between unity 26. Examples of the Use of the Quick Estimating
and 0.9. To facilitate this the curves of Fig. 21 are pro- Charts
vided showing the effect of power factor on the ioad that Example 6(a)———Determine the maximum load at
can be transmitted at a fixed regulation in terms of that unity power factor and five percent regulation which can
at unity power factor. The curves apply specifically to be transmitted over a three-phase five-mile line having
stranded copper conductors at a three foot equivalent 300 000 cir mil stranded copper conductors and operating
spacing and for five percent regulation, but they will give at a load line voltage of 22 kv.
an accuracy within 16 percent for conductor spacings up to From the unity power factor curves of Fig. 19 for this
20 feet and for the same copper equivalent in other com- conductor size and voltage, 100 000 kw times miles is ob-
mon conductors. The error however may he as high as
25 percent for spacings as small as S inches.
taincd. The 109.1-1 is then =20 000 kilowatts. The
The Quick Estimating Curves can also be used for other percent loss read from the curves is 4.2.
values of regulation if the approximation is made that the Example 6(b)———What is the load for this line at this
load which can be transmitted varies directly with the regulation but 0.95 power factor lag? Referring to Fig.
regulation. 21 it is seen that for this conductor size 0.58 as much load
After having determined the load for other power fac- can be transmitted at 0.95 power factor as at unity.
tors or regulations than those for which the curves are Thus the load is 20 l'lOO><.5S=ll 600 kilowatts. The
drawn, the percent loss can be determined from the re- percent loss as determined from Eq. (88) is
lation 11 600 2
(Percent LO$$)2= (Percent Loss); Percent Loss = (4.2) = 2.7%
(Kw Load), (Power Factor)§ Example 6(c)---What load can be transmitted over this
X(Kw Load)1X {Power Factor)§ (88) line at unity power factor but £5 percent regulation?
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286 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines Chapter 9

Since the use of the chart requires a knowledge of 7 and

The answer is (20 000)-— = 60 000 kw ql», additional curves are provided to facilitate their deter-
CHE;
mination. Onc of these is a cosine curve for determining da
The percent loss is (4.2}g((j =12.6% from the power factor. For obtaining 7 from a knowledge
of the resistance and reactance of the line, tangent and
cotangent curves are plotted so that 7 can be Obtained
Example 7-~Determi1:1e the conductor size and voltage from the ratio 1:,/r or r/av. However, a. simpler moans is
necessary to transmit 10 000 kw at 0.9 power factor lag; for provided for standard conductors, by the set of curves at
a distance of ten miles. the top and bottom of the main portion of the chart. These
This corresponds to 100 000 (kw times miles). Referring
curves give 7 for various conductors as at function of
to the 0.9 power factor curves for both copper and ACSR equivalent spacing. The resistance of the conductor per
conductors for this loud, it, is seen that the following lines mile is necessary, and it is given for each conductor. The
can he used: values on tile chart are for a. conductor t-eniperatiiro of
50°C.
Stranderi Cop er
p I
ACSR Although the chart is developed primarily for problems
involving known receiver voltage and power factor, it can
Voltage Cond. Size l % Loss Cond. Size % Loss
also be used for problems where the sending-end voltage
33 coo 300 coo cir mil 2.5 636 000 cir mil 1.9 and recciving~end power factor and either load current or
4-4 000 No. 0 4.0 W N0. 0000 3.7 sending end kva. are known. This is the counnonest type
cc coo §o. 4 4.5 g X0. 2 5.0 of problem involving mixed terminal conditions.

If it were desired to allow 8. ton percent regulation in~

28. Use of the Regulation and Loss Chart for Short
stead of five percent, the value of kilowatt miles to refer
Lines
to on the curves would then he 56 U00 instead of 100 O60. (a) Regulation from Known Load Conditions--to
The use of the Quick Estimating Charts based upon calculate regulation when receiving-end (or load) voltage,
line loss is quite similar. For instance, if the line of ex- power factor, and current or kva are known:
ample 6 were equipped with cnp:i.citors so that regulation (1) llctermine p = 'y+q!> where the sign of <{> is dependent
would not ho cxccssivc, exu-minutiori of Fig. 22 shows that upon whether the current is leading or lagging.
<i>, the power factor angle, can be obtained from the
it could deliver :1. maximum of (21250-Q-“=23 200 kw) at cosine curve.
five percent loss. -y, the impedance angle, can be obtained by reading it
from tho conductor curves or by calculating r/.1: or m,/1'
27. Regulation and Loss Chart whichever is ices than one and reading from the cor-
responding curve. r and as are the conductor resistance
Several vuluzihlc voltage rcg\.1l:~1tion charts have been
developed. Pcrlmps the best known of these are the and rcuctunce in ohms per mile.
Dwight? and i\'lCl‘SllQ118 charts. The cliurt shown in Fig. (2) Calculate percent Z1 where
23 provides n means oi solving not only regulation but Percent) Z1: (\/ELIE;I) l0Ow 100 00 Q rs
___
tkval_
loss problems to a. high degree of accuracyz It is lust as 1;‘ L cos 'y Eli, cos ‘y
simple in its use as any of tire previous ones, but has the for three-phase lines (39)
distinct a.dvu1itzLgc that it is based upon an exact solution
of the vector diagram for any circuit which can he repre- .. i? =18 I> 199 A @290" 915.1%!
scntcd by a single lumped impedance. For this rcuson _ EL cos -y fi WL cos 7
problems involving the determination of thc load which for 2-wire single-phase lines (8921)
can he transmitted for a given rcguiution can be solved EL is the line voltage in volts. s is the length of the
much more accurately than €rom charts based upon zip- line in miles.
proximutions. (3) For the calculated values of p and percent Z1’ read
T110 chart is developed on the principle that for a. given percent regulation from curves of constant regulation.
cliffcrcnce in magnitude bet-\\'ccn the scnding~cnd and re-
ceiving-cncl voltages, the impedance drop (Z1) is fixed (b) Load Limitation for Fixed Re;{ulati0n——To de-
termine load limit for a given value of regulation:
entirely by the angle p='y+q5 where ('y=~tan“'E) is the ( 1) Ilctcrminc p as in above and from chart for given
r
impedance angle of the line and ¢» is the powcr factor angle. value of regulation and p read the corresponding
For lagging power factors qb is negative and for lcnrliiig percent ZI.
power fa.ct0rs qb is positive. Thus, corresponding to vari- Load in kva _L%_2£Q.1?Zi.:::>21
ous values of pcrccnt regulation, the corresponding percent _ 100 0001-8
ZI can be plotted as :1 function of the angle p, 'l‘hQ§.,-Q are £0r tlirce~pha.-so lines (90)
the sot of curves on the chart for voltage drops from 0 to
15 percent and voltage rises from O to 5 pcrccnt. The ._EfZ>_£‘.'_l§£*$ Y
value of the percent (Z1) is the i:‘?Ll’I1(3 \\'hcthcr p is positive " 200 0001?"
or negative. It depends only upon its magnitude. for single-phase 2-wire lines (90a)
288 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines
(6) Line Efiiciency-—The line loss in percent of the
load kva is given by the equation
Percent L0ss=~% RI =% ZI cos "Y (91)
Where cos 7 can be read off its cosine curve from the known
value of 7. The loss can be determined in percent of the
load in kilowatts by dividing the value obtained from
Eq. (91) by the power factor. If it is desired to determine
the percent loss for a given regulation, the percent Z1 can
be obtained without the use of Eq. (89). It is simply
necessary to determine p and for this angle and the given
regulation to read the (percent ZI) from the chart.
(d) Use of Chart for Known Sending-End Voltage
and Receiving-End Power Fact0rfiThe chart can be
used to as good accuracy as desired for problems of this
nature. As a first approximation the regulation, in percent
of the sending~end voltage, can be obtained as outlined in
(a) when the sending-end line voltage is used in Eq. (89).
Either the line current or the load kva expressed in terms
of the sending~end voltage can be used. The load (or
receiving-end) voltage can be calculated from this regula-
tion and the sending~end voltage. This first approximation
will usually give the load voltage to an accuracy of about
one percent, but the percent accuracy of the regulation
may be much worse depending upon its magnitude.
A more accurate value can, however, be very easily
obtained by the following method of successive approxi-
mations. Using this first determined value of load volt-
age and then each successive value obtained, recalculate
the regulation. One or two such steps will usually give
very good accuracy. When calculating the percent Z1 in
this process it is not necessary to solve Eq. 89 each time.
The new value of percent Z1 can be obtained by dividing
the first value calculated by the ratio of the load voltage
to the sending~end voltage. This type of problem is illus-
strated in Example 8(d).
It is, of course, obvious that the load limit for known
sending—end voltage, load power factor, and regulation
can be determined as in 2S(h) after the load voltage is
calculated from the regulation and sending—end voltage.
29. Examples of the Use of the Regulation and Loss
Chart
Consider a three-phase line ten miles long with No. 0000
stranded-copper conductors at an equivalent spacing of
sixdfeet and operating at a. line voltage of 33 kv at the load
en .
Example 8(a)——For rated voltage at the receiving end
and 3. 9140 kva load at 0.9 power factor lag, determine the
regulation.
Referring to the impedance angle curves for stranded
copper conductors at the bottom of the chart, the im~
pedance angle for this conductor and spacing is 'y=(57.2°.
Cos 'y is 0.390 and the conductor resistance is 0.303 ohms
per mile. Reading from the cosine curve the power factor
angle for 0.9 power factor is ¢= 26°, and the sign is
minus pm'y~l-¢= 67.2°—26°=4I.2°
From Eq. (S9);
Percent Z12 (100 ooo>§g;303)(1o)(914c)
(33 0O0)2 (0.390)
=6.52
Chalfltel‘ 9
Reading from the chart for this percent. Z1 and p = 412°,
the regulation is found to be 5.0 percent.
Example 8 (b)-~Determine the maximum kva that can
be transmitted over this line at the same power factor for
a regulation of no greater than 5 percent. Reading from
the chart for 5 percent regulation and p of 412°, the percent
Z1 is found to be 6.54.
Using Eq. (90):
Load in kva= (6.52){33 OOO)”(0.390)
(100 GOO) (0.303) (£0)
W 9140
Load in kw= (9140) (0.9) $8230.
Example 8(0)-—As an example of the calculation of
efiiciency for the above case using Eq. (91):
Percent loss: (6.52) (0.390) W 2.55.
Example 8(d)——F0r this same line operating at a
sending-end line voltage IE’ $1,) of 33 kv and st sending-end
load of 9140 kva but 9. receiving-end lagging power factor
oi’ 0.9, determine the line voltage at the load end.
As shown in Example 8(a):
The value of percent ZI determined as s. first approx-
imation by using the sending-end voltage and kva. in
Eq. (89) is
Percent ZIw6.52
and 0='Y+¢=4l.2°
Thus as a first approximation
Percent Reg. = 5
Est
EL kv.
As a second approximation
Percent Z1’: (1.05) (6.52) =6.85
reading from the chart for percent Z1 =6.85 and p=4l.2°
Percent Reg. = 5.20
E1,~ *31.35 kv.
As is third approximation
Percent Zlm (1.052) (6.52) W 6.87
Percent Reg.=5.25 {as closely as can be read from the
chart)
* =i=' 1. 41¢.
ESL
E” 1.0525 3 3
V
30. Use of Regulation and Loss Chart for Long Lines
As shown in Sec. 16, methods of calculating regulation
for short lines can be applied to lines up to 100 miles in
length to a good degree of accuracy by simply adding the
correction factor ( —-2.0182) to the percent regulation
where S is the length of the line in hundreds of miles.
If greater accuracy is desired, the chart can be used
with the equivalent load current and power factor ob~
taincd as described in Sec. 14. Using this method both
regulation and efficiency can be determined.
31. Determination of Efiect of Transformers on
Line Performance
The chart. can be used as described in Sec. 28 for de~
termining regulation and eficiency of transformers a1»-
Chapter 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission I/mes
though the transformer charts in Chap. 5 are simpler. In
considering the performance of a line and transformers
together, however, the chart can be used to advantage.
The impedance of the transformers can be combined with
that of the line into a single impedance. These impedances
can be expressed either in ohms or in percent on some
common. kva base. Transformer impedance is usually
given in percent. It can be expressed in ohms by the
equation
2
gm“) = g1£l1gl (92)
kva
The transmission line impedance in ohms can be trans-
formed to a percent basis by the equation
Ztohmsi (kva)
Ztpament) =
-ElL(kv) (19)
The transmission line resistance can be read directly from
the chart and the reaetance obtained from the chart
by reading the line impedance angle 7 from the chart and
the ratio of r/x or zr/r for this angle.
For problems of this type it is usually easier to use the
impedance in percent. After having obtained the total
equivalent percent R and percent X, the equivalent angle
'7 can be read from the curves for the ratio of R/X or
X/R. The percent Z1 can be calculated from the equation
Percent .zr=E%R’ =%“>W
cos 7
‘“""“"" W1 (94)
(rated load)
Example 9—-As an example of the calculation of a
problem of this type consider the 10 mile, 33 kv, 300 000
cir mil stranded copper lino found adequate for the
(10 O00 kw: 11 111 kva) load at 0.9 power factor lag of
Example 7.
Assume that it has transformers at each end rated at
12 000 kva with 0.7 percent resistance and 5 percent re-
actance, and let us calculate the total regulation and loss
Of the system.
Reading from the chart
The line resistance is (0.215)(l0) =2.15 ohms
2"/x for the line impedance angie of 71.6° is 0.330
The line reactance is =6.51 ohms
The percent impedance of the line on a 12 000 kva
base is from Eq. (93).
(2.15 +j6.51)(12=000)
P ercent Z L E- (33)?(10) 2.37+_7"7.l6
239
The total impedance is
Percent Z = {2.37+j7.E6l+2(().7+j5)
= 3.77+jl7.l6
fig 3.7? =
%X 17.16 0219
Reading from the chart for this ratio
'y=77.7°
Cos ~;=(}.2l9
For 0.9 power factor 45$ -26°
p = 51.7
From Eq. (94)
3.77 11 111
Percent Z1 - »»~ 15.94
The regulation read from the chart for this percent Z1’
and the calculated value of p is
Regulation = 10.5%
The loss in percent of the load in kw is from Eq. (91)
Percent Loss = = 3.88.
REFERENCES
1. Principles of Electric Power Tmnsmissvkm, by L. F. Woodrufi'
(a book), John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Second Edition, p. 106.
2. Tables of Complex Hyperbolic and Circular Functions, by Ken-
nelly (a book), Harvard University Press.
3. Chart Atlas of Complex Hyperbolic and Circular Functions, by
Kennelly (a book), Harvard University Press.
4- Transmission Line Circuit Constants, by R. D. Evans and
H. K. Sels, The Electric Journal, July 3.921, pp. 307-390 and
August 1921, pp. 356-359.
5. Circle Diagram for Transmission Lines, by R. D. Evans and
H. K. Scls, The Electric Journal, December 1921, pp. 530-536
and February 1922, pp. 53 and 59.
6. Some Theoretical Considerations of Power Transmission, by
C. L. Fortescue and G. F. Wagner, Al Traazsumions, V. 43,
1924, pp. I6~23.
7. A Chart for the Rapid Estimating of Alternating Current Power
Lines, by H. B. Dwight, The Electric Journai, July 1915, p. 306.
S. Electrical Characteristics of Transmission Circuits, by William
Nesbit (a book), Westinghouse Technical Night School Press.
Third Edition, pp. 43-45.
9. The Transmission of Electric Power, by W. A. Lewis (1948
Lithoprinted Edition of Book), Illinois institute oi‘ Technology.
 CHAPTER 10
STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF SYSTEMS INCLUDING
METHODS OF NETWORK SOLUTION
Original Author:
E. L. Harder
POWER. system must generate, transmit, and then
A distribute electric power to the desired points, reli-
ably and in good condition. The electrical perform-
ance of the system as dealt with in this chapter is the
measure of how well it performs this task and is expressed
by such quantities as voltage regulation, loading of lines
and equipment, efiiciency and losses, and real and reactive
power flow. Stability, of vital importance also, is dealt
with in Chap. 13.
The key to the determination of such system quantities
is the network solution, or determination of currents and
voltages throughout the system for any prescribed con-
ditions. From the network solution can be determined all
of the essential electrical characteristics that are dependent
upon the furidarnental-frequency currents and voltages.
Network solution is based on Kirchoff’s two laws:
First, that the vector sum of all the voltages acting
around any closed loop is zero.
And second, that the vector sum of all the currents
flowing to any point is zero.
in the course of applying these eiementary principles
to the solution of thousands of linear networks for many
years, various investigators have found several powerful
theorems that follow directly therefrom, such as the super-
position theorern‘, the reciprocal theorem, and Thevenin’s
theorem. These theorems not only assist in visualizing the
phenomena taking place in the circuits, but also greatly
simplify and systematize the work of solution for the species
of networks to which they apply.
The method of symmetrical components, given in Chap.
2 is a highly developed special application of the super»
position theorem, taking advantage of the symmetry of
the several phases of the usual polyphase power system.
The direct use of Kirchoff’s Laws can be designated as
“Solution by Equations,” to distinguish it from “Solution
by Reduction’ ’ in which portions of a system are progres-
sively replaced by simpler equivalents until a single branch
remains. This latter makes use of the superposition theorem
in treating one emf at a time. Also, it utilizes equivalent
circuits, many of which are now available.
Theve11in’s theorem and the superposition theorem have
provided direct methods for obtaining solutions in net-
works of several fixed emfs, with enormous simplification.
Solutions of networks can be expressed in many forms,
each one being particularly adaptable to certain types of
networks or certain problems. Thus, the expression of so-
lutions as “Self and Mutual Drops and Current Division”
290
Revised by:
E. L. Harder
is particularly well suited to regulation and apparatus
loading studies. The method of Driving Point and Trans-
fer Admittances or lmpedances is well suited to power
flow or stabiiity studies on multiple-entrance systems, and
the General Circuit Constants, ABCD, or the equivalent
Pi and T are similarly advantageous for the t-ransmissiom
type network having two significant terminals.
These methods of network representation and S01uti0I1
constitute a highly developed science with extensive pres-
ent literature. However, as they constitute the heart of
the problem of stead y-state performance of systems as well
as of many other system problems, a large part of this
chapter will be devoted to thorn. In general, the most
commonly used methods will be outlined and illustrated
by examples. For further information a. bibliography of
selected references is included.
Network solution, once accomplished largely by analyt-
ical methods, is now performed to an increasing extent by
a-c and d-c network calculators. However, many problems
are still solved analytically and also a thorough knowledge
of methods of network representation and solution is as
essential as ever to the system designer. Fortunately, how-
ever, the calculator has removed the enormous burden of
routine calculation and has made it economically possible
to solve complicated systems. Analytic methods are still
largely used for the simpler studies or where network
calculators are not available.
I. NETWORK REPRESENTATION
1. Single-Line Diagram. Fig. I
in dealing with power systems of any complexity, one
of the first essentials is a single-line diagram, in which each
polyphase circuit is represented by a single line. Stripped
of the complexity of several phase wires, the main power
channels then stand out clearly, and the general plan of
the system is evident. Most power companies maintain
up-to~datc single-line diagrams of their systems.
This diagram is a short-hand or symbolic representation
of the principal connections, showing the equipment in its
correct electrical relationship and usually having indicated
on it, or in supplementary tabulations, data essential for
the determination of the impedance diagram. The recom-
mended symbols for apparatus are given in Table 1(a).
In addition, auxiliary symbols, Table 1(b), are inscribed
near the devices in question, to indicate the winding con-
nections and the grounding arrangement, if any, at the
 Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 291

TABLE 1(a)-~GnA1>mcAL Swmons won D1Aon.ms°-~EQUrPMi=:N'r SYMBOLS

mm»: ‘om: mus COMPLETE * um: ‘one mus *com>\.c'r1z*i

KC. GENERATOR OR MOTOR’ ‘ 6 g BOUBLE. THROW SWITCH i ‘J

l l 1

l
SYNCRRONOUS couvsarsa 1 _©_

l
l
©- on. cmcun anzaxsn,
SINGLE rm-zow
l
1;
I

i)
p
o
DBRECT CONNECTED UNsTS ‘ ‘pm cincun 5REm<5R
i BASIC SYMBOL \O“'O O""O i 1 1 l
(Use particular symbols and join l
as hero shown) l l
‘ TWO-WINBING TRANSFORMER
1 BASIC SYNQGL
-ié Fug]
FUSE
ii
“Fl-{REE-WlNDiNG TRANSFORMER

ii‘ RESISTOR l-411-1 *'-Z" 1

‘AUTOTRANSFORMER§ l PM I
E
355% l
REACTOR .JVVY\. \ ./'Y'*f\"\..

CAPACITOR —9i- -)I—

‘CURRENT -rmmsronmzn é l Q:
l
ll
‘
POTENTIAL Wmusroauaa
It w
('V\
LIGHTNING ARRESTER 1
3
El. l
1 T

mou-oT|oN VOLTAGE RE:ou§.A1'oa 1 l

POTHEQD CABLE TERMINAL l ¢
-<E*EE
DRY RECTIFIER '-'-l1"--W
DlSCONNEC'FING OR KNIFE SWITCH
_, _
{, E
‘MR BREAK SVHTGPI, HORN GAP,
l GROUP OPERATED K 1 3?-~\
c"-\ c-- ._
mtkcufiv ARC RECTIHER

'!6T1‘F9 "Complete" symbol is intended lo iiiuslroto the method of troolmeml for any dooirod polyphuso combination rolhcr than to show mo
i é;
l

oxcct symbol required. Use symbol (rvn) for windings of apparatus on ruquirnd, and connacl in suit particular can.
<l-inscribe winding connection diagram symbol from Tabla lb.
Ofor comolen lists sec American Szundorda 232.3-i946,Z32.I2—l94?

neutral. The use of these auxiliary symbols is illustrated and its implications are discussed in detail here.
in Fig. 1. The complete specification of real- and rea.ctive—power
Similar diagrams showing circuit breakers and dis- flow in a. circuit requires:
connecting switches are used as power~system operating First, an indication of the direction spoken of, i.e., a
diagranns. Or they can be marked with suitable symbois to reference-positive direction.
show the relay (See Chap. ll) or lightning protection. Second, numerical values and associated signs. The
2. The Sign of Reactive Power numerical values give the magnitude of the real- and
reactive-power components respectively. The associated
The + sign used with the reactive-power terms in the signs show whether they flow in the reference-positive
loads of Fig. 1 designate 1agging~reactivc power in accord- direction or not.
ance with the standard notation approved by the AIEE Third, there must be a. convention as to whether it is
Standards Committee on Jan. 14, 1948 and recommended la.gging~reac’r.ive power or leading-reactive power, the di-
for adoption to the Ameflcan Standards Assn. and the rection anci magnitude of which is being specified.
IEC. Since t-his is a change from the convention used in Lagging-reactive power is that which is generated or
editions 1 to 3 of this book the history of this standard supplied by an over-excited synchronous machine or by a
292 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

TABLE 1(b)--GRAPHICAL Svmsols roe DIAGRAMS—wINDING 4-l0,000 K‘/A HYDRO-GEN.

CONNECTION Sweets L040 LOAD
li0.o0o+;e2o0) KVA (5O,OOO4-j37,500)1(VA
mime smeoa. 4.: > A
A "é
TWO-PHASE, THREE-WIRE i i L_ 3% no xv, I5 FT. £0. _si>.icme____
50 MiLE$ N0. 2/0 COPPER
£—-O2-31,250 KVA
stem "runso
A E__<)GENERATOR$
TWO“PHA5E, FOUR-»W1RE + A
3-:o,ooo KVA
TRANS‘ umrs e" §
in EACH use
THREE""PHA5E, D€l..TA (OR MESHI A A ..., $TATl0N B

THREE-PH-l$€, Y {OR $TAR) Y STATIO zv >_'$__ C

oe
PER
Qsmcwe
mmcomes
SPACNG
THRE£-~PHA3E, Y (OR STAR) WITH NEUTRAL.
BROUGHT OUT AND GROUNDED
Ya» £0. 2!

THREE-PHASE, Y toe sun) wm-| NEUTRAL P om,5Fr.r-:

.- ‘
p snouuoso 'r|-mouse A RESISTOR 1 §,M
l-,E§:§Q,Q

“Vi
I
‘ 1
oxv5rt
i THR£E.»~PHAS£, ZIG-ZAG souLES
~o.o
LOAD LOAD
ll0,000 (18,300 +370o0)KVA
+j 5000)
rum-:z—PHAs|:, "r _]_ i KVA c (D U83TAT|0N C
Pf’?
M?‘
SUBSTATIO z “G
I'll COP
static capacitor and used by inductive loads such as induc~
tion motors, reactors, and undenexcited synchronous
s:09?"a
€Q'‘:1. 4C
ON
you
machines.
According to the convention recommended by AIEE in 1

1948 and used throughout this book the positive sign for v~‘us-“'l vA\0 -‘F’
‘Z ES
's
spo

reactive power indicates that lagging-reactive power is \\° 5° noK‘,

/5
75
pMr l
flowing in the reference-positive direction. The vector 3-:o,ooo xv» /L /’\ 3-16,666 KVA
relationship for power is therefore: TRANS. UNITS B-2l> K D
aus TRANS. UNiTS
STQTION D .
P+jQ=ET, the symbol “ designating conjugate.
LOAD
For eigample if E is taken aspreferenpe, Ewfi and if (l0,000+j'l’OO0)KVA A
2.-25,000 KVll
I =1’ -~jI” is a lagging current, I’ and I” being positive $TEAM TURBO GENERATORS
quantities, the real _p_o_wer is P=§I' and the lagging-
reactive pO\V81‘ is Q=E'I". F11. 1*-~Sl.nQle-line diafirarn of a power system.
The expression,
P+jQ=E’l=E'(I’+jI”)=EI’+jEI” P+jQ = PZ
results in the proper sign for the P and Q terms, whereas The form P-l-jQ#E2Y is then erroneous and gives the
E1 would give the right values but the wrong sign for the wrong sign for Q.
Q term. With this new convention, and taking E as refer- For the conventional transmission line, with this concept
ence, the power vector P+jQ lies along the conjugate of (lagging-reactive power positive) the center of the sending-
the current vector. Consequently current and power circle end power-circle diagram lies in the first quadrant and the
diagrams lie in conjugate quadrants. center of the receiving circle in the third quadrant.
Historical Sumrn0ry——Originally there was one school The other school of thought used leading-reactive power
of thought, typified by Evans, Sels‘, and others, that used as positive, lagging-reactive power as negative. This had
the positive sign for lagging-reactive power for the same the theoretical advantage of throwing current and power
reasons that it has now finally been adopted. The principal circle diagrams into the same quadrant, but the disadvan-
reasons were these. Like real power, lagging-reactive power tage that lagging~reactive power, the reactive commodity
is generally used in the load and must be supplied at some usually dispatched by power~system operators, was then
expense in the supply system. It is thus the commodity a minus quantity. This concept is consistent with the
dealt with by the practical power-system designer, and mathematical forms: --
dispatched by the operators, This concept is consistent Power associated with a voltage E and a current I is :—-
mathematically with the foliowing forms:
Power associated with voltage E and current I is: P~+jQ = E1
Power flowing into an admittance Y due to a voltage
P+fQ = E2’ E is: __
and power in an impedance Z to a current I is: P+jQ=E*Y
Chapter 10 Steady-Stole Performance of Systems Inclucling Metkods of Network Solution 293

The form P+jQ=.l2Z is then erroneous and gives the Z0 zb

2.3211325 OHM5 24.05+]4$.D5 OHN5
Wrong sign for Q. A —11111”—vvv\ wv B
The latter school, (leading—reactive power positive) Won
out, for the time being, on the basis of the theoretical 1|.25x|o“m-ios ;|.25x|o"‘m|os
-is000 onus —§e00o onus

;~ *1 1
considerations, and on August 12, 1941 the American
Standards .Ass0ciation approved this convention as an
industry standard, C42-l941, Section 0521.050. The first
OHMS
three editions of this book followed this standard conven-
Z.B2+‘32.3
tion. I~iowever, the convention was never foliowed by
system~planning and operating peopie to any extent. They -1|]----a §»—--~»~u-
continued to dispatch lagging~1"eactive power which they j|.z5 x 10"‘ 32.05 x I0"
calied simply “reactive,” and to mark on their flow charts MHOS 3 MHO5
-14930
the direction in which lagging-reactive power flowed. They OHMS n\§ onus
could not be converted to selling a negative amount of 4-'5'?
leading-reactive power for positive money, but preferred njl----% i-in
'24.4+
3.05
9OHMS
9.75
to sell a. positive amount of lagging-reactive power. ;i.2sxio'* gzcs x|O”“
A majority of engineers have now come to consider MH05 unos
lagging-reactive power as the commodity being dealt with. a G —j498°
The AlEE Standards Committee recognizing this fail! onus
accomplz‘ recommended to ASA in HHS adoption of the OHMS
convention making lagging~reactive power positive. This AIH Ian

reference book has, starting with the fourth edition, l9-50, “Z5 X IO"
MHOS
been changed to conform with what will undoubtedly be -.1

the standard from now on, namely, lagging-reactive power

positive.
Teachers and writers can materially aid in eliminating
confusion by discontinuing all use of the term leading-
rcactive power which after all is simply an unnecessary
name for the negative of lagging-reactive power. Such 9.
term is no more necessary than a name for the negative
of real power. Eventually if this is followed the adjective
“Ia.gging” can be dropped, as reactive power will always
mean lagging-reactive power.
3. Impedance Diagram. Fig. 2
The second essential in analytic study of a. power system
is the impedance diagram, on which are indicated on a
common basis, the impedances of all lines and pieces of
equipment related to the problem. Because of the sym-
metry of phases it is usually sufficient to represent only
one phasc—called the reference phase, or 0. phase. Under
balanced conditions of operation, the currents and volt~
ages in the other two phases are exactly equal to those in a
phase and merely lag behind the a phase quantities by 120
and 246 electrical degrees. Hence, when the a phase quan—
tit-ies have been determined, the others follow directly.
Even when imbalances, such as a line-to-ground fault,
or onc~\virc~opcn, occur at one or two points of an otherwise
balanced polyphnse system, the impedance diagrams for
the reference phase are sulficicnt, if use is made of the
method of symmetrical components as outlined in Chap. 2.
The impedance diagram, corresponding to the system
Shown in Fig. 1, is given in Fig. 2. Generator iuipedances
are not shown as they do not enter into the particular
problem. All impedances on this diagram have been ex-
pressed in ohms, and admittances in mhos, on a 110-kv
base. Actually there are several choices, such as percent
or pcr unit on various kva bases or ohms on voltage bases
other than 110-kv. The relations between these several
methods, and factors affecting the choice are discussed
subsequently.
43.24.0os5+ D: 9.75+i57.9 OHMS
"ll-——) l--——*.
ites x |o'4
MHOS
, §2.oa mo" ;2.oa x :0"
mics MHOS
-j4980 OHHi -1-cseo onus
2
2.a2§¥132.34one
121.o45+n-m1s0
O
Fig. 2»-Im.pedance diagram of a system aha wn in Fig. 1.
4. Determination of Impedances
In general, accurate cable and overhead-line impedances
can be obtained from the tabulations of Chaps. 4 and 3, in
terms of the wire size and spacing. Average apparatus
constants are given in the tabulations of Chap. 6, Machine
Cliaraeteristics, and Chap. 5, Power Transformers and
Reactors. More accurate figures, if required, can be ob-
tained from name-plates or direct from the manufacturer
of the equipment. The impedances of lines and trans-
formers in Fig. 2 have been obtained, for example, from the
tables of Chaps. 3 and 5 based on the data given in Fig. I.
Representation of L0aa's—The necessary representa-
tion of loads in the impedance diagrams depends upon
the use intended. In short-circuit studies, loads are most
frequently neglected. In stability studies, they must gen-
erally be considered. Several methods of representing loads
are as follows:
a. Shunt impedance that draws the same kilowatts and
reactive kve. at normal voltage as is drawn by the
actual load.
b. An impedance circuit, which, for any conditions of
voltage is adjusted to draw the desired amount of
real and reactive power.
294 Steady-Slate Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution
c. In network calculator studies, the use of a “source” 1‘
adjusted, in phase angle and magnitude, to draw the
desired real and reactive power from the system.
d. Given any characteristics of variation of real and
reactive power with voltage, the load can be con-
verted to impedance at the expected voltage, this
impedance used in determining the system voltages,
and then the load impedance corrected to the new
voltage if such correction is warranted.
Conversion of Load Kw and Reactive Kva to
Ohms or M'h0s—Loads given in kilowatts and reactive
kva. can be converted to impedance or admittance form by
the following equations:
Let P == kw {three~phase)
Q w reactive kva lagging I(three~phase)
E;__;,wline-to-line voltage in kv at which the conver-
sion is to be made.
Z =vect0r impedance value, ohms line~to-neutral_
Y = vector admittance value, mhos, line-to~neutra.l.
__ 100oE*L_,, _ 1000E"|,uL _ are as follows:
1 2 , Percent reactance on the transmitted kva. base=X
_-.-7-_--iiégc-(5-i:.;(l;‘:/la (lagginmohms, l1nc—to—neutral
Y; P-jjQ_ =kW—-j reactive kva. (lagging)
1000E21,...1, 1€l0(}(l{V)2
mhos, line-to-neutral
For example, at 13.8 kv a load of 10000 kva at 80
percent power factor lagging may be expressed as:
P =8000 kw Q m +6000 reactive kva
The impedance required to represent it is:
__ 1000<1s.s)= _ __ _
z_—e---e-Y,+(8000),(s0oo+;oo00)W1s.2+_m.4
line-to-neutral
and the admittance is:
_so0o --j6000_ _ _
Y - 1O00(13.8}2 - 0.0420 -10.0315 mhos, line-to-neutral.
Y and Z as given above are the admittance or impedance
values to be used in the single-phase impedance diagram in
which only the reference phase and neutral are represented.
Shunt Capacitors are built to a tolerance of -0 to
+10 percent of their rated kva, +5 percent being the
average. It is generally sufficiently accurate to consider
the reactance to be 100 percent based on 105 percent of
the rated kva. base.
Series Capacitors—Thc determination of reactance
of a series capacitor can best be explained by example.
Suppose ten standard 15-kva single-phase, 4~i0~volt, shunt-
capacit-or units have been used in parallel in each phase,
or a total of I50 kva per phase. The capacitive reactance
presented in series in each phase is then:
‘fThc “sources” are voltage regulator-phase shifter circuits from a
main power bus and can he readily adjusted to either draw or feed
the desired quantities of real and reactive power.
IQ is positive for lagging reactive kva.
Chapter 10
__ 1000(kv)’ _10o0(c.44}@__
X$“1.05*(kva) " 1.05><150 422 °h‘“” (5)
This ohmic value can be converted to percent by Eq. (12).
Shunt Reactors have 100-percent voltage drop across
them when connected to normal voltage, or have 100-per-
ccnt impedance based on the kva drawn from the system
at normal voltage.
Series Reactors—The reactance of a series reactor is
frequently expressed in percent, but the kva of its parts
is given. Thus, if a 6-percent reactor is desired in a circuit
having a rating of 10000 kva, three-phase, the reactor
rating will be 600 kva, three-phase (6 percent of 10000
kva). Three 200»kva single-phase reactors might be used.
These would ordinarily be referred to as three 200-kva,
6-percent reactors, whereas actually they constitute a.
thrce-phasc reactance in the circuit having 6—pcl'ccnt re-
actance on a 10 000-kva base. Care must be taken, there-
fore, to determine the reactance value on the through or
transmitted kva base, or 10 000-kva base in the example
cited. The relation between reactor kva, and through kva
Reactor three-phase kva rating=a
Through or transmitted kva rating=A
(1)
Then a = %A (3)
Given the reactor three-phase kva rating, a, the through
(2) kva rating is
100
A H X-a (4)
The reactor has a rcactance of X percent on the kva base A.
In the case cit-ed above of a 600—kva, 6-percent reactor,
Eq. (4) gives A m 2%-0-)<600m 10 000. Whence, the reactor
ohms, has a reactance of 6 percent on a 10 000-kva. base.
The standard reactancc tolerance of currenvlimiting
reactors is -3 percent to +7 percent for single-phase and
——3 percent to +10 percent for three phase. The rated
reactancc is generally used in system calculations unless
test figures are available.
5. Conversions. Percent to Ohms and Ohms to
Percent?
Method 1-sIf a base kva (three-phase) and kv (line-
to-line) are selected, the corresponding normal or base
current, line—to-neutral voltage, and impedance values can
be immediately determined.
They are:
Normal Current Ii" arnperes (6)
\/30W)
Normal Voltage ~l0O0(l<Vl
(line-to-neutral) E“ _ \/§ volts (7)
En .
Normal Impedance Zn: E Oh”m;g:_i3,5lgifira1, (8)
‘If the ratio of actual to rated kva is known, it should be used in
place of 1.05.
f(Note: Per Unit is percent divided by 100).
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 295

From these relations any percent impedance can be con- and “turns ratio” are often used loosely as synonymous
verted to ohms. terms, until more precise or important calculations are
being made for which it is desired to be quite accurate.
Ohms = (normal impedance) Then the question sometimes arises as to whether imped-

_Z.(m)
.. K <9. ances should be transferred to the voltage base on the
other side of a transformer on the basis of its voltage ratio
or its turns ratio. It is actually the turns ratio that counts
Conversely any ohmic figure can be converted to percent. and should be used as will be shown later in this section.
The turns ratio is the same as the nameplate voltage ratio
Percent W =
but differs from the terminal voltage ratio under load.
Also in approximate calculations it is frequently assumed
that for all parts of the system of the same nominal voltage
Method 2—The magnitude of Z., from (8), (7), and the some transformation ratio can be used to the desired
(6) can be substituted in (9) and (10) and gives direct voltage base. This is a rough approximation and becomes
conversions:
exact only if the transformer turns ratios between parts of
the system at the same nominal voltage are all unity.
Ohms= (%)(E) (11)
kva Barring this, one correct procedure is to select some one
kva point of the system as a base and transform all other
Percent mohms(-1-6-5;) (12) impodancos to this base by multiplying by the square of
the intervening turns ratios. Once all impedances are on
For example, a 15 O00-kva, 13.8-kv to 66-kv transformer a common base they can all be transformed by a single
bank has a reactance of 8 percent on the 15 000-kva base. multiplier to any other voltage base.
Let it be required to determine its impedance in ohms on Wheii impedauces are in percent on a. given kva base the
a 66-kv base. percent refers to a given normal voltage. Thus strictly two
Normal current: conditions must be fulfilled in sequence for percent im-
pedances to be used in network solutions. First, the normal
15 O00
66x/3 3 I amperes .
I,,=-—-»-~:=l voltages to which the percentages refer must be in the same
ratios as transformer turns ratios throughout the system.
Normal voltage: Second, the normal voltage used in converting the answers
from percent to amperes and volts must be the same as the
En = = 38 100 volts, line~to-neutral. normal voltages on which the percent impedances are
based. Otherwise approximations are involved. These
Normal impedance: approximations can be eliminated by suitable transforma-
tions beyond the scope of this chapter except for the
38 .l following general method.
Zn = Ti? 2 291 ohms per phase, line-to-neutral.
Where doubt exists as to the correct direct transforma-
tion of percent impedance, the impedance of each element
Transformer impcdance=8 percent of 291
can be converted to ohms. The ohmic values can be con-
=23.3 ohms per phase at 66 kv. verted to a common base as described above and combined.
The direct determination from {ll} is, The result can bc reconvertcd to percent on any desired
Transformer impedance kva and voltage base. This is the general procedure by
_8(66l’(10) which rules for direct percent-impedance transformations
15 000 -23.3 ohms per phase. are derived.
The pitfall of ignoring near-unity turns ratios extends to
The first method is longer, but gives other information voltage also. Suppose a 13.8-lw generator feeds through
generally required in the problem, and has some advantage step-up and step-down transformers to a 13.8-kv distribu-
in visualizing the procedures. tion system and that impedances have been expressed on
6. Conversions to a Different Kva Base the distribution system voltage base. Suppose further that
there is a resultant 1:1.1 step-up turns ratio between the
From (12) it is apparent that for a given ohmic imped- generator and the distribution system. Then a generator
ance the percent impedance varies directly with the kva operating at 13.8 kv would be at 13.8X 1.1 = 15.18 kv on
base selected. Thus 10-percent impedance on a 10 000~l<va the 13.8-kv voltage base of the distribution system, and
base becomes 100-percent impedance on a 100 000-kva must be so treated in the calculations. Similarly, for cal-
base. When using percent impedanccs, all percentages culations in percent, the same machine must be treated
should be expressed on the same kva base. as operating at 110 percent voltage. The theoretical basis
7. Conversions to a Different Voltage Base upon which all such transformations rest, and examples of
their correct use is given in the following paragraphs.
_ in system studies if impedances are expressed in ohms From an energy or power standpoint, no change is made
it IS desirable to convert them all to a common voltage base if all voltages are multiplied by a constant, N, all currents
so that transformer turns ratios need not be considered in divided by N, all impedanccs multiplied by N2, and all
the subsequent calculations. The terms “voltage ratio” admittances divided by N”. Vilhen two circuits are sepa-
296 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

z (15)(10)(13.8)*

@r ‘ E Es '\.A.&J.'
ACTUAL nuusrorwsa
-as 50 O00
The transformer reactance in Ohms is:
=0.571 ohms at 13.8 kv

in) ACTUAL CIRCUET

an at 13.8
LEAKAGE IMPEDANCES
z,/
’\/\/V‘
.
'
am < ‘\/\/V‘
The line impedance is, from Chap. 3.
9.7-5+j57.9 ohms at 110-kv. {See Fig. 4(0)}

(2% ZGT ml”.

er= Qns so
\§.Q§2£L-
IL

rsI§§’¥Bé’iE§””§§}§]¥,N6
T

OW
l>»\ '
.l_. no xv I5 F1j.__g_Qgw. SPACING X
IMP £ DAN GE -re muss soo mm cu. ‘
[bl TRANSFORMER REPLACED BY IDEAL TRAN$F€)RMi-IR 3 IMPEDANCE5 50,000 KVA 50,000 KVA
TUR80"GEN. 9'7. REACT
(Bl SWGLE-LINE DIAGRAM
‘Z4; ~12, N." rm G

“@cr~* ask
N I --L---nu-»
10.57! 10.343 OJ54 +jO.9IO
<=—-vvv ‘wv ‘vvx/~— a
0 ;=435° M;|p4]Z'O.l54-+]LB24
IDEAL TRANSFORMER r*"*’____
_§§ __________ _ -teso
(cl Trumsrosuarrou N (bl MPEDIQNCE DIAGRAM
||Q Qog ALL EMPEOANGES lN OHMS AT I3.8 KY
j5S.2 j2I.7 984-j5'l9
=>—\/vv ~ ~-'vvv— vvv a 1
‘Zr; uiz, 2, 14545 AMqZ=9.8+jll5.6
__ _ _ II I6
I N IL
IIII
Ngg NE‘! glx ELT§Z|,
{Cl IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
ALL IMPEDANCES IN OHMS AT IIO XV

(a) "rsausroanzs omrreo 0o—vvv

Fig. 3--Power lnvariant transformation.
rated by an ideal transformer* of turns ratio N, such an
operation performed on the quantities on one side of the
transformer with a corresponding change in the trans-
former ratio, has the advantage of bringing the currents
and voltages on the two sides to an equality. A direct
connection can be made and the ideal transformer can be
omitted from the diagram (see Fig. 3). Solutions can be
made with the quantities on the fictitious or transformed
voltage base, and they can be reconverted to actual
quantities whenever desired.
An actual transformer differs from an ideal transformer
in two respects only. It has primary and secondary resist~
ances and leakage reactances, which are no different than
the same impedance connected externally. Its primary
and secondary ampere-turns differ by a small quantity
of exciting ampere—tlIrns that excite the core. A shunt
branch can be connected which draws the requisite exciting
current if important in the particular problem.
Example~—As an example consider the circuit of Fig. 4,
a. generator, transformer and higlbvoltage line with a three-
phase short circuit at the end. Suppose the short~circuit
currents are to be determined. This problem will also iElns-
trate that calculations can be made interchangeably with
impedances in ohms on any voltage base or in percent on
any kva base.
The generator reactance {assumed 15%} in ohms is
from (11):
‘A transformer having zero exciting current. and zero leaking
impedance.
0.15 0.09
Wv
0.04-I~j0.239
vvv
pggg J Z 10.04-+jO.4'79
|"".9- ___... _______ ___'i’§.5_°*iT_ ‘Q48
(d) vuneomcs DIAGRAM
ALI, IMPEDANOES IN PER um‘ on A 50,000 KVA BASE
Fig. 4-—Proble:n illustrating the expression of ohms on rari-
01.18 voltage bases and the relation to percent On a kva base.
The shunt impedances of this line are high (line CD’ Fig.
2) and will be neglected for simplicity in this problem.
Use of Generator Voltage Base-—If the current in
the generator is desired, it will be most convenient to
express all impedances on the generator voltage base. The
generator and transformer irnpedances are already on this
base. The line impedance is converted to it by multiplying
by the square of the turns ratio, usually taken as the
nameplate voltage ratio corresponding to the taps in use.
Thus the line impedance is:
(9.75-I~j57.9)(%§)2wO.i54+J‘0.91O ohms at 13.8 kv.
The impedance diagram of Fig. 4(b) results, in which
all impedances are expressed in ohms on a, 13.8-kv base.
The fault current in the generator is then:
13 800
X/M1830} 435O ampercs .
I ;—~:-—-——--=
The current flowing in the Eine is:
13.8
I’ = 4350(i~i-6-) = 545 amperes.
Use of Line Voltage Base——A similar result would be
obtained if the generator and transformer reactances had
Chapter 10 Steady-State Perfirrmamze of Systems Including Methoda of Network Solution
been converted directly from percent to ohms at 110-lav.
The impedance diagram, Fig. 4(0) would than result, the
fauit current being calculated directly for the line and
requiring a conversion (multiplication by to deter-
mine the current in the generator.
Use of Percent on a Kva Base—A third method of
approach is to convert the line impedance to percent on
a kva base, and “work in percent." A convenient base
will be 50 O00 kva. since two of the impedances are already
known on this base. The line impedance is, from Eq. (12):
(9.75+j57.9) (50 060) . but in the reverse direction. Zero-sequence voltages and
(10}(11O)2 - (4.0-<I»—323.9)% on 50 OOO—kva. base.
The impedance diagram Fig. 4(d) results, the percentages
being shown as decimal fractions or “per unit" to facilitate
computation.
In this case the current is:
I =%%=2.08 per unit or 208 percent of the normal
‘ current, corresponding to the selected kva
base.
This normal current is:
50 OOO
I,,=-—-~—---~—=209U . t13.8k
\/§(13‘8 or 110) or Efiglrgrlhpll at 110 lfv
The generator and line currents are, therefore, 208 percent
of 2090 and 262 or 4350 and 545 amperes respectively,
which agree with the preceding calculations.
The base selected obviously is immaterial. Had a
100 GOO-kva base been used, the impedances in Fig. 4(d)
wouid all be doubled and the resulting percent currents
halved. But the normal currents to which these percents
ages refer would be twice as great, and thus the same
number of amperes would be obtained.
8. Phase Shifts in Transformer Banks
In addition to magnitude transformation, the voltage of
the reference phase in general undergoes a shift in angular
position. For balanced conditions, that is, considering
positive-sequence quantities only, this is generally of no
significance. For example, in the problem just worked out,
the current in the reference phase of the iine may or may
not have been in phase with the refcrencc or a phase
current in the generator. If the transformer were delta~
delta, the currents would have been in-phase; if delta-star
they would have been 30 degrees out-of-phase, using the
usual conventions.
However, it should be recognized that an angular trans-
formation has been made Whenever the single-phase circuit
or impedance diagram is used for the calculation of currents
and voltages in a circuit including a standelta connected
transformer bank. The following statements should aid in
determining the treatment required in any particular case.
Radial Sy$tem$—~§n radial systems, the angle trans-
formation is not usually significant as few phenomena
involve comparisons of the phase angles of line currents
on opposite sides of a transformation. Since currents and
voltages are shifted alike, power or impedance determina-
tion at any one point in the circuit is unaffected by the
angle transformation.
297
Transformer Di_fi'erent1'alProtection---A typical ex-
ception is the differential protection of a transformer bank.
Here the currents on opposite sides of the transformation
are purposely compared and measures must be taken to
correct for the shift if the devices used are sensitive to
phase angle.
SequenceVoltages and Curran ts-~Positive-sequence
voltages and currents are shifted the some as the reference
or a phase in progressing through a symmetrical trans-
formation. Negative-sequence voltages and currents, if
present, are shifted the same amount as the reference phase
currents are not shifted in progressing through 9. trans-
formation.
Ideal Transjormation—The shifts referred to have to
do with the ideal transformer only, deleted of all leakage
impedance and exciting current. That is, they depend only
on how many turns of primary and secondary are used
on each core and how these are grouped to form the phases
on the primary and secondary sides. Symmetry with respect
to a, b, and c phases is assumed.
Regulating Transformers--A syrnmetrical three-
phasc bank of regulating transformers may involve both
ratio and phase-angle transformation. Suppose that in
progressing through a particular bank of this type, a
phase-angle advance of 10 degrees exists in the reference
phase. Then, in progressing through the transformer in
the same direction, positive-sequence quantities (currents
and voltages) are advanced 10 degrees, negative-sequence
quantities retarded 10 degrees, and zero-sequence quantities
not shifted at all.
Standard Angular Shifts—The angular shifts of
reference phase for various transformer connections are
given in Chap. 5, Soc. 13. The American Standard‘ is B.
30-degree advance in phase in progressing through either
a star-delta. or a delta-star connected transformer from a
lower to a higher voltage. When carried out consistently,
this will permit interconnections at various system volt-
ages without difficulty in phasing. However, at present
practically all possible connections are in use throughout
the industry.
9. Loop Systems That Close
Transformations of magnitude or angle in a system in-
volving one or more loops can be treated similarly to a
radial system provided that:
a. The product of the magnitude transformation ratios
for the reference phase, taken in a. common direction
around each closed loop is unity.
b. The sum of the reference phase angular shifts taken
in a common direction around each closed loop is zero.
If each transformation ratio is expressed vectorially as
N cl’, including angular significance in the term "vector
transformation ratio,” then a and b above can be combined
into the single requirement:
c. The product of the vector transformation ratios
around each closed loop is 115°.
If the requirements a and b, or c are fulfilled, then the
circuits of the system can be divided into zones separated
‘ASA Standards C-57.
 298 Steady-State Perform/zmce of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

I: n,'el°1 I: I-a,el°¢ In Zone3

<1 4- A *I§- I/=1’: (14)
iI I ._ -_- 1—»mwa-mun
Er’:-Er (15)
E as KV 3 In Zone 2
B’: '7,‘
zone 2 r I,'=i'§?=1Jv,i-"- (16)
' ‘I
I L..____1."“’”“"'"“”I €
ll. I32 xv
l3.8 KV
......“-..
1II
IIII1I
II I El‘ ._ E- _§=~a- (17)
E"_N,e’°’-N26
332 KV In Zone I
" " " "*"I
L¥9_'!§..'._II.. "I"I II
L_ _ -‘;"_ ._ J Ir"-'"- "11........_........__.......__._._..._Z2'1|§».A_I II ._~. -. -. _. .l
{ENE
I1"m';,T=IeNaE_m (18)
<1 P (0) srucu-: LINE omsnau
i2N;6l°3 E1 E;
Er=_________";____ _@,
J
l l II I II E ! ¥ I I t N36
rs "- N36 (19)
.-......- The Zone 1 quantities may also be expressed as follows,
I-. "l illustrating the general method to be followed when the
Im -_. .I
mI 'I .f_12a;_2....i Ir zone in question is separated from the reference zone by
-—-5 - —..............--we--_ L"-""'"'1 several transformations.
'III I-
1P T- ,, INN _
_. . . _. ._ .J If “ =IfN1NgE jwduafi

11 _£§;II___I__i_,_.J_ ,_. . "'"i"LZMQ.

F...-'q1--~"-"O
'O
"""'lI'""'""
_________..Z°._l‘!.E.Q§.i Era Eb =__ E‘ e—1(B:+9:)
lb) IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM t NiN2€f81X6j’l N1N:
I» .31 iw The power at any point s, for example, can be cal-
“*8 ' use culated without transforming. For:
I32 513°’
Nael°2u-5-; '

PI’+jQI!* WELT.’ 2 (WELL: ('10,) <TnN25+M) =-El-TI

N3§l95a E-% 6 I69-‘NI ejqngelqg
and
Fig. 5——Ratlo and angular transformations. Pn+jQn=Eafa

from each other by transformations. One zone, usually These are the same. In other words the transformations
the one of greatest interest in the particular problem, can described thus far and ordinarily used in analytical work
be taken as the reference zone. are power invariant. They differ from transformations to
Example~—F0r example, in Fig. 5 currents in various a model scale for setting on a network calculator, in which
parts of the system are to be determined for a balanced power must obviously be scaled down.
three-phase fault on the 132-icv line. 10. Loop Systems That Do Not Close
There is one ciosed loop in which:
If the product of vector transformation ratios around a.
I closed loop is not unity, special consideration needs to be
‘”*"'° ‘N=‘”" “ (iii‘”°'l given. This case will be subdivided into three parts, viz—-
(si) product of ratios not unity, (b) sum of angular shifts
==1e‘° (13) not zero, and (0) product of ratios not unity and sum of
angles not zero.
Therefore, the reference—phase impedance diagram can Product of Ratios Nor Unity--l\dany transformers
be prepared from the single-line diagram without showing are provided with taps in one or more windings. With star
any transformations. or delta connected windings, use of these taps changes the
Let Zone 3 be taken as the reference zone and all irn~ ratio only, without affecting the angular shift through the
pedances expressed in ohms on 132-lav base. The fault transformer. Thus, by far the largest number of cases of
current, Ii, and the distribution of currents I, and I,, are non-unity vector transformation ratio around closed loops
now readily determined. So also are the voltages through» falls in this category of ratio discrepancy only.
out the network. It is recognized that in Zone 3 these are Example-~AI:1 example is shown in Fig. 6, in which two
the actual reference phase currents and voltages. In Zones circuits A and B difier in capacity, the taps having been
1 and 2 they are the actual quantities transformed to the increased on the B circuit to make it carry more of the load.
Zone 3 base, and hence, must be transformed to their own The power factor of the portion of load that can be thus
respective bases to obtain the actual quantities. Since they shifted from B to A depends on the impedance phase angles
are all positive-sequence currents and voltages, that is, of the A and B circuits being nearly pure wattless for pure
normal balanced three-phase quantities, the actual cur- reactive circuits, and pure Watts for pure resistive circuits.
rents and voltages of the reference phase, which have been Thus, for 60 degrees impedance angle circuits the shifted
indicated on the single line diagram, are as follows: ‘See Section 2.
 Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 299

€}ao' for example A, unity by transforming the voltages of Zone

. 2 . .
1II1 1 1 in the ratio ggej” and currents and impedances by
LINE A
I32 KY
the corresponding factors. This leaves an uricorupenssted
II I 1 2 8 or remnant ratio to be accounted for in B, which may be
represented as an autotransformer, Fig. Gfb).
LOAD
5.8 KV In a-c network calculator studies, small zuito-tra.nsform~
? LINE B "L;QN_g__3_'?____’
"-"1 ers of the remnant ratio are used and no further consider-
"""""l 1.. .- .- J ation need be given. For analytic studies the simplest
lZ.Q*L5....|_ “ _ b§lm_H_m_iA1§ -_“’._es
_ .,_. Z, ,’
i1 2s |= II
U “ _.3Q"LE._ L.'_". _. ». ._: method is to neglect the remiiaiit transformation ratio,
3”’ :32: use e3’°°
A5 §+s provided great accuracy is not required. The order of
th

e- A magnit-udc of the circulating current can be estimated by

(0) smote LINE DIAGRAM dividing the inserted voltage by the loop impedance to see
whether it can be neglected in the problem at hand. For
"2 -—~—-—-—--~ example, if the remnant ratio is 1.05 the inserted volt-age is
| In 5 of the order of 0.05 per unit under normal load conditions.
L...._ If the loop impedance is 0.50 per unit the order of magni»
5'

1| '7I’ tude of circulating current is 3&5-=0. 10 per unit.

_-@
If this cannot be neglected the following approximation

1
22??5:"ll<9
r-: :r- *1 I
In gI;.1
ll I
tEr,.si..}3"f
cm" _..l32Z|38
_. r
IDEAL. AUTOTFMNSFORMER
;;'""E
JJjijjj
I.-L.-_. _ . _._J §'UoN§)gi" I: l
is suggested in cases where the remnant ratio is close to
unity. The accuracy of the method is indicated Eater by
Li:::t:t_i an example.
a. Treat as though the ratio were unity and determine
the resulting shunt voltage at the location of the
(bl lMP€DANC€ DFAGRAM ON ZONE 2 BASE auto-transformer‘.
WITH REMNANT TRANSFORMATION INDICATE)
b. Determine the resulting series voltage introduced,
---0» in this case =§—=4 5 ercent of the shunt
1|-;=O.32875-iO.25485 132 132 ' P
voltage, and in phase with it.
F-_,-.0
c. Determine the current circulated in the network by
%-0+i0 1 - o.s5":s-'o.5oa1
. .
1,,=o.szers~§o.2s4as=1,,, ‘ ' I
1 the action of this series voltage alone, setting the
generator emf, E, equal to zero. Determine the volt-
ages for this condition also.
0.9 ?45—i0.o329 = 5" I-1'-o.ae?s-10.0643
q-p -_-p -,- _u“ob ,L::, . _ ,_j d. Superpose this set of circulating currents on the cur-
(cl cmcuxr CALCULATED WITH SERIES EMF ZERO rents previously culculuted. Superpose the voltages
similarly. The resulting solution is in error only by a
correction factor of the second order which usually
t,,=-0.o:s1+50.0s65 can be ignored, as will be shown subsequently.
c. Whore scveral such auto—transformers are required
41"‘-'*}

1,-o.o|42-50.01:: I to “close” the impedance diagram, the circulating

1,,-0.0309-ig.o?a3=1m currents can be calculated separately, treating the
1:4; e _—" u
ratios of the others as unity at the time. All of the
1-:-= - 0.00-re - 50.003: E’~ oozes + ioooz: J
-—-“m _, *_ _____ _L._. _ __L_. W resulting circulating currents can then be superposed.
The resulting voltages can likewise be superposed.
la) cmcun CALCULATED WITH suuur mars ZERO;
SERIES EMF ACTING ALONE. e-0.0443-;o.oo|5 This approximation is based on the concept that the
auto-transformer could be replaced by a shunt load that
Fig. 6"»-Product of ratios around a closed loop not unity.
draws the some current from the system as the main section
of the §1l1l.()—i.'t‘3.1'1SfrlI‘1'T1BT and at series emf that impresses
load is at about 50 percent power factor. The amount in series the same voltage as the short extension of the
shifted is nearly constant, and not e. percentage of the autcrtransformer. With this substitution, the solution by
total load. Thus, at no load, there is a. circulation over superposition is exact. If the s.uto-transformer introduces
tho two lines. five-percent voltage in series and the impedance to the
Suppose that the network of Fig. 6 is to be solved, and resulting circulating current is 50 percent, than ten-porccnt
it is desired to Work on the Zone 2 basis. Zone 3 can be current will flow. With five-percent voltage this amounts
readily transformed to this basis as explained in a preced- to 0.5-percent load, which is supplied from the system to
ing section. However, no transforination can be found for the shunt winding of the auto-transformer, thence, to the
Zone 1 that will result in both transformer ratios being series winding and back into the system, as 1“.‘sf and 1 “R
unity. The best that can be done is to make one of them, losses of circulation. As this load drawn by the shunt
300 Steady-State Performance of Systems Iminding Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

Winding is quite small, 0.5-percent in the case just cited,
it is most frequently ignored.
In general, introduction of the series voltage raises the
voltage on one side of the autdtransformer and lowers it
on the other side, as compared with the voltage that would
be present if the auto-transformer were not there. Thus,
if the series voltage is five percent, the shunt voltage
applied to the autmtransformer will differ by not over
five percent from that calculated with the auto-transfonner
removed. A correction of five-percent in the shunt voltage
would change the series voltage from five-percent to 4.75
percent. This small correction usually is not required.
Thus, the steps as outlined from 0. to d above will usually
series Voltage e, and is a good approximation to the exact
solution of the circuit of Fig. 6(a) and (b) as will be shown
by comparison with Fig. 7(b).
The Exact Solution for the currents and voltages in Fig.
6(b) can be obtained by writing Kircholffls Law for the
TABLE 2-Comriimsou or Rnsmrrs BY Arrnoxrmnrn AND
Exncr Mnriions or SOLUTION wuss Pnonucr or-'
VECTOR TRANSFORMATION RATIGB IS NOT UNITY.
(REFER ALSO T0 Fro. 7).
_ % Dill’.
By Approximate Method! By Exact Method Dim
1 ._...~.+_..

be sufiiciently accurate. l ——— ~Exact

Vector Scalar Vector Scalar X100
E.~rampIe-A comparison of the exact solution (by
equations——see Sec. 13) and the approximation in the I1 0.672-10.522 0.851 0.686~j0.536 0.870
ease of Fig. 6 will illustrate the procedure and indicate I» 0.672-»j0.522 0.851 0.670»-j0.521 0.849
the degree of accuracy to be expected. Assume a set of I. o.s12~;»'o.1ss 0.364 0.316-10.191 0.369
constants as follows, in per unit on the generator kva base. It 0.260-50.332 0.490 o.a71~,"0.245 0.507
Assume the voltage to be maintained constant on the Im 0.360-10.333 0.355-jo.3s0 0.-$85
generator bus. E" 0.967 -goose 0.965 -10.031 0.966
E:
0.911-goose F799 gm»- <e%8 o.o1o~;'o.0o7 0.918 ‘GIG!-~*CAib- ¢@l~j .”:§%$%=°§'56
A =j0.10 E = 1 +10
B-1j0.1O drops around each of the three loops and setting up a fourth
C’=0.10+j0.173 equation stating that the total aInpere—turns on the perfect
m0.10+jO.l73 transformer are zero.
#_;i0.10 I13 ""123 +E” '=E
Q"-1U=0.90+j0.50 (22)
Following the steps suggested above, the series voltage ——I1B +I,(A+B+C'+D)-I,D +E"'(0.045)=0
is first set equal to zero and the solution using the generator (23)
voltage alone is obtained, Fig. 6(0). The series voltage is 11(0) “'12-D +I;(D+F'+G)-E"(1-045) =0
4.5 percent of 0.9745 —-j0.0329 or equal to 0.0443 -30.0015
and is clircctcd to the right. Then, setting the generator
(24)
voltage equal to zero and applying the series voltage alone, I1 +1i(0.0=£-5) -"Ia(l.045) +E"'(0) =0
the solution of Fig. fi(d) is obtained. Adding vectorially (25)
the corresponding quantities in these two solutions, the
superposed solution, Fig. 7(a), is obtained for the simul- The solution of these simultaneous equations with the
taneous application of the generator voltage, E, and the numerical values of the impeclances A to G substituted,
is given in Fig. 7(b). Table 2 shows the error in various
quantities by the approximate method. The voltages are

l
is Within 0.2 percent. The largest current error is 3.35 percent
1,,-o.sn2:— 10.3383
E~!.O+ io in ID. The sum of errors in I,. and Im are about 4.5 percent.
——o-
This is necessary since these two currents are taken the
I 03596 $33321 1;'O.G7|T—i0.52l5 I same in the approximate solution and differ by 4.5 percent

ones?-jo.osso~E
L ~.='» -'"
. " . *

ei'-o.s|r4~3o.ose4
1
I
in the exact solution.
Sum of Angular Shifts Not Zero——Regulating trans-
formers or regulators as well as special connections of trans-
¢¢>1e>';=Z>=<}»iTE seturm detainee BY suesninirosiueirui formers can introduce angular shift. If the not shift around
RESULTS or "rm-: snum /mo SERIES EMF'$, no. filo) mo on a closed loop is not zero but is small, the treatment is
similar to that for ratio discrepancies except that the series
——w
1,-.=o.s|s -50191 voltage is introduced at right angles to the shunt voltage.
E -1.0+ io On the a.-c network calculator, transformers cannot be
-5> I,-o.s1|-50.345 ._._.._ used to obtain a shift since the circuits are single phase.
o_355_,°_5w_,m 1,-0.610-,o:>zu Power sources must be used to introduce the necessary
lz,-o.sse~10.5as 3 series voltages.
W7 ,
0.9eis*io.os1-I-é ,, ‘ RATIO‘ , ,
Haas i is-o.s|s~;o.os71 p Sum of Angular Shifts Not Zero and Sum of
Ratios Not Unity-—The series voltage can be introduced
(bl zxacr soumou av soumou or “rue scum-nous at any desired angle, corresponding to the net vector trans-
Fig. 7-Comparison of exact and approximate solutions of formation ratio, and the currents superposed as outlined
Fig. t. above, with appropriate phase relations.
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 301

II. NETWORK SOLUTION iv, ‘=3. ..‘_=.. .3...

11. Network Theorems" 2,101 2,. 10.1 z, 2,.
The Superposition Theorem states that each emf ed Mg ii Ts, :4 2 ll lair
produces currents in a linear nctwo:rk* independently of
those produced by any other emf. It follows that the (0) (bl
emfs and currents of a given frequency can be treated f r
independently of those of any other frequency, and of
transients. The superposition theorem is a direct result of
z, z,. z, 2,
the fact that the fundamental simultaneous differential s,l 9 z Q Te, z
equations of the network are linear. (See any standard
fi H |\
book on Differential Equations.) (See Sec. 13.)
The Compensation Theorem states that if the im- icl In Hr id}
s -—"" t '—* r
pedance of a. branch of a network be changed by an
1: Zr
amount AZ, the change in current in any branch is the
same as would he produced by a compensating emf ——AZl’, Eani Elnl like Tirn
acting in series with the modified branch, I being the origi- Z
nal current in that branch. By compensating emf is meant n I1 n

one Which, if it were inserted, would neutralize the drop (e)

through AZ. This theorem follows directly from the
superposition theorem.
The Reciprocal Theorem states that when 2. source
of electromotive force is connected across one pair of
terminals of a passivei linear network and an ammetor is
connected across a second pair of terminals, then the source
of electromotive force and the ammeter can be inter-
changed without altering the reading of the ammetcr
(provided neither the source nor receiver has internal
impedance}. This follows from the fact that in Eq. (56),
if all emfs are zero except E2 and E3 for example, then if
E2=0, rzwglgfi, while if 11?-=0, r.=‘~Eib@,
so that if E3 =E2, I3 ML, for the conditions of the theorem.
NOt8 A43"-=4‘13g.
12. Reference Current and Voltage Directions
To specify uniquely a vector current or voltage in a
circuit, some system must be adopted to label the points
between which the voltage is being described or the branch
in which the current flows. This system must also indicate
the reference or positive direction. Two common methods
are: the use of reference or positive direction arrows and
the double subscript notation.
Reference Direction Arrows-—Fig. 8(a) and (b) -When
a network is to be solved to determine, for example, the
current flow for a given set of impressed emfs, the network
should first be marked with arrows to indicate the reference
positive direction of each current and voltage involved.
These can be drawn arbitrarily, although if the predom~
inant directions are known, their use as reference-direction
arrows simplifies later interpretation.
The use of open voltage-arrowheads and closed current-
arrowheads will avoid confusion in numerical work, where
the E and I symbols are not used.
It must be decided at this point whether the voltage
"See also Thevcnin’s Theorem, Sec. 18.
‘A linear network is one in which each impedance is linear; that is,
has a straight line relation between current and voltage drop.
TA passive network is one having no internal emfs as distinguished
from an active network.
Fig. 8—Meth0ds of notation used in network solution.
arrow is to represent a rise or a drop. In system calcula-
tions it is generally used as the rise in voltage. While
this decision is arbitrary, once made, it must be adhered
to consistently.
Finally a vector vaiue must be assigned to the voltage
or current. It can be expressed as a complex number, or
in polar form or graphically and gives the magnitude and
relative phase of time quantity with respect to some ref-
erence. A symbol, such as 1,, can be used to designate
this vector quantity.
The known vectorial voltages or currents must be asso-
ciated with the reference arrows in a manner consistent
with the conditions of the problem. For example, suppose
the problem in Fig. 8(a), is to determine the currents that
would flow with the two voltage sources 180 degrees out
of phase, and 100 volts each, rms, 60-cycle. Then if E’,
is taken as l00+_7'0, E, must be taken as -—1€)0—i—j0. Had
the arbitrary reference-direction arrows been taken as in
Fig. 8{b), then for the some problem a consistent set of
voltages would be:
E’.= 100-l—j0, E,%100+j0
Ordinarily the reference~directi0n arrows for shunt voltages
are directed from the neutral to the phase conductor as
in Fig. 8(a).
Summarizing then, the complete specification of a
quantity in the reference-directiomarrow system involves
three elements:
a. The reference-direction arrow, drawn arbitrarily.
b. An agreement, consistently followed as to what the
reference-direction arrow means ; particularly whether
the voltage arrow means the voltage of the point.
above the tail or the drop from tail to point.
c. A vector to represent the magnitude and relative
phase of the quantity with respect to a reference.
Suggested convention: For voltages, the vector quantity
shall indicate the voitage of the point of the arrow above
the tail, that is, the rise in the direction of the arrow. It
then is also the drop from point to tail.
302 Steody»S£ale Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

Mesh Currents and Voltage.s\—Refer lo Fig. 8(c}—- Referring to Fig. 8(0).

The “mesh current” system involves s. somewhat dilienent E,—I,(Z.,+Z)+I.Z=O (32)
point of view. Herc each current is continuous around a I..Z—-I,{Z-i-Zr)-—E.=(} (33)
mesh and several currents may flow in the some branch.
(I, and I, flow in Z.} The branch current is the vector sum Referring to Fig. 8(d} or 8(e).
of all the mosh currents in the branch, taken in the refer» E’-n-—I,iZ.——ImZ#0 (34)
once direction for the branch current. If such a. network ImZ——I.,Z,——E',.,=O (35)
can be laid out “flat,” it is most convenient to take the In“-[zn"“InmO (36)
reference direction for mosh currents as simply “clockwise”
for example. Or circular arrows can be used as shown in In the doublesubscript system, the voltages and cur-
Fig. 8(c). The example oi‘ solution by equations in Sec. 9 rents could of course be indicated on the figure. They have
illustrates the use of “mesh currents.” been purposely omitted in Fig. 8(d), however, to emphasize
The same reference directions can be conveniently used that the specification of these quantities in Eqs. (34) and
for mesh emfs, which are the vector sum of all emfs acting (35) is perfectly definite from the subscripts alone.
around a particular mesh, taken in the reference direction. Also, the inclusion of rcferencedirection arrows on the
Double-Subscript N0t£Iti(m—--Fig. 8 (cl)-—-A d0uble~ diagram, even when the double~subscript system is used,
subscript notation is sometimes used and is of course may aid in writing equations, although they are not
equivalent to the drawing of reference arrows. Here again strictly required. If used, they must be consistent. with
an arbitrary decision must be made as to what is intended. the double-subscript system. That is, each arrow must
Suggested Convention: Refer to Fig. 8(d). be directed from the second subscript toward the first for
In means the current from s to l. voltages, and from the first subscript toward the second
E... means the voltage of s above n for currents. Fig. 8(e) illustrates such a. diagram cor1-
It is apparent then that E,,,,= —E'.,,,; I.,,= -1“, etc. sistently labeled.
Setting Up Equrm‘ons—If the work is analytical, by
the method of equations, the equations must be set up 13. Solution by Equations
consistent with the reference direction arrows, regardless Representation~—A network of -n meshes can be
of the values of any known currents or voltages. Consistent represented as having n independent currents, I1 to 1.,
equations for Figs. 8(a), (b), (c), (cl), are as follows, using as shown in Fig. 9. The branch currents are combinations
Kirchot¥’s Laws (Sec Sec. 1): The voltage equations are of these. See Branch Currents below.
Written on the basis of adding all of the voltage rises in 2. Mesh Impedances are defined generally as! Z,,q==
clockwise direction around each mesh. The total must of voltage drop in the reference direction in mesh q per unit
course be zero. The current equations are written on the of current in reference direction in mesh p. The curved
basis that the total of all the currents flowing up to :1. point arrows indicate reference directions in each mesh. In
must equal zero. Arrows and double subscripts have the general
meanings given in the “suggestions” above.
Znq = Zap
Referring to Fig. 8(a).
The impedances Z,,, and ZM are called self and mutual
E,-I,Z,—-IZ=O (26) irnpedances.
--I,Z,--E.+IZw0 (2?) Specifically in Fig. 9.
I,—I—-I,=0 (28) (First subscripts 2' and 0 indicate inductive and capacitive
Referring to Fig. 8(b). reactanccs respectively.)
E,-1,Z,-1Z=O (39) Z11wR&'+Rb+j(Xia”l“Xib”Xu”Xob)

-I,Z,+E,+IZ=0 (30) Zn = "Rs ""j(Xib"'*X=2>l (33)

I,—~I-~I,.=0 (31) Z13 = 0

Rn X10 X00! an Xi: xcc y if xii [cf Rh X“, X‘), MAGNET“;

(_l,....- _ CIRCUIT
1. 1:: fl, 1|
Ru l
Mi he 1° Xi. Xiafid
ls“ 6:‘ X lb Q?‘ Rd W- R. G‘ ls» Ts» Q9
Rm XI: 700,30
Z‘
0 m
-_
.-.,...
o
(£-l
m n *Z3.__;___'l" ' C23 "dill?-f "--
{Ed ®lm R‘ X19 Xcq

l e— — ~ 'L._$
R
/<>'o‘o\-it
X1; X |;
.*.*_ (M
k 1 c (G)

Fig. 9-»-General flat network.

Chapter 10 Sieadgr-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 303

Z14 = 0 (40) The cofactor of a term in a determinant is the minor

Etc. determinant obtained by eliminating the row and column
Z2:ERb+R¢+Rd+Rm+j(Xm+X1<>+X1u—X¢b*-Ye») ) containing that term, this minor being prefixed by a +-
(41 or — sign depending on whether the sum of column num-
Z23 = —_iXa.n (42) ber and row number is even or odd respectively. In (57),
the first subscripts define columns, the second rows. Thus
[The polarity marks signify that the mutual flux links
the cofactor of e term has e. + sign if the sum of sub~
the two windings in a manner to produce maximum volt- scripts on the term is even. Since Zpq =- Z“, it can be shown
ages at the same instant at the marked ends of the wind- that A M w A qp~
ings. See Fig. 9(b).1 In (56), the term invoiving E, is the current that flows
Z24 = "" Rm in mesh p if all emfs are set equal to zero except E1. Simi-
Z25:-*0, etc.
larly, the term %2 is the current that flows in mesh p
Z12 = Z2: (45)
Z13 = Z3; Elli}.
if E2 alone nets and E1, E3, etc., are equal to zero.
Specifically:
Mesh Em_fs-Referencepositive directions for branch
emfs, E., Eb, etc., are shown by arrows associated there~
with.
_,2=E§n+%+%e+...+e%.a.» (58)
A mesh emf is the sum of the branch emfs acting around
where D is given by (57).
that particular mesh in the reference direction.
And:
The same reference direction will be used for mesh emfs
as for mesh currents. lZ12Za2' ‘ -3112
Specifically in Fig. 9. A21“ — ZLSZS3‘ ‘ ‘Z113 (59)
E1 = E9, “' E! (47)
E2 = “Ea (48)
Ea 2 "'"‘ Eb (49) Zlnziini ' 'Znn

Eli = Ed tc (50) ZnZa1' ' ‘Zn

Etc. Z13Z33 ' ‘ ‘Z113
En W E; (51) A22 =-" +
Equations-A--~-Kirehofi"s Law states that the voltage
drop around each closed mesh must equal the emf im-
pressed in that mesh. Z1nZ3n' ' ‘Znnl

I1Z11'Jr“I-;Z2z‘i“I:;Za1‘l" ‘ '+InZn1=E1 (52) ‘Z1:Z:u' ' ‘Zn

(Z12-Z32‘ ‘ 'Zn2‘
IlZ12+I2Z2~2.“i“IsZa2+' ' '+I.1Zn2=Ea (53) A,a=_.. . .
I1Z1a+I2Z2a+IaZaa+ - - - -l-I..Z...».= Ea (54) (61)
1-. .1
1 u - -. .

O 1 I n -
iZ&nZ3n ' ' "Zuni Etc-
n ¢ . - -

I1Z1n+I2Z2n+I3Z3n+“ '+InZnn=En Branch Currents can now be obtained by combina-

Mesh Currents"‘-1-Equations (52) to (55) can be tion. The Vector sum of all mesh currents flowing in a.
solved for the mesh currents I1 to In. The solution for branch is the branch current.
current in any particular mesh, p, is: Specifically with reference to Fig. 9.
I,=I1 (62)
Ipw§%E+%‘g_fl+ +...+ (56) I;, = I1 -1, (63)
where D is the determinant of coeflicients
L,=I; (64)
Im = I4 -— I; (65)
Z11Z21Z3l' ' 'Zn1 Etc.
Z12Z22Za2' "Z112
Branch Voltages-The branch voltages, Em E",
D= Z1aZzaZsa"'Zn:s (57) etc., or the voltages between any two conductively con-
0 - » - nected points in the network, as En, can be obtained by
1 . t . veetorial addition of all voltages, both emfs and drops
Z1nZ2nZ3n' ' HZ;-m
through any path connecting the two points.
The voltage drop from x to y, D", and the voltage of
and AN is the cofaetor of ZN in the determinant (57).
point as above point y, En, are the same.
‘The method of determinants is used to state the solution here. (Note that drop is measured from first subscript to sec-
However, any method of solving the simultaneous equations (52) ond. The voltage of the first subscript is measured above
in (55) for the unknown currents I ; to I,1 may be used. the second.)
304 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

-DxY= =IcRe+jIc(Xic“Xm) one of these meshes per unit of emf impressed in the other.
Dy: = l-11?} = I<1R<1+J'IuXia _jIeXidu (67) Thus the voltage E2 is M01 of El and likewise the current
D‘-,,,= M ~Ec+L,,Rm (68) in mesh 1 resulting from E2 is -0.1 of the current in mesh
Dz: = Ex: “IcRe+jI¢(Xi¢"" Xw) +-MR4 2 due to E1.
+11=1X14 -3'1exid9- (69) 14. Solution by Reduction
Note that Gene:-al—The currents flowing in a. network of known
DxxmDxy+Dyz impcdances, caused by a. given set of applied emfs, can be
E,.wE,,,+E,.,. (71) determined by the method of superposition (See Sec. 11).
Example of Solution by Equations+(a) Given the First the solution (currents in all branches of interest) is
impedances and emfs of a network, Fig. 10, required to obtained considering one emf acting with all others set
equal to zero. Following the some procedure for each emf
xib -155 QHMQ RQI5 OHMS X“~2.S5 OHIIS in turn, o. number of current solutions arc obtained. By
the principle of superposition, the current in any branch,
When all emfs are acting at once, is the sum of currents in
xE¢'Z.9+]56.6 VOLTS .29-015.56 VOLTS'EbT
that branch caused by each emf acting independently with
Xi¢'l36 OHMS Xw'l50.5 QHM$
the others set equal to zero. The principle of superposition
presupposes a linear network. The some reference direc-
tions must be adhered to for all solutions if the super-
position is to be a simple vector addition of the several
current solutions.
Fig. 10—Example of a solution by equations. The solving of a network involving several emfs is thus
reduced to the more fundamental problem of solving a
find the currents. Note: The headings (b), (cl, etc., refer
network with one impressed emf. This can be accomplished
to the corresponding paragraphs b, c, etc., in which the by the method of reciuction.
method and equations are given.
(b) Mesh Impedances eqaoo 2,-330
Z11-=0+j(7.55+136) =0+j1-43.55
Zl2“Z21 = "—j113.0
22, =»5+2'(150.5_2.c.5) = 5+;'14?.s5 |
2.020
I
lEd'5o
I
Zb=|2 1
(0) Mesh Emfs . \{u
E1= 2.9 +j56.6
E2 = —O.29 -35.66
/i, .
\_§§ zdqs l1dz"°"'0l
(ti) Equations. it is unnecessary to write these out
completely since only the solutions are desired. However
'4;
for completeness they are: 2|-no z,,=-iao
I1(O+j143.55)+I1{ ——j113.(})=== 2.9+j56.6
I1( ~—_7'l1-3.0 )+I§(5+j147.S5) = -—O.29—j5.66
(0)
(e) Mesh Currents
_ U+jl43.6 —-jl 13.05
D' -1113.0 5+j1<17.9 I“ '3‘*00+J713 ZG '
A 11—
“*5 +3’147.9
Am=A21= ‘l"_7'113 0 - h I Z“ In
A22=U+jl43.6

;1=E1A1i+E@
D 1)
z1
d
Zn Z‘ Z‘
u
= ft-5
—lf___7_'_14’i'.9) +( 29
—j5.66) (j113) ,-. 0' 5/ gwrru 12¢-0)
-s400+;71s -8400+_7718 D
in
_gL>(¢)
=0.921+;i0.00?
_E1A21 E2142: Z0 ‘loo
I2~---D +—---D
Zeb Zoo
Z (2.9+j56.6)(j113] + (~0.29 -55.66) (+j143,_§)T U D

-s400+fl1s —8400+j718
==0.662+j0.03e 1'" 4
Z" re)
A A . .
Note that the term -—‘3=-23 1s the “transfer admit- on
” D D p ‘ _ Fig. 11-Solution by reduction. Bridge network current dis-
tance between meshes 1 and 2, or IS the current H1 either t1-ib\,|fl()n_
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 305

Solution by Reduction consists of replacing portions In all ca/see, the equivalent circuits are equivalent only
of network, such as Fig. 1l(a), by simpler equivalent sec- insofar as the labeled terminals are concerned. For ex-
tions, Fig. l1(b, c, d), until a simple series circuit results, ample, when B. star with mutuals is reduced to a star
Fig. 11(e), which includes the impressed emf and one im- without mutuals, the potential of the center point is not
pedance hranch. The current is readily calculated. Then, the same in the equivalent.
using current distribution factors obtained in the course Delta and star forms used in general networks are i6en~
of reduction, a reverse process is carried out, expanding the tical with Pi and T forms used in specialized transmission
network to its original form and determining the division forms of networks. See Fig. 15. The difference is simply
of currents in the process. The methods and equivalent in the manner of drawing the circuit. Thus the standelta
circuits for carrying out this procedure in general are given and delta-star transformations are at once, T to Pi and
in the subsequent paragraphs. Pi to T transformations. The arrow between parts of the
The Network Equivalents will first be given. Network figures indicates that the figure on the left is being trans-
constants can be expressed either in admittance or im~ formed to the figure on the right. It is assumed then that
parlance form. Some transformations are more readily the currents are determined for the figure on the right
performed in impedance form, such as adding impeclances and the equations under the figure on the left are for
in series, or delta-to—star transformations. Others are more determining the resulting currents (or voltages) in it.
conveniently performed in admittance form, such as ad-
ding adlnittances in parallel, or star-to-delta. transforms.- 15. Transformations in Impedance Form
tions. For more complicated transformations, it is best to a. Impedances in Series (Fig. 13)
convert constants to the most convenient form for the
particular transformation. For simpler ones, it is usually 2| Z2 Z
0 ’\/\/\/\/\/‘ ’\/\/V\/\/‘ 0 0- O~!\/\I‘\/\/\/‘ ‘I
preferred to use one form or the other throughout the ‘fig ‘Q? <‘E—“
problem. Fig. 13-Impedances in series.
The common transformations are presented in both
forms. The more complicated and unusual ones only in the Z Z
form best suited. Impedances (symbol Z) are reciprocals 8‘; Zlizzmfl (75) Z eZ=+Z¢ (74)
of adrnittances (symbol Y) and vice versa.
That is ._Z*.c@
1 ”“a+a"z Wm
Z1 = Y; (72)
b. Impedances in Parallel (Fig. 14)-“The parallel
n=l (m) of two imperiances is the product divided by the sum.”
21 Z‘
cuaaasr mvesaou omemms
———> - —c —~ 1- ¢— 'wwv~
----->
4»
Ea Eu ’ Z
1
i.,-Lol
P
H E, 1.0‘
Y.

Z3“ '°.|96
Fig. 14»-Impedancesin parallel.

(0) sammru-:0 cnacurr omcnm (77)

l B 1 2

7:2 Z]

(bl PARALLEL EX9ANSl0N 1 Z1"l"Z= (79)

E Z
9 E Z
v b Zbc C b 1» C
i;-tel if,-tel
1, -c.a1s/ \ ||’,-uses 2,‘, 2“ 2,, Zea
' Pi - UELTA
. Zia Q
iQp,-0.196 1.1‘ ll§=o_g5Q "'5' 0 '? ?

\i3,-o.|?s i'¢h-0.4z9/ la b Zn Zc C b C
Zdo Zan _ Zn
Zr 2|; Z lb Z;

1
it 0.625-—~ --it-0.315
; ii I 062}
‘ 4-oars-i’
l‘ ' ° T H "" STA?
(cl PARALLEL EXPANSION n (<1) DELTA-STAR "ramsroeunmou Z0
Fig. 12%-Solution by reduction. Bridge network current din» G G
trlbution. Fig. I$—Pi and delta; T and stars or Y are the same.
306 Steadgfltate Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

Suggested order of calculation (30) I,=I=,,—I,¢, (IOX) Z,b=DZ,,Z1, (97)

D 2 Z1 + Z2 Ib=Iab_'Ibq (102) ZbewDZ;,Z., (98)
. Z . . . I,,=Ii,c-—-Ia, (103) Zc.=DZcZ,, (99)
z1=~5=current in Z1 per unit current 1n Z. (81) l I E
D - Z -l- Z;-{~ Z (IOU)
'i,=1—i1=current in Z2 per unit current in Z. (32)
{£1 and 2'2 are current distribution factors.) Alternative forms of the transformation formules f0i~
Z £;Z1 (83) lows:
c. Delta to Star Transformation or Pi to T (Fig. Num. =Z,Zb+Z,Z,+ZbZ,, (104)
16)—“The star impedances are the product; of adjacent N . ZBZ
delta impedancefi divided by the sum of all delta imped- z,b= "%11_=Za‘l'Zi:“l“‘h2_t3 (105)
ances.”
lg; h I Z 0 zb.= N—§‘i. ”Zh+Zc+A%"'"
Z Z.
(106)
B c \b G
z¢,m15Pfi=z¢+z_+5§=
Z;-; Z1,
(107)
lob Zea
10% ACO [gl Z0 e. Star with Mutuals to Star without Mutuals
(F1g. 18)
3: 4:
0 " Q1“ 1=1-"-*~%
‘ ==
Fig. 16—Delta to star impedance form. Zn 4: 2,
H

Zo>\ /4:0
1,,,= -%L,+%°n, (883) z,.= (84) ‘O ---—---—--DI Z‘
Z0
'= _icaIa+iboIb (8811)
Inc“ * Ib+ Iu (8921) Zb=T
Zabzbu (85)
Fig. 18-—Star with mutuals to star without mutua1s—lm-
g “' 'iabIb+icaIc {89h) pedance form.
_ __
Zbc Zzib
{90a)
z.z Z,;=Z,—i-Z@,@--Zab-—Z@, (103)
Ica_""' D Ia Zc =
ZB=Zb+Zca‘Zbc_“Zvab
$ “””ib:;Ie"'l“iubIa. D=Zab+Zbc+Zca ZC=Zc‘"i_Zab—Zca“Zbc

Suggested order of calcula.£ion* Polarity marks require that wieh all reference directions
D = Zab+Zbc+Zes (37) from center outward as shown, all self and mutual drops
,- eel
ab" D {9l)
are from center outward. That is, it is understood that
with the polarity marks as shown, the voltage drop from
the center to o will be written:
Zbwzcaiab (92)
. Z Q Dim” IaZa*l"'Il>Zab""§"'-Iczea
?-'bc'$"_j)b’ (93)
and the numerical {vector} values and signs assigned to
Zb = Zabibo (94) Zak, and Z50 must be such as to make this true. It follows
- Zea than Z“, is defined as the voltage drop from n to a divided
“=5 (95)
by the current from n to b that causes the drop.
Zc=‘Zbc7:ca (96) Special case.’ Star with one mutuai between two branches
(¢,b, 11,” L, are current distribution factors.) to star without mutual, (Fig. 1.9.)
d. Star to Delta Transformation or T to Pi (Fig. 17) 2:
zbc ZC
c 9
Z;
C
/~'"'—‘i\
b ‘Q Z6 c b. 1
__b°,_ C Zn 2,
ZB /if ZUC
6
Z“ Zn
lob Zea
3 .1 Zn """""""" 1ol~>\ %co

Fig. 19»-Star with one mutual to star without mutual-

a impedance form.
FiQ- 174% Star to delta-—~ impedance form. zA=z,+z,,,, (111)
‘Then after L, Ib, and It have been found, I“, lab; find I1» (5511 be ZB=Zi,-—Zb<, (112)
determined using Eqs. (8810), (89b}, and (90b). Z6 = Z“ —Zb., (113)
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Iawluding Methods of Network Solution 307

f. Two Self Impedances and a Mutual Trans.. Y1

formed to an Equivalent Star or T. Or the Equiv~ Y
. - i--a 0---¢‘\/\/\/V\/\-~—-~0
alent Circuit of 0 Two-winding Transformer (Fig. ------0
I
10) --;--—<u
z1 22 '2‘
0 C 0 C Fig. 22-Admittances in parallel.

Zu =iI~l—-élu ~—"""-"'- Z11 c. General Star to Mesh Transformation, or

Elimination of 0 Junction” (Fig. 23)
b L. ‘J e b d 3 Ya 3
/5”
Fig. 20—Twn self impedances and a mutual transformed to
an equivalent star or T. Or the equivalent circuit of a two
. K2 1 . Y3
I

_‘ \. 7- _" “"‘ -.__

winding transformer.
Y: \\ Y‘: /103 \\

Z;=Z11 “Z13 (114) 1| \ l

| l I 1
Z3 ="'- Z22 —' Z13 Yl '1’ /Ian /I
Norm: This transformation involves bringing b and Cl to the
/ ,4__,- \ \
\
// \
\
same potential and is permissible only when these potentials are ‘&- ‘-.......-/

not otherwise fixed. Strictly, the form on the right is equivalent D 3

to that on the left with switch S closed. However, if the closure
of S would not alter the current division, it can be considered Fig. 23—General star to mesh transformation. or elimination
of a junction—zdmittance form.
closed and the equivalent circuit used. The resulting potentials
E», and E“ will be correct but the potentials E... and Edb, which
are definite in the equivalent, are actually indeterminate in the Now: A network can he solved by eliminating one junction
original circuit and must not be construed as applying there. point after another until a single-branch mesh remains.
See note under e for meaning of polarity marks, considering b RULES “A mesh branch is the product of adjacent star
and d as point 12.. ' branches divided by the sum of all star branches.”
The mesh contains n/2 (11 -1) branches, where n is the number
This is the familiar equivalent circuit of a. two—winding of star branches.
transformer, provided all impedances have first been
YIY
placed on a common turns basis. In this case Zn is the
exciting impedance and Z =-Z14-Z2 the leakage impedance.
I1=I21"l"Is1‘i"""l"In1(139l Y12=-17” (126)
Y, Y3
16. Transformations in Admittance Form 12=I:2+Iaa+' ‘ "+1112 (131) Y13=‘"""lT (127)
a. Admittances in Series (Fig. 21) etc, etc.
Y1 72 Y
0-9-AMAM ” *\/vvvv ‘a - Q“ wwv °» 1;:-{ip""l‘12p*l“"""l‘“Inp Ypq=

"Eco 'zEca Eco

D*Y1"l"~Y2+Ya+"'-l-Ye (129)
E co
Fig. 21“-Admittances in series. In which the positive reference direction for any mesh
current IM is toward terminal q.
Suggested order of calculation.
e =--~Y2 (117) ymllg (116)
‘ Y1-l— Y1 Y.+Y, D: Y1+Yg+ Y3+ ‘ ' ' +Yn Zgflzik

(118)
e“Y1+Y. Y = 1,
51 (131) Y Y km,
Yam-%-“= (138)
Suggested order of calculation.
D Q Y1 +' Y3 (119) YY YY
Y1 1e=§§=nn (135) Y2.=—;)——“=k1Y1 (139)
61 =5 (129)
Yza“'13:")¥"§”k1Ys (136) etc.
e“1~e (121)
Y= Yler, or Ygeg (122) etc.

b. Admittances in Parallel (Fig. 22) d. Star to Delta or T to Pi (Special case ofc) (Fig. 24)
. Y Y
11=~—‘=-‘
Y1-1-Y2 Y (124) Y=Y.+Y. (123) I,=I.,—I.1, (144) Y.,1,=%)& (140)
._ Y, _Y,, (125)
1,-----Y1+Y2_~? I,=I,.,,-I... (145) Y Y,
Y...“-ff (141)
308 Steady~Siate Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

an U D Particular attention is directed to certain relationships.

b ‘Q1’ Y° C 3. —'_ c The total current input resulting from a particular ap-
Yb /J Ybc
plied emf is obtained by dividing it by the driving-point
Yob Yen impedance* at that pair of terminals. Thus, when the
101 Ya Iqk 'Acc driving-point impedances, Zn and Z“, at the impressed
voltage terminals have been determined, and the unit
current divisions developed, the network is solved. This
is illustrated by Cases 1 and 2, which differ only in magni~
u ‘nude of the applied voltages. The resulting currents in
Fig. 24»-Star to delta»-admittance form. these two cases are obtained from the some basic network
YCY, solution.
Iswlbw-*I¢,, (146) Y¢,W'““5— (I42) Solution—n. Eliminate the mutual as per Eqs. (111~
113) and combine irnpedanccs in Series forming Z,
D“ 12+ Yb+Yu (143)
Suggested order of calculation some as for general Z1, =j2O ——_7'10=j1O
transformation. (c) Z14 %j30~»~jl0 W320
Z3 =jl0+j30 =j40
e. Delta to Star Transformation, or Pi to T (Fig. 25)
b. Let Ed =0 and replace star Z,, Zd, Z1, by its equiva-
I lent delta. from Eqs. (97-100).
Uv -“.95. ¢Q b ‘Q Y6 c

Ybc Yb /1: D= ~:*I-+f1"+r—= —j(0.05+0.20+O.10)== --j0.35

O
You Yea .120
Zn W -10.35) Q20) (J10) @110
| p n I

‘QR A13 lg]

zde= -10.35) (j20)(j 5) =j35
zn= *i0.ss)o' 5) (310) =117.5
/-./\/-L,i
,_‘

U
c. Parallel the branches Zde and Z; also, Zn and Z; of
Fig. 25-»»Delta to star-admittance form. Fig. 11(0), obtaining Fig. 11(d).
D = z,+z_,s =145
I-ab: _'7:c:aIa"l""7:bcIb
Ibc= —2',;,[b+‘i¢3L,
{I51}
(152)
Y8 =DY¢,Y&b
Y1, =DY,1,Yb.,
(147)
(148) 1‘, =fie:53=0.78
Ice: ""'ibcIc"l""£abIa (153) Y,=DY1,cYe, (149) i¢,=1—0.78 = 0.22 (ill Zdg)

where 11,1, *-= 3%»-

1 1 1 Zm -10.22 X335 =1???
(154) D—fi+};+K (159) (Parallel Zak and Zk)
all
D E Zk+Zdh =j2U ""l'"J-17.5 ='j37.5
.
z1,¢=~—--—DYM
1
(155) . Z 'l7.5

, 1 i.1h= 1 ""211; = Z55)

‘lo. —~ if; (155)
Zn =0.532 ><j17.5 =19.333
17. Exampies of Solution by Reduction d. Zm+Z,,, =Z,,,,, =j17.lO
A poWer—disbribution system network is solved by the Parallel Z.“ with Zn, == Z0
method of reduction in Sec. 20.
The following example is also given showing the method
I>=zm+Zu. = 111. 1o+;1o =j87.10
when two sources of emf are present. 1,,. = 2,,“
-0- o'17. 10 =o.19s {through Zn
Solve for t-he currents in the network of Fig. ll(a) by
z',,,,, =1 —i,h = 0.804 (through Zm)
the method of reduction for applied voltages as follows:
2., = ifnnzmn = 0.804><j17.1O m113.74
Case 1. ER= 0-l~ji0O volts
Ed=50+j{) volts e. The impedance viewed from E, terminals is:
Case 2. E.,w30+j4O volts Z“=Z.,+Zg=ji3.74~+~j40wj53.74
Ed=10+j60 volts
f. Current Division for unit current in at (3,).
Obtain unit current division and total current division
as indicated in Tables 4(a) and 5. The symbol (i) has been used for current division
The method generally is to resolve the network for one factors.
applied voltage at 2. time, with the other one set equal Let prime symbols be used for the currents in terms of
to zero. one ampere total input to the network.
After solutions have been obtained for each applied ‘Driving-point impedance is that impedance measiired looking
voltage acting independently, these solutions are super- into any pair of terminals of a passive network with all other ter-
posed to obtain the current flow with both applied volt- minals terminated in a specified manner. In this case all other
ages acting simultaneously. berluinals are short-ciruiljtcd.
Chapter 10 Stead;e;»Stcte Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 309

i¢'= 1.0=i,' In a similar manner, for voltage applied at (J), the

5'95 = "lei, = 0.195 driving-point impedance Z“ and the current division and
iflm, = 0.804 transfer admittances can be obtained. These are given in
Wk = 'i'.,,,.i|. = 0.804 X 0.468 = 0.375 = 1',’ Tables 3 and 4. It is essential that the same reference
1"“, = 1I'm,.t'd;, = 0.804 X 0.532 = 0.429 directions be maintained for all current divisions, in order
‘£1’ R i mni; = 0.804 X0/78 = 0.625 that the solutions for applied voltages at different terminals
~\
i',1.,=i "guide = 0.804 X022 =0. 179 can be superposed.
1:,’ H 0.l90+~0.179 = 0.375 The current divisions of Table 5 for the conditions in-
2'1,’ = 0.195+0/129 =0.625 =‘ib' dicated in the second and third columns are obtained
id’ H0429 -0. 170 =0.250 directly from the basic network solution Tables 3 and 4.
The six currents in’, 11°’, 1}’, 2],’, 2}’, ii,’ are given in Table For example with E,=0+jl00,
4(a) and constitute the current division corresponding to __ E5 m_0+j10O _
I=~Z“»—F53'74 »»~l.861
unit current entering the network at a. Figs. 12(a.) to (0)
illustrate the steps in dividing the current. (or I,=-}J,.Y,,== -j0.01861(jl0O) = 1.361)
g. Transfer admittances. See Table 4(1)):
Multiplying by the unit current division correspond-
1 1 . ing to current in at a, the currents I, to If, for 1.861 am-
Yaa"2;" m
peres in at a, are determined.
Ya, wi;,'Ya,, = 10.01163 This method is particularly advantageous when many
Y... = 1}’ Y”, = j0.00698 diiierent combinations of applied voltages are to be applied
etc. to the same network. It is also convenient to obtain the
Note: The transfer admittance, Ya, is the current in transfer admittanccs, as shown in Table 4(1)). These are
branch (b) in the reference direction per unit the currents in the various branches corresponding to unit.
voltage impressed in branch (a) in the reference voltages applied at the respective driving points. It is
direction. necessary only to multiply by any actual single applied
voltage to obtain the corresponding current division. There
TABLE3 is a check here, for the reciprocal theorem states that the
current at (d) for unit voltage applied at (a) must be the
Viewed From Impedance
same as the current at (a) for unit voltage applied at (d).
E, Z“ #1753. 74
Ed Zed =j19 . 54 18. Solution by Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevem'n’s Theorem’ is useful in analyzing a net-
TABLE 4(a) work or part of a network when its reactions at a particular
pair of terminals are of prime importance. Through its
Unit Unit Current Division use, a complicated network consisting of several cmfs and
Current W"""""""""""" ' "
impedancee can be replaced by a simple series circuit of one
in at 9- b c d e €
emf and one impedance supplying the pair of terminals of
a. 0.525 0.375 {Q 0.375 0.625 interest. The theorem can be stated as follows:
________ §_ _ .0?‘
go I—* 0.545 -43.455 !"‘.° 8% -0.455 0.545 With respect to any single enter-nal circuit connected to any

TABLE 4(b)—TRANSFER ADMITTANCES (See note under g)

Current Division (Amperes)
Unit Voltage at ’ W" ’" "
a b c d e 1'
8- —j0.01861 ——j0.01163 ——j0.00698 ——jO.60465 —j0.00698 —j0.01163
d, -10. 00466 , ,_,—.7'9 D2700 . +jO .0232-8 -—jU . U51 18 +31). D2328 —j0. 02790

TABLE 5.
Condition I Current Division (Amperes)
Case
E“ E, In I11 In Id IQ If

1 0+j1oo 0 1.sc1* 1.163 0 698 O . 465 0.698 1 .163

0 50+j0 -go. 233 -~j1_395 +j1.164 -32.559‘ +j1.i64 --j1.395
i-'-'—
0+j100 50+j0
-~——— —
1 861 '0 233
1 --I------------- -
1 163 1.395
:,__,fj
c.e9s+;'1.rs4 Wg.;lss-;2.5s9 c.e9s+j1.:e4 _1.163-31.395
2 N 30+j40 0 0.146-,'o.ssQ*. 0.466-50.349 o.2s0-10.210 olfrséllgclfliéé" aj1al;¢.210 “sleet-ljélislc
l 0 1o+ja0 0.280-~j0.047 l 1.674-j0,279 —i.39T+jO.233 3.071—j0.512* —l.397+j0.233 1.674-j0.2?9
_ ._33+j-40 10+J‘_€_5_QW1.Q26—j0.605 1 2.__1_4Q7§jO.§§28 --£.117+_;f0.023 3.257-{H.651 —fi£.117-i~_j'0.(323 2.140~fjO.628
‘Total current for which the distribution is shown in that horizontal line.
310 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Networlc Solution Chapter 10

given pair of terminals of a network, the network can be
replaced by a single branch having an impedance, Z, equal
to the impedance measured at these terminals looking into
the network (when all the network emfc are made zero) and
coniaimng a single emf, E0, equal to the opewcircuii voltage
of the network across the given pair of terminals.
The term emf as used herc has a. broader meaning than
clcctromotive force. It is any voltage in the network that
remains constant while the impedance connected to the
output terminals is varied. Thus, the voltage of a battery
of negligible internal impedance is an emf, while the voltage
drop in an impedance is not, unless the current is held
constant. (Sec later paragraph). A generator having regu-
lation is segregated into an cmf and an internal impedance,
back of which the voltage is constant for the particular
problem and hence can be treated as an emf.
The General Case is illustrated by Fig. 26. The cmfs,
E1, E2, and Ea can be of any single frequency. If more
than one frequency is present, the emis of each frequency
must be treated separately, as the equivalent circuit will
not usually be the same for different frequencies. The
impcdanccs may be composed of resistances, inductances
and capacitanccs, but must be linear within the accuracy
necessary for the problem at hand. A linear impedance is
one that satisfies Ohm’s Law, E=IZ, Z being a constant.
With those considerations as a basis, Thevcnin’s The»
orcm states that the circuit of Fig 26(d) is equivalent to
z
E| l ‘ l“-'
ia
the circuit of Fig. 26(a), so far as the terminals 2:, y are
concerned. E, is as measured with the terminals x, y open
circuited in Fig. 26(b). Z is as measured in Fig. 26(0) by
applying any voltage E’ of the frequency under consider-
ation to ar, y and measuring the corresponding vector cur-
rent I’ with the emfs E1, E2 and E; short circuitcd. Z is
the vcct-or quotient E’/I’.
An Example of the use of this theorem is found in the
calculation of short-circuit current on a, loaded system.
The equivalent circuit of the system, up to the point of
fault, consists of an emf, E0, and an impedance, Z. E,
is the voltage at the point of fault before the fault and is
usually a known system operating voltage. Z is the im~
pedancc looking into the system at the point of fauit with
all emfs set equal to zero. The SllOI‘l'1"Cll‘6llll] current is then:
I = E0 . IS
. unnecessary to determine
. the generator
2-. Thus, it
internal voltages. At a given operating voltage ED, and
fixed generating capacity, increased load tends to increase
short-circuit current by lowering Z, the driving-point im-
pedance at the fault with all system cmfs set equal to zero.
The method applies equally well to a network in which
certain fixed currents are forced to flow, as by current
transformers. Examination of the equations of a network
having fixed current input reveals its identity with a net-
work of fixed cmfs. For example, consider the circuit of
Qbhncn
U
Q‘-Q-A

Z:
Z~
Z’
5
(0) NETWORK warn LOAD oanwu
mom reamuncs icy.
*~11== b llg+1;

E2 Z3 E!
cl 5,». fga
la)
2|
Er K

lit: 0 E
Z y M EQUIVALENT EMF oE're:|=zm-
Z Z Z mmou, sms nzirwonx mo
“ ’ curs, no cussswr uaawu Oi 3O v /TD.
FROM TERMINALS 1,; - Z-—-—-——-> C unm-_--ni
Egy Ex,
Ea Z; Ea QZ no-ZL -I ‘HQ

Z N
(bl I_...._._.vv\/\..._....J L------_-/\/\/\/\--------J
2| 1' ‘
- - '\/v\/\i—<= (0) (bl
Tali’-I
1
Fig. 27——Application of 'I‘hevenin’s Theorem in a network of
fixed input currents.
Z (cl NETWORK IMPEDANCE
Z4 ° MEASUREMENT on cA|.c.ui.A1':on
Fig. 27(a). The equations that involve the known input
currents arc:
-I.A-I,,(A+C+D)+I,,C'+ImD==0 (157)
(c) +I<,B~~In(B+E’+C)+I,,C'+ImE=0 (158)
Z
o-—-——'vw-—---<> -—- The equations involving E, and Ea in Fig. 27(b} are:
M0 M ta) EOUWALENT mzrwomr
ii--1-O
~<»->1 E,-I,,(A+C+D)—§—I,,C+ImD=0 (159)
,-. 9,
+E,~ln(B—i—E+C')+I,,C+ImE=0 (160)
Fig. 26-Determination of equivalent network by means of
Thevenin's Theorem. Equations for the remainder of the network are the same
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 311

for Fig. 27(a) or (bl. It is apparent that (157) and (158) be calculated. The current Ih is obtained by subtracting
are identical with (159) and (160) respectively, if: the load at 5 from I.., and then the drop from 5 to 6 can
be computed. Knowing the drops from 2 to 3 and 2 to 6,
E,,= -1,4. (161) for the assumed current division, the drop from 3 to 6 is
E0-= —-LB (162)
obtained by subtraction. This drop divided by the imped-
In other words, the terms -~I,,A and —LB can be treated ancef gives the current I1. Now the balance of the currents
as emfs in applying Thevenirfs Theorem, and the per- can be obtained, that is, I.1 and It. However unless a
formance at terminals 1:, y treated through the use of perfect guess has been made, the drop 3»4~7 will differ
open-circuit voltage and driving-point impedance. The from the drop 3-6»-7, and an arbitrary voltage, AE, must be
latter is obtained with the input-current terminals, that included to make the voltages around the loop add to Zero.
is, the a, b, and c leads from the current transformers, So far an exact solution has been obtained for the case of
open circuited in Fig. 27(a), or the equivalent emfs, E. certain load currents, a particular generator voltage and
and Eb, of Fig. 27(1)) set equal to zero. a voltage AE. However, the solution is desired without
A more complete discussion is given in Reference AE. To obtain it a solution is next obtained for MAE
Number Z. acting alone. According to the conditions of the problem
the load and generator currents are fixed so that these
19. Solution by Circulating Currents branches are considered open circuited when computing
A ladder-type network common where transmission and the currents caused by —AE alone. This solution is there-
distribution circuits parallel each other as in a.-c railway fore quite simple and gives rise to a set of currents Io’,
electrification“ is represented in Fig. 28. The example is, I,1’, . . . It’, which are the “circulating currents” for which
15,000 xvn the method is named.
4'58,‘ 4/0 coeese 4 at EOUlV_ smcmo
Now let these two solutions be superposed; that is:
O:s.exv gt _. 7/ _v _
Q IO were no unreal no muss In” g 1-c"l']-of
Id” we 1;;-+14’ etc.
'5'”/54.5 sooo xvs sooo xva sooo KVA
5% 5% 5% The resulting solution does not involve AE since the AE
33/me 33/13.8 33/15.8 of the first solution is canceled by the —AE of the second
4/O COP?ER 3 FTI solution. It is therefore an exact solution for the load
£.QUlV. SPACING currents assumed. The voltage drops from the generator
to the several load points can now be computed, since the
IO MILES IO MILES currents are known. Also, from the new load voltages, and
LOAD KVA 5000 SO00 EOOO from the load currents that have been held fixed through-
POWER FACTOR (LAGGWG) 801 30% $01 out the solution, new load kvas and power factors can
Fig. 28—A general ladder»-type network. be computed.
The net result is an exact solution for a set of conditions
however, for a. three~phase system. Suppose it is desired that differs more or less from those originally assumed.
to determine the current division and regulation for the While this can be used as a basis for asecond approximation
particular loading condition shown, without making a gen- it is more generally considered the engineering answer.
eral solution of the network. This problem lends itself to The loads are usually not known exactly; the solution
the method of circulating currents. obtained provides an exact reference point in the region
The voltages at the load buses must first be assumed of the loads assumed, and thereby provides a tangible
and the kva loads converted to currents. The sum of the basis for engineering judgment.
three load currents flow in the generator and constitute There is much to be said for this type of solution as a
the current I, in Fig. 29. These load currents and the system design tool, since it capitalizes experience and fore-
generator current are assumed to be fixed for the balance knowledge of the order of magnitude of the answer. As
of the problem. an example the network of Fig. 28 has been solved for the
The division Of It between 1,, and IQ is next assumed. loads indicated thereon.
Now the voltage drops from 1 to 2, 2 to 5 and 2 to 3 can Example of Method of Circulating Current—The
$0.635 055+ one network diagram, Fig. 29, is obtained from the single-lino
diagram as outlined in Secs. 2 and 3. The 15 O00-kva
Eq \v i‘)° /\\° '--1-1' \4 '"'-"»>"I
transformer impedance should be converted to ohms on a
—;vvv~ —'v\/v 2 ‘mm-—'3 ~o/vv ‘
34.5-kv base and then multiplied by (13.8/33)“ to convert
o.sa+;|.s|a Q53, to the 13.8—kv base at the load. The resulting diagram
cl 54.9: 41 11.91 5;, its: is on the load~vultage base, a conversion being necessary
'0
103+ 38.31 --- as to change to or from the genero.tor~v0ltage base, which is
AE also nominally 13.8 kv. Thus with the generator at 13.8
5 7

ls h" ls k' 31 kv, the corresponding voltage to be applied in Fig. 29 is

LOGO Kl/A 5900 $000 2990 £3.8(3-4.5/13.8) (13.8/33) = 14.42 kv or 4.5 pcrcerit above
POWER FACTOR ll...flGGlNGl 30% 30% 50 1 normal. In an actual case transformer resistances should
Fig. 29—Impedance diagram for the system of Fig. 28. Show— be included as these are significant in regulation and
ing the method of circulating currents. loss calculations.
812 Steady-»State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Networlc Solution Chapter 10

As a first approximation, assume the regulation in step- Find the impedance as viewed from AE with load and
up and step-down transformers to total 10 percent with an generator branches taken as constant current branches,
additional 10 percent in Eines. Allowing for a 4.5 percent i.e., open circuited for this calculation. Apply a voltage
above normal voltage at the generator, the loads should be ASE’ =negative of the AE required to close the mesh in the
converted to currents based on approximately 85 percent above calculation.
voitage or 11 700 volts. The load currents are given in the Z1 % 0.63 +j1.176
following tabulation. Z, W +1 1.01
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6 7 Total Z6 =1 6.03 +1 6.37
Load kva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5000 6000 2000 Zmn = 3.66 +j 0.4.66
I.0a.cl Current Amps . . . . . . . . . . . 245 295 98 638
Z1 % +5 1.01
In the current distribution calculation which follows, the D T 3.66 +j11.366
current I, must be guessed, or taken arbitrarily. Later 1/1.1 =- 0.0261»-5 0.0601
a circulating current is determined, which, added to the Zg “ +1 1.01
arbitrarily assumed value, gives the correct current. It Z:/Dmimo =' 0.1630+j 0.0479
is advantageous to guess as close as possible so that the ‘i1W1—?:s26o =' 0.8470~—j 0.0479
correcting circulating current is small. In fact if the guess Z1 '=== +1‘ 1.01
.i.mm...,.mm._--1--i
is auificiently close, the labor of calculating the distribution
Zpur 0.0016+j 1.616
of circulating current can be saved. Z6 = 0.63 +1‘ 6.086
I. == 638 Z; =5 6.03 +1631
;
1- ‘= @ Z =-1 3.6.5I5+_;i11.074
I.=I,~—I, == 338 1/Z =1 0.0269-,1‘ 0.0614
I6 -== 245 —AE=AE’ = 8.0 -—j579.8
Ihwl,-I; = 55 Ik'=AE'/Z= -46.06 -316.26
I. 338 I¢' w -11,’ = 46.98 -l-j16.25
Z» % 0.53 +_1'1.176 6,... =- 0.16304»j 0.0-110
M0 |::| 179 +1397 L,’ === 6.41 +1 4.74.
In € 300 I,'=-.1.’-I.,'= -40.67 -111.61
Z, % +j1.91 1,'= -1.’ = - 6.41 -j 4.74
LZ. 1 +1673 I1,'=—I.,' =-- 6.41 —j 4.74
In % 66 The currents from the arbitrary distribution (requiring
Z1. 3.o3+j6.37 AE to close) and the circulating currents contributed by
166.6 +5666 AE’ = —AE, are now combined to get the actual current di~
Iltzh =

+1673 vision for the load currents assumed. The circulating cur»-
LZ-1 rents are distinguished by prime symbols, the total division
D256
= 166.6 64023 by double-primes. Fig. 30 illustrates this superposition.
IOZU 1 170 +1607 I,"=I,, 2 638 +jO
I¢Z1 ll 13.6 +5626 I, W 300 +jO
Zr ll ~+~_;»'1.91
I: 276 +fl.1 I.’ =— 6.4 -34.7
1. ll 338
Io)!
1+ 203.6 -14.7
I.;=I,--I; € 63 -37.1 I6 =6 636 +10
In 66 I. ==- 6.4 +947
I1 276 +;7.1 I." = 344.4 4-14.7
Irl-Ir Z 630 +111 I1. -= 66 +10
In Z 206 I1,’ =- 6.4 -14.7
In G23 66 +111 1,." == 46.6 +141
Z6 om 0.53 -513.086 11 == 216 +111
I.-1 =1 63 m_77.1 1/ em 40.6 -111.6
Idzd 66.3 +j190.7 I," ~= 231.4 -; 4.4
Zn =1 3.034-j6.37» Ia ~ 66 +1‘ 7.1
I1: I333 35 -{-17.1 Id’ M 47.0 +1166
HZ: 1 60.8 -14244.6
Ida: = 610.0 +1" 0.2
I;Z, us 13.6 +1626 It == 35 -l-j 7.1
D287 % 47.3 +;770.5 I1.’ =-- 47.0 —-j16.3
D847 = Idzd 55.3 +j190.7 I1.” =-‘ 12 —j 9.2
AE Z 8.0 +j579.8 Check of Drops Around Loops. This solution can be
Solution for Circulating Current. checked by checking voltage drops around each loop.
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Metkods of Network Solution 313

638+-§0 3384-i0 63-ill

@'\/\/wax/\/v t '\/2/v‘ 3 'vvv>d‘ 0,“-a4n+;|1|s.z GONSTRUCTEON
OF 035

500+-101 e '\
as -a.o+;s1a.a '\
¢" ‘
G
55+ o D
ssm: 4——>. he-'*' ,0 I __
6.2
------up-in
\ ‘ V
I‘
O \ q’9q:L .-
245-HO 2954-jO 9B+j0 4’
4Q: bi\
\\
(El ARBITRARY onvnsuou AND VOLTAGE oz REQUIRED TO 62.095 4;; (‘gag 7
0.5251’
/ 9°a :5‘*'
275+j7. 4'r.o+1:s.:
<)—‘~/\/\/ ¢"\/\/\/J , c ,~\/vd.% 80%!’ "Pl

L
\O

--6.4 -14.11 ¢

(bl GURRENTS DUE TO AE '-AE

‘ -5.4-34

I, "
--—I~
40.6
H_
~
an

( ‘
us‘? a.o-15190
-41.0-1:63.,
--—-O-

I
TW H’ 9 3
o.a E, 4- 5411
L
4 W75

Fig. 2s.
KV L.*‘N
Fig 31—Graphical determination of the load voltage E5 in
F_ _ _ ,_ ,_ _ ._
5'
‘"1 "is ’" s

1 The load current I1, is along the reference line.

esa+io 5444+;-n uo.o+;e.2 2 Draw circle of radius 8330 volts on which E; must terminate.
()—vw ‘\/v\/*~ 2 \/vv'~ 3 ‘v'\/V’ ,
3 Draw construction line at the load power factor (SD percent.)
4
along which E5 must lie.
.-».
/ as 3 .s-44.?1 ¢ 1 r 4 Construct the voltage drop vector, D125, and move it pamllel
E°*|4,427 v. on to itself, with one end following the generator voltage circle,
34-.4—4
LOQD BQSE N . until the other and falls on the load voltage construction line.
-|a,soo v. a\C‘i’UAL s ““"""' "'“"9"2 1 5. E, and E; can than be drawn in and their vector valuw scaled
‘FF’ “IT. 05.
LOAD CURRENT 245+iO 295-HO 98+iO
LOAD vourass 12,022 u,4"rs u,s-11 E,= -1307./;i8248
nee. snow |s,aoo v. |2.ezx |s.a6% 16.32% =69-41 volts L-N
|<w+| mzacnve KVA 409i-i306] 4151-5:424 I574-ill68 =12 022 volts L*L
mm mm mo: see: esso
POWER FACTOR (um eo.ox aizx. sozm =87.12 percent of 13 800
(6) SUPERPOSWION. OF (0) AND (bl =83.33 percent of 14 427
Fig. 30—S0lution of the network of Fig. 2s by the method of E5 =69‘11><(0-3+J'0'59
circulating currents. E5 =

Calculate the drop from generator bus to load point 5. Chefik Of Vflliaye DTOP flflm 1 150 5~
In 63313 +31) E5= 5553+j4165
Z. 0.53+j1.811 D125” m}_47+2f1;Zfi
ISZB EB 338.1 +ji1s5.4. E.= 5900+J5881
1%
D125
91>oo o$2.569-§
347.1 -{—j17l6.2
= 8330.4
14428
L-N
L-L
Regulati0n—Determinat2'on of Load Voltages. The The remaining load voltages are readily determined as
magnitude of the generator voltage is known, but not its follows:
phase position. The phase position of the load voltage Es sass +j4165
E5 is known but not its magnitude. It is at an 80—percent I,,"Zh -= 117.2 +j295.3
power factor position with respect to I5. The drop from E, = 5375.8 +_;i3869.'?
generator to load point 5, D125, is knowgvectorially with 6624 L-N
I5 as reference. Thus the magnitude, E5, can be deter- 11473 L~L
mined by tho solution of a quadratic equation as shown 83.14% of 13 800
below, or graphically as indicated in Fig. 3!. 79.52% of 14 427
E'5=E§(().8+j0.6) 136 5375.8 +j3869.7
Ea+D12§_= E; _ Ik”Zk 22.2 —j 104.3
E.=0.sE,+3=i1.1+j(0.6E,,+j17ie.2) E; = 5353.6 +_73974.0
E, gm (14427)’_ - 2 _ 8 6667 L—N
g —-W:-3“—-(0.81'Z‘5+34@7.1) +(0.6E5—[—17l6.2)
11 54? L-L
I§§+2(1307.4)E‘.-66.313><10°=0 83.63% of 13 809
E.= - 1307.4 i\/(isom)1+6s.s1:s><1e* 80.04% of 14 427
314 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solutilon Chapter 10

Load Power Calculations. 30. This scheme is used most commonly in expressing
current distributions. The solution can also be expressed
E. ={5.553 +j4.165)kv as a tabulation of self and mutual drops and current divi-
31, s M135 ~50 sion, or in the form of driving point and transfer imped-
P5+jQ5=(408l +j3061)kva. ances or admittanccs. General circuit constants such as
= 5101 kva the ABCD constants or Pi and T equivalents can also be
at 80.00 percent power factor lagging. used to express the solution of certain types of networks.
E5 K (5.375 -l-j3.869)kv The following paragraphs describe these several methods
3ft = sss -go of representing solutions and their uses.
P6+jQ8 m (415? +_73424)kva 20. Method of Self and Mutual Drops
= 5861 kva.
The method of self and mutual drops constitutes one
at 81.16 percent power factor lagging.
of the most uselul means for fully describing the action
E7 w( 5.354 +j3.97<1)l:v of a complicated network in the form of a table of system
sf? *___?_?fl fill constants. It is applicable principally to single-source sys-
P~i+jQ1w(1574 +jl168)kva. tems or to systems in which all of the generator voltages
w 1960 kva can be taken equal and in phase. However, its use can be
at 80.31 percent power factor lagging. extended to multiple-source systems provided that either:
a. All sources but one are treated as negative loads,
Generator Output Power. b. The emfs of the several sources are fixed in magnitude
and phase position with respect to each other.
E, =( 5.900 +j5.881)kv The method will be described with respect to the single-
sf, == lgla ~40 sourcc system, and the multiple-source system treated as
P,,+jQgm (11 293 +jl1256)kva. an extension.
M 15 945 kva A Single~S0urce System Without Shunt Branches
at 70.82 percent power factor lagging. other than the loads, is shown in Fig. 32(a). ldareh of the
loads draws current through the network causing voltage
Loss Calculation.
drop from the generator bus g to the bus on which it is
P s +JlQs = 4081 +j3061 connected. I-loch load likewise causes voltage drops to the
P n'l",7'Qs = 4757 -H3424 other loads, known as mutual drops. As these drops are
P 1 ‘l-,7.Qr * 1574 +jl168 proportional to the load current, they can be determined
Total of Loads 1 10 4124-j7653 by finding first the drop resulting from unit load and mul-
Ps"l”"jQc m ll 293-l-jll 256 tiplying by the value of load. Accordingly, the following
Losses m 881 +13603 definitions will be found of use.
Kw Line Loss =881/1 1 293 Z33 is the voltage drop from g to c caused by unit load
=7.80 percent of generator current drawn from the network at <1. It is called the self
output. drop constant.
Zn, is the voltage drop from g to b caused by unit load
In an actual case transformer resistances must be in- current drawn from the network at a. It is culled the
cluded in the diagram as these are significant in regulation mutual drop constant.
and loss calculations. Transformer iron losses must be Norn that the self and mutual drop constants Z... and Zn, as
added to the copper losses thus determined to obtain the defined and used hero in Scot. 20, differ from the self and mutual
total loss. iinpcdances defined and used in Sections l3 and 21. The Z with
The solution given in Fig, 30 is exact for the conditions double subscript is used in each case to conform with accepted
shown on the figure, which differ slightly from the original terminology.
assumptions of Fig. 28. However, the total load is off In both cases current is admitted at g and the unit load
only 1.3 percent and the regulation values therefore apply referred to is the only load. Obviously, the self and mutual
closely for the original conditions. In a practical problem drops have the dimensions of impedance hut the term drop
it is not significant that the answer does not apply exactly will he retained to distinguish from the terms self and
to the original load assumptions. If the work is done with mutual impedance that are used otherwise. For unit loads
a calculating machine so that several significant figures at other points the self and mutual drops are similarly
can be carried, losses can be computed as the clillerence defined. Thos associated with the network of Fig. 32(3)
between input and output power, as shown. are the nine drops:
Zan Zab Z210
III. REPRESENTATION OF NETWORK Zba Zbb Zbo
SOLUTIONS AND THEIR USE IN SYSTEM Zea Zeb Zoo
PROBLEMS
The first subscript denotes the point at which unit cur-
Network solutions can he represented in a variety of rent is drawn; the second denotes the point to which the
ways. For example a diagram can be labeled with ali drop is measured. However, in all cases mutual drops
pertinent information obtained in the solution as in Fig. between the same two points arc equal. That is:
 Chapter 10 Steady~State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 315

c 01° ‘Q lo

~.-,-.- -;.- ?
'~*l"~’~< my 5_\‘)A|) yr u QN]_\'_
ll-Z: :&*;*"*ll"“=
{9} UNIT ouanim DRAWN AT a.
(0) smeu-1 um: mnonm.

at 4)»
ac
*~H=~
9 ls’

'»H=-» *=HE=
Q

~::-=»=»~r»u-1»1»» on-»=» ==1=-»

tn) auwaomcz ouaomm warn ll) LOAD AT b ONLY. (P!) UNIT CURRENT DRMNN A? b.
LOADS 1,,:,,,1¢.

.0 91» =1 to
,c ,, 1» C
@151» 7 “He
-v-0
“H1”-'=
v1—O
oH’~l¢z¢,:*i<:H-lczib Iilliczcc vii??? 1 °f1ITi'Zcib7 if ET-2“ 7

(G) NO LOAD CONDITION. (fl {.OA0 AT 0 ONLY. U) UNIT CURRENT DRAWN AT G.

Fig. 32-A single-source lystem without shunt branches. Illustrating the method of self and mutual drops.

TABLE 6-"CURRENT DIVISION

Unitlofld __ __ Woo . . . . . .........§.‘ff?“‘ __ _, , __ _

Z WW at W 7 IGA 7 H I01) 19¢ {DC ICA ICE [A13

_Z__ IA __ 0.00]-j0.01s_ o.107j{o.o0s_ 0.136 +j0.o1s 0g_0w'_-50.003 0.24s¢;i0.003 0.090+j0.01§ -0.090-;10.0*10

_ lib __0.550-1031
0.0 0204-15002
. . 0.181 +joIo23 l 0 '2_64~jO _ 002 »~004o+;0
_ .. _ oi? _ 0504
_ ljO _ 004 0510
‘ 40.004
_.. . . . . . so Q __,@-445391929 0:gQ4r§>_.g00 0 .22 6 +jO . O29 .
O.32Q»»j0 _ 000 -—”:23+j0
0.3 . 037 »~0.122»»;'0.00s j 0Ti25+;j0.00s
U 0.0s0+;"0.00s 00:1-10.013 _0.029+j0.00s 0.0£§Q_;jQ_.O13 ;~0.044-~j0.001 »»0.010 50001 0.010+;'0.0o4
Zabwzba (163) The resulting tabulations of current division and self
Zea‘:-Zea and mutual drops, as illustrated in Tables 6 and 7 for the
Zb¢=Z¢1, (165) network of Fig. 33, are the basic network solution. They
The drops can be calculated or measured on a network TABLE 7
calculator. Unit current is drawn from one of the points Self and Mutual Drops
of mterest, for example load point a of Fig. 82(a), and the
voltage drops from the reference bus, g, to each of the load Unit Vi" Voltage Drop to *7 if
points a, E1, and c measured or calculated. These are the Load Al; A B C D
self and mutual drops Zn, Zeb, and Z“, respectively. The
current division for this condition should likewise be ZAA ZAB ZAC ZAD

recorded. A 1.28+j‘2.08 i‘I.10j:jlr.?1 0.9l6+jl.345 O.lO+j0.19

This process is repeated in turn for the other cardinal Zm Zea 5 Zso Z30
load points b and c. Mutual drops must check according B V {.092 +jI.7l2 2.447 "+"j3.554 1.200+7,7-1.828 O.125+jO.'Z63
to Eqs. (163-165). If the solution is to be used for 2. study ZCA Z08 Zoo Zen
of short circuits and relaying, it is generally necessary to iii C fi0.9I j-2.1.36 1.203 7 1.49 +1.2-28 0.154 >|~j0.328
inslude many cardinal points that are not strictly load
points, but are line junctions, etc. _»l 0.090 +j0.1!i}6p.1*25 +;/0.201 0.154 +;i0.s20 0.440 +jo.s9r
Zm. Zoe Zoo Zoo
316 Stead'y~Siate Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

drops corresponding to the simultaneous loading condition,

as stated in the following equation.
IE xv c can. STA BU'S. Let Dp be the total drop to a typical point p.
"uni Dp:I1Z1p+I2Z2p+‘ ‘ '+IuZnp
.00 lil
.'.Z.bOUl Or the voltage at p may be expressed
1: A
ES
E. = E; - 1.2“, W 1.2.? ~» - - - -l 1,.z,.,, (res)
L=0.4?+ where ED’ is the voltage at p with no load on the system*.
B9
12
8
4-'3. 1/2.99 + The superposition theorem applies strictly to a fixed
5 S
4.55ML.55 .38 .38 network and may appear to preclude the possibility of
4-'5 MLE PARAL E LES connecting loads to various terminals. Fig. 32 illustrates
+’904 the philosophy under Whiciq this problem is brought within
._.854.85
G?
Du;
718 8.9M the scope of the superposition theorem. Part (a) is the
|| xv 90 ES
network with all loads connected, and (bl is the corres-
5U8—TRAN$Ml$SlON _;- ponding impedance diagram with loads replaced by the
. SY5?EM load voltages Es, Eb, and E8 and the load currents IB, lb,
4.05+'5 4.35
ML and IE. The load voltages can be viewed as emfs as far as
¢q_..--q— relations within the portion of network from g to a—b—~c
A C are concerned. Part (g) illustrates unit current drawn at a.
s l ‘-4.5 fl 5:92”
4.75 MlLE$
9 _ According to the definition, the drop tn rz is Z”; hence
3.59 LE starting with zero voltage on the generator bus the voltage
I
at a must be — Z3... Similarly the voltages at b and c must
250+ 5,4
M 2.so+;z-so q be —Z.,l, and —Z...>, respectively. Thus unit load at a can
i 5.4 MILES
be viewed as produced by zero generator voltage and by
8 voltages -~Z,,,,, -~Z_._r, and “Z” acting at a, b, and c,
ALL IMPEDANCES QRE IN OHMS ON ll KV BASE respectively, in the some network as Fig. 32(g). Parts (h)
and (i) illustrate the corresponding voltages required to
Fig. 33-Single-line diagram of a typical ll-kv subtransmls-
produce unit load current at b and c, in this same network.
sion system.
It is at once apparent that if all voltages and currents
of Fig. 32(g) are increased in the ratio Ia/1, the resulting
can be used in many of the problems of interest in the emls are those required to produce current I... at a and zero
performance of systems; that is, regulation, short-circuit load current at the other two points. This condition is
currents, losses, loading of lines and equipment, phase shown in Fig. 32(d), and the corresponding conditions for
angles, circulating currents, stability, etc. loads at b and c are shown in 32(e) and 32(f) respectively.
Current Dz'm‘s2‘on--'[‘0 determine the current division Part (c) is simply the no-load condition illustrating load
for any particular loading conrlition the current division cmfs oqiiai and opposite to the generator emf, producing
corresponding to unit load current at a point is multiplied zero load currents in the same network.
by the actual load current at that point. "When this has If now the four solutions of the same network, as given
been done for each load point the resulting currents are in (0), for the no~load condition and in (d), (cl, and (fl for
superposed giving the current division for the simultaneous loads at c, b, and c respectively, are superposed, the
loading condition. resulting solution for the general case, Fig. 32(b), is
Let IN, he the total current from 10 to q, Where pg is obtained. Thus:
some particular branch of a network.
Then in a network of n cardinal load points, if I1, I2, ~ ~ ~, Ea 2 Ea, _I5Zm— IbZb,—— LZG,
Es=Et'""1=Zab""ItZst'—I.>Z¢s (170)
In are the load currents drawn from the network, the E,,=E°'—]'uZa,,—IbZ;,c—~].,Z,, (171)
current from p to q is:
And in this case, as shown in Fig. 32(0):
Ipq'mI1]l~pq+I2-I2-pq+'"+Ir1In~pq

where INC, is the current in any branch pq caused by unit E,,’flEb’=E'c’=E,; (172)
current drawn at n. Example--Single-Source System Without Shunt Branches
Thus, once the basic current divisions have been deter- Other fl"hrm the Loads—As an example of the use of this
mined for unit loads at the cardinal points, the current method, suppose a general solution is desired for the system
in any branch can be readily determined for any given of Fig. 33. Also the improvement in regulation at points
load condition. B, U, and D, when 2500 kva of capacitors are added at
R<>gulalzT0n~~~In a similar manner, to determine the regu- each of these points, is to be determined for a particular
lation under a condition of simultaneous loads at several condition. The network is solved by the method of reduc-
of the cardinal points, the self and mutual drops for unit tion. See Secs. 14-17. It is first reduced to a single branch
load at a point are first multiplied by the actual load at by employing several series or paralleling operations and
that point. When this has been done in turn for each load, *Thc voltage at the source point from which drops are measured
the resulting drops are superposed to obtain the voltage is assumed to remain constant.
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution

G G Convert Delta ABC to SLa.r*

-9 é"aX.
e
90x ZA-B** = 2.00 +1059
Q: "1?
4»
,3’
A -
,
4 0-- ‘B=< <2 ZB-C m 2.00 +3050
4.» ° ‘ii <=> "°¢ Z00 = 144 +J§:§Lm.
A 1.4“-13.02
G C A0 c D=sum = 0.04 +jl0.20
66.0 6, .579 +ir.o?2
- 0s'z9+a\-012 It/D = 000-<us3~,"0l00ss0
/ (3?
‘Q9
5;,»
Q99 - 259
_-_i‘m-2|;
ZA~B
z‘AB=ZA_B/D =
2.00 +1350
0.3033 M-10.0101
ZC-A 1-4* .j;i3HH
3 ‘B
ZA :ZC-A7:AB = 0.5280 +jl.()724
5 G G 1/D 0.04483-40.00000
Z34: 2.00 +1300
1'30 m Zemcz/D m 0.3028 41.0101
,.._ .¢-. »-_ ZA-B 2.00 +£1.50
Zn IZA-sine ” 1.0100 +n.2500
2.4294-'4.2 2 5.4594»5002 — 1/D 0.04483 -40.06886
““ Zea Z0‘
1-44 ._+7Ei°2_.,_
iC&=ZC-A/D == 0.2725 +;'0.0302
-" 3 -'=- 5
Q
2,+-
447+3.554O ZB-C 2.00 +1350
O
+3.259 2.0
+.259
295.436-I» Z0 = Za_o'icA ” 0.5785 +51 .0724
6 G
U B B

Fig. 34»»»~Reductlen of the system of Fig. 33 with respect to

terminals G and B.

a clelta~to~star conversion. Current distribution factors, A -JA_ lg’ ages A -0.0396+;0.0|69

symbol 1', obtained in t-he course of this reduction are used "°-5554+;q0205 -Q,Ah46"10- -o9
later in the current distribution calculation. The steps
Q53‘
of reduction are illustrated in Fig. 34. The steps in the
subsequent current distribution calculation are illustrated ‘ i: >0. Oad ,9» 0/\
9‘

in Fig. 35, the network being expanded in reverse order, to O0—'-V0.0 0 0

its original form. Fig. 3503) shows the current distribution a 0 I

for a one ampere load at B. The mutual drops are then (G) Q <0)
obtained by calculating the voltage drop from generator to
each load point, using the impedance diagram Fig. 33 and
___, _ ,
G
current diagram Fig. 35(0)
This procedure is repeated in turn for unit current at
each of the load points, and the results tabulated as in ..l-? ongr
Tables 6 and 7. The symbols Z“, Zn}; have been included .-*1‘
an
0
in Table 7 to identify the drops, but this in general is ‘um w—
0
nO
01 26
‘+
O02
9
not necessary. v-0 05
O.$§54—0.0205 In -».

Typical Calculation of Self and Mutual Drops and Current +'-‘.3

0264
0-.0$020.002 0.8

Division. Unit Load at B

‘ A 0.264 C
Combine a and c in $eriee.
-0.0395 + j0.0|69
a L: 0.47 +J' 1-09 .._
c

a+c
Z 4.05 +j 5.90
----.m...”_..._...“_.i__...,
== 4.52 +18.90
1 Ina
|cA

|-0 O O
59-0.0956
Parallel b with a~i»c.
a+c === 4.52 +j6.90
2.9.
5!
W <:---
0.-xaaz +;o.ooaa
....... ..i
W”

b m 7.78 +j9.04
who
D=sum =i2.30 +j15.94 lo)
1/D = 0.03034 -j0.03932
Fig. 35—Cu|-rent distribution in the network of Fig 33 for
a+c 4.52 +1000 ==
unit load at B.
1., = (@+¢)/1» E 0.407'5Tj0.0s21 *See equations (87%-(96).
b 2 7.78 +j9.04r *“ZA_B is used here for impedance of branch from A to B to
h= parallel 0 with (04-C) =3Té§62 +12.0335 distinguish it from ZM3, the drop to B for unit load at A.
318 Steady~Staze Performance of Systems Includmg Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

Refer to Fig. 34 and Combine d and Ir in Series. lii= ""10 0.4440+j0.0205

d 1.85 +3315 11> 0.4075 +10.0321
Ir 0.579 +j1.072 Ioo=isIs 0. 1805 +10.0220
n=d-Hr 2.429 +14.222 IGD=Ih"’IGC 0.2641 ~10.0021
Mutual Drops.
Series h and Z.
+1393 Ion 0.5554 M10.0205
h 2.88 d
Z 0.579 +jl.072 ZBA 1J3921+_;i1.’7ll6
p=h+Z 3.459 +j5.0G2
Ino o.1s05+j0.0220
Parallel n and p. b 7.73 +1004
17. 2.429 +j~’i.222 Z20 1.2000+j1.8075
P 3.459 +j5.002 Ion 0.2041-10.0021
D=sum 5.888 +j9.224i a 9&7 +1390
1/D 0.04917 -~j().O7703 Zen = 0.1262-l—j0.263l
P 3.459 +j5.002
~i.,=p/D E5554 -10.0205 The current division and self- and rnutua.l—drop factors
n 2.429 +j4.222 from those calculations are tabulated in Tables 6 and 7,
r=pn/D 1.43.56 +j2.295l together with similar factors for unit loads at A, C, and D.
¢
%=1—%
.
0.4440 +j0.0205 Regulari0n~—Tables 6 and 7 are considered to be the
basic network solution. Their use in the regulation problem
Series r and m. will now be outlined.
7" 1.4356 +j2.2951 The chief problem is to express the several load currents
TH, 1.011 441.259 in proper phase relationship to 9. single reference voltage,
2.4400 +10.5s41 either the voltage at one of the most important load points
Z1-313
or the generator-bus voltage.
Current Division‘. Refer to Figs. 35 and 34. If they are expressed with respect to the generat0r~bus
IA= *--5,, -0.555¢l+j0.02U5 voltage, a simple deduction of vector drops from this
In 1.0000+j0.0000 voltage gives the load point voltages so that the load
power factors and kva can be checked and a correction
IQ == — in -0.4440-10.0205
“$0.-1 ma 0.2725 -10.0302 made if necessary.
IA. ~»~0..5s5<i+jo.02c5 If there is considerable drop in the system but the im-
0.1521~+~j0.0145 portant load voltages are nearly alike, it is preferable to
-50.11A
use one of these load voltages as reference. The generator-
‘inc oases -;"0.01s1 voltage phase position can then be determined graphically
In 1.0000 440.0000 or by the solution of a quadratic equation as outlined in
‘£2012 the example of the circulating current method Sec. 19. A
Ian 0.5159—;7‘0.0036 simplified modification of this method is given below. In
either method the proof of the assumptions lies in the
"""'i¢Al./\"i"'llnc~[n check of load kva and power factor and corrections can
-its —-0.3638+j0.0l81 be applied if the assumed vaiues prove to he far enough
In 1.0000+j0.000c off to affect materiaily the regulation values and currents
“ianln --0.3638-|~j0.0181 of interest.
0.2725+j0.0362 The present problem is to calculate the regulation for the
ion
system of Fig. 33 under normal heavy load conditions,
Io -0.4440 ~;'0.020s Case 1, Table 8, and also with several capacitor banks
{cafe -- gligozi ~j0.0217 added as indicated in Case 2, Table 8.
Inc ~ @842 -40.0036 A practical problem now arises that is not immediately
--iAeIe+icAIo evident from Eq. 168. The load power factors given fix
--inc »-0.3030+_10.01s1 the positions of the currents with respect to the final load
Io -0.-4446 ~10.0205 volt-ages, (Ep in this equation) not with respect to the
0.1621-10.0000 generator or “no load” voltage E",,. Thus the phase rela-
*-1.15010
tions between the generator voltage and the drops cannot
iLB 0.3638 ~—j0.018l be determined directly. A further difficulty exists in con-
It —-0.5554+__gjc._0205 verting the loads from kva to amperes since the load
ital; voltages are not yet known.
9@iZ9:..[.)1 75
Ice - 0.0396 +j{3.0169 A straightforward method of approach would be as
follows. First assume that all load voltages are equal to,
W" ’£BCIC“l'7/‘ABIA
and in phase With, the generator voltage. Convert load
‘See equations {88b), (8%), (901)). kva’s to vector curreiits with this voltage as reference.
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Irwluding Methods of Network Solution 319

TABLE 8-—REGULATION wrrnoor Cnrncrroas (Cass 1) AND wrrn CAPACITORS (Cass 2)

Resulting Drops to
As»
1 Load sumod Amperes B C 1)
Case r
Rogu- Q

l
At kva-~p.f. latlon Volts %Reg. Volts %Reg. Volts ;%Reg.
1 1 B 1 2500-90% 1E.()% 130.1 -— 3'63} 543.5 +j309.l 211.4 +51c1.0 l 7 735.9‘-ir-_;l~25.2 ‘
Lag l
C 4500 -85% 13.0% 226.6 -35140.3 526.1 -?j240.7 sees +j3€J4.9 s1.2 +1521; ;
Ls;
D 1 1 200 -— 85% 9.0% 539.3 ——j333.7 154.9 —}-jl02.6 190.9 +jl23.8 539.7 +j341.0
WW" Lag

Total voltage drop ‘

1224.5+jc§.4 M 19.4 1318.6 +j589.7 17.7 653.8+j420.1 iO.5
All Calculated load
l 2265lrva.—90.4%
Lag
4254kva.-—84.9% l11011kva-83.4%
Lag \ Lag _
2 B 2so0*o0% 5% 122.1+j76.6 26.4+j622.0 s.o+;'31s.3 l ‘ ""4-7+J"51'6
plus 2500 —0%1‘
‘ = 2655 --84.7 %
Lead
C’ 4500-35% 5% 207.s+;"r.0 236.7~I~j384.0 293.6+j481.3 U ‘ 29.94-169.3 U
plus 2500 — (J % 1'
z 3527 ""99 .9 %
i Load
D l 11200-85% 2.5% 503.4-;"1r9.9l 110.7+j109.7 137.4=+j137.6 I ‘ 384.7-5376.3
plus‘2500-0%T
-10 l10=94.2%
‘ V i Lag
T al on id 373.8+jlll5.7 6.7 439.0-5-j932.2 i 7.8‘ 409.9-j~_7‘-587.2 7* |-I
All \ glaicglatggioaip 2609kva—82.8% 3715kva,-99.9% 9635kva -91.6%
Lead» _ _*VV Lead . VLVALV r__;__fI;9-gr:
For Case 1 use E; =6438.6+j609; For Case 2 E,=64G3.6+j900.
1Ca.pacit0rs ($466.5 volts L~N)
*Bascd on load voltageswall in phase»--taken as reference, but below the generating bus voltage of 11.2 kv by the “assumed regulation”
values.

Then calculate and deduct the drops to determine the
load voltages corresponding to this first approximation of
the currents. The currents used will not have quite the
right phase positions or magnitudes, when associated with
these load voltages, to agree with the loads and power
factors specified.
However, with these load voltages a new set of load
currents can be calculated, the drops recalculated and a
second approximation to the load voltages determined.
This process is highly convergent and the second approx-
imation would ordinarily be suflicient. In fact by making
two judicious guesses, one an estimate of regulation to each
load point and the second an estimate of phase shift from
generator to load, the first approximation is nearly always
sufficient and but a single calculation is required. This is
the procedure followed in the subsequent paragraphs.
The assumed regulation to the load points is a straight-
forward estimate from experience or from the quick esti-
mating tables of Chap. 9. Ilowever, the treatmerit of the
phase-angle estimate bears some further explanation. First
the load voltages are assumed to be in phase. Making use
of the regulation estimates the vector load currents can be
calculated with this common load voltage phase as a refer-
ence. The vector drops can be calculated and consist of in-
phase and 0U.t-Of-pl18.S6 drop components. The generator
voltage is now selected leading the reference by the average
reactive drop to the loads. The example will make this
clear. The magnitude of generator voltage is a given
quantity. It is apparent that when the drops to various
load points are deduct-ed from this generator voltage, the
load voltages obtained are close to the reference phase and
hence the load power factors are close to those for which
a solution is desired. Thus the resulting genera-tor voltage,
load currents, and drops are now sufiiciently accurate to
complete the regulation calculation. An exact answer is
obtained for a set of loads differing slightly from those
assumed. The example will make this clear.
As the loads are given in kva and power factor, it is
necessary to estimate the load voltages to convert the
loads to currents. The load voltages are all assumed to be
in-phase, as a first approximation, and below the normal
voltage of 11.2 kv by the “assumed regulation” values
listed in Table S. Load currents are calculated on this basis
using load voltage as the reference axis. For example the
load current at C is for Case I:
_§oo_(o.s5-jo.s2c8) _
I X/§XH‘2X(1_U_13)-266.6(O.85 30.5268)
___.
= 226.6 -—j140.3 ainperes.
Voltage drops are computed according to l-Iq. (H37), the
component and total drops being as shown in the table.
A rough check of the drops at the critical locations, B
320 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution
and C’, indicates that for normal load conditions, Case T,
the approximate in-phase drops are £224 and 1118 volts,
or approximately 19.0 and 17.2 percent of normal line-to-
neutral voltage. The “assumed regulations” could be cor-
rected at this point but as t-his repetition would not add
to the exposition, it is omitted.
Up to this point a reference axis in phase with the load
voltages has been used, the load voltages being taken all
in phase. This was most convenient for converting loads
to currents as the power factors were known with respect
to the load voltages. Now it is necessary to determine the
generator voltage with respect to this reference so that the
calculated drops may be deducted from it to find the actual
load voltages. The phase position of the generator voltage
does not need to be determined exactly. However after
the load voltages are computed, the load power will be
computed and the regulation will be exact for the loads
thus computed rather than for the actual given loads.
Such a result is usually an adequate engineering answer
as the “given loads” are seldom accurately known. However
it is desirable to start with a. generator‘ voltage as near as
possible to that corresponding to the assumed load voltage
so that the computed loads will be close to the given loads.
This is accomplished as follows.
N citing that the out-of-phase drop is approximately 600
volts for B and C, the generator bus voltage is arbitrarily
taken 600 volts ahead of the load voltage or reference. The
drops, as deducted from this voltage, give load voltages
quite closely in phase with those used and hence the load
power factors are nearly correct. As the generator voltage
magnitude is 6466.5 volts, line-to-neutral, the in-phase
component must be \/(6%-G.5)*—(600)’=6438. Whence
the generator bus voltage is 6438+j 600.
The load voltages should now be calculated and the
loads checked to sec that they do not differ too far from
the assumptions. A typical check follows, for (Jase 1, load
at B.
Ea we 6438 +j 600
DB = 1224 +3‘ 652
EB =2 5214 —j 52
EB *= (5.214 —jO.U52)kV
sis = 390.3+jl89.3
Ps+iQB= (2cs0+; Q70)kva
= 2265 kva
at 90.4 percent power factor lagging.
9 E—"'T°
“°"°$ ml lrl‘°'”lil‘” l ll l°lil“‘
5' <~a
”*' ‘F (bl IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM WITH
(0) $lNGL£ LINE DIAGRAM Logos 1° mg [V
E} he
09 CG
’_I“"”l
ii
- (ll LOAD A? b ONLY.
M ll he M ll @1ir1»~1i~~l
(H UNIT LOAD AT Q.
Fig. 36——Slngle-source system. having shunt branches other than loads.
Chapter 10
Case 2 of Table 8 illustrates the great improvement in
regulation possihle by the use of shunt capacitors. They
may have to be partially switched off at light load to
prevent overvoltages under that condition. Comparing
the reduction in drops caused by capacitors at D, with the
reductions caused by capacitors at B and C, it can be seen
that the capacitors are much more effective at the latter
two points which are farther from the generating station.
Single-and Multiple-Source System Having
Shunt Branches Other Than L0ads——Figs. 36(a.) and
(b) give a simple illustration of a system having shunt
branches other than loads, namely charging capacity of
highwoltagc lines or cables. In this case the no-load volt-
ages EJ and E1,’ of Fig. 36(0) differ from point—to—p0int in
the system and also differ from the generator bus voltage
E, If there are several sources, a similar condition exists.
However, in either case the no~load voltages can be deter-
mined by measurement on a network calculator or by
calculation and these form the base from which drops are
deducted to determine voltages under load conditions by
Eqs. (169) to {I71}. If the generator emfs vary in phase
or magnitude for difiererit parts of the study, the no-load
voltages must be changed accordingly.
Fig. 36{f) shows the arrangement of the network for
calculation or measurement of Z“ and Zn» Sufiicient
voltage is applied between a and the bus of n0—volt;age to
draw one ampere, all generator emfs being short circuited.
The voltage required, using the reference direction shown
in Fig. 36(f), is —-Z“. It is thus necessary to amend the
definitions of Z... and Zeb given previously to the following:
Z“ is the vector voltage drop from g to a caused by unit
current drawn from the network at a, with all generator
emfs set equal to zero.
Or it is the incremental vector drop in voltage at a
per ampere drawn from a, with all generator emfs fixed
in magnitude and position and all other load currents
held constant.
ZN, is the vector voltage drop from g to b caused by unit
current drawn from the network at a, with all generator
emfs set equal to zero.
The voltages and currents in Fig. 36(f) and (g) are
labeled in accordance with these definitions. Increasing
in ratio of actual load currents, parts (cl) and (c) arc
obtained. Part (c) is the no-load condition. The super-
position of (c), (d), and (e) results in currents identical
with part (b). Consequently, the voltages E, and Eb in
E—‘>“I'“'3 K” % ii §=i'IZ‘“’1 M“? 1
or
°l1l“’ l l l hf
-4 U
- up
in no LOAD oor1D1Tl0N. ml LOAD AT n ONLY.
D0
Q :T‘“”l J.
7“-W"-*3
{9} UNH‘ LOM3 AT I1
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solutimz
part (b) must be the superposition of the corresponding
quantities in (Cl, (dd), and (e), as stated in Eq. (E68)
generally. Specifically
E,=E&'—~IaZ,a—-IbZb,, (173)
Eb“Eb'"-lazlbmfbzbb (I74)
It is apparent that the case of no shunt branches is
simply a special case of the situation with shunt branches.
Also the case of one emf is a special case of that with
several. However, without shunt branches it is customary
to apply enough voltage at the generator to cause one ani-
pere in a short circuit zit the load point and determine the
drops through the network from generator to load points
to obtain the constants Z33, Zab, etc. \Vith shunt branches
present this is no longer :1 series circuit from generator to
load point. In this case the voltage must be applied at
the load point and the generator ernfs short circuited, or
else an indirect method employed as described below.
With several emfs and shunt branches the network con-
stants can be obtained by short circuiting one load terminal
at a time, after first having measured the no-load voltages
E1, Eb’, ---, En’. Referring to Eqs. (173) and (174) this
gives the condition:
Ea= (17-5)
Ii,= (176)
Zanzi
'-lingo
UF‘
E ’~E
ZI;bt"""i3“2,'“"““‘\2 (178)
Similarly by short cireuiting b, the other constants are
obtained.
Ea'—Ea
Z55”?
b ing network. Assume that the branch to be omitted or
Zbb:FjE' (180)
b
Both measurements, that is, the no~load voltages and
also the voltages and currents with one terminal short
circuited, must be made with the same generator enife.
However, it is immaterial what ernfs are used so that they
may be taken all in phase and equzil for the purpose of
obtaining the system constants. This results in a different
set of no-load voltages for computing system constants
than the actual no-load voltages used in the system studies
but simplifies calculation in some cases.
Summarizing, the general solution of a multiple source
system with shunt branches consists of:
a. Self and Mutual Drops.
b. Current Division.
and for each sot of emfs to be used in the study
c. No-load voltnges.
A suggested procedure for calculating these date. is as
follows. If a net-work calculator is used, the labor of re-
ductions is eliminated.
a.. Apply voltage at one load point with generator emf
short circuited and other load points open circuitod.
b. Reduce the resulting network to a single branch
viewed from the selected load point. This branch
is the self drop.
321
c. Expand the network developing the current division
based on one ampere drown out at the selected load
point. This current division is part of the general
solution.
d. Calculate the voltages of other load points above the
bus-of-no-voltage, or neutral bus. These are nega-
tives of tho mutual drops.
e. Perform o, b, c, and d for other load points in turn.
f. With the load points all open cirouited apply the
generator emfs to be used in the study and determine
the no-load voltages.
g. Load voltages and current distribution throughout
the network may now be determined for any loading
coluiition correeponding to the generator emfs from
which the no-load voltages were developed. The
voltage at any load point p is given by Eq. (I68).
The current in any branch, p~q is given by Eq. (I66).
Norm: Alternative methods are outlined in the following
paragraphs.
More Than One Source—/ls Negative Load--H If
the generator cmfs do not remain constant throughout a
study, the network can be solved by treating all sources but
one as load points. Determination of voltage and current
conditions on the system for any loading conditions are
then determined by using as the no-load voltages, those
produced by the one selected source alone. These will be
directly proportional to this one source voltage and hence
can be varied for different conditions of the problem if that
source voltage changes. A condition of the system is then
completely specified by the selected source voltage and the
currents drawn at all other sources and load points.
Changes in the Network-When a transformer is
removed or a line opened, it is of course desirable to deter-
mine the effects without completely solving the new result-
added connects between two of the cardinal points, o and c,
of Fig. 37 for which network constants and current division
factors are known. A solution is desired with the branch ac
removed. By solution is meant the voltage at any cardinal
point and the current in any branch corresponding to a.
particular load condition on the network. Thus the solution
of the changed network for a given load condition is iden-
tical with the solution of the original network for the same
load condition plus two additional loads. One of these
added loads is drawn at each end of the branch to be
removed from the original network. These added loads are
equal and opposite to the current in the branch so that the
total current drawn by the brunch and added load is zero.
$L1ppose the load condition being solved for is Ih, Tc, 1'd
and the corresponding current in ac is lac. ll/'hcn loads
IQ’ and IQ! (equal to -I,.’) are added, they cause additional
current in the branch ac:
AIncL'Ia,Ia-c.e““‘Ia’Ic-ac
The total of branch and added load must equal zero.
Iae‘l"Ia/(Ia-:m"'Ic~ac)"l'Ia/=0 (182)
whence.
,
1,, - ~
IZ10
and I,’ -= —I,’ (18%)
322 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

the loads 1',,' and ~ I,’ were added at a and c respectively,

2% instead of connecting the impedance Z.
A branch Z can be removed by adding an impedance
branch, —Z, as alternative to the method previously
given.
Example of Changing 0 Network»»»~A partial solu-
D G tion of the network of Fig. 38 follows:
Ec
ZM=2.5 ohms I_,.,¢~= ——().25 amperes
in In Ia Zww 1.75 ohms I,,.b,= 0.75 arnperes
(cl omemAL nerwona
Zgy1_"2¢8‘I:) ohms 1¢.,¢— 0.3/o amperes
I¢.b.,w 0.375 amperes
I E1,“

13 In O
1 +41 1' --—————- I OHM I
W ac ; I 0- l*1o~uc'1c-ac
lg‘-I3
b EC c d 0% baok 9} b
o'= 1
Q» 41.9
lb 16 Id c c 0 e
lb) ORlG1NAL mzvwonx wrm ADDED LOADS- 5 '63?
MAKING n’ £ouwA|.£m' To CHANGED NE‘FWOR!<
(<1) ' (bl

1|

6 <»:*‘e/ ° Q
\’<:@ W1!» " e
<1:
G C G 6
lb 1; l¢ 0.31; 9 Cl N 0|
lb) CHBNGED NETWORK I 2 3
(<2) (ct)
Fig. 37»-Adding loads to a network to make it equivalent to
the network with a branch removed. Fig. 38»-A simple network showing loads and distribution
factors.
Thus to solve the changed network for a given set of loads
it is merely necessary to solve the original network instead, From this solution the currents and voltage drops for
using the two added loads determined by Eqe. (183) and the load condition, Fig. 38(d), are obtained.
(184). Ie,=2><0.75+3><0.375=2.625 amperes
Adding a Branch Between a and c. Refer to Fig. IM=2X (——0.25}+3><0,3’75w0.625 amperes
37 (a)~*Suppose a branch is to be added between a and c Da=‘2><2.5+3>< 1.75% 10.25 volts
having impedance Z. It can be simulated in the original D¢="2><1.75+3 X2875 $12125 volts
network by loads equal to what the branch would carry
if there. Referring to Fig. 37(b) a branch would carry: Now consider the changed network Fig. 39(a) under the
same load condition. Solving directly:
E’—E'
1, ‘Z
I: 8 (Z
(185) Ib',,m2 amperes
IJc=0 amperca
where primes refer to the condition after the branch is D§=2><2+5><1=9 volts
added. D¢’=3><3+5><l~=14 volts
En’ = Ea“ Ia,Zm+Ia’Zca
However, suppose it were desired to obtain these data
E,,'=E¢-~I,"Zm~+~I,'Zm (187) from the solution of the network, Fig. 38. Then using
;’Ea'”Eo_ ; Zna_'"2Zac“l“Ag£o
lilq. {I83}:
In W-?-—Z Ia (—---—-----Z ) (188)
I I =, _m_..“l§adW._
R 1"'l"In.m'"'"'Ie.w
;___77 Ea*Eo ___ Do—Da

I"z..-2zm+Zw+z"z~.-2z“+ze+z (189) 0.625

=*rra?eeroi'§5=*1-fisampm
That is, the ofiect on the voltages and currents in Fig.
Hm --I,’m1.66 amperes.
37(a), of adding a branch of impedance, Z, between a
and c, while holding the generator emf and the load Fig. 39(b) shows these loads added to the network loads
currents lb, Ia, and Id constant, is exactly the some as if of 2 and 3 amperes at a and c.
Chapter 10 Steady~StaZe Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 323

I15
ly h Q‘ II

*2. s
°**>""'°i1c"i°1
2 (0) 3 (bl
2 "W668
03 U8
L666 3 Q i-—m Z 1-mlZ—~l
i
in
Fig. 39-Network of Fig. 38 changed by the removal of branch
{G} lNTERMED|ATE LUAD
a 0 and its equivalent.

l','.,=0.33 X ( —0.25) +4.66 ><0.375 =1.66 amperes.

Thus it is seen the added loads and the current in branch
ac total zero, and can be eliminated.
That is: Ia’c+I;$1.66-~£.66=O n ,. l¢_i>_ b
Z
Proceeding with the solution.
(1-ml!‘ mix
Is’.=0.33><0.75+=l.66><0.375=2.0 amperes
(bl EQUIVALENT LOADS AT 0 G D
D,'={l.33X2.5+4.66X i.75=9.0 volts
DJ =0.33 ><1.75-l~4.66>< 2.875 =14_0 volts.
All of these agree with the direct solution. I.’ could als O
be obtained from the consideration of adding a. -3 ohm
branch from a to c. Eq. (189) gives
lab
I"m cWDa G ___... ,i ....._ 5
Zan“2Zac+Zcc+Z (n-mil; ml;
I2.]25~—10.25 In
= 2.s»s.5+2.s75-:s
em — = -1.66 ampere“ . (cl CURRENT on/1s1oN T0
WTERMEDIATE LOAD
and the remaining solution is the same as above. Fig. 40--Current division for a simple network with a single
Intermediate Loadsmlt frequently happens that reg- intermediate load.
ulation and current division arc I‘£3(;Lll1'8£l at loads con~
nected along branches intermediate between two cardinal the network as the actuai condition {Fig 4()(a)].
points, such as the Eoad at 1:, a fractional distance, m, along The currents in branch ob are determined as shown
impedance branch Z from a to b, Fig. 40. in Fig. 40(0), in which IE1, is as determined from the
To determine regulation at x proceed as follows: equivalent loading, Fig. 40(b).
a. Repiace IX by two loads (l~»—m) I, at a and mI,. at General Solution for Intermediate Point-~The
b, as shown in Fig. <LO(b). From these and the other intermediate ioad location is to be treated as a new car-
loads on the system, the voltages at a and b can be dinai point of the network for which self and mutual drop
determined and a. circulating current Its found. constants and current division factors are required.
b. Permit the currents (1 —m) I, and ml, to flow over The self drop constant is obtained by recalling that for
the branch to point :1: and into the load. This will unit load at 1;, Fig. 40, the drops to a and b are
not alter the drop from a to b since the two added
1),, =(1—m)Zu,,~l~mZ|,, (193)
drops introduced into this branch are equal and
opposite. D;,=(l—m)Z,b-|—mZb;,

whence:
(1-—m)IxmZ=mI,,(1—m}Z {I90)
Z,“m{I~m)D,,~i-mDb+m(1—m)Z (195)
Nor will it alter the circulating current I81, that or Z-xx:(}_m‘)2Zan+2m(1—m)Z&b
causes the drop through Z and absorbs the voltage +m’Zsb+m(1—m)Z (196)
difference between a. and b. The drop can now be
calculated from either 0. or ii to the load point, tal<~ The mutual drop constant to a typical point, p, is
ing into account both circulating and load com- ZxDm(1_m)ZnD+mZbD
ponents of current.
The current in any branch pq caused by unit current
D,-,,= (1-m)I,mZ+I,,bmZ (191) drawn at as is (except for branches ax and bx):
Or the voitage at as is: [,.m=(l-—m)I,.,q+mIb.,q (198)
E'x= (1 -—m)E,..—l-'rnEL,—I,Jre(1—m)Z (192) For branches ax and xb
c. The use of equivalent loads at a and b [Fig 40(b)} Ix-ax ”(1‘_m)Ia-ab +mIb-ab+{1*md (1988-l
results in the same currents in all other lJl‘2;tIlCl'1BS of 1,4,, -1(1— m) I,,.a;, —[»»~mI;,.,_;, -1/re (19833)
324 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution
While for point y, external to branch ab,
I,...,;mI,,.,¢,mI,,..,b
Several Intermediate L0ads-If the branch ab con-
sists of several parallel mutually coupled circuits such as
the trolley rail circuits of n four~tre.ck railroad, and con~
tains several intermediate loads, the procedure is quite
similar to the above. Refer to Fig. 41.
TOTAL 1MPEDANC€
Z
2 ,
...” Q .. . MAAAAQQAQAAIQAQAAQAAJI I>~l_l\Q>~lI>~l_AlIlTi
+ h=H
. importnnrze, designated for convenience as the sending and
O / N {M
p-l@i
Fig. 4l——More complex network having several intermediate
load points.
Let Z be the total impedance a to b.
Let z be the impedance of each component circuit.
Let M, M’, M” be the mutual impedances between
component circuits.
It is assumed that these irnpedances are uniform
throughout the section.
The procedure is as follows for determining voltage at
the load 1,, and current distribution.
a.. Divide each load inversely as the impedance to the
two acljacent points 0. and b, to obtain total equiva»-
lent loads. From these and the other network loads
the voltages E... and Eb can be determined. The total
circulating current In, can also be found.
b. Determine the voltage at as while the loads are re-
moved to a and b. It is:
c Now reintroduce the equivalent load currents letting
them flow over the circuits to their respective loads.
In the case shown there are four added (ll“Op:=', result-
ing in at voltage at the load 1,:
E,= (1 —m}E'a+mE'1,-- (1 —-~m)I,.mz~— (l —n)IwmZl{
-—{l~—p)I,mZl»I’-(l—q)1,,mM’ (200)
cl. The circulating current In, should be divided between
the four circuits as though the loads were not prcscnt.
If the mutual impcdanccs are nearly equal it may be
suiiiciently close to assume 14 of the total in each
circuit. (lthcrwisc a solution by equations may be
required. See Sec. 13.
Chapter 10
6. The current in any section of one of the circuits of
branch ab consists of the vector sum of the circulating
(1980) component as determined in (d), and the reintroduced
equivalent load currents flowing up to the inter-
mediate loads.
21. Circle Diagram of Transmission Systems
Because of its importance to both the light and power
and the communication industries, the transmission type
network has been widely studied. A useful body of data. is
available for simplifying the calculations and expressing
the performance of such networks. The fundamental ideas
involved are extreniely simple, and the reader should not
be misled by the large accumulation of formulas tabulated
for special cases. These merely signify that the field has
been well explored, whereas only one or two of the formulas
. may be required in any particular problem.
“___
The general transmission-type network incluciing shunt
loading, is one having only input and output terminals of
receiving ends. The type dealt with in this chapter is
considered to be passive (having no internal emfs), and
I l D linear (made up of linear impedance branches and voltage
t1-cnsfci-mations).
For such a network the sending-end voltage and current
depend solely on the receiving~cnd voltage and current,
and the iIDf)0(l8.l!1CCS and voltage transformations of the
intervening network.
The transmission problem is briefly the determination of
the performance of the transmissiomtypc network. This
performance is most commonly expressed in two forms.
e.. Eqlltti-l0I1S expressing the sending-end voltages and
currents in terms of the rccciving—end voltages and
currents, and vice verse.
b. The power equations or loci, the graphical represente-
tions of which are known as the power circle diagrams.
One circle gives the locus of sending-end power and
one the locus of receiving—cnd power, as the angle
between sending and receiving voltages is varied.
A third form is sometimes used.
O. The current equations expressing the sencling~end or
receivingcnd currents in terms of the voltages at the
two ends. The current locus for fixed voltages and
Varying angle between them is the current circle
diagram.
Power Circle D1'agram»»~»»»The power-circle diagram is
derived mathematically in Chap. 9. The treatment in this
chapter applies the diagram to general system problems.
Condensed tables are presented for determining the circle
clingruins from general circuit constants. First, liowcvcr,
a brief review of the power-circle diagram will serve to
point up the important power system design and operating
information which it provides.
The fact that real and reactive power fed into and out
of a transmission line can be plotted as e function of the
sending» and receiving-end voltages only is itself an ex-
tremely importn-nt concept. Stated. rliiierently, once the
voltage magnitudes at the two ends of the line have been
fixed, there exists for ouch angle between these voltages,
one and only one possible value for each of the four quen-
Chapter 10 Steady-Siate Performanc e of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 325

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REM. POWER (KlLOWATTS—SlNGLE PHASE)
Fig. 46-“Typical power-circle diagram.

fumes,
' ' 1'n put real and reactive power, an d ou t pu t reai and three, power quantities are uniquely determined.
reactwe
' povs' er. Ur, 1f
' one 0 f these is fixed, say delivered If tl 1e volmges
' ‘ of the two ends 0 f the line are fixed in
real power, t,1 us
' detennlnes
' the angle and thus t;h e 0 the!" '
magnmade and the ang1 e between them varied, then for
326 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution
each angle there will be a. discreet value of input real and
reactive power. lf these are plotted, one against the other,
on a. set of coordinate axes having real power as abscissa
and reactive power as ordinate, the locus of such points as
the angle between voltages is varied is a. circle. Thus this
plot of real power vs. reactive power for fixed line voltages
and varying angle, is called 9. power circle diagram. What
has been said of input real and reactive power applies
equally well to output real and reactive power. Hence,
for a given pair of terminal voltages there are two circle
diagrams, a sending-end circle and a receiving-end circle.
For other voltages there are other circles. The fact that
these diagrams are circles makes them easy to draw. How-
ever the important point is that the input and output real
and reactive powers are uniquely determined by the ter-
minal voltages end the angle between them. In 2. sense
this places definite restrictions on the use of lines. Or from
another viewpoint it makes it possible to predetermine the
amount of synchronous-condenser capacity that is required
to supply a given load over a given line.
These points may be made more clear by reference to
Fig. 46 which shows the Scudillg-end and receiving-end
power-circle diagrams for two values of sending-end voitage
and one value of receiving-end voltage, i.e. for two com-
binations. Thus there are four circles. The method of
plotting these circles and the derivation has been given in
Chap. 9, and will be summarized shortly for the general
case. That need not concern us here. Suffice it to soy that
there are such plots. What do they show?
The coordinates of the plot are real power as abscissa,
positive to the right and legging-react-ive power as ordinate,
positive upwards. The two sending end circles, have their
centers at B and B’ in the first quadrant. The positive
reference direction at the sending end is into the line. Thus
positive real or reactive power flow into the line at this end.
The two lower circles having centers at A, in the third
quadrant, are the receiving-end circles. At the receiving
end the positive reference direction is out of the line. Thus
positive real and reactive power from the receiving circles
indicate real or reactive power out of the line and a nega-
tive sign of reactive power indicates that lagging reactive
power flowed into the line st the receiving end.
Note first there is a maximum power that can be deliv-
ered, for example 57 771 kw for one set of voltages, E'R=-
127 O20 and E5= 129 917 volts l.-N. This is of course an
absolute limit and well beyond s. practical operating limit.
It has been stated that with fixed voltages there exists
for each angle between them, one and only one possible
value of each of the four power quantities. This is shown
on the diagram, for example, for an angle of 23°20'59", and
for the voltages ERKIZT 020, E'5=l29 917 volts L-N.
Note that the angles are measured out from reference
lines, marked Line for HMO, whose construction will be
described later, The angle 6, by which the scnding—end
voltage leads the receiving end voltage is measured out
cow for the upper or sending circles and cw for the lower
or receiving-end circles. Thus this specific angle fixes the
points F and G on receiving and sending circles respec-
tively. These are referred to as corresponding points, since
they correspond to the same angle and hence give sending-
and receiving-end conditions that occur simultaneously.
Chapter 10
For this angle and these voltages note that 27 595 kw
enters the line and 2.3 835 kw leaves it at the receiving end,
the loss being 1760 kw. At the scnding~end lagging reactive
kva is negative and hence flows opposite to the reference
positive direction. That is, lagging reactive kva flows out
of the line, 7620 kva. This must be absorbed by the system
at the sending end of the line, in inductive loads or by
under-excited machines. At the receiving end lagging rc-
active kva is positive and hence flows in the reference
direction for that end which is out of the line, 2270 kva.
In general this may be more or less than the lagging re-
active requirements of the load and the difference must be
absorbed or supplied locally. For example, if the loud were
25 835 kw at 83.26 percent power factor lag as plotted at
E, requiring 17 258 lagging reactive kva, the difference of
14 988 kva wouid have to be supplied by a synchronous
condenser operating in its over-excited range, or an
equivalent.
If the load is increased to an emergency load of 52 335
kw at 84.78 percent power factor lagging, the correspond-
ing points on the circles are at J and K. It is assumed that
the sending-end voltage has been raised to 137 523 volts
I.~N for this condition. The condenser must now supply
52 461 kva of lagging reactive, as the line supplies a nega-
tive amount or actually draws lagging reactive. Note that
to supply this load with the lower sending voltage would
have required considerably more than the 52 461 kva from
the condenser.
Other circles could be drawn for different receiver volt-
ages and these would show the variation of synchronous-
condcnser ccpzlcit-y requirements within the limits of
permissible variation of receiver-end voltage.
Thus the circle diagram presents a complete graphical
picture of the line performance under all conditions of
terminal voltages and angles and hence provides the nee»
essary information for design and operation of the system,
particularly with relation to voltages, provision of reactive
capacity, and real power flow.
Transmission Equations: Constructing the Circle
Diagram
Generally the following steps are involved in determin-
ing the transmission characteristics of a. system from one
point to another.
a. The network must be reduced to a. simple equivalent
from which the constants for plotting the circle din.-
grams can be obtained. The simple equivalent can be
expressed as a T or 2. Pi circuit or by giving the
coefiicients of the current and voltage equations,
culled the ABCD constants. Table 9 gives the nec-
essary formulas for determining the ABCD constants
directly from networks of various forms. The T and
Pi equivalents can be obtained by reducing the net~
work as outlined in Secs. 13-17, or as indicated by
the definitions of these constants which are to follow.
Table 10 gives the transformations from Pi to T and
to ABCD forms. This table also includes transforma-
tions to admittance and impedance constants that
are coefficients of the power equations as shown in
the table.
b. The Current and Voltage Relations if needed can be
written directly from the T, Pi or ABCD constants
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Sysiems Including Methods of Neiwork Solution 327

TABLE 9—{}ENERAL Cmcurr CONSTANTS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF NETWORKS°

Equations for general circuit constants in terms of constants
Net- of component networks
wmk r Type of Network \
number ‘ -4 =, B* C '5 1 D=
E 1
1 Series impedance -2"’-"*‘\--2-4::}—-5 1 Z 0

2 Shunt admittance E5 En 1 0 1 Y 1

Z y 1 Z Y Z1-Yr
3 Transforms, Ea 2 3:1 En 1+_F§..3' Z-;<1+"'r4 T) l Y1» I 1+~»»--2

W” '7 {I-36 W 1 7 77 ‘ 0 N
3; §Transformer Ratio 3:8 3 g E:R 3 "If 0

* " ” ” " ” z *Cush ~/2‘? Q/E/Y Sinh JZY ~/ 972 S inh 1/ZY
_ _ _ Z Z ’ m<1+?.X.,. =z(1+-5}-’+ =Y< 1 4"H4.
6 Same an A
4 Transmlssxon lane Es Ea Z2?’ 2 Izzy?
WY’
126+ .. )
r * £ ~ 'ET+"') :20
C D
5 ‘ General network E5 E A B

General network and trans~ 0'; D: +C‘1Z1-a

6 {ormerjimpedance at receiv» Es A;B1C| D1 ZT En A! B1+A1ZTn
mg en ‘ __i ,
Genera? network and trans- ‘ C: D1
7 foléner impedance at sending EB Z A|B1C1D1 E A1+C'1Z'ra B1+D|Z'1-s
en
General network and
transformer impedance B +A Z + ‘ C1 Dz +0’;-Zra
8
‘ at both e11ds~referred E“ z T ER A‘+G‘Z“ brz-‘L ~T~’E,2nz13
1 to high voltage
General network and
transformer impedance 1' TR T .i._(B1 +42 +
at both ends--trans€orm~ 5(1), +C':Z'm}
9
ers having different ratios
_3E__ _E(A1+C'1Z-1-9) ‘TRTE l TR C1T3;T5 in
TR and Ts referred to low
Es Zn Zn E3 5 T
E 1
D1Z'rs-i'C’1Z-mZ'rs§; ‘

voltage

i
General network and shunt ARBI CI DI D1
10 s,dm1ttance at receiving E E ‘ A1 +B,YR B1 C1 +D1Yn
end 3 l‘ E

i
******~ a
1 General network and shunt A,3,c,n, \ 5
Es Y8 ER A1 B; ‘ C1+ AY
1 1 ‘ D1 +B1Y8
I1 admittance at sending
‘ end

General network and A|B1C'|D; C: +A:Ys 4* D1+B1YB

12 ghzgfit agmittance at E5 I ‘E ER A-1+.B1Yg_ B1 D1yR+glykyfl
o en s

13
Tggriggneral networka in E5 A282 C292, A ‘ BI Cl D’ En AIM +533, ‘ 31A, +1153, A10, +C'1D: Bzci "FDIDI

Tyvo ggner_al networks 7 A A Q’ W

B B A -|-D B + A C’ +C1D + ‘ B|C; +D1Dz 4'
14
i"‘*“’*“"21“‘*“‘*‘”°“' E“ Z
1a. e ampe ance E“ * "‘ EQIZ * = * 3D1A2Z ‘ * ‘ 0»C'=Z ‘ D1C9Z

‘ Two_ general _11etw0rks_ in A2320;-.D2 A1315/§D| A;A3_i_C1B2+ B‘Az+D1B2_§_ A26, +C'1D2+ 316': +D1D2~?~
15 serses w1t,h_ mtermedaate Es ‘E En A1521; B,_B,Y A113? B1DaY
shunt, adlmttunce ‘

.4a(A:A2+ 1 C';(B1-'1': '1'

- cB A (12 A +0 B ) 0 (.4 Ag—{-C139) 1 D282)
16 T?1“l‘f,§§§“"“3 mw°’k” E“ Am? 412,010, 11.3.0.1). E‘ +1;-,<A,c.=,l»’) +B§<B§c§+1>:1>§> +0101: C1 +C’1D'a) “|“Da(B\C1 +

!II
C10!) 1 D1172)

‘ Es A|B1C1D| EB A;B,_;_31Aa3 3,3, .9+

17 Tiwia general networks in paral- A93~+ - Ag) (Du "D13 B1B: +D1B‘l
B:+B2
B1-+3»; Bi +8‘
e 5,3201 ‘
end tranalormen
No-rs. The exciting current of the receiving end transformers should be added veetnrially m the load current. and the exciting current of the sent?“lg
should be a-aided vecterially on the sending end current.
genera] Qquxtiomi . F8 = 1],”; + {R3 A ER, Exp _ 3,3 . 1,,‘ 133+ EEC . IR = ISA. - E50 ‘ Au a check an' the numerical calcuistxon
' of 1-he 11,5. C’, a ad D constants note
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téztsin
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Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Includéng Methods of Network Solution 329

TABLE 11-—CURREN'1‘ AND VOLTAGE RELATIONS IN as shown in Table 11. Frequently these are not
TRANSMISSION TYPE Nmwomcs needed.
A. For ABCD Constants--Reference Fig. 42.‘ 0- The Power Expressions are given in Table 12in terms
E5=AEg+BI3_ {20la) of the T, Pi, or ABCD constants and also in tenns of
I3 =CEp,-l-DIR (2U1b) admittance and impedance coefiicients, which are
Ea=DEs —BI3 (2010) described in a. later paragraph. The power convention
In» —CEs-i—AIg (2o1<1) used in this text is:
B. For Equivalent Pi—Ilefei-ence Fig. 44. P-l»~jQwEI (212)
E8 ”“(1"l'ZYR.lER"‘l“ZIR (202.1) for which a positive value of Q is lagging reactive
Is :(YR+YS+ZYRYS)ER+[1+ZYB)IR (20%)
E312 (1 +ZYg}Eg—ZIg, (2020) power, and P and Q of the same sign indiczites lagging
In = ""(Yn-~%- Ys+ZYnYs)Es+(1 +ZYn)Is (292.1) power factor (see Sec. 2). At the sending end, denoted
C. For Equivalent T-~Re-ference Fig. 45. by the subscript, S, the positive direction is into the
Es =(1+ZsYlEs=.+(Zn~l-Z3 + Yznzslln (20320 network. At the receiving end, denoted by R, it is Out
Is 2 YER+l1'l'ZnY)IR (2U3b) of the network. See Figs. 42, 44, 45 which are part of
En = (1 "l"ZaY)E'S _(~zR +Zs+YZnZs)IS (2030) Table 10. With the generalized impedance or adinit/—
IR= —YE$+(l+ZQY}Ig (20311) tance form, Fig. 43, the referenceqaositive direction
D. For Admittanoe—Reierence Fig. 43. for current and power at each terminal is into the
I1 =Y11E1“l“ Y12Ea (203e) line or network.
I2 2 I/1251+ Yul]: (2030 d. The Power Circle Diagrams can be determined from
E. For Impedance"-—Refere11ce Fig. 43. the data in Table 12 as outlined at the bottom of the
E1 =ZnI1-*l"Z12I2 (90323 table. The detailed data for plotting the circles can
E2 “Z1211-l-Z2212 (203h} be obtained from the supplementary Table 12A,
‘Figs. 42 to 45 are part, Of Table 10. explained in the next paragraph.

TABLE 12-—POWER EQUATIONS AND DATA FOR PLOTTING CIRCLE DIAGRAMS

Derived
Sending Circle V Reeeivinig Cirelew
From | Vector ¢;;iié;.;;£;i;§iE4. Rfidills V60?-01‘ Rso I Vector to Center, CR l Radius Vector Rm;
A

.4301)
Ref. Fig. 42
Ps -l-.7'Qa E age; -§e..E..+~
131
P. +103 = --3%E§; +§jE.._E..-1@
(204) (29?!
Equiv. Pi
Ref. Fig. 44
Pa +jQa * 3(%+17s)l77% W;EREB.-+1» lPn""l“jQn“ 173) E}; ~+~gE3E5e"""N

(296) (907)
Z1 1 -»
In%pc<i. Form
.quiv. Pi Pa -l—]'Qa = 3(-+T.)F:=
z z’. “
_§E,.E'.-..+1@
Z
P..+.¢o.e -s(%+k{-)n R
+§E.E..—~
Ref. Fig. 44
(20fi&.) (20%)
Equiv. T’ Pa +§Qs =
an +21. Y)E% 3ERE5 6+“? ‘ _ so +2.m:;. + sEREg.w1"
PR "l-J‘Qn =
Ref. Fig. 45 Z..+2s+1‘*2I'Ris 23 +Zs+ YZRZB in +2s+ hznzs Za+Zs"I*"YZn-Zs
(208) (209)

Admittance P:"l-J'Q2= 3 Y'=.E§ +3 };12E1&¢+,5 P1 “HQ: = 31711Ei +3 17nE1Ea€"”

Ref. Fig. 43
(210) iiiiW (211)
Impedance
R/Bl. Flg. 43
l P3+jQ2: -%nn
Zllzilfi “Z122
_32l2El.ER§ +18

211.232 M212
‘ P1-l'J.Q1= -
3222
~
ZnZz~z'"Z:2
“““;“
E,
1
“3212E1E26""w
‘““"'""“"""""""—‘..
,.
ZuZ2z"'Z12(21
..
)
l @103.)
Umrs
Table gives P and Q in mc%nwett.s (mw), and megavolt amperes (nwa) for E3 and E3 in kv Iine—t0~neutral, or it gives P and Q in watts
and volt-amperes for Es and v. 111 volts, line~to~neutral.
To use volts or kv line-to»line, omit, factor 3 throughout the tabulation.
Ixnpedanees and adniittances are in ohms or mhos pet phase line~bo-neutral.
0 IB the angle of E5 in advance of En or the angle of E2 in advance of E1.
~ Symbol esignsting conjugate of a vector.
H To DRAW Cmcm Dmcnnm-Fro. 47
1. Calculate vector to center” and locate center, C3 or CR.
2. Calculate radius vector for 8=0 (¢'j9fl¢j5m 1). Call it RS0 or R30.
3. Add 1 and 2 to obtain reel and reactive power for Sending and receivingvoltages in phase.
Plot this as “Power for 010”, on the diagram. WM =CR-+—R‘Rq. W59 =C3+Rgg.
4. praw the circle
‘ through the it Power for 0~0 If point.
- Draw the reference radius
- vector from the center to the 4, Power for 8H0,, pomb
>
1* serve as the reference from which angles ere measured. ,
5. burrespunding sending and receiving conditions are found at t-he same angle on the corresponding circles.
33O Steady-Slate Performance of S3/stems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

TABLE 12A»~CoNs"rAN'rs FOB. PLOTTING Powrnu CIRCLE DIAGRAMS

Refer Fig. 47
(Z, m, Z’, m’, n, 0,, are to be obiaincd from the relations given]

Receiving Circle Sending Circle Radius Position of Radius

Fszffiegi (lonstanis Constams Constant Vector for 6 -=-0
Constants _ H‘ F+j,,;' 7;, r flu

ABCD ‘ :1 1.2 L tan~‘ Pi, B=bl +11»,

Ref. Fig. 42 1; 12 B l>=
l
Equiv. Pi 1 ~ 1 . ‘ 1
Z tani E, Z=r-{~jr
Raf. Fig. 44 El’ Y“ }§+YH
Imped. Form
Equiv. Pi i ~i+:E~*- 2- ii ‘ .1. tan—‘ é-, Z mr+jz
Ref. Fig. 44 Z Z31 Z+Z'@ Z
tan»-‘ E
E<wiv- T _o_1.a¢:Z£.___.~ _.1_~+;Z§.?_, = __.r-_1___
Zni-Zs-l" YZRZB Wile"?
Ref’ F15’ 45 Zn+Zs+YZnZs ZR+ZB+1/ZRZB
a ‘ ,_ W ”_l ZR+Zs+YZr1Za=l>z +15:
_ a l

‘For u-danilcarwe and impcdzmce constants t.l1c reference dirccziou is inui rho ncuwurk an _bol.l: ends.‘ Thus the receiving circle is in the same quadrant, as the sending
0il'0l6 Mid U18 [find M constanis do not apply. Use the method of Table 12 for plotting the circles in this case.

Construction of power circIes.~For the occasional
user it is convenient to list directly the coordinates of the
centers and the radii of the circles, together with the
location of the reference line from which angles are to be
measured. For this purposc the six constants Z, m, n, Bi»,
l’ and m’ are defined and used. When working with ABC!)
constants these have the LlefiniLi0us:-
EI =11 (213)
ab: tan“ %; where B= b,+;1>, (214)
——=Z—i~jm (215)
—=Z’+jm'.
CU>U>¢U>i>>
(216)
For other forms of expression of the transmission network
the definitions of these six constants are given in Table
12A.
Fslaving defined these six constants, the circles can be
constructed as follows. Refer to Fig. 47. The scales used
for mw and reactive mva must be the same. Line-to-line
voltagcs arc used, giving threc~phasc mw and reactive mva.
If line~t‘0—neutral voltages are used to determine the ccnw
tors and radii of sending and rccciving circles, the ex-
pressions in Fig. 47 must be multiplied by three.
(‘enter of sending circle is at Z’ Es” mw, m’ ES” rnvar.
Radius of sending circle is nfinis.
The reference line for angles in the sending circle is clock-
wise from a downvmrrl vertical mdius by folio angle, 6b.
Sec I*'ig. 46, Angles 6 of sending-cnd voltage in advance of
receiving-end voltage, are mcasurccl cow from this refer-
ence line. _ _
Center of the receiving circle is at —lER2 mw, ~—mER2
mvar.
Radius of the receiving circle is ‘lljgfljjg.
The reference Zine for angles in the receiving circle is cw
from an upward vertical radius by the angle, Bb. See
Fig. 47.
Corresponding sending and receiving conditions are
found at the same angle 6 on the two corresponding circles.
An alternative method of construction is listed in the
five steps under Table 12, which eliminates the necessity of
measuring angles. An “initial radius vector for 6=O” is
added to the “vector to the center” to get the coordinates
of a point (Le. the vector power} corresponding to 8=0.
This fixes both the radius and the reference line for
measuring angles.
Power-Angle Diagrams-From the circle diagram the
power expressions as a. function of angle can be Written
clircctly, They arc, for threcqihase power in rnw on mvar,
and voltages in kv, L-L;-—
Pg —~Z'E§+nERES sin (6—9b) (217)
Q3 = m’E§—nER§s cos (a-09 (218)
PR= —-ZE§+nERE’S sin (0+6i,} (219)
QR= -—mE§+nER1?S cos {B+6b} (220)
Power plotted vertically against 6 plotted horizontally
is thus a displaced sine wave known as a, power angle dia-
gram. Its use in stability (12-LlCL1i€tl)l0l1S is described in
C-'haptcr13.
Use of Equations vs. Circle I)iagrams~—If only
one condition were of interest, for which the voltages
and intcrvening angle were known, the sending and re-
ceiving powcr quantities could be calculated directly,
using the power expressions of Table 12. However,
if the power transmitted is to be determined for a
number of angular positions, as in stability studies, the
circle diagram is advantageous. Also if the voltages and
power are known and the angle and reactive requirements
are Lo be deaermined the circle diagram becomes indis-
pensable. More particularly a, diagram having several
circles corresponding to different voltages conslzitiitcs 2.
chart of the real and reactive powers that can he trans-
hapter 10 Steady-State Performance of S3/steans Iminding Methods of Network Solution

c, (ox M. E:
EQUW- Pl OF NETWORK

IMPEDANCE IN DBMS ON HO KV BASE

SENDING
49.9 + i I533 CIRCLE
Sl 0R won
5,-us xv
E;=IlO xv
250"? 250?
l6'I.8 ~i1e1.a
REACTVEMVA
NG

Q --0 pace RlnDl US VECTOG

FOR 0'0
90 M|LE$ HO"KV LINE WITH l\E‘E§
(IO 000+j5000l KVA LOAD AT CENT€R

F'OWER
FOR 9 * 0 Q

2°‘ 3/
~40 -20 20 P 60 ‘Q HW

0' ,
9 "EFL POWER

-wq--_____
0 cr
<'-E
N Q
H3 o
RECEIVING I
GIRCLE
FOR
E, =ns xv
£R -no xv RADIUS VECTOR FOR 0'0

~40

e- ANGLE or s,
“NOR m ADVANCE OF 5,,
' TO
CENTER

O 1|
un _,
- \E'
5,-noxv

Fig. 47-Power ch-cie diagram for line A1211) Fig. 48 and used for example ef plotting diagram.
332 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

mitted for various voltages and angles. As such it finds ls

-in in
——u
extensive use both in system operation and design.
Interpretation of Power Circle Diagrams-—Power
circle diagrams for a. particular system are given in Fig.
47. They have been drawn in accordance with the in- l= 65°
structions at the bottom of Table 12. Likewise their con- A, 9 -50 C =0
struction from the six constants Z, m, n, 8b, Z’, n’, given in
Table 12A is indicated. This system consists of ninety a» o 0 -e‘l'
miles of 1i0~kv line with a load of 10 O00 kw and 5000 AD-BO-|e"’l°
lagging reactive kva tapped on at the middle. The load Fig. 48~ideal phase shift transformation.
is treat-ed as a fixed impedance. Points p and p’ convey
the following information, “Willi a receiver Voltage of 110‘ phase shift factor is removed from the equivalent single-
kv and a sending voltage llfi kv, if 3-1 BOO kw {34 mega- phase circuit before calculating the ABCD constants so
watts) are supplied at the sending end, then 500 leading than Eq. (221) is applicable.
reactive kva must; be supplied at the sending end and Admittance Constants (or Driving Point and
20 O00 kw and 9000 leading reactive kva. will be delivered Transfer Admittances) are coefficients of the network
at the receiving end. That is, 9000 kva of lagging reactive current equations.
must be supplied at the receiving end. l3 500 kw and 8500
reactive kva will be consumed in the system, including I1 = Y1iEi-l' 171232 (222)
line losses and reactive plus the intermediate load. In- I2 “ Y22E2 "l" Y12E1 (223)
cidentally the sending-end voltage is only 20 degrees ahead
of the receiving-end volt-age and the operation will there- As indicated in Fig. 43 the positive direction is taken
fore be stablel.” Obviously contained in this informa- into the network at both ends. This permits ready ex-
tion are the answers to a variety of questions that might tension to more than two terminals. In the following
be asked. definitions current in a terminal is understood to be in
ABCD Constants are coefiicients of the current and the positive direction unless oéhei-wise stated. The defi-
voltage equations (201a) to (20101) given in Table ll. nitions indicate the extension to more than two ter-
They apply to the transmission-type notworlr having minals. in general:
sending-end and receiving—end terminals, and have the Y1, is the current in terminal 1 per volt applied at ter-
following physical significance. minal 1 with all other terminals short circuitcd.
A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt Y12 is the current in terminal 2 per vols applied at ter-
at the opemcircuited receiver. It is a dimensionless volt- minal l with all other emfs short circuited, or vice
age ratio. verso. It will usually be negative for transmission-
B is the voltage impressed at the sending end per am- type systems with positive direction into network
pere in the shortmircuitcd receiver. It is the transfer at both ends, etc.
impedance used in network theory. It is also equal to The power equations as obtained from (222) and (223)
the voltage impressed at the receiving end per ampere are:
in the short-circuit-ed sending terminals. P1"l”"J'Q1*E1j1: YllE1E1+ YRELEQ (224)
C is t-he current in ampercs inéo the sending end per P2 “l"J'Q<1 =EJ2= Yi2E2Erl"' Y22E2E2 (225)
volt on the open-circuited receiver. It has the dimen-
sions of admittance. For 2:. Three-Terminal System (as in o. three-machine
D is the current in ampercs into the sending end per problem) the current equations are:
ampere in the short-circuited receiver. It is a dimen-
I1 W Y11E1+ l/21E-z-l‘ YHE3 (226)
sionless curront ratio.
Table 9 gives the ABCD constants for many types of I-2 = Y12E1 "l" Y22E2'i" Ys2Ea (227)
networks. Table 10 gives the transformations to Pi, T, Ia = Y1sE1'l" Y2aE2+ Y:ssEs (228)
admittance and impedance forms. Chap. 9 illustrates
the use of A BOD constants in a stability example. The corresponding power equations are!
For passive networks, as dealt with here, P1+.lQ1= Elf! = Y11E1El+ ?21E1E'2"‘l' Y:uE1E3 (2263)
AD—RC’=1 (221) P2+.7'Q-1 = EJ2 = Y1?-E2El‘l‘ Y22E2E2"l“ l>a2E2Es (2273)
This allorcls a valuable chock on the calculations. If t-he Pa+iQa = EJ3= ?l3E3El+ l>23E.=&E2“l“‘ 17335.12’: (223%)
single-phase neimvnrlz used involves phase shift, it is not The extension to more than three terminals is apparent.
strictly passive. A case in point is an ideal phe.se—shift Self and Mutual Impedances are coofiicients of the
transformer Fig. 48. As shown AD—BC is numerically network voltage equations given generally in Eqs. (512)-
one hut includes a double angle term. This single-phase (55). Writing these for the transmission-type network,
representation of a three phase transformer receives which can in general be reduced to a number of meshes
power at one time phase and passes it on at another time equal to the nurniocr of significant terminals:
phase, although the total power flow is continuous in
the three-phase transformer it represents. Usually the E1=Znl1'l*Z2:I2 (229)
fflcicr to Chap. 13 for criteria of sbaliility. E-‘i= Z121; +Z1g[g (230)
Chapter 10 Steady~State Performance of Systems Iwwluding Methods of Network Solution 333

Zn is the voltage in terminal 1 per ampere in terminal 1, A

e —
2616+] 75.15
MN 1 7. .4»
Q

with all other “significant terminals” open circuitod.

Z12 is the voltage in terminal 2 per ampere in terminal 1, 2\5B—jt27?8% %-4|a—j5700 j
with all other “significant terminals” open cireuited.
Etc. ,~3¢aao
,l—'vvv~—{|~
Nora that the self and mutual impedances Z1. and Z12 as __ else-512 ra ,
defined and used in Section 13 and in this Section 21, differ from
the self and mutual drop constants defined and used in Section
20. The Z with doubie subscript is used in each case to conform ‘V\/V‘
with accepted terminology. 9
2636+-'75 9.754-'5‘i!9 ~j498O
..4is— gavcio "_l(—l|"
The power equations ore obtained from (229) and (230).
P1+jQ1@E1f:=Z1iI1?1+Z2:~72f1 (231) \ .
P2"l'JQ2*E2I2=Z12I1I2"i“Zz2I2-T2 (232) E c
o
e ,\4*-°
For a three-terminal system the voltage and power 4¢>
equations are given below. The extension of admittance 6"-\ 9*’ 6‘?
0° all 1°’ I-‘
or impedance constants to any number of terminals is 4,)
‘T:
5
g\
‘b
\
apparent. a. h,@ \\\ 43¢
I )0
E1= Z11I1'i"'Z21Ia"l'“Z31Is (233) I/6)
leg!
E2“ Z12I1'l"Z22I2+Zs2Ia (2349 '330\.
'3' D
Es” Z1sI1'i"'ZzaI2 ‘l-Zsafs (235) Fig. 49-Network. of Fig. 2 reduced to an equivalent Pi for each
P1""i".7'Q1* E121 * Z11I1i1+Z21I2j1+Za1IaI1 (236) line.
P2-i-JQ2 = EJ2 = Z1zI11°~z+Z2*zI2f2""l"Za2IaI2 (23?)
(238) Case Ib.
Pa+jQs = Esra = Z1sIija+Z2sI2Ia+ZssIsfa
Given: 1. Received kw and reactive kva..,
2. Receiving-end voltage.
IV. REAL AND REAGTIVE POWER FLOW To Find: 1. Sending-end voltage.
2. Sending-end kw and reactive kva.
It is well known that in a. system in which impedances
3. Required generation ct sending end.
are largely reactive, reai power flow is controlled by phase
angles and reactive flow by voltage magnitudes. Ordi- 4. Losses.
narily the adjustments of real power flow are made by II. Three generating stations along one main intercon-
throttle or gate adjustments (governor settings), although nection, no closed loops, intermediate substation. A,
the flow in a. closed loop can be controlled by c. regulating B, C, D Fig. l.
transformer capable of introducing a. phase shift. Similarly Case lie.
reactive flow is usually controlled by generator field ad- Given: 1. Voltages at all but D.
justment (regulator setting) but in a closed loop, l»I'l:11'1$* 2. Real power flow.
former tap adjustments can be utilized.- T0 Find: 1. Remaining Power Quantities.
Quantitatively the real and reactive power over c. tre.ns- 2. Voltage at D to hold stated voltage at in-
mission eircuit or interconnection can be determined from termediate Substation C.
the power circle diagrams. These diagrams give the real Case llb.
and reactive power at the sending and receiving ends of an Given: 1. Voltages at all but intermediate substa»
interconnecting line or network, in terms of the voltages at tion C.
the two ends and the angle between them. The method 2. Real power flow.
will be explained by examples, starting with a simple two- 3. Load at C, real and reactive.
station system with an interconnection, and covering in To Find: 1. Remaining power quantities.
all, the following conditions: 2. Voltage at intermediate substation C.
22. Examples of Real and Reactive Power Flow. III. Closed Loop System.
Refer to Fig. 1, or the equivalent network Fig. 49. Case Illa. Find voltage to close under given load and
I. Two Stations with Interconnection (Station A to power flow conditions. (To determine regulator require-
station B). merits.)
Case la. Case Illb. Find power which flows if loop is ciosed and
Given: 1. Sending-end and Receiving-end Voltages. flow heid constant in rest of the loop.
2. Received Power. Case I. Two-Source System~—Stetions A and B, Fig.
To Find: 1. Received reactive kva. 1, and the 50~mile Eine connecting them, will be used for
2. Transmitted kw and reactive kva. illustration. The remainder of the system shown will be
3. Required kw and reactive kva to be sup- considered as disconnected. It may be desired to find the
plied by generators at each end. required voltages of the A and B buses, and the angle be-
4. Losses (kw and reactive kva). tween thenl, to tra.nz='InEt a desired real and reactive power.
334 Steady-State Performance of Systems Iacludtng Methods of Network Solution Chapter 10

Or it may be necessary to find what real and reactive cuit method because they can more clearly visualize the
power can be transmitted for different voltages and angles. problem by this method. As a result both methods are used
In either case the power circle diagram is an ideal method and some examples of both methods will be given. The
of expressing the performance of the intemonnection. Two stability problem of Chap. 13 is treated exclusively by the
cases will he considered illustrative of the two forms in method of ABCD constants. This power flow problem has
which the problem may appear. been treated by the equivalent circuit method.
Case Ia. Two Station System, A and B. See Fig. 49.
Reducing the Network
Fixed. Voltages and receiver real power.
The first step is the reduction of the network between
Sending end Station A
Receiving end Station B
A and B, Fig. 2, to an equivalent Pi, shown in Fig. 49. As
the equivalent circuits between other buses will be needed
The given conditions are: in subsequent cases, they aiso must be obtained. A typical
Sending-end voltage ES=11o kt L—L reduction follows for the section from A to B, the steps
Receiving-end voltage ER=iI0 l(V being shown in Fig. 50.
Received power 20 Megawatts Convert the T network 41, b, and c to an equivalent Pi
Load at A 10 000 kw, 6200 lagging reactive kva using Eqs. (l(35.)—(l07).
(l0.0+j6.2) mva
Load at B 56 000 kw, 37 500 lagging reactive kva Z,m 2.82%-_7'32.3
(50.0+j37.5) mva Z1,=24.U5+j43.U5
Zcw -11.8000
It is required to find the real and reactive power that
z$'flZ'ec=Za'l"-Zc'l"'-Zazc/Zb
must be generated at Stations A and B. This requires *2l5S-~j12 778
determination of the reactive power received from the
M=ZbG:Zb+Zn+ZbZL‘/Z5
line, and the real and reactive power at the input end. = -4940 —jl9 U50
From the line power quantities and the local loads, the
Z=Zab=Ze+Zb+ZaZb/Z0
required kw and watt-less generation can be determined. =-=2e.7c+j75.19
General Comments
Parallel M and N to obtain ZR’
This is a characteristic problem of transmitting between T
buses whose voltages are fixed by load requireuielzits. ZR’=MxL{i\Nw --418 -—j5?00
Wattless capacity in condensers or generators must be
available at the proper locations because the fixed voltages Plotting the Circle Diagram
determine the wattless flow over the line.
Tap~changing~under~load transformers permit main- From the constants Z 3', Z, ZR’ of the equivalent Pi, the
taining the generator bus voltage while raising the effective data. for plotting the power circle diagrams for line AB
sending-end voltage to transmit wattless. No-load taps can be obtained, using Eqs. (206a) and {207a) of Table
can he used to a rather limited extent if the power flow is 12. In the following calculations ES and ER are expressed
in one direction with not too much variation from maxi- in kv, line-to-line which gives the power, calculated as
mum to minimum. E’/Z, in the dimensions of rnegavolt ampercs; that is,
This problem is often further complicated by the fact megawatts (rnw) and reactive megavolt-arnperes (reactive
that the load bus voltage must be scheduled during the mva). With the poWer* calculated as P +_7Q = Er, the ASA
day, being somewhat more under heavy load conditions. standard, a positive value of Q indicates lagging reactive
The stability of the interconnection is not investigated power in the chosen reference direction for I.
in this chapter: Refer to Chap. 13 for examples of stability Sending»:-:nd Circlekfrom equivalent Pi in impedance
determinations. form __
Es-=116kv, Ens-1l0 kv
Obtaining the Circle Diagram Center
The method of obtaining the impedance diagram, Fig. Cg E
2, from the single~line diagram, Fig. 1 has already been Z Z 3’
described in Sec. 3 and 4. To obtain the circle diagram ==50.9930—{~jl41.9209
from the impedance network from A to B two general
methods of approach can be used. The intervening net- Radius vector for 6=O
work can be reduced to an equivalent Pi and the circle dia- E E
RS0 m “iii
gram determined therefrom as shown in Table 12. Or
ABCD constants can be written for the sections of the in- == -— 50.8369 -—jl/12.8429
terconnection, from Table 9. These can then be combined Power for 9 =0
to obtain ABCD constants for the complete interconnec-
tion as shown also in Table 9. The circle diagram data can Wso = Cs-l-Rso
then be determined from the overall ABCD constants, =0. I561 —j0.9220
using the formulas of Tables 12 or 12a. Some prefer the The sending circle has been drawn in Fig. 51 by plotting
ABCD constants because the method is systematic, and the center, the power for 6:0, and drawing the circle
has a check for each step. Others prefer the equivalent eir- ‘The term power is used generally meaning real and reactive power.
Chapter 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution 335

2.82 +5323 24.05+j43.05 l l [ l W ill’

18¢“ ’\/‘v'\/‘ L ‘V\/V‘ be 179 l I f°_--

1 :1 ‘ 5 __l p __ _ E;-l24xv _ H
-ISOOO '-18000;-I’

E 4.. l
_ _ _ _‘‘l6°

l ‘
___ _;3 __ | _

‘ E5'liOKV
‘I
l
_l__ i__

2s.vs+;"rs.:e
nu... _ ___ 0 __
O‘
_1‘v _ 08
i ire,-umcv
_ I or ll ,_ 5 O
i 1*
i A
II
l i“,=e|o|<v
V or W_ T
-»
VEMVA1
\ , lsanums
‘ END1 m_\
217a
.11; -'"
9050-; in i it l l
‘-18000 1 ~E 241w 64
2
58-
.,;o -4940 .“:
'" 1iL '<>K_\1......,- O0 N, 1 ~5- I

ch LAGGNGREAG
2$.76+j75.i9
A1! r '\A2{\/‘ vB

. l
Qe
J W l
4 .
= as
2778-' za --5700- -so -40
__ sznoingaeowsn i
“~11 -
1‘Q
__
| ;
mv
I
258 -43 1 6: Q 1 E5=Ea=llO Kl/all ‘i i
"3
» ‘=7
1
9} '40‘ 5 \E-124:0! 7
Fig. 50-mSteps in the reduction of line AB to an equivalent Pi. _,_ It 1 l Ii l1
through the latter point. The sending power for any W
’"=.\ 43
an O l
i E,-no xv

angle, of Es in advance of ER, is a point on the circle, an laeceavurg sun Z_p_ V __i
angle 6' counter-clockwise from the radius for 8=O.
Receiving-end Circ1e—~fr0m equivalent Pi in imped- ~.--_ .. l
:20 ‘ \ ‘
ance form.
E'@=ll0 kv, E’R=110kv I lie” -l1~<=i,~1 I E i Qlll l l Ll, jIj;L;13
Center
Fig. 51—Power circle diagram for line AB.
1 1 —
C R =~— (Z“i”‘ZR,‘)
~= l~ E’3
The local loads at A and B are respectively: (See Fig. 1)
= —50.6821 —j14=0.7363
Pg”; "l-_]‘.QLA = IHVE
Radius for 6 = 0 P1,BjQLB e so -4421.5 mva.
R30 ,,,,
The required generation at A is therefore:
= 50.8359 +;i142.s429 PoA."i”"]QcA=PL.a+jQL.\-i"PsA'i'jQsA
Power for 6 = 0 W31 ~»~j0.8 mva
WRO w CR"l“RRO or 31 mw and 0.8 lagging reactive mva. i.e., underexcited.
w 0.1548-l—j2.1€l66 The required generation at B is
The receiving circle is located in a similar manner to the Poe ‘i~jQoe w Pu; +jQr.n """ (Pm; +jQe.n)
sending circle. The receiving power for any angle 6, of E5 = 30 +j44.-5 mve.
in advance of ER, is e point on the circle an angle 6 clock-
wise from the radius for 9-»-=0. The corresponding sending or 30 mw and 44.5 lagging reactive mva.
and receiving power for a given transmission condition The line losses ere:
over the line, are points on the two circles for the same PL“i”jQL w Ps"i“jQs "" (P1t"“l“jQR)
angle 8. = 1+_7'0 mva.
Interpreting the Circle Diagram For the or I mw and no reactive mva.
Particular Problem———Cose Ia. The I 2XL lagging reactive power consumed by the line
is balanced by the EZ/X0 leading reactive power consumed
From the condi