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 SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. 36, No.2, 81-91, June 1996
Japanese Geotechnical Society

THE STEADY STATE OF SANDY SOILS

RAMON VERDuooi) and KENJI IsHIHARAii)

ABSTRACT
An alternative procedure to evaluate the void ratio of triaxial test samples is introduced. This method is recommend-
ed particularly when very loose samples are tested and an important volume change occurring during the saturation
process is expected. In addition, using Toyoura sand a comprehensive set of triaxial tests carried out under both un-
drained and drained conditions of monotonic loading is presented. For the undrained contractive responses, the
results showed two stages associated with the steady state. After the peak strength, the deviator stress drops to a mini-
mum value which can be seen as a quasi steady state, thereafter, the strength increases to an ultimate value corre-
sponding to the actual steady state. Undrained dilative responses clearly indicated the existence of an ultimate state de-
veloped at large deformations which represents the steady state of deformation. The results indicate that the quasi
steady state is slightly affected by the initial mean stress, whereas, the steady state is unaffected by the initial mean
stress. Furthermore, the locus of the ultimate states achieved through drained conditions of loading was shown to be
coincident with the steady state line evaluated by means of undrained tests. Finally, according to the relative position
of the steady state line with respect to the isotropic consolidation curves for the loosest and densest states of a given
soil, the index, Relative Contractiveness, Rc, is proposed. It is postulated that Rc is related to the inherent liquefaction
vulnerability of a soil.

Key words: liquefaction, sandy soil, silt, triaxial compression test, undrained shear (IGC: D6/D7)

poorly compacted sandy soil deposit has increased. This

INTRODUCTION
In the past, the term "liquefaction" has been used to
describe all phenomena that are related with the un-
drained response of cohesionless material where an im-
portant build up of pore water pressure as well as a sig-
nificant amount of deformation take place. At least two
different phenomena, however, should be distinguished:
flow failure or true liquefaction and cyclic mobility.
Although these concepts were presented early by
Casagrande (1975) and Castro (1975), perhaps only since
the last decade they have been widely recognized and ac-
cepted. The phenomenon defined as "true liquefaction"
is characterized by a quick increment of pore water pres-
sure followed by a sudden loss of strength until a residual
value is achieved. The term ''cyclic mobility'' introduced by
Casagrande (197 5) denotes the undrained cyclic soil
response where the soil mass does not undergo any loss
of strength, but it undergoes a kind of strain softening,
which is mainly a consequence of the build up of pore
water pressure caused by the cyclic loading. The study dis-
cussed herein is concerned with the first phenomenon.
Recently, interest in the importance of developing a
suitable methodology to analyze the stability of saturated
fact comes as a consequence of the occurrence of large
landslides in natural slopes, darn failures and flow
failures of hydraulic placement of artificial island fills or
reclaimed land areas along coast lines (Ishihara et al.,
1991). A better understanding and a more suitable charac-
terization of the undrained response of saturated co-
hesionless materials are therefore needed. Consequently,
in the present study experimental evidence useful to ob-
tain a better understanding of sandy soil behavior is
presented. In addition, a parameter to identify the intrin-
sic potential for liquefaction of a given soil is introduced.
TESTING EQUIPMENT AND SOIL TESTED
In order to cover a wide range of confining pressures,
and at the same time to have accurate measurements, two
triaxial test apparatuses designed for a different level of
pressure and load were used. A low and a high pressure
triaxial cell for maximum pressures of I MPa and 5 MPa
were designed. For each test, the most appropriate test ap-
paratus was selected depending on the desired confining
pressure and the anticipated undrained response. For in-
stance, when large dilative behavior of the soil specimen

il Geotechnical Section !DIEM University of Chile, Plaza Ercilla 883, Santiago, Chile. Former Graduate Student, Univ. of Tokyo, Japan.
iil Former Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku 113, Tokyo.
Manuscript was received for review on May 17, 1994.
Written discussions on this paper should be submitted before January 1, 1997 to the Japanese Geotechnical Society, Sugayama Bldg. 4 F,
Kanda Awaji-cho 2-23, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101, Japan. Upon request the closing date may be extended one month.

This is an Open Access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license.

81

NII-Electronic Library Service

82 VERDUGO AND ISHIHARA
was expected, the cavitation was effectively avoided by
means of high back pressure using the high pressure ap-
paratus. Lubricated as well as enlarged end plates were
used in order to minimize non-homogeneities in the
strain distribution throughout the samples and particu-
larly to avoid the development of shear bands. The axial
load, pore water pressure, axial deformation and volu-
metric strain were measured by electrical transducers and
automatically stored in a personal computer. All the tests
were conducted under strain-controlled condition of load-
ing. The deformation rates were 1 and 0.5 mm/min for
undrained and drained tests, respectively. The initial
dimensions of the specimens were 5 em in diameter and
10 em in height for those specimens tested in the low pres-
sure triaxial cell, and 6 em in diameter and 12 em in
height in the case of samples tested in the high pressure
cell.
All the tests were performed on the standard Japanese
Toyoura sand. This sand has a mean diameter of
D 50 =0.17mm, a uniformity coefficient of Uc=l.7, a
maximum void ratio of 0.977, a minimum void ratio of
0.597, and a specific gravity of 2.65. Toyoura sand is a
uniform fine sand consisting of subrounded to subangu-
lar particles and composed of 75% quartz, 22% feldspar
and 3% magnetite (Oda et al., 1978).
SAMPLE PREPARATION
To prepare the specimens, the so-called moist place-
ment or wet tamping method of sample preparation was
used. Oven dry soil was mixed well with distilled water in
a proportion of 5% by weight and compacted in six and
ten layers in the case of the low and high pressure appara-
tus, respectively. After the initial density was deter-
mined, and the total weight computed, each layer was
carefully compacted with identical height and amount of
wet soil. Thereafter, the specimens were installed in the
pedestal and C02 gas followed by de-aired water circulat-
ed throughout from the bottom to the top. After the cell
was assembled, the degree of saturation was improved by
means of back pressure which was considered acceptable
when the B-value was equal to or greater than 0.95.
EVALUATION OF SAMPLE VOID RATIO
Samples loosely compacted are susceptible to potential
error in the evaluation of the void ratio. During the satu-
ration process a partial collapse of the unstable structure
occurs and a significant variation in the sample dimen-
sion takes place, which can not be measured using ordina-
ry test procedures (Sladen et al., 1987). Two alternative
procedures to assess the void ratio of the specimens after
they have been saturated were therefore developed which
are described below:
a) Using sample dimensions.-This method cor-
responds to the ordinary procedure based on the direct
evaluation of the height and diameter of the samples af-
ter C02 and de-aired water have been percolated through-
out the specimens, and therefore, any possible collapse
has occurred. An improvement in the procedure has been
used however, avoiding the dismanteling of the cell after
the saturation of the samples has been completed. After
the air in the voids of the sample has been replaced by
C02, a vacuum of 0.02 MPa for the sample tested in the
low pressure triaxial cell and 0.05 MPa for the sample
tested in the high pressure triaxial cell was applied
through the upper and lower drainage lines of the speci-
men with tanks A and Bas illustrated in Fig. 1(a). When
the vacuum is applied, the position of tanks A and B is
such that the water level in the tanks is below the sample.
Next, in order to induce percolation of water throughout
the specimen under vacuum, tank A is moved up from its
initial position to a second location approximately 50 em
above the top of the sample. As the water flows into the
specimen, a sort of collapse on the very loose soil struc-
ture occurs, and accordingly, the sample dimensions
change. The percolation of water is performed until in
the pipe connected to the top of the sample air bubbles
are not observed any more. Thereafter, tank A is moved
down to its initial position and then the dimensions of
the sample are measured. The diameters were taken to an
accuracy of 0.01 em with a calibrated metal tape and the
height was measured to an accuracy of 0.01 em by means
of a calibrated caliper. Consequently, the initial volume
of the sample was evaluated and modified later consider-
ing the volume change that occurs during consolidation.
b) Using the water content of the specimen.-This
method was developed considering that for saturated
samples, the void ratio is directly related with the amount
of water in the sample. For clayey soils, the procedure
a)
Tank
B
0.96 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
b) TOYOURA SAND
0.95
measurement using the sample dimensions
CJ)
0.94
measurement using the water content
;]
0
~ 0.93
...
"0
] ~I !I
0 0.92 ~I
> ;I
0.91
I scatter in the void ratios
0.9 0 t . _ __ _. _ __ ___, _ ______. _ _ _ _ . _ _____._ _ ____,
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Effective confining pressure (MPa)
Fig. 1. a) System for water circulation; b) Comparison between water
content and sample dimension procedures for evaluation of sam-
ple void ratio
NII-Electronic Library Service
 STEADY STATE OF SANDY SOILS 83

does not involve significant difficulty, but in sandy soils
some special technique is necessary, for instance, ''freez-
ing" the sample. The authors have developed an alterna-
tive method however that seems to be simpler than the
current procedures, which involve the following steps: af-
ter the test is finished, the drainage valves are closed, so
that the specimen is in an undrained condition. The back
pressure on the lines is completely released and the level
of the water in the burette, Vi, is recorded. The drainage
valves are then opened and connected to the burette.
Next, the cell pressure is increased to the maximum capac-
ity of the equipment, and then an axial loading and un-
loading process is applied in order to remove from the
sample as much water as possible which flows into the
burette. Thereafter, the cell pressure is decreased to
around 0.2 MPa, the drainage valves are closed again,
and the level of the water in the burette, V1 , recorded.
Then, the cell pressure is totally released and the triaxial
cell dismounted. Because the specimen is finally unload-
ed under an undrained condition, it develops a negative
pore water pressure which allows the sample to remain
upright. Next, the upper cap is removed and air goes into
the sample (because of the negative pore water pressure)
creating an apparent cohesion that permits the sample to
be handled. Immediately, the membrane is removed
from the sample, and by means of a spatula, all the soil
attached to both the membrane and to the end platens is
carefully removed. The remaining water content of the
soil sample, w,, is then measured. Therefore, the void ra-
tio of the specimen can be computed from the following
expression:
(V1- Vi+w, Wd)
e Wd Gs (1)
been adopted as a more reliable procedure to evaluate the
void ratio. Hence, void ratios estimated by this method
have been used as the representative values of the sam-
ples and reported in this paper.
MONOTONIC UNDRAINED RESPONSE
Three series of undrained monotonic compression
tests with consolidation pressures varying in a wide range
and constant void ratios achieved after consolidation,
were carried out. Figure 2 for example, shows the stress-
strain curves and the corresponding effective stress paths
for a series of tests with a common void ratio after con-
solidation of e=0.735. The effective mean stress is eval-
uated as p' =(a1 +2a3)/3 and the deviator stress as
q=(a1-a3). As can be seen, the soil response is such that an
ultimate condition is developed at large deformation
which is identical to all the specimens, independent of the
initial confining pressure. It is important to note that dur-
ing unloading the effective stress paths are coincident,
suggesting that a special common fabric was developed at
large deformation.
Another series of tests performed with a void ratio af-
ter consolidation of e=0.833 and different initial
confining pressures is shown in Fig. 3 in terms of stress-
strain curves and effective stress paths. For initial
confining pressures of 2 and 3 MPa, the response of the
specimens shows a drop in strength, and conse-
quently, the specimens develop a minimum strength
which occurs between 5 to 10% of axial strain. It is of in-
terest to note, that the minimum strength developed is
5.0

where, Wd is the dry weight of the sample and Gs is the ~ a) TOYOURA SAND ( e • 0.735, Dr • 63.7% )
a..
~4.0
specific gravity of the soil.
0'
The first method is basically the common practice to
03.0
evaluate the void ratio of a sample, while the second til
~
method is an alternative procedure. To investigate the 02.0
effectiveness of this alternative procedure, three series of ....
0
samples were prepared repeating as close as possible all -:u
·;: 1.0
the steps involved in the preparation. Figure l(b) shows Q)
0
the results of these three series of tests. It can be observed 0.0
0 10 15 20 25 30
that the scattering in the void ratios evaluated through
Axial strain (%)
the water content is much smaller than the one obtained
by the ordinary procedure using the sample dimensions. 5.0

This fact is indicative of the repetitiveness and effective- ~

ness of the proposed procedure. In addition, as shown in ~ 4.0
Fig. l(b), the results using these two procedures consis- 0'

tently indicated that the void ratios measured through 0 3.o

til
the water content were smaller than the void ratios com- ~
'02.0
puted from the sample dimensions. For dense specimens
0
however, the difference between these two methods was
~> 1.0
negligible. The discrepancy between these two methods Q)
0
may arise from the subsequent steps wherein the triaxial 0.0
cell is assembled and likely, some additional volume 0 2
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa)
change takes place which can not be computed by the
first method. The procedure based on the measurement Fig. 2. Undrained triaxial tests for e=0.735: a) stress-strain curves; b)
of the water content at the end of the test has therefore effective stress path

NII-Electronic Library Service

84 VERDUGO AND ISHIHARA

2.0

-;u a)
a..
-as
a.. 0.8
::;; 1.5 ::E
C' C'
ui -0.6
~ 1.0
- \\ Ul
Ul

Ul

0
\.t
\'-0~• 0.1 MPa
\~Oo = 1.0 MPa
~
~
.._
0.4

~ 0.5 0
0~ = 2.0 MPa ~ 0.2
>
Cll
0~ = 3.0 MPa
>
0 Cll
0
·0.0 0.0 .___ _....___ __.___ __,__ ___.__ ___.._ __ _ _ j
0 10 15 20 25 30
Axial strain (%) 0 10 15 20 25 30
Axial strain (o/o)
2.0

-;u b) TOYOURA SAND ( e = 0.833, Dr = 37.9% )

c.. co
~ 1.5 a.. 0.8
C'
::;;
ui C'
~ 1.0 Ul
- 0.6
Ul
Ul ~
.._
~ 0.4
~ 0.5 .._
0
>
Cll
0
~ 0.2
>
0.0 Cll
0
0 1 2
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa) 2
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa)
Fig. 3. Undrained triaxial tests for e=0.833: a) stress-strain curves; b)
effective stress path Fig. 4. Undrained triaxial tests for e=0.907: a) stress-strain curves; b)
effective stress path

slightly affected by the initial effective confining pressure.
It should also be noted that, despite the large difference
in the stress-strain behavior at an early stage of the load-
ing, the samples tend to have the same ultimate strength
at a large level of deformation. In addition, in this series,
the effective stress paths during unloading are coincident
with each other suggesting the development of a common
fabric at the stage of large deformation. The stress-strain
curves and the corresponding effective stress paths for
another series of tests performed with a void ratio after
consolidation of e=0.906-0.908 and with effective
confining pressures varying from 0.1 to 2 MPa are shown
in Fig. 4. As can be observed, for the complete range of
pressure used, the soil behavior indicates a peak deviator
stress, and the higher the initial confining pressure the
higher the peak deviator stress. A minimum strength is de-
veloped at a medium range of axial deformation between
4 to 16%. As the previous results, the minimum strength
seems to be only slightly affected by the initial confining
pressure, while the ultimate deviator stress developed in
these three specimens is the same, regardless of the value
of the initial confining pressure. It is also of interest to
note that for the specimen consolidated under 0.1 MPa,
the effective stress path reaches the ultimate state to the
right of the initial state indicating that, the response is
finally dilative, even though in the range of axial deforma-
tion between 1 to 6%, the behavior was clearly contrac-
tive with a small drop of strength. It is important to
mention that, in this case, the condition of continuous
deformation under a constant shear stress level is not
strictly satisfied at large deformation. The rate of varia-
tion nevertheless is rather small, so in this situation the
state of stress developed close to 26% of axial strain has
been considered as the condition associated with the ulti-
mate state. The authors believe that the stresses devel-
oped at this level of deformation are from any practical
point of view, close enough to the actual ultimate condi-
tion in the case of sandy soils.
This series of undrained test results have shown two
soil responses, a dilative one with a deviator stress that is
always monotonically increasing up to an ultimate state
achieved at large deformation where the soil sample
deforms continuously under a constant shear stress, and
constant effective mean stress. Another soil response is
the contractive one with the development of a mini-
mum strength that is followed by a dilative behavior
where the strength is regained and it eventually reaches
an ultimate value at large strains. The latter soil response
indicates two particular conditions that require especial
attention: a) the minimum strength and b) the ultimate
state developed at large strain level. These stages are of
particular importance due to the fact that they represent
different levels of strength. It is apparent that these two
conditions can be associated with the steady state of
deformation (Poulos, 1981), because the requirements of
continuous deformation under constant shear stress and
constant normal stress are to some extent satisfied. The
additional requirement of constant volume is automati-
cally satisfied during undrained tests and the condition of
constant velocity is fully satisfied by the strain controlled
loading system.
The condition of minimum strength has been referred

NII-Electronic Library Service

 STEADY STATE OF SANDY SOILS 85

to as the quasi steady state, (Alarcon-Guzman et al., 2.5 I

1988; Ishihara, 1993; Verdugo, 1992) whereas, the condi- ' ' '
TOYOURA SAND
tion reached at large level of strain is likely associated ~ 2.0
with the actual steady state. The shear stress mobilized at ::E ( at quasi steady state )
the minimum strength stage is definitely smaller than the C\1
....... 1.5
stress mobilized at the ultimate steady state, however, the 0'
strain level required for the ultimate state is much larger f/)
f/)
than the strain associated with the minimum strength. ~ 1.0
.....
~/
f/)

....
THE QUASI STEADY STATE ~
.t:
o.s
v·
From those specimens where a drop in strength
takes place, the minimum strength condition or the quasi
C/)

steady state has been plotted in Fig. 5 in terms of void ra-
tio and effective mean stress. The initial states of void ra-
tio and consolidation pressures are indicated by squares.
As can be observed, for the wide range of initial effective
confining pressures and void ratios used, there exists a
clear correlation between the void ratio and the effective
mean stress developed at the stage where the minimum
strength is mobilized. This line is referred to as the quasi
steady state line (Verdugo, 1992; Ishihara, 1993). In spite
of the clear trend shown in Fig. 5 by the quasi steady
state line, some scatter in the data is apparent. This is due
to the fact that the mobilized minimum strength is affect-
ed to some degree by the initial consolidation pressure.
The larger the initial effective confining pressure, the larg-
er the minimum strength and the corresponding effective
mean stress. Nevertheless, the experimental results indi-
cate that this effect is not significant and accordingly, it
would be possible to draw a single line representing an
average condition of the quasi steady state in the e-p'
plane and use it as a convenient reference line to facilitate
the evaluation of the minimum strength. It has been
shown elsewhere (Verdugo, 1992; Ishihara, 1993)
however, that this line is strongly affected by both the ini-
tial fabric and structure of a soil mass. The use of the qua-
si steady state line is therefore restricted to those cases
where the soil deposit and the soil sample tested in the
laboratory have similar fabric.
The contractive response is only developed by those
samples with an initial combination of void ratio and
effective mean stress that can be represented by a point lo-
TOYOURA SAND
0.95 0
0.0
0.0
L 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa)
Fig. 6. Strength envelope at the quasi steady state
cated well above the steady state line in the e-p' plane.
This observation confirms previous results reported by
Castro (1969); Castro et al. (1982); Been et al. 1985; Dob-
ry et al. (1985), and Poulos et al. (1985), among others.
It is of particular importance to mention that the state
of minimum strength coincides with the condition of
phase transformation introduced by Ishihara et al. (1975).
The phase transformation was defined however to imply
a temporary state of transition from contractive to dila-
tive behavior of sand, irrespective of whether it involves
a temporary drop in shear stress or not. The quasi steady
state has to be seen therefore as the particular case of
phase transformation where a temporary drop in shear
stress takes place over a limited range of shear strains.
Regarding the resistance developed during the quasi
steady state, it can be easily understood that the shear
stress mobilized at this stage of deformation is a conse-
quence of frictional resistance between the particles of
the soil. The effective normal stress and shear stress
should therefore be uniquely correlated through some
angle of internal friction. To explore this aspect, the
shear stress, q I 2, and the effective mean stress, p', at-
tained at the quasi steady state have been plotted in Fig.
6. As can be observed, the state of stresses at the quasi
steady state can be represented fairly well by a straight
line passing through the origin in the q I 2-p' plane. The
angle of internal friction obtained from these data is
close to 31 o.

0.90
0 0 THE STEADY STATE OR ULTIMATE STATE FROM
0
Q) B
0
0 UNDRAINED TESTS
0
0
~ 0.85
0
0 0
0
Under undrained loading condition, irrespective of the
"0 0 8 initial state of the specimens, when the strain level is large
~
0.80 - quasi steady state line enough, the soil mass tends to be in a state of continuous
deformation under constant shear stress and constant
0.75 11 initial states mean stress. This stage of the soil response is quite appar-
ent in those tests shown in Figs. 2 and 3 when the axial
0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 strains are larger than 20-25%. As can be observed in
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa)
Fig. 4 however, there are responses where the deviator
Fig. 5. Quasi steady state line and initial states stress and the effective mean stress are still increasing af-

NII-Electronic Library Service

86 VERDUGO AND ISHIHARA

ter an axial strain of 28%. Nevertheless, the increments
are small and always at a decreasing rate, hence in these
cases, the stresses at an axial strain around 26% have
been taken as representative of the ultimate state of the
specimens. In Fig. 7, a good correlation can be ob-
served between the specimen void ratios and the effective
mean stress developed at large deformation, which cor-
responds to the steady state line. The initial states of the
samples are indicated in Fig. 7 by squares showing that,
in contrast to the quasi steady state line, the steady state
line can be obtained independently of the initial state of
the specimens. In addition, experimental results reported
by Verdugo (1992) and Ishihara (1993) have shown that
the steady state line is unaffected by the initial fabric as
long as the soil mass is homogeneous.
Concerning the frictional resistance developed at this
state, Fig. 8 shows the shear stress, q/2, and the effective
mean stress, p', computed from each test. As can be
seen, all the data points fall in a straight line passing
through the origin indicating that a unique friction angle
is mobilized at the ultimate state or steady state which is
in perfect agreement with experimental data reported by
Negussey et al. (1988) using ring shear tests. For Toyoura
sand, the experimental results indicated that the slope of
this line is close to 0.62, confirming a friction angle in the
TOYOURA SAND
0.95 0
0
0.90
0
0 0.35
0
Q)
steady state of deformation of around 31 o.
MONOTONIC DRAINED RESPONSE
A series of conventional triaxial tests with constant
lateral stress under drained condition of loading were per-
formed for three different states of packing; very loose,
loose and medium. The deviator stress versus axial strain
and void ratio for consolidation pressures of 0.1 and 0.5
MPa, are shown in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. As can be
observed, under a small level of strain, the stress-strain
curves are different depending upon the initial density of
the sample. As the level of strain becomes large however,
all the curves merge into a single one. Similar behavior is
observed in terms of deviator stress and void ratio. Initial-
ly, at zero level of shear stress, the starting void ratios are
different, but as the strain level increases, the curves tend
to achieve a common void ratio and a common deviator
stress, which confirms experimental results reported by
Casagrande (1936), Roscoe et al. (1958) and Been et al.
(1991). The soil response achieved at a large level of
strain under drained condition of loading therefore can
be seen as the corresponding drained steady state of
deformation
For all the tests performed under drained condition of
loading, Fig. 11 shows the paths in terms of void ratio
and mean stress. The circles indicate the data points relat-
ed to the steady state condition evaluated from un-
drained tests, and the black squares indicate the ultimate
I I 1 I

0 a) TOYOURA SAND
.2 0.85 ~ 0.30 -· •
~
0
0 B
c.. ...

::?! ( 0~= 0.1 MPa )

1J
·o 0.25 _ ...... ·-
..--
....... .. .......
> 0.80 cr

t/-- - \
0 ~
ri 0.20
./""".-----~:
0 0 Cl)
0 0
0.75 u initial state
0
~ .._
0
0
0
0
..... 0.15
(///
Cl)
El 0 0
....
\.\ e, 0.996
0.02 0.05

Fig. 7.
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa)

Steady state line and initial states

2.0

>
0
tO
Q) 0.05
0
0.10
v \_
•
vu"' 0.917
;eo· 0.831
•
•
•
...... -
0.00 t I I i I /,
0 10 20 30
Axial strain (%)
2.5 ! ! !
0.35 1 1
~
TOYOURA SAND b) ' TOYOURA SAND
. . ~ 0.30
~ 2.0
....
!)/~<- a..
.
•

~ (0~ = 0.1 MPa

( at steady state ) ~
~ 1.5
/ 0.25
. --..... .
.........

tT
/ ri
Cl)
Q)
0.20 -· ~ ' ~
"~
Cl)
Cl)
/ !:; 0.15 \
··~
... _

-~
Cl)

....
1.0
/~
Cl)

0 0.10
tO
\ "'-
"
~ 0.5
p'
·~
_.... I I
""',
0.05
~
~
(f)

0.0 ~ I
0
0.00
0.82
j

0.86
J / V\ !: 0.90 0.94 0.98
0.0 O.S 1.0 l.S 2.0
2.5 3.0 3.5 I Void ratio, e
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa)
Fig. 9. Drained triaxial tests for cr 0=0.1 MPa: a) stress-strain curves;
Fig. 8. Strength envelope at the steady state b) void ratio versus deviator stress

NII-Electronic Library Service

 STEADY STATE OF SANDY SOILS 87

··~OYOUR'A SANDL
······! .............. , .... .

0. = 0.1 MPa
.......
CT

0
~
....
Q)
Q) 0.996
~ 0.917
Ci)
0.831

30 0
0 s 10 lS 20 25 30
Axial strain (o/o)

1.4 ~ I I I
' I
2
-;; b) TOYOURA SAND
c..
1.2 -. ......;;~· ·····roYOURA SANo:·····
~ (O~ = 0.5 MPa) •
-., I ·········!·······
1.0
"' ...... .
·a. a~ = 0.5 MPa

""'~\
CT 1'- •
.......
0 0.8 ~ •
CT

\
Q) '

....~ 0.6
~ 0
10
~ ....
\
Q)

.... \
"
0 Q)
0.4 C/)
10
Cl
> 0.2
Q)

0.0
0.79
\ J
J )/
0.83
J)
0.87
\
\ 0.91
I
""'\
0.95
Q)
....
Ci)

0
Void ratio, e 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Axial strain ( o/o)
Fig. 10. Drained triaxial tests for a 0=0.5 MPa: a) stress-strain
curves; b) void ratio versus deviator stress Fig. 12. Stress ratio, q/p', versus axial strain for a) a 0=0.1 MPa and
b) a 0=0.5 MPa

1.0 TOYOURA SAND ble tests to evaluate the steady state line with undrained
o Undrained test
tests being more preferable.
In addition, for three different initial densities and for
Q)
consolidation pressures of 0.1 and 0.5 MPa, the stress ra-
.2
~
tio, q I p', versus the axial strain are shown in Figs. 12(a)
'0
'(5 0.9
and (b), respectively. It can be seen that at a large strain
> level, the mobilized stress ratio, q I p', is constant and in-
dependent of the initial density and confining pressure.
This fact indicates that, for the level of pressures and den-
sities investigated, the friction angle mobilized at a large
strain level is unique and unaffected by sample density
0.8 ~---L-------J'-------'---=::;:;;;;;;=...~._..:__ __J
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 and consolidation pressure. In addition, the computed
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa)
value of q/2p' is close to 0.62 which is about the same
Fig. 11. State diagram evaluated from both drained and undrained value obtained from undrained tests. The friction angle
triaxial tests mobilized at the steady state condition therefore is a
unique value regardless of the density, level of pressure,
and type of loading (drained or undrained).
conditions achieved by the drained tests which should be
associated with the drained steady state. As can be ob-
served, there is a very good agreement between the steady CHARACTERISTIC LINES IN THE e-p' PLANE
state conditions obtained from both undrained and The e-p' plane provides a good representation of the
drained tests. It is important, however, to note that even steady state line, and it may also be useful to define bound-
though the general trend presented by the drained tests is aries which can characterize the soil response. For
clear, the scatter in the data points concerning the ulti- sandy and silty soils it is conceptually possible to define
mate state of these tests is much more significant than an upper boundary using the isotropic consolidation
those obtained for the case of undrained tests. In this curve for the loosest state that a given cohesionless soil
regard, it seems that drained tests are not the most suita- may attain. This curve is equivalent to the normal consoli-

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88 VERDUGO AND ISHIHARA
dated curve for clays in the sense that defines a limit over
which a combination of void ratio and effective mean
stress can not exist. It is important, however, to keep in
mind that this curve may be different for different sample
preparation procedures as shown in Fig. 13 (Ishihara,
1993). It is recommended that the consolidation curve for
the loosest state be evaluated by means of a sample per-
formed by the moist placement (wet tamping) method of
preparation and then saturated. Based on the authors' ex-
perience, this method of sample preparation permits the
achievement of the loosest packing compared to any
other method of sample preparation. In some soils it
even provides a larger void ratio than the maximum void
ratio evaluated using either the USA or the 1apanese
codes (Verdugo, 1992).
Similar to the upper boundary defined by the consolida-
tion line of the loosest state, it is possible to define a low-
er boundary. For the common range of pressures antici-
pated in engineering practice, the isotropic consolidation
curve for the densest packing provides the lowest limit of
states in the e-p' plane. For Toyoura sand both the
isotropic consolidation curve for the loosest and densest
state are shown in Fig. 13 (Ishihara, 1993). It is readily ap-
parent that for the case of the densest state, the volumet-
ric strains caused by isotropic loading are very small even
though the confining pressure is significantly high. For
practical purposes therefore this curve can be approximat-
ed by a horizontal straight line passing through the mini-
mum void ratio. This simplification is obviously limited
by the pressure from which the particle crushing began to
be important. According to the test results shown in Fig.
13, in the case of Toyoura sand this pressure would be
greater than 4 MPa which includes most of the cases en-
coutered in practice. There are other soils such as car-
bonate containing sands and decomposed granite sandy
soils however that are much more crushable. For these
soil types the proposed simplification is still valid, but for
a smaller region. Nevertheless, if the particular soil under
consideration seems to be extremely crushable, the sim-
plification can be avoided and the corresponding isotrop-
ic consolidation test for the densest state performed.
\ Densest state
1·0 2·0 3·0 4·0
Effective confining stre-ss, p =(Oi'+2o-3')t3 (MPa)
Fig. 13. Isotropic consolidation curves for Toyoura sand samples pre-
pared using three different methods (Ishihara, 1993)
LIQUEFACTION VULNERABILITY
A lack of a suitable parameter exists at present to classi-
fy any given soil according to its intrinsic vulnerability
against liquefaction. Some general ideas have been
presented in this regard, and they have basically been es-
tablished based on the shape of the grain size distribution
curves (Tsuchida, 1970; Ishihara et al., 1980). It is well
known however that there are others factors that also
control the liquefaction vulnerability of a cohesionless
soil, for example, particle shape, particle hardness, fines
content (Verdugo, 1989), and plasticity of the fines. All
of these factors that are not dependent on the state of a
soil mass, and are material properties, are some-
what reflected in the location of the steady state line and
on the position of both the consolidation curves of the
loosest and densest state. In order to define a parameter
that reflect to some extent the intrinsic potential of liq-
uefaction of a given material, therefore these three refer-
ences curves will be considered.
In a cohesionless material, the projection of the steady
state line in the e-p' plane represents the combination of
void ratio, and effective mean stress attained ultimately
when the soil is deformed greatly. For a homogeneous soil
mass, the steady state line is a unique reference line un-
affected by the type of soil deposition and initial state con-
ditions of density and pressure. It is also independent of
whether the load is drained or undrained. For an un-
drained loading condition, the steady state line provides
a very stable and physically meaningful reference line
dividing those states that ultimately develop either posi-
tive or negative pore pressure. Although it may be
thought that the quasi steady state line can also be used
as a reference line, this idea does not work when an intrin-
sic soil property is expected to be defined. This restriction
comes from the fact that the quasi steady state line is
strongly affected by the initial soil fabric (Verdugo, 1992;
Ishihara, 1993).
The isotropic consolidation curves for the loosest and
densest states provide a set of boundaries for any possi-
ble soil state. If attention is drawn to the position of the
steady state line with respect to these two boundaries, it
is possible to realize that when the steady state line is lo-
cated very close to the upper boundary defined by the
isotropic consolidation line of the loosest state, as shown
in Fig. 14(a), the area, Ac, that is associated with those
states where the soil mass can be potentially unstable is
small. Conversely, Fig. 14(b) shows a material with a
steady state line closer to the isotropic consolidated curve
of the densest state, hence with a dilative area, Ad, rather
small. In this situation, there exists a significant possibili-
ty for the soil deposit to be in such states that can develop
a contractive response associated to a flow failure or
"true liquefaction". Consequently, it is suggested that ac-
cording to the relative position of these curves with
respect to each other, it is possible to evaluate the intrin-
sic vulnerability of a given soil against liquefaction. Thus
a parameter of the form of Ac / (Ac +Ad) seems to be an
appropriate parameter concerned the intrinsic liquefac-
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 STEADY STATE OF SANDY SOILS 89

cated to the left and below the isotropic consolidation

a) lines. It is clear, however, that for a low pressure and an
initial dense state, the soil behavior is dilative which im-
Isotropic consolidation
line, loosest state
plies that the steady state line has to be located to the
right of the isotropic line for the densest state. Therefore,
Steady state line
in the e-log p plane, the steady state line has to cross the
isotropic consolidation line for the densest state.
"0 From a practical point of view, the complete evalua-
0
> tion of the areas Ac and Ad is difficult, because it would

L Isotropic consolidation
line, densest state
be necessary to use very high pressure in order to evaluate
the consolidation curves to the point where they merge
with each other. It seems reasonable nevertheless, to
Effective mean stress, p' make a simplification and only take into account the ra-
tio between the range of void ratios where the soil is con-
tractive and the total range of void ratios where the soil
b)
can exist for an arbitrary value of effective mean stress of
Isotropic consolidation
0.1 MPa. In order to account for the intrinsic potential
Q)
line, loosest state of liquefaction of a given soil, the index property, Rela-
0
tive Contractiveness, Ro is proposed which is expressed
Ac
-:;; as follows,
....
:'2 (emax)I- (ess)I
0 Rc (2)
> (emax)I- (emin)I

L Isotropic consolidation
line, densest state
Effective mean stress, p'
Fig. 14. Representation of a soil with a) small vulnerability against
liquefaction; b) large vulnerability against liquefaction
tion potential. Figure 15 illustrates the areas Ac and Ad
considering the general trend of the steady state line and
the isotropic consolidation lines for the loosest and den-
sest states. It is important to note, that for high pressure
the loosest and densest states merge with each other
which has been shown experimentally by Vesic et al.
(1968) and Miura et al. (1984), among others. In addi-
tion, it is well known that under a sufficiently high pres-
sure, the soil behavior is fully contractive independ-
ent of the initial void ratio. This means that in the e-p'
plane the steady state line, for high pressures, must be lo-
Figure 16 shows schematically (emax)h (emin)I and (ess)I
which denote respectively, the maximum, minimum and
steady state void ratios, all for an effective mean stress of
0.1 MPa. If the proposed approximation of the isotropic
line for the densest state is used, the value of (emin) 1 would
be equal to emin. It should be noted that the defined relative
contractiveness, Rc, is not a parameter specifying a state
of the soil, but is rather an index representing an intrinsic
material property which is largely dependent on the grain
composition of a soil. It is important also to keep in
mind that the actual resistance against liquefaction is a
function of the state of the material. From a theoretical
point of view, Rc may have values between 0 and 1. A
value of Rc= 1 represents a hypothetical soil that for any
initial states will have a contractive response, whereas Rc=O
represents a hypothetical soil that will always have a
dilative response. For real soils, Rc should have a tend-
ency to be closer to 0 or 1 according to the intrinsic capaci-
ty of contraction or dilatation of the soil. For Toyoura

Isotropic consolidation
line, loosest state
Q) Q)
Isotropic consolidation
.2 line, loosest state .2
~ -:;;
....
"0 "0
g g
----> t
(e m1n>1 l Isotropic consolidation _ /
line, densest state

p"•0.1 MPa
Effective mean stress, p' Effective mean stress, p'
Fig. 15. State diagram indicating the contractive and dilative regions Fig. 16. Definition of the relative contractiveness, R,

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90 VERDUGO AND ISHIHARA

sand, Fig. 17 shows the location of the loosest and den-

sest isotropic consolidation curves and the steady state CONCLUSIONS
line. It is important to note that the loosest state achieved It has been shown that in those cases of undrained load-
by the moist placement sample preparation method ing with peak strength, there exist two conditions that
reproduces a state looser than the one obtained by the may be associated with the steady state of deformation.
conventional procedure using dry soil. In addition, in The first one corresponds to the development of the mini-
Fig. 17 for 0.1 MPa, the corresponding values of (emax) 1, mum strength, and it has been named the quasi steady
(emin)I and (ess)I are shown. For this sand the relative con- state. It is developed at a small to medium level of defor-
tractiveness has a value, Rc=0.25, which can be consi- mation, typically between 1 to 16% of axial strain. The
dered as a fairly small contractive material. second condition is achieved at a high level of deforma-
Different sandy soils containing low plastic fines and sil- tion, typically beyond 25% of axial deformation, and it
ty soils classified as ML were tested following the same is associated with the ultimate state developed by the soil
procedure explained above; the corresponding relative sample. This ultimate condition corresponds to the ac-
contractiveness, Rc, was evaluated and plotted against tual steady state, and it is always achieved irrespective of
the fines content in Fig. 18. The set of data for each soil is the initial state of the soil sample and whether the
presented elsewhere (Verdugo, 1992). The soil with 100% response is contractive or dilative. Conversely, the quasi
fines was produced from the Toyoura sand crushing it by steady state can only occur when the initial states of the
means of a ball-mill. As can be seen in Fig. 18, the value soil are well above the steady state line, so the response is
of Rc tends to increase with increasing fines content lead- contractive.
ing to the conclusion that the more low plastic fines con- The experimental results strongly indicated that the
tent, the greater would be the opportunity for the soil to steady state or ultimate condition is not affected by the in-
exist in the field in a contractive state that can induce flow itial confining pressure. The results have shown, however,
failure or liquefaction. that the quasi steady state is slightly affected by the initial
confining pressure, but for practical purposes it seems
reasonable to assume that it is independent.
1.2~----------------~-------------------,

TOYOURA SAND A series of undrained tests conducted under different

\=
emax .
(emax)," 1.014 Isotropic consolidation
initial effective confining pressures, but at the same void

.. C
1.0 ~ ....- Loosest state ratio after consolidation, have indicated identical effec-
0 ' ... 4 ... tive stress paths during unloading from the steady state
.
(J)

'§ 0.8
a._.J
~·
i~-0.913
.- ~.
. Steady
.s~ate condition. This observation strongly supports the idea of
Casagrande regarding the existence of a unique fabric de-
'0
0 ~-! veloped during the steady state.
The results of drained tests at large deformations indi-
> 0.6 cate the existence of an ultimate state without volumetric
0 \ I- ,·

~sotropic
i \._{·~· 0.507
consolidation
densest state strain and continuous deformation under constant shear
0.4~--_L __J __ _L-~---L--~--~~---~~~~ stress. The ultimate states evaluated from drained tests
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 o.s 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 are in good agreement with the steady state obtained
Effective mean stress, p' (MPa) from undrained tests. At large deformations, therefore,
Fig. 17. Steady state line and the isotropic consolidation curves for both undrained and drained loading conditions converge
the loosest and densest state of Toyoura sand to the same curve in the e-q-p' space, which corresponds
to the steady state line.
Based on the range of void ratios where the soil
1.0 I response is contractive with respect to the total range of
• void ratio where a soil can exist for an effective mean
0.8 stress of 0.1 MPa, the parameter, Relative Contractive-
ness, Ro is proposed to evaluate the intrinsic potential of

--
.

--
0.6 ~ liquefaction for a given soil. The larger the value of Rc
0
-

-- -- --------
a: ... .!.- --
:
the larger the intrinsic potential of liquefaction for a
0.4
Ia
.!-- . given soil.
0.2 ~:

0.0 •
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
0 10 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100 The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
Fines content (%) port provided by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Fig. 18. Effect of the low plastic fines content on the relative contrac- Culture, Government of Japan (MONBUSHO) which
tiveness made this present study possible.

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 STEADY STATE OF SANDY SOILS
REFERENCES
1) Alarcon-Guzman, A., Leonards, G. and Chameau, J. (1988): "Un-
drained monotonic and cyclic strength of sands," Journal of Ge-
otechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 114, No. 10, pp. 1089-1109.
2) Been, K. and Jefferies, M. G. (1985): "A state parameter for
sands," Geotechnique, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 99-112.
3) Been, K., Jefferies, M.G. and Hachey, J. (1991): "A critical state
of sands," Geotechnique, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 365-381.
4) Casagrande, A. (1936): "Characteristics of cohesionless soils affect-
ing the stability of slopes and earth fills,'' Journal of the Boston So-
ciety of Civil Engineering, January, pp. 13-32.
5) Casagrande, A. (1975): "Liquefaction and cyclic deformation of
sands-a critical review," Fifth Panamerican Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
6) Castro, G. (1969): "Liquefaction of sands," Harvard Soil Mechan-
ics Series, No. 81, Cambridge, Mass.
7) Castro, G. (1975): "Liquefaction and cyclic mobility of saturated
sands," Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 101,
No. GT6, June, pp. 551-569.
8) Castro, G., Poulos, S., France, J. and Enos, J. (1982): "Liquefac-
tion induced by cyclic loading," Geotechnical Engineering, Inc.,
Reporter Submitted to National Science Foundation, March.
9) Dobry, R., Vasquez-Herrera, A., Mohamad, R. and Vucetic, M.
(1985): "Liquefaction flow failure of silty sand by torsional cyclic
tests," Advances in the Art of Testing Soils Under Cyclic Condi-
tions, ASCE, Khosla, Vija (ed.).
10) Ishihara, K. (1993): "Liquefaction and flow failure during
earthquakes," The 33rd Rankine Lecture, Geotechnique, Vol. 43,
No. 3, pp. 351-415.
11) Ishihara, K., Tatsuoka, F. and Yasuda, S. (1975): "Undrained
deformation and liquefaction of sand under cyclic stresses," Soils
and Foundation, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 29-44.
12) Ishihara, K., Troncoso, J. H., Kawase, Y. and Takahashi, Y.
(1980): "Cyclic strength characteristics of tailing material," Soils
and Foundations, Vol. 20, No.4, pp. 128-142.
91
13) Ishihara, K., Verdugo, R. and Acado, A. A. (1991): "Characteriza-
tion of cyclic behavior of sand and post-seismic stability analyses,''
Proceedings of the 9th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechan-
ics and Foundation Engineering, Bangkok.
14) Miura, N., Murata, H. and Yasufuku, N. (1984): "Stress-strain
characteristics of sand in a particle-crushing region,'' Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 77-89.
15) Negussey, D., Wijewickreme, K. and Vaid, Y. (1988): "Constant-
volume friction angle of granular materials," Canadian Geotechni-
cal Journal, Vol. 25, pp. 50-55.
16) Oda, M., Koishikawa, I. and Higuchi, T. (1978): "Experimental
study of anisotropic shear strength of sand by plane strain test,''
Soils and Foundations, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 25-38.
17) Poulos, S. J. (1981): "The steady state of deformation," Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. GT5,
May, pp. 553-562.
18) Poulos, S. J., Castro, G. and France, J. W. (1985): "Liquefaction
evaluation procedure," Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 111, No. 6, pp. 772-791.
19) Roscoe, K. H., Schofield, A. N. and Wroth, C. P. (1958): "On
yielding of soils," Geotechnique, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 22-53.
20) Sladen, J. A., Handford, G. (1987): "A potential systematic error
in laboratory testing of very loose sands," Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 24, pp. 462-466.
21) Tsuchida, H. (1970): "Prediction and countermeasure against the
liquefaction in sand deposits," Abstract of the Seminar in the Port
and Harbor Research Institute, pp. 3.1-3.33 (in Japanese).
22) Verdugo, R. (1989): "Effect of fines content on the steady-state of
deformation on sandy soils," Master Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Tokyo, Japan.
23) Verdugo, R. (1992): "Characterization of sandy soil behavior un-
der large deformation," Doctoral Thesis, Department of Civil En-
gineering, University of Tokyo, Japan.
24) Vesic, A. and Clough, W. (1968): "Behavior of granular materials
under high stresses," Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. SM3, pp. 661-668.
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Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of
My mother India
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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Title: My mother India

Author: Dalip Singh Saund

Release date: July 20, 2022 [eBook #68572]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Pacific Coast Khasla Diwan

Society, 1930

Credits: Tim Lindell, Martin Pettit and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book
was produced from images made available by the
HathiTrust Digital Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MY MOTHER

INDIA ***
 Transcriber’s Note:

Obvious typographic errors have been

corrected.
MY MOTHER INDIA
 by

Dalip Singh Saund, M.A., Ph.D.

Published by
The Pacific Coast Khalsa Diwan Society, Inc.
(Sikh Temple)
Stockton, California.

Copyright, 1930
By
Dalip Singh Saund

From the Press of

Wetzel Publishing Co., Inc.
Los Angeles
 Dedicated to
my beloved friend Dr. Bhagat Singh Thind
 PREFACE
This work was undertaken at the request of THE PACIFIC COAST
KHALSA DIWAN SOCIETY, commonly known as the SIKH TEMPLE
at Stockton, California. The original plan was to write a
comprehensive reply to Katherine Mayo’s book MOTHER INDIA,
which was changed later to one of producing a handbook on India
for general use by the American public. In view of the momentous
changes of worldwide interest, which have taken place in India
during recent years, the need for such a book was quite imminent.
And it was only fitting that THE PACIFIC COAST KHALSA DIWAN
SOCIETY, in its role as the interpreter of Hindu culture and
civilization to America, should undertake its publication.
Only a few years ago, India, like other countries of the Orient, was a
far Eastern problem. To-day, if rightly judged, it has already become
a near Western issue. Except for the few scholars of oriental history
and literature, who occupied themselves diligently in exploring the
hidden treasures of Hindu civilization, the name of India was an
unknown thing to the rest of the American world. For the average
man and woman in the United States the affairs of that oriental
country were too remote an issue for them to notice. With the
advances made by science during recent times, however, different
parts of the world have become so near together, and their business
and cultural relations have grown so desperately interlaced, that the
affairs of one section of the globe cannot, and should not, remain a
matter of comfortable unconcern for the other. It has been my aim in
the preparation of this book to answer the various questions that
commonly arise in the minds of the American people regarding the
cultural and political problems of India. And if I have succeeded in
bringing about a better understanding of India by the people of
America, I consider myself amply repaid.
Wherever feasible I have made free uses of striking passages and
phrases from the writings of several authors. Since these were
copied from my notes gathered during a course of study extending
over several years, it has not always been possible for me to trace
the source, for which I wish to be humbly excused.
I wish to express my sincerest appreciation to my beloved wife for
her untiring assistance in the preparation of the manuscript and the
reading of the proofs. I wish also to thank my friend Mr. Anoop Singh
Dhillon for valuable suggestions.
Los Angeles, California.
March, 1930.
Dalip Singh Saund.
 CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. Woman’s Position in India. Is She Bond Or Free? 9
II. The Hindu Ideal of Marriage 36
III. The Civilization and Ethics of India 64
IV. The Caste System of India 81
V. Gandhi—The Man and His Message 108
VI. India’s Experiment With Passive Resistance 126
VII. Jallianwalla Massacre at Amritsar 146
VIII. Why is India Poor? 162
IX. Indian Nationalism—Its Origin And Growth 190
 Chapter I
WOMAN’S POSITION IN INDIA. IS SHE BOND OR FREE?

“Where women are honored,

there the gods are pleased;
but where they are dishonored,
no sacred rite yields reward.”

Thus, in the year 200 B. C., wrote Manu, the great law-giver of India
—India, whose mind was full grown when the western nations were
yet unborn; India, whose life rolled on while the West, like the dragon
fly, lived and died to live again. While Europe was still in a state of
primitive barbarism, the Indo-Aryans of Bharat (India) had reached
an elevated state of moral and spiritual perfection; and in the realm
of intellectual culture they had attained an eminence which has not
yet been equalled by the most advanced of western countries. Not
only had they a perfect alphabet and a symmetrical language, but
their literature already contained models of true poetry and
remarkable treatises on philosophy, science, and ethics when the
forefathers of the modern western nations were still clothed in skins
and could neither read nor write. In their firm grasp of the
fundamental meaning and purpose of life, and in the organization of
their society with a view to the full attainment of the fruits of life,
namely, “to take from each according to his capacity, and to give to
each according to his needs,” they had attained to a high degree of
excellence, which has been recognized by the greatest of both
western and oriental scholars. Says Max Müller, the noted scholar of
oriental languages:

“If I were to look over the whole world to find out the country
most richly endowed with all the wealth, power, and beauty that
nature can bestow—in some parts a very paradise on earth—I
 should point to India. If I were asked under what sky the human
mind has most fully developed some of its choicest gifts, has
most deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life, and has
found solutions of some of them which well deserve the
attention even of those who have studied Plato and Kant—I
should point to India. And if I were to ask myself from what
literature we, here in Europe, we who have been nurtured
almost exclusively on the thoughts of Greeks and Romans, and
of one Semitic race, the Jewish, may draw that corrective which
is most wanted in order to make our inner life more perfect,
more comprehensive, more universal, in fact more truly human,
a life not for this life only, but a transfigured and eternal life—
again I should point to India.”[1]

Further, of the culture of this ancient people of India Sir Monier-

Williams, sometime Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of
Oxford, famous translator of Sanskrit drama, and author of many
works on history and literature, speaks from an intimate knowledge
of India derived from long residence in the country when he writes:

“Indeed, I am deeply convinced that the more we learn about

the ideas, feelings, drift of thought, religious and intellectual
development, eccentricities, and even errors of the people of
India, the less ready shall we be to judge them by our own
conventional European standards—the less disposed to regard
ourselves as the sole depositories of all the true knowledge,
learning, virtue and refinements of civilized life—the less prone
to despise as an ignorant and inferior race the men who
compiled the laws of Manu, one of the remarkable productions
of the world—who composed systems of ethics worthy of
Christianity—who imagined the Ramayna and Mahabharata,
poems in some respects outrivalling the Iliad and the Odyssey—
who invented for themselves the sciences of grammar,
arithmetic, astronomy, logic, and six most subtle systems of
philosophy. Above all, the less inclined shall we be to stigmatize
as benighted heathen the authors of two religions, however
 false, which are at this moment professed by about half the
human race.”[2]

Such a civilization has built up the enormous literature of the Hindus

embodied in the Vedas, Upnishads, the epic poems of Ramayna and
Mahabharata, and the immortal works of Kalidasa, a literature
comprising in itself an achievement of the human mind which may be
considered sublime, and of which any civilization, ancient or modern,
may feel justly proud. The poetical merit of Kalidasa’s Sakuntala is
universally admitted, and it ranks among the best of the world’s
masterpieces of dramatic art. Its beauty of thought and its
tenderness in the expression of feeling are exquisite, while its
creative fancy is rich, and the charm of its spirit is full. Says Goethe:

“Wouldst thou the life’s young blossoms and the fruits of its
decline,
All by which the soul is pleased, enraptured, feasted, fed,—
Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itself in one sweet name
combine?
I name thee, O Sakuntala, and all at once is said.”

The epic poems of Ramayna and Mahabharata consist of stories

and legends which form a splendid superstructure on the teachings
contained in the earlier scriptures of the Vedas. By relating what the
men and women of those times thought, said, and did, these poems
illustrate in a highly instructive manner the general character and
culture of the early Hindus. The stories contained in these poems,
which, in fact, rival the best known epic poems of the world, tell us of
the thoughts and beliefs, hopes and fears, joys and sorrows of the
people of this earliest recorded period. Through these stories we
learn the fundamental concepts which governed the religious and
social life of the early Hindus; in them are revealed also the basic
moral and spiritual laws which controlled the actions, “not only of
gods and supernatural men, but of ordinary men and women of
India.” “They explain—by showing the degrees of danger incurred by
such vices as anger and pride, deception and faithlessness,
intemperance and impiety—the evil consequences of moral
transgressions from both man-made and supernatural laws; and at
the same time they emphasize the beauty of such virtues as
patience and self-control, truthfulness and purity, obedience and filial
love.”[3]
As an illustration of the fascinating and elevated nature of its lofty
idealism, we shall quote two passages from Ramayna. In the first,
Rama, the ideal king, has determined to execute the will of his late
father by staying in the forests as an exile for fourteen years. Sita,
his wife and the heroine of the story, begs her lord and husband to
allow her to accompany him in his exile to the forests and offers a
picture highly expressive of pious conjugal love. Sita says:

“Thou art my king, my guide, my only refuge, my divinity.

It is my fixed resolve to follow thee. If thou must wander forth
Through thorny trackless forests, I will go before thee,
treading down
The prickly brambles to make smooth thy path. Walking
before thee, I
Shall feel no weariness: the forest thorns will seem like silken
robes;
The bed of leaves, a couch of down. To me the shelter of thy
presence
Is better far than stately palaces, and paradise itself.
Protected by thy arm, gods, demons, men shall have no
power to harm me.
Roaming with thee in desert wastes, a thousand years will be
a day;
Dwelling with thee, e’en hell itself would be to me a heaven of
bliss.”

In the second selection Rama is heard answering to the entreaties of

Bharata, who has tried in vain to dissuade him from carrying out his
design. The following is Rama’s answer to the messenger of
Bharata:
 “The words which you have addressed to me, though they
recommend what seems to be right and salutary, advise, in fact,
the contrary. The sinful transgressor, who lives according to the
rules of heretical systems, obtains no esteem from good men. It
is good conduct that marks a man to be noble or ignoble, heroic
or a pretender to manliness, pure or impure. Truth and mercy
are immemorial characteristics of a king’s conduct. Hence royal
rule is in its essence truth. On truth the world is based. Both
sages and gods have esteemed truth. The man who speaks
truth in this world attains the highest imperishable state. Men
shrink with fear and horror from a liar as from a serpent. In this
world the chief element in virtue is truth; it is called the basis of
everything. Truth is lord in the world; virtue always rests on truth.
All things are founded on truth; nothing is higher than it. Why,
then, should I not be true to my promise, and faithfully observe
the truthful injunction given by my father? Neither through
covetousness, nor delusion, nor ignorance, will I, overpowered
by darkness, break through the barrier of truth, but remain true
to my promise to my father. How shall I, having promised to him
that I would thus reside in the forests, transgress his injunction,
and do what Bharata recommends?”

In Mahabharata again we find proof of the high esteem in which the

manly virtues of truthfulness, charity, benevolence, and chivalry
towards women were held by the ancient Hindus. The most
important incident in the drama (Mahabharata), namely, the death of
Bhishma, occurred when this brave and virtuous man, in fidelity to
his pledge never to hurt a woman, refused to fight, and was killed by
a soldier dressed in a woman’s garb.
The drama is full of moral maxims, around each one of which the
poet has woven a story in a beautiful and elegant manner.

“If Truth and a hundred horse sacrifice were weighed together,

Truth would weigh the heavier. There is no virtue equal to Truth,
and no sin greater than falsehood.”
 “For the weak as well as for the strong, forgiveness is an
ornament.”
“A person should never do to others what he does not like
others to do to him, knowing how painful it is to himself.”
“The man who fails to protect his wife earns great infamy here,
and goes to hell afterwards.”

“A wife is half the man, his truest friend;

A loving wife is a perpetual spring
Of virtue, pleasure, wealth; a faithful wife
Is his best aid in seeking heavenly bliss;
A sweetly-speaking wife is a companion
In solitude, a father in advice,
A mother in all seasons of distress,
A rest in passing through life’s wilderness.”

These great epic poems have a special claim to our attention

because they not only illustrate the genius of a most interesting
people, but they are to this day believed as entirely and literally true
by the vast population of India. “Huge congregations of devout men
and women listen day after day with eager attention to recitations of
these old national stories with their striking incidents of moral uplift
and inspiration; and a large portion of the people of India order their
lives upon the models supplied by those venerable epics.”
The subjection of woman was accepted as a natural thing by the
entire West until very recent times. Woman was held in the eyes of
the law as no better than a slave, and she was considered useful in
society merely to serve and gratify man, her master. Truly, such a
condition forms a dark page in the history of the race. Mrs. Carrie
Chapman Catt, in her foreword to Mill’s Subjection of Women, writes:

“In defense of these expressions [subjection and slavery used in

Mill’s essay] and the general character of the essay, it must be
said that the position of women in society at that time [1869]
was comparable to that of no other class except the slave. As
the slave took the name of his master so the woman upon
marriage gave up her own and took that of her husband. Like
the slave, the married woman was permitted to own no property;
as, upon marriage, her property real and personal, and all she
acquired subsequently by gift, will, or her own labour, was
absolutely in her husband’s control and subject to his debts. He
could even will away her marriage portion and leave her
destitute. The earnings of the slave belonged to the master,
those of the wife to the husband. Neither slave nor wife could
make a legal contract, sue or be sued, establish business,
testify in court, nor sign a paper as a witness. Both were said to
be ‘dead in law’.
“The children of the slave belonged to the master; those of the
wife to the husband. Not even after the death of the husband
was the wife a legal guardian of her own children, unless he
made her so by will. While living he could give them away, and
at death could will them as he pleased. He dictated the form of
education and religion that they should be taught, and if the
parents differed in religion, the wife was forced to teach the
husband’s faith. Like the slave, if the wife left her husband she
could take nothing with her, as she had no legal claim to her
children, her clothing, nor her most personal possessions.
“The law in many lands gave husbands the right to whip their
wives and administer other punishments for disobedience,
provided they kept within certain legal restrictions. Within the
memory of those living in Mill’s day, wife-beating was a common
offense in England and America, husbands contending that they
were well within their ‘rights’, when so doing.
“ ... Education, always considered the most certain sign of
individual advancement, was either forbidden or disapproved,
for women. No colleges and few high schools, except in the
United States, were open to women. Common schools were
less usual for girls than for boys and the number of totally
illiterate women vastly exceeded the number of illiterate men.
 Religion was recommended to women as a natural solace and
avenue of usefulness, but they were not permitted to preach,
teach, or pray in most churches, and in many singing was
likewise barred! The professions and more skilled trades were
closed to them.”

That such a state of things was ever tolerated in the advanced

countries of Europe and America seems to us of India incredible. But
it is, nevertheless, true. As in the case of other social laws, the
subjection of woman was the result of the fundamental ideals (or the
lack of ideals) which governed the western society of those times.
Men were still in that low state of development in which “Might was
Right,” and in which the law of superior strength was the rule of life.
No pretension was made to regulate the affairs of society according
to any moral law. The physical law which sanctioned traffic in human
slaves, at the same time sustained the bondage of the weaker sex.
We now live in an age where the law of the strongest, in principle at
least, has been abandoned as the guiding maxim of life. It is still very
widely practised in individual as well as in national relationships, but
always under the guise of higher social and cultural ends. The law of
force as the avowed rule of general conduct has given place to
ideals of social equality, human brotherhood, and international
goodwill. How far such ideals are being actively followed by the
different peoples of the world remains to be determined; but their
profession as the symbol of good culture, at least, is universal.
The emancipation of woman in the West is thus a very recent
achievement. Yet it is rightly considered by most thinkers the
greatest single step forward in the advancement of the human race.
Its tremendous importance in the future development of the race is
realized now by all classes of people over the entire world. In fact,
the social status of woman in any society is regarded by most
people, and properly so, as the test of its civilization.
Through what hardships and dangers, privations and humiliations
ran the thorny and uphill path of the early leaders of the women’s
suffrage movement. The deeds of true nobility and heroic