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P REFACE
As this new edition of Social Studies for the Twenty-First Century goes to press, the social studies
community is living in a changed educational world, one dominated by the Internet—our
huge and rapidly growing electronic base of knowledge. The advantages of this base for
social studies offers astounding possibilities for teachers: unheard of quantities of original
sources now digitalized, vast troves of lesson plans, and canned versions of almost anything a
teacher could desire, including aims, lessons, units, courses, texts, tests, scholarly discussions,
and lectures. And let us not forget wonderful media, including online courses, videos, film
clips, interviews, lectures, and music. All this material is ours for the taking and is very rich
and varied. Easily found and easily forgotten, too.
However, the specter of a knowledge explosion and subject fragmentation haunt the hori-
zon of a virtual reality that seems to be replacing ordinary reality in the secondary school
curriculum. There are many problems and issues that have arisen as the Web has expanded,
and computers, electronic notebooks, and cell phones have become almost universally avail-
able. Problems range from sublime to ridiculous, but the biggest, in my view, is that teaching
methods and curriculum are out of synch with the new electronic opportunities. Students
are distracted by machines and social media, with outcomes positive and negative.1
Certainly, the new C3 NCSS Framework based on Common Core goals bears a deep
desire for an ‘inquiry arc’ rather than data collection as a supreme objective. The Common
Core seeks a much richer and deeper kind of instruction for our youth based on decades of
accumulated research on teaching and learning.2
Despite widespread dissemination of computers and most teachers’ extensive knowledge
of websites, the sheer quantity available tends to overwhelm both us and our students. Rather
than providing deeper insight and analysis, the Web gives so many choices (many not sourced
vii
viii PREFACE
or checked) that research is required simply to choose the one or two sources we hope to get
across to our students.
Added to the complexity of knowledge expansion and curriculum rigidity and lack of
innovation is the new ‘reform’ movement that has encompassed and endorsed quite an array
of methods and structures to organize goals and content. These reforms run the gamut from
multiple evaluation systems to the newly popular Common Core, with many attempts dis-
carded or added in between.
In this new world, the authorities (federal, state, and local governments), often in conjunc-
tion with private industry, have imposed new objectives and evaluation systems for teachers
without a great deal of philosophical consideration about what we really want from ourselves
and our pupils in terms of input and results. Teachers and educators have seldom been at the
forefront of consultations.
The Common Core—a basis for new integrated standards for the social studies—in par-
ticular needs careful examination and conversation because it is the dominant set of goals that
has been adopted widely across our nation by many professionals, states, and communities.
Irony abounds since the deeply analytical Common Core demands complex inquiry behav-
ior from teachers who must also face cutbacks and a rather antique curriculum. Legislated
inquiry and historical habits of mind are on the way in, if not already in place, largely by fiat
from above.
Yet, as teachers of social studies, we are still left with the same old basic problems and
questions: what to teach, how to teach, why this organization of curriculum, and how do we
ascertain results? The Web has created opportunities unlimited but also issues of information
overload and sourcing the origins of materials, sometimes now called social studies ‘phenom-
ena.’ However, choosing quality data and quality learning are even greater problems since
the Internet desperately needs a version of Consumer Reports for educators so we can sift the
wheat from the chaff. There are websites now designed to find other websites.
And above all is that perennial question of what is worth teaching. This question is our
central focus throughout the book, helping you to decide in the light of multiple demands
from within and without, what is really of value for the youthful citizens of tomorrow, and
for ourselves as social studies and history teachers. Must we teach manifest destiny?
You are invited to use this newly revised and updated fourth edition of Social Studies for
the Twenty-First Century as a guide, framework, and reference for teaching social studies at the
middle and secondary levels. In earlier editions, I had sought to provide a fair and balanced
review of the field using up-to-date curriculum, research, and theory, including important
work on history, civics, and economic education, and this will continue along with transmis-
sion of a sprinkling of classic lessons and research studies.
In this edition, expansion of horizons is increased to include other social sciences, and I
extend a welcome to the humanities and sciences, as well. The social studies can draw suc-
cessfully from a wide array of fields and connect to many subjects to enrich lessons, units, and
courses. However, caution must be exercised in making the social studies a conglomeration of facts
and ideas without a character or focus of its own.
This edition employs the concept of ‘multiples’ as a guide: multiple perspectives, intelli-
gences, sources, strategies, and course conceptions. There are many ways to achieve and exceed
the standards. These techniques are spelled out clearly and supported with multiple examples.
PREFACE ix
The social studies is a large and complex field, embedded in what is now a rapidly grow-
ing electronic world of knowledge seemingly so fragmented, yet entertaining, so rich, yet
distracting, that, at times, its essence is difficult to grasp. In the future, we will need approaches
to knowledge as much as knowledge itself.
In this edition, I review and critique much of the new and recent research on youthful
comprehension of history, civics, and economics, noting reported and potential classroom
application. History is a primary focus of social studies and always has been, but it is still part
of a larger and more complex whole of the social sciences and humanities. There are also
new advocates appearing promoting connections to STEM (the sciences, math, technology,
and engineering) and STEAM (the “A” is for “Arts”) that make the work of a social studies
teacher more difficult and demanding than in previous eras.
While I strongly favor an integrated concept of the field, with improved connections to
other fields, I also suggest caution to avoid social studies becoming amorphous and pointless.
x PREFACE
And there is the continuing problem of teachers learning how to integrate and intelligently
use subject matter infusions. How about talking about the huge problems facing humankind
in social studies: the decline and exploitation of the environment; the rapid rise of security
and decline of privacy; and the growing inequality with the U.S. and around the globe?
Therefore, throughout this text, I argue for more thoughtful and realistic history teaching as
part of better social studies instruction.
As in previous editions, I provide an overview of social studies/history theory, goals, cur-
riculum, and everyday practice in terms of three interlocking components: the didactic
(information), the reflective (reasoning), and the affective (values). These components of
planning for instruction should be thought of as three overlapping spheres of development,
each moving into the other and contributing to an overall view of subject that includes facts,
reasons, and judgments.
Didactic refers to all teaching and learning activities that revolve around gathering knowl-
edge, from memorizing dates and definitions to matching tests. Reflective concerns all activi-
ties that focus on analyzing and thinking about data, research, or issues—reasoning for which
more than one answer is possible. Affective deals with those facets of classroom life in which
feelings, opinions, values, ethics, empathy, and morality dominate. Thus, each of the three
components has a different, although not exclusive, focus: didactic mainly on the what, reflec-
tive on the why, and affective on decisions about the good—what ought to be decided in a
better world. Each component is discussed as contributing to and complementing the others;
each enriches classroom discussion and learning.
In addition to offering a basic philosophy of teaching social studies, informative “boxes”
are scattered throughout for you to think about: summaries about research studies past and
present (Research Reports); items to stimulate curriculum ideas (Food for Thought); instruc-
tional gimmicks (On Lessons); and places for you to get involved with designing activities
that grow out of each subject and chapter focus (Applications).
And do not forget that as social studies folks, we have the most powerful justification for
our subject as a key subject: we are teaching about the real world where present evolves out
of past, and where similar questions, issues, and mysteries appear as perennial companions to
human behavior.
A N OTE ABOUT THE N ATIONAL C OUNCIL
FOR THE S OCIAL S TUDIES C OLLEGE , C AREER ,
AND CIVIC LIFE (C3) FRAMEWORK FOR SOCIAL
S TUDIES S TATE S TANDARDS
“YOUNG PEOPLE need strong tools for, and methods of, clear and disciplined thinking
in order to traverse successfully the worlds of college, career, and civic life.”
C3, 154
Just as I began to revise this book, the National Council for the Social Studies brought out its
new standards. Covering more than 100 pages of material, the new standards offer guidance
and goals across the social studies, from history through the social sciences, linking these to
the more abstract goals of the Common Core.
The C3 Framework offers a translation of the Common Core into social studies speak and
represents the hard work of a large committee of educators at all levels—college, secondary,
middle, and elementary/early childhood—in consultation with nearly all of the professional
organizations and foundations with deep interests in the survival and improvement of social
studies education.
While I have suffered the slings and arrows of many outrageous reforms, and some good
ones, each leaving a residue of change, the basic issues of instruction in our subject have not
altered significantly in over a hundred years. Therefore, I decided to embrace (with reserva-
tions) the C3 Framework as the honest work of a broad-based group of colleagues with the
same best interests at heart, and I recommend that all pre- and in-service teachers thoroughly
examine the standards.
However enthusiastic, I must report that most reforms have resulted in, at best, modest
change in daily instructional practices and even less on the curriculum. In fact, one of the
enduring problems of education is a curriculum tradition that stifles change. Even as the
‘tsunami’ of Internet data overwhelm us and produces rallying cries with buzzwords of ‘lit-
eracy’ in language, history, science, and even data gathering, we grow more confused by the
riches presented. We are distracted and a bit disoriented by the vast new technology and
vaster resources available. Thus, the C3 Framework provides goals and direction across a
fragmented field.
Therefore, beloved quotes of yesteryear have been eliminated as chapter headings, and
replaced with C3 Standards that seem relevant. Every teacher of social studies should have a
grasp of the new standards, whether in agreement or not.
xi
xii A NOTE ABOUT THE NATIONAL COUNCIL
Pre- and in-service teachers need to work with the standards to get and hold a position—
no easy matter. However, in my personal view, reforms and standards are only a beginning.
Quality teaching, exciting teaching, and artistic teaching grows out of subject knowledge
thoughtfully united with techniques and strategies that ask provocative questions with
engaging and surprising content. The technological format has a lot less to do with instruc-
tional success than the framing of the content and the queries attached. A lecture from a
podium and a lecture or podcast on the Internet is still a lecture. Lack of controversy, lack
of mystery, and lack of an open climate of inquiry still yields relatively little give and take
of conversation. Thus, this book is devoted to inviting you to become the best social studies
teacher you know how to be, but this cannot be achieved without devotion to content and
to process, linked together and designed for maximum impact for a particular audience, not
any audience.
While adopting the C3 Framework, and beginning each chapter with a brief quote from
the standards, most of the content of this book will be focused on helping you create interest-
ing lessons out of engaging materials with quests, queries, and questions open for discussion.
Note that C3 Standards bear letters and numbers: letters for the dimension involved and
numbers for expectations at grades 8 or 12.
No single answers, no right answers, no dictated judgments please: we seek multiple
responses, multiple intelligences, and multiple strategies. My most fervent goal for reform is
the death of the single right answer, single leading question, and single assessment high-stakes
test.
As C3 adopts an ‘arc of inquiry,’ I applaud its boldness and coherence of philosophy; how-
ever, an inquiry approach is not new and has motivated many educators for quite a long time
in American history, born of several previous Ages of Reform. So, please critically examine
the new goals and framework with me, keeping one eye on a goal and the other on its transla-
tion into classroom engagement daily, weekly, monthly, and beyond, into ‘real life.’
And remember that, in the Game of Standards, the devil is in the details.
NOTES
1. H. Gardner and K. Davis, (2013) The App Generation: How today’s youth navigate identity, intimacy
and imagination in a digital age (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press).
2. H. Gardner and K. Davis, (2013) The App Generation: How today’s youth navigate identity, intimacy
and imagination in a digital age (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press).
3. edutopia.org/common-core-state-standards-resources
4. National Council for the Social Studies, (2013) The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for
Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K-12 Civics, Economics, Geography,
and History (Silver Spring, MD: NCSS).
A CKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is with great pleasure that I acknowledge the untold contributions of my students and col-
leagues who have tested, reacted to, and suggested ideas for the new edition of Social Studies
for the Twenty-First Century. I especially want to recognize the advice of my wife, Iris, also a
social studies teacher, and a recent departed colleague, Ellen Sherman, who may have taught
my book better than I did to her methods classes at Queens College. She will be missed.
xiii
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P ERSONAL P ROLOGUE
Social Studies for the Twenty-First Century is an effort to present the field of social studies with
an up-to-date discussion of its most important developments and persisting issues in our
rapidly globalizing, electronically connected world. Like many other fields, social studies is
a vast and complicated subject full of problems and inconsistencies. To the new teacher and
the uninitiated, social studies may seem confusing and fragmented, leaving practitioners rud-
derless in steering a course through its reefs and shoals.
As in previous editions, in this fourth edition, I attempt to offer an overall framework that
can act as a guide for setting objectives, devising lessons, and choosing classroom strategies. I
also offer assistance in constructing tests and planning lessons, units, and courses for some of
the field’s most popular and widespread programs. Throughout, all aspects of curriculum and
instruction are viewed from a tripartite perspective that divides the world of social studies
into didactic, reflective, and affective components. I use didactic, reflective, and affective to
stand for the lower (factual), middle (analytical), and higher ( judgmental) orders of think-
ing, decision making, and feeling, allowing each about a third of classroom time. The three
levels are seen as supporting one another in a C3 ‘arc of inquiry’. At no time do I subscribe
to interest groups in the field who want only their goals stressed at the expense of others. In
my view, the greatest need is for social studies professionals to balance goals so their students
obtain necessary knowledge, time for adequate discussions, and encouragement to probe their
own feelings and those of others on the important issue, ultimately taking a stand that they
are willing to act upon. It is the teacher’s job to give students the knowledge and skills needed
to prepare a solid defense for their views, decisions, and actions.
Of course, giving equal emphasis to each of the three components of teaching is deeply
optimistic. We know that social studies (maybe all) teachers are pressed from myriad direc-
tions to cover the “facts,” finish the textbook, teach thinking skills, complete special proj-
ects, use cooperative learning techniques, add assessments to their testing repertory, keep up
to date with research and curriculum in the field, join and become active in professional
organizations, and now meet professional, state, and national standards ad infinitum. On top
of this, many schools provide a work experience that can be characterized as regimented,
demanding, and overstuffed with nonteaching responsibilities. Some schools are repressive
xv
xvi PERSONAL PROLOGUE
and authoritarian as well, giving little or no leeway for creativity or time to breathe freely for
a few moments of creativity.
Pressured situations make excellence in teaching social studies nearly impossible. Valiant
effort is necessary to overcome professional demands and personal development problems.
Certainly, stoic qualities of endurance have served teachers and teachers-to-be better than
Epicurean, fun-loving characteristics!
Nevertheless, I believe that this frequently grim picture must be resisted or we will all lose
sight of the joys of teaching—working with young adults and future citizens, trying new and
exciting methods and materials and improving our own knowledge and understanding of
the subjects we teach. Teachers and students need to recapture a sense of play as well as meet
the goals of work.
Part of the reason social studies is disliked by so many secondary students is that it holds
out the promise of democracy, of vibrant discussion and debate, without delivering much
in actual practice. Didactic or knowledge nearly always triumphs over reflective reasoning
and controversy. The “sexy stuff,” as one of my students put it, caves in to the “laundry
list” of purportedly vital knowledge of dates, names, and places. Oddly enough, the famous
“great books” or historical artifacts are almost never experienced first-hand by young adults,
although reports and studies decry lack of familiarity with the classics.
To my mind, the only topics in the social studies worth teaching and talking about are
those that contain or suggest questions with many answers. As a beginning high school teacher
in Chicago, I remember vividly how bored my urban, inner-city classes were with the facts
they had to know and how lively they would become when we did anything that gave them
an active role and a chance to “spout off.” Many were so unused to speaking in public that
they would at first slump down into their desks to avoid a question from their overzealous
teacher. Others found the experience of free speech in a social studies classroom utterly
exhilarating and shone immediately. However, after a period of frustration and struggle with
their new roles, most found that they not only had something to say, but also were getting
better at saying it!
I still recall having to teach these young people the dynasties of ancient Egypt—a really
‘useful’ topic for them! The class session was awful until we got around to discussing death, a
grim but fascinating topic to which nearly everyone suddenly had something to contribute.
The class divided along the lines of those who judged the ancient Egyptians “nuts” for their
practices and others who empathized with their fears about death and their need to soften its
blow. The dynasties were quickly forgotten, but the conversation on death and how humans
cope with sadness carried on throughout the year. Such experiences taught me a lesson in
ideas, how to motivate student inquiry, and what goals are important to creating an exciting
classroom.
Clearly, didactic information is necessary, but not enough to gain deep understanding or
reach for the big ideas! There must also be analysis, synthesis, examination of feelings and val-
ues, or the whole teaching enterprise dies a slow death from information overkill and lack of
emotion. My second job, teaching younger middle-school students in Michigan, only served
to confirm this principle. The young teens were, if anything, even more restless and impatient
than the senior high school students. They, too, had plenty to say, although much of it was
relatively uninformed and immature. Nevertheless, the teacher must start where the students
are (prior knowledge!) if some measure of success is to be achieved. The opposite path seems
to lead mainly to college-style lecturing and the worst kind of pedantic demands—that stu-
dents need great amounts and of background data to think adequately about any topic in
PERSONAL PROLOGUE xvii
history and the social sciences. Overlooked is the fact that it takes a lifetime truly to master a
field! Thus, full background knowledge is a goal that is not only impossible for young adults,
but one that also prevents going beyond the data given to reach higher realms of understand-
ing, reasoning, and making choices.
So, you might ask, where is this all going?
To this point: The heart and soul of social studies instruction, perhaps all teaching lies in
stimulating the production of ideas, looking at knowledge from others’ viewpoints, develop-
ing a sense of empathy, and formulating for oneself a set of values, and beliefs that can be
explained and justified in open discussion. Questions and answers should be open both ways,
with audience and actor, teacher and student willing and able to exchange and modify each
other’s conclusions and commitments.
Thus, you are asked to read this book as a set of optimistic suggestions for setting goals,
lesson planning, curriculum design, and experimentation. You are free to choose from its
resources what you need and can handle. You are also free to reject ideas and opinions that
you see as unsuitable. You may say, “You’re kidding, I can’t do this!” or “I have better ideas!”
You are also invited to experiment with curriculum and judge the outcomes yourself. This
book is constructed to represent a ‘reach’ for the social studies classroom. But what can I do
as a teacher who has devoted many years to our field? Bemoan its problems and restrictions?
Fall into the trap of cynicism and apathy? It seems to me we must all struggle with our local
work situations, local, state, and national bureaucracies, redefining teaching in terms that suit
ourselves and provide the deepest and most exciting instruction for our pupils.
One way of doing this is to keep our minds open to new ideas and keep a wary eye on
those administrators, bureaucrats, and social problems that hem us in and sap our energies.
Let’s try not to be seduced by vast compilations of “facts” on lovely websites, but always be
ready to check sources and test arguments and conclusions against other sources, and a strong
sense of logic. Let’s talk about the big issues of our times, both positive and negative, such
as freedom and inequalities, empire and peace, the destruction of habitat and environmental
protections, and apathy versus empathy for our fellow human beings.
Just as I am advocating a balance between social studies goals and techniques, content and
process, so am I advising you to juggle subjects, students, and school life until a satisfactory
equilibrium is achieved among competing forces. Any classroom session I observe in which
the social studies teacher and the students divided their time equally between acquiring
knowledge, thinking about motives, and making choices amid competing values rates as a
wonderful enriching inquiry experience, deeply assisting in comprehending the human and
physical world as we know it. So take this as an invitation to think about subjects, stories,
and students on the way to developing your own style and stand as a teacher, and let me hear
from you now and then.
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P A R T
I
P HILOSOPHY AND H ISTORY
OF S OCIAL S TUDIES :
W HAT I S (A RE ) THE S OCIAL S TUDIES ?
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CHAPTER
1
S OCIAL S TUDIES : D EFINITION ,
O RGANIZATION , AND P HILOSOPHY
LINKS TO C3 FRAMEWORK
OVERVIEW
experienced considerable conflict over goals, and this is ongoing. As a result, all social stud-
ies teachers confront certain dilemmas at the outset: what to teach, how to teach, and why
to teach it. A major question is what lies at the heart of the subject. Some say history, some
decision-making, and some scientific method.
There are fissures within the field between and among subgroups, but nearly all unite
around the recently developed Common Core-inspired “College, career, and civic life (C3)
Framework for Social Studies State Standards” that calls for ‘an inquiry arc’ as its overall
philosophy:
“Social studies prepares the nation’s young people for college, careers, and civic life.
Inquiry is at the heart of social studies.
Social studies involves interdisciplinary applications and welcomes integration of the arts
and humanities.
Social studies is composed of deep and enduring understandings, concepts, and skills from
the disciplines.
Social studies emphasizes skills and practices as preparation for democratic decision-making.”
While the C3 Framework provides goals and guidance, teachers must still make decisions
about evolving and testing a teaching style that suits their situations and audiences, hope-
fully within an inquiry philosophy. Creating and practicing a pedagogical style is exactly
what this book is designed to help you accomplish. Social studies has a history that can
be traced back to philosophical debates about its purpose and place in the curriculum. A
deep divide is represented by a split between those who emphasize learning content versus
those emphasizing critical thinking and preparation for democratic life. Many argue that
the main goal of social studies is to transmit knowledge about the past, a didactic goal—one
that emphasizes telling.
Others protest strongly that the goal of acquiring knowledge is not enough. Critics point
out that information must be digested, analyzed, and applied in order to be useful. Forms of
reasoning are a reflective goal. There is also a strong lobby for social studies to serve as an agent
of social change, for active citizenship education. Even citizenship education has its problems
now and long ago. Socrates—probably an outstanding activist and gadfly—was put on trial
in a democracy for impious acts. Could there be such a thing as asking too many questions
in a democracy?
Advocates in the activist camp worry about the need for participants in the democratic
system, those who vote and pursue an ethical lifestyle. This we describe as an affective goal
because it encompasses moral questions, feelings, emotions, judgments, and values. Didactic,
reflective, and affective dimensions of teaching social studies form part of everyday school
practices and disputes about education theory and philosophy.
In addition to debating goals, some define the social studies largely as the study of history;
others see it primarily as a study of the social sciences: anthropology, economics, political
science, psychology, and sociology. Still others suggest that social studies is a field unto itself,
offering an interpretation of society to young people, while a minority views it as useful for
building of student self-confidence and encouraging good values. Each view has contributed
to the current complexity of the curriculum.
At the secondary school level, our field is usually defined in practice by mandated course
content: world and U.S. history, economics, and civics with a smattering of social sciences and
special electives. Classroom realities like too much work, public opinion, budget restrictions,
and insufficient classroom time further narrow the range of what is actually offered and how
the subject is taught. In addition to the usual pressures are newer ones involving national
DEFINITION, ORGANIZATION, AND PHILOSOPHY 5
standards, a Common Core curriculum, and a push for uniform testing. Also, do not forget
to keep up with your email, texts, tweets, and other inboxes!
Theoretically, social studies may include any topics or issues that concern human
behavior—past, present, or future. Content is most typically organized around one of the
three dimensions or goals identified. Some educators would add at least two other orga-
nizing principles to this list: (a) a philosophy of social action, and (b) a person-oriented
humanism that encourages self-regulation, confidence building, and personal growth. Each
of these organizing principles has goals, methods, and curriculum additions, which have
grown out of those schools of philosophy that influenced educators over the last 100 years
and more.
Which subjects have you studied that should be included in social studies and which
excluded? Sociology? History of science? Driver training? Marketing? Media? Ancient
history? Character education? Service learning?
In this chapter, you are invited to study different definitions of social studies, different ways
of organizing goals, and the competing schools of philosophy that have influenced this field.
You are invited to apply the three dimensions to help you decide what, how, and why to teach
every day in your social studies classroom.
A major conflict in the definition of social studies is contained in the title of this section: Is the
social studies a single, integrated field, or are the social studies a series of related disciplines?
Social studies is a relatively new subject in the world of academic disciplines, a product of public
school expansion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The field of study was originally
designed to meet a number of needs, including the preservation of democratic life; the upgrad-
ing of skills for an increasingly industrialized, technological economy; and the socialization of
vast numbers of new immigrants into the general population.1 Given diverse purposes, it comes
as no surprise that social studies represent a fusion of several different strands, including history
(a classical humanities academic discipline), the social sciences (with roots in empirical, scien-
tific traditions), citizenship training (derived from both nationalism and social criticism), and
self-enhancement (with roots in psychological and pluralistic/multicultural traditions).
Edgar B. Wesley’s famous definition, “the social studies are the social sciences simplified for
pedagogical purposes,”2 suggests that social sciences form the heart of the discipline—a notion
that many would dispute and that does not typically represent the practices of secondary school
teachers. More fairly, we can define secondary school social studies as the study of history, citizenship,
and ethical issues that deal with human history, human behavior, and human values. In short, social
studies in the classroom is about how and why people act, what they believe, and where and how
they live. It is about actions, ideas, values, time, and place—a series of topics that covers an immense
range, but allows tremendous latitude in the selection of materials and methods for teachers.3
Although there is and will continue to be considerable debate on a theoretical level about
what social studies is and should be, most secondary instruction on a practical level is defined
6 PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF SOCIAL STUDIES
by content and courses mandated by state or local requirements that are basically similar from
district to district. In this area, it is always useful to read through landmark thinkers like John
Dewy, Jerome Bruner, and Howard Gardner, as we all borrow freely from them.
Your style and philosophy, however, are your own. As a social studies teacher, you
should understand the different schools of thought and the rationales behind them, and
from this understanding, slowly and carefully evolve a philosophy that suits your own
view of subject and audience. A key issue here is the choice between eclecticism—an
attempt to include many viewpoints—or a commitment to one major approach as your
principal guide to action. An eclectic approach that collects many topics, views, and tech-
niques may seem fairer in the classroom, but it may also lead to confusion about goals,
inconsistency, and a disorganized approach to content. A consistent approach, however,
may produce clear, consistent results, but leave you and your students with a narrower
range of ideas.
The social sciences, history, citizenship, social action, and personal development advocates
want to give social studies a different “heart” to supply its body with the sustenance of life,
set its goals, and direct action. Each position derives from different philosophic grounds and
tends to stress widely varying criteria for the content, methods, and outcomes of instruc-
tion. For example, in a reflective social science lesson, students might be asked to analyze the
reasons for the rise of dictators rather than focus on any single example such as Mussolini or
Hitler. A didactic history lesson might discuss political causes of the American Revolution.
Citizenship-centered material might be a debate focused on voting rights and responsibilities
in the here and now. A social action approach might typically ask students to study an issue
such as world hunger, take a position on how to address it, and implement a plan for action.
A lesson stressing personal or character development could involve service learning and social
activism asking students to make contributions to the community. Thus, a dilemma exists not
only of definition, but also of choice: Should you attempt to resolve conflicting conceptions,
integrating and fusing them into a united whole? Or should you accept and utilize one of
the competing conceptions, the ‘arc of inquiry’ to guide all classroom decisions? How can we
organize our thinking about a diverse and fragmented field?
LET’S DECIDE
Form a group of at least three colleagues or classmates, write your own definition of social
studies, and share your views. Is everyone’s view more or less alike or different? Why?
Do you think history IS social studies, or do you prefer a civics or social science overall
theme? Why or why not?
A Three-Part Approach
second to promote citizenship, and a third to promote reflective inquiry.4 The social science
tradition offers the findings, concepts, and rules of the different social sciences, centering
on the scientific method. Organizing ideas might include social class, culture, location,
power, or the market system. The social science tradition seeks to give secondary students
a sample of the ideas, skills, and data available to social scientists, “reduced to manageable
terms for young people.”5 Ultimately, Barr, Barth, and Shermis see the social sciences as
supporting citizenship education by encouraging analysis of and generalizations about
human behavior.
The citizenship transmission approach is teaching goals and expectations for U.S. society,
seeking to develop the ideal participant in a democratic society. The desired product is
someone who knows and understands the culture and its values and is able to function
effectively as an active citizen. The intent of the transmitters is to inculcate within stu-
dents those democratic beliefs and convictions that will be supportive yet critical of social
and political institutions while providing assistance in choosing careers and developing
personal capital. Barr, Barth, and Shermis view the purpose of the citizenship transmission
tradition as being “to raise up a future generation of citizens who will guarantee cultural
survival.”6
The third tradition, social studies taught as reflective inquiry, proposes analysis and decision-
making as the heart of a student’s classroom life, applied to the content and process of
knowing and valuing. Method and content are closely related to conclusions, theories, and
judgments subject to critical interpretation. Problem solving and critical thinking are integral
to the reflective inquiry tradition; the student is placed in a situation in which she or he must
deal with ambiguities and unknowns in order to make sense of the world. Inquiry process,
according to Barr, Barth, and Shermis, is one “that involves all of the techniques and strate-
gies that lend themselves to improving the students’ ability to ask important questions and find
satisfactory answers.”7
The three traditions to correlate purpose, method, and content:
Brubaker, Simon, and Williams suggest a similar organizing scheme that includes cit-
izenship, social science, and reflective inquiry, but adds a student-oriented tradition of a
sociopolitical “involvement,” meaning participation in social action.9 The purpose of the
student-oriented tradition is self-enhancement and the building of self-confidence; and it
includes cultural awareness. The authors view social studies as a vehicle for building identity
and strengthening psychological perceptions of the self, aimed at successful social, family, and
community relationships. Sociopolitical involvement is a label for social criticism and political
activism. A major purpose of social studies is to promote political activism for such goals as
social justice, free speech and assembly, international peace, etc.
Note that these earlier analyses of social studies and its traditions has much in common
with the three major dimensions: didactic, reflective, and affective. Social science and history
can have a heavily didactic purpose. Reflective inquiry and critical thinking are, of course,
most like our reflective dimension because reasoning is primary. Civic education clearly
involves moral values, social criticism, self-analysis, and public controversy—judgments that
fit the affective dimension. Thus, current practices and philosophies have grown out of
Another random document with
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joissa Algonquinin kirjailijat, vaivattuaan kaiken päivää aivojaan
ollakseen huvittavia, edelleen vaivaavat aivojaan kaiken yötä
keksimällä niinsanottuja sana-arvoituksia, koska he eivät koskaan
näy istahtavan lepäämään.
Ensi työkseen välittäjä siis selitti Dorothylle, että New York oli
kovin kovin jumalaton paikka. Mutta sensijaan että Dorothy olisi
kunnioittavasti kuunnellut, kysyi hän, voisiko herra pörssimies antaa
hänelle muutamia hyviä osoitteita. Ja se saattoi keskustelun
kokonaan pysähdyksiin. Mutta vihdoin välittäjä unohti hänen
erehdyksensä ja kävi myötävätuntoisemmaksi. Ja sitten hän sanoi
Dorothylle, että tämän tulisi olla kovin, kovin varuillaan, keitä
herrasmiehiä hän tapaisi, ja sitä ennen aina ensin kysyä häneltä.
Silloin Dorothy sanoi hänelle, että ainoa, joka oli häntä kiikutellut, oli
Algonquinin hissipoika, mutta että hän, jos välittäjällä oli jotakin tuota
hissipoikaa vastaan, alkaisi käyttää portaitakin. Nyt mies alkoi tuntea
olonsa perin tuskalliseksi tytön kanssa, joka ei mitään kunnioittanut.
Mutta vihdoin hän keskittyi ystävyyteensä Charlie Breeneä kohtaan
ja lupasi yrittää auttaa Dorothya.
Yhdeksäs luku
No, kun rouva Breene huomasi, että Dorothy oli niin nolostunut
kuin kirjastossa voi nolostua, kutsui hän hänet taidekokoelmaan
näyttääkseen hänelle taulun, jonka vastikään oli ostanut kuuluisalta
espanjalaiselta taiteilijalta nimeltä Zuluago. Ja rouva Breene pyysi
Dorothya silmäilemään sitä tarkasti ja sitten sanomaan hänelle, mitä
hän ajatteli sen "kierrekuurosta". No, Dorothy ei siitä asiasta
oikeastaan ymmärtänyt hölynpölyä, mutta sai äkkiä loistavan
päähänpiston ja kysyi Charlielta, mitä hän siitä ajatteli. Ja Charlie
avasi suunsa ja sanoi: "Minä en jukoliste tiedä, mitä se on." No,
tietenkin se sai rouva Breenen näyttämään varsin vähäpätöiseltä,
että joku, joka oli hänen poikansa, oli niin sivistymätön. Hänellä ei
siis tosiaan ollut muuta neuvoa kuin purra huultaan. Mutta Dorothya
kohtaan hän kävi entistä maireammaksi ja sanoi järjestäneensä
hänelle pienen yllätyksenkin. Ja se yllätys oli sellainen, että hän oli
kutsunut Jefferson Breenen, Charlien kuuluisan sedän, joka ei ole
ainoastaan koko Breenen suvun pää, vaan aikansa huomatuimpia
amerikkalaisia, tulemaan päivälliselle Dorothya katsastamaan.
No, kun Dorothy pääsi saliin, niin hän kuului ryhtyneen tanssimaan
joitakin uusia askeleita, joita oli teatterissa oppinut. Tarkoitan, ettei
kukaan ollut häntä ollenkaan pyytänyt, mutta ihmeellistä kyllä,
sensijaan että jokainen olisi närkästynyt, olivat kaikki mielissään. Ja
he alkoivat taputtaa käsiään. Ja sitten Dorothy päätti laulaa
muutamia koomillisia laulunpätkiä, jotka joku tytöistä oli sepittänyt
heidän oman pukuhuoneensa seinien sisälle ja jotka eivät olleet
aiotut laulettaviksi edes teatterissa, saatikka salongissa. Mutta ne
musiikinharrastajat eivät suinkaan suuttuneet, vaan ihastuivat yhä
enemmän ja alkoivat tunkeutua takaisin saliin niin lukuisasti, että
jousikvartetilta, joka ponnisteli päästäkseen sieltä ulos, melkein
murskattiin shello.
Kymmenes luku