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A MYTHICAL
AND RELIGIOUS
ANALYSIS

OF

NARUTO
“It’s time to show them that all the myths were real” - Kabuto
The following work is a non-profit, educational material published in
the public domain, whereby the Author holds no copyright in regards
to the material discussed.

Revised edition
 Contents
Author’s Note

1 Land of Waves 1

2 Sasuke’s Rebirth 32

3 Bushy Brows 45

4 Hinata vs Neji 59

5 Naruto vs Neji 71

6 Sasuke vs Gaara, then Naruto vs Gaara 87

7 Sannin Showdown 105

8 Sasuke leaves the village 115

9 Naruto vs Sasuke 132

-------------------- Shippuden: Pre-War -----------------

10 Kazekage Rescue Mission 147

11 Team 7-ish 161

12 Time to train 171

13 The Snake has found the Hawk 184

14 Battle between brothers 193

15 The loss of a teacher 209

16 Pain 221

17 Danzo does it 247

18 The Taka 267

----------------------- Shippuden: War ---------------------

19 A turtle, an octopus and a waterfall 277

20 Tests of character 292

21 Madara enters the war 304

22 The dawn of Ten-Tails 314

23 Brothers between battle 328

24 What is a village? 347

25 Squad 7 Reunited 368

26 Endgame 387

27 The final, final, final battle - I swear! 408

Appendix 1: ‘Naruto is the worst character in Naruto’ 419

Sources 425

Bibliography 473

Index 486
 Author’s Note
The aim of this work will be to serve two primary purposes: first, to bring
forth the multitude of mythical and religious references that have been
incorporated into this manga to light, and second, to illustrate with a
side-by-side commentary how significantly they shape the characters, arcs
and overall narrative. Ultimately this cannot be taken as an authoritative
text however, since I own no copyright or bear any involvement into the
development of Naruto itself, so no matter the number of sources or
cross-references I have delineated for the following sections, please take
them with at least a single grain of salt.
 1
Land of Waves
The tale of Naruto is one of a rambunctious child who, due to the demon he
harbours, has been ostracised by his village and lives the fleeting existence
of an outcast. He lives without a family in the Village Hidden in the Leaves,
which is home to all sorts of Shinobi of varying abilities and we follow
their lives and development over the course of the series. Like most Shonen
Jump manga, the protagonist is pitted against a rival - the yin to his yang -
in the form of Sasuke Uchiha. A child who is certainly gifted (though as
everyone tells him, not as much as his brother) and he's the complete
inverse to Naruto: their goals, their history, their upbringing, their abilities
and so on.

In the very first episode we see Naruto desecrating the faces of the four
Hokage, which is fairly typical for rebellious youths; but he does this to get
noticed, to get people chasing him and to have his name known throughout
the class - it's just that nobody talks to him, but about him and he is quickly
made the clown. Naruto's goal is to become Hokage so that people start
respecting him and look up to him[1], but he has no idea of the work the
role entails.

In failing for the third time to perform a perfect clone jutsu, he sits at the
swing downhearted that he may never get the chance to become a
full-fledged Shinobi, watching everyone else graduate must hurt[2]. As he’s
walking home he sees Mizuki, and he can sense Naruto’s determination, so
he tells him a secret that will guarantee his promotion! In actuality, he is
tricking Naruto into triggering a village-wide search for he has stolen the
“sacred manuscript”[3] and if it gets into the wrong hands it could jeopardise

1
the safety of the village. Naruto is now a threat, which is what Mizuki
wanted to exacerbate[4] - the Nine-Tails was sealed on the basis that its
power could be of use, but seeing that the boy is behaving no differently
than the Fox itself, he is a demon which must be eliminated.

Iruka manages to find Naruto in the forest, and he’s surprised to see that
he’s been training so hard. He asks him why he’s got that scroll to which he
says Mizuki is the one who told him to retrieve it[5] as he could graduate if
he learned the techniques inside. He quickly surmises that Mizuki had the
kid do the dirty work so he could acquire the power for himself. Speak of
the devil, Mizuki catches up to them, and sees Iruka is close to getting the
scroll back, it’s time to pull out the trump card! The one thing that nobody
in the village can speak about, a fog which has surrounded Naruto all his
life is about to be explained. Already feeling isolated and totally separate
from the village, he is told of a decree that applied to everyone except
him[6]. That he is the Nine-Tailed Fox, the one who destroyed the village
twelve years ago[7] - but that’s presuming you see the two as identical. It’s
truer to say that the manifestation of evil and chaos in the fox did the
damage which has now been sealed away in the child.

It all fits, that nobody talks to him and everyone seems to despise him, since
he was born it’s been that way. Mizuki says that nobody will ever accept
him[8], which seems to be the sentiment of the rest of the villagers[9].
Everyone knows of someone that's lost family and friends due to the attack,
so it’s easy to take their hate out on him. In Japanese society there is a
cultural appreciation for spirits good and bad, referred to as Yokai, which
take on a predominantly animalistic form. The fox in particular is a classic
spirit called the Kitsune, with cunning and illusions/shapeshifting as some
of its primary characteristics. These qualities only serve to ramp up the
distrust that the villagers have for him, unknowing if the fox has taken over
the child or not.

2
To quell all doubts, Mizuki launches a Fūma(massive) Shuriken at Naruto,
despite Iruka’s repeated protestations. He never saw the decree as having to
explicitly ostracise and torture the boy, but he can stand on the sidelines no
more. Naruto’s eyes slowly open, and he can’t believe he’s still alive - did
Mizuki miss? No, it’s far weirder than that. Iruka has absorbed the impact,
martyring himself.

He doesn’t want Naruto to believe there is nobody who accepts him, and
admits he was the class clown too, as it was better to be a fool than a
nobody[10]. He hopes Naruto can find it in himself to forgive him: “If I’d
been a better teacher… a better self, maybe neither of us would have come
to this”[11]. A better self is a unique turn of phrase and is the literalised
translation, as this speaks to his mistake in seeing Naruto, partly, as a beast
and didn’t consider what effect the decree would have on his “self”. He
knew that he wasn’t the fox, and its evil being sealed away was something
he happened to be thrown into. However, he prioritises his role as a
teacher and as a Shinobi, which is why I'm not surprised that Naruto runs
away from Iruka - for being a co-conspirator for so long. He chose to keep
the secret from Naruto because he was assured it was in the village’s
interest and opted for the collective over the individual. The only problem
is that you can squeeze and torment any individual in the name of the
village, so there has to be something distinguishing certain peoples
otherwise it is universally applicable. Naruto has been classed as a beast and
a wholly different citizen to the rest, the ultimate expendable.

Iruka is the only one who can lend a hand, as he has cultivated a friendship
throughout all the time they've spent together. He’s able to understand
Naruto due to neither of them having parents for those formative years and
having to find their way on their own. Whilst Iruka is a father-figure that
doesn't mean he's without necessary strictness, as he failed Naruto for the

3
third time in his final exams for being unable to complete the clone jutsu.
Mizuki was the one that tried to stay on Naruto’s good side and convince
Iruka that he should graduate; knowing full well that he would still fail him,
it makes Mizuki look like a friend, which he exploited to get Naruto to steal
the scroll.

Iruka could've seen Naruto die alongside the fox, his past gives him ample
reason to let that happen. Instead, he chooses the individual over the
collective societal code which is an ethical dynamic outside of typical
Confucian principles, which tends to the harmony of the group above the
individual. To us this doesn’t seem like a big deal, but in Japan you very
rarely have the temerity to break governmental, or even more binding,
societal rules for one person who is “nothing but trouble”.

Mizuki is the first sketch of what will be a common trope among villains in
the series, that they are the exception to evil’s Will and can direct it for
their own gain. They see people as objects, tools, relations which are ready
to be churned through the engine of their desire - this can also be in the
name of some perceived greater good. He says, “Naruto and I are two of a
kind. I can use that scroll to achieve the same kind of limitless power!”[12].
He too wants to be feared and despised as he could have the power to
preside over an entire village which fills his malevolent fantasies with glee.
It is around this point that the Anime Profile for him states - “Mizuki’s dark
ambition bares its fangs”[13] as he tries to wear the cunning and imposing
image of the fox itself, though to no avail, because he doesn’t have its bite…

By using the nihilistic logic he applied to himself, he is almost horrified that

Naruto exists for he “understands” that he must be manipulating others as
well since they are “the same”. Both Iruka and Mizuki make the claim they
are mirror images of Naruto, but using two different ontologies: Iruka is
trying to connect to his heart, this unfathomable collective which cannot be

4
singled out; whereas Mizuki is tries to reason with a single aspect, the
blade, that Naruto can impress onto the world. I say heart and blade as these
are the two aspects of the Kanji for Ninja(忍) and is comprised of the kanji
for blade(刃) and heart(心), with the literal meaning of "heart under blade".
It is these two opposing forces which when balanced create a noble warrior.
Whilst making the claim they are equals, Mizuki nevertheless launched a
shuriken at Naruto with the intent to kill. Does this mean he would apply
such violence to himself? Of course not, for he has distinguished himself as
master of evil, wit and charm - everyone else are mere pawns! And so, by
endorsing an attributes-based model of ontology he will never “peer behind
the curtain” so to speak into the multivariate character of another person,
and till the day he dies he won’t see anybody else as bearing an actual “self”.

It’s all well and good that I can pick apart Mizuki, but how does Naruto
know for certain that Iruka isn’t just like everyone else, if he’s a master
manipulator perhaps? He listens in on the two of them arguing about who
and what he is whilst tucked away behind a tree - which is a common
motif used to symbolise genuine insights into another person’s character.
He tears up when Iruka calls him "a citizen of Konohagakure, Naruto
Uzumaki"[14]. He is dissuaded of any doubts that he doesn’t belong, as he has
not only been acknowledged as an individual, but he is welcomed into the
village with open arms just by being himself. This moment is when Naruto
sees Iruka's sentiment to be true and jumps in to save him[15]. That he
doesn’t just have an identity, he has someone to direct all his energy and
love toward - which summons a legion of shadow clones, a talent which
hardly any Jonin has the reserves to perform. The reason it is a forbidden
jutsu is because it is so taxing on the body to spread your chakra this thinly
as it can kill you - it just goes to show what a drop of the beast’s power
looks like.

5
Naruto is composed partly of the Nine-Tails, there is no denying that, and
their acceptance has implied the beast can tag along, but they’re still trying
to accept just Naruto[16]. Subsequent chapters will delve deeper into the
connection between the boy and the fox, and it’ll be a long time before he
figures out what it means to truly be a citizen of Konoha… but for now so
far so good! It all ends well with the scroll being restored, his bond with
Iruka stronger than ever and on top of all that Naruto has graduated from
the academy!

The Honourable Grandson

Now we hop over to the antithesis of Naruto in terms of societal dynamics:

Konohamaru, the grandson of the Third Hokage, respected and cared for by
the entire village. Loved unquestionably by all, making him equally
impossible to discipline.

Naruto grabs him by the scruff[17] for interrupting their meeting and raises
his fist, though Konohamaru smirks knowing that he'll follow the protocol
that everyone else in the village obeys, which is to lightly scold him and
move on… But this time he gets a straight right hook to the face and he falls
flat, in utter disbelief[18].

Konohamaru is smart enough to realise his current position in society and

thought he knew the relationship he had with his family and peers, but
Naruto proves him wrong. I guess this made him curious to find out more
and so he starts stalking him. Naruto ends up taking him around town and
they engage in many of the cheekier, more troublesome works like the
Ninja Centerfold. This kind of collaborative mischievousness he hasn't
done in life thus far - finally he’s living a little! But aside from pure fun he's
actually practising his jutsu with an intense concentration, you can see the
difference in him when he's blurting out the definition of chakra off a scroll

6
and when he is trying to perfect this technique. Whilst a silly jutsu, it's a
project that allows him to apply himself, and he'll probably make more
progress on the intricacy of the transformation technique this way.

This level of mischievousness is beneficial to one’s character development

and helps to metabolise an authority which sets the right benchmarks[19].
Mischievousness is the snake that doesn’t bite to kill, but playfully nibbles.
Contrast this with his tutor Ebisu who is just the epitome of classical
Bushido teaching - "The revered Lord Hokage knows and understands the
eight principles that are the cornerstone of all the knowledge of the
Shinobi: virtue, justice, ceremony, wisdom, loyalty, faithfulness, prudence
and filial piety!"[20]. Bushido being a moral code of conduct originally
established by the Samurai as a means of distancing themselves from the
image of animalistic beasts and towards warriors with patience, restraint
and wisdom. It tried to include ways of centring the soul through practises
like meditation, literature, ceremonies and rituals which borrowed heavily
from the Confucian principles defined millennia before. The crux of this
philosophy was articulated in the book, Bushido : The Soul of Japan (1899)[21]
where it was described as a moral code "unuttered and unwritten" which is
ironic. This explains why Kakashi and other Shinobi really have no answer
to this question of whether the current system is right, they just follow as it
is the way of the Bushido - the predominant force since Shinobi began. It
created an image of a warrior ideal that other people must follow
unconditionally, uncaring of the way in which a Ninja comes to sacrifice
themselves, as long as they do so in the end.

Bushido grew from merely being a tool to mature a warrior into cultural
practices of piety and moral servitude, and by the time of the Edo period in
Japan(1603 – 1868) it grew into a full fledged value system; the essence of
which is a largely implied social rubric learned by mixing with fellow
citizens. This makes it all the more impossible for people like Naruto to

7
integrate. This moral code can then be wielded by people like Ebisu to
provide a vantage point to look down on those that haven't embodied the
nature of these virtues. Bushido in this instance, if anything, acts as a
hindrance for understanding the two Shinobi as he cannot interact with
them deeply - he knows what is, instead of why it is not. People that take to
this code often immediately try to self-censor immoral thoughts, sticking
arduously to the notions of piety, truth and so forth. But failure to
understand that aspect of themselves will make them more susceptible to
such forms whenever they arise, which can manifest as phobias, dogmas,
irrational love/obsession and so on.

No clearer is this when the harem jutsu completely incapacitates Ebisu - a

warrior should never be affected by such vulgarity! It is precisely this
sensitivity to the cheeky and the sensual that he cannot be a master teacher
- touted as someone that can train people to be the next Hokage? Never.
Konohamaru learned the Ninja-Centerfold not because of its appearances
but because he wanted to use it against Hiruzen and become Hokage[22],
whereas Ebisu sees it for the thing in itself. In failing to integrate it, the
object takes on a life of its own in his imaginations. Look, virtues are
important and if Naruto could come to learn of these eight principles that
would be great, but he has to comprehend their meaning rather than mere
recital, which comes through realising why they supersede his wants as the
psychological top dog. If he finds no explanation, they will not sit above
them.

Aside from the Bushido acting as a veil, the second suffocation is that
everyone calls Konohamaru “Honourable grandson” and not his own name,
so he feels just as out of place as Naruto. Inversely, their love for him is as
blind as their hatred for Naruto.

8
Konohamaru has the wish to use the title of Hokage to get people to
acknowledge him, but does he not see what he’s doing? He’s using Hokage
as a tool to try and get what he wants, treating people as uncaringly as what
they’re doing to him now. In fairness, Naruto is doing the same thing -
though this sentiment will change. The two of them agree to work toward
the title of Hokage, becoming arch rivals from here on out[23].

Bell training

Naruto’s antics begin to blur more into the immoral territory as his
mischievousness threatens to warp other people’s realities. He wants to
disguise himself as Sasuke and get honest intel on himself from Sakura. But
he also has the idea to make her hate Sasuke to boost his own standings[24]…

Sasuke manages to break free and immediately starts looking for Naruto,
bumping into a flirtatious Sakura who hasn't realised the truth yet. They
share another one of their blunt, pointless conversations when she splutters
out - "He [Naruto] always comes between us! It’s because he was badly
brought up! You know … because he never had any parents. He doesn’t have
to answer to anyone, ever, and it’s made him completely selfish […] Don’t
you envy him being alone, not having parents nag at you all the time?"[25].
She doesn't realise Sasuke's loneliness and the fact he doesn't have such a
family to guide him anymore and so she implies his own moral ineptitude.
He stares her down, rage bubbling up to the surface but she continues to
prattle on...

Sasuke's rage stems from the fact that she is right in a way, that he probably
remembers the times when he listened to his father and could receive
advice from him, he now misses the times they were there to nag him. This
absence is only being replaced by nostalgia, Sakura unknowingly grinding
against this as she still has a family. What makes her annoying is that she

9
repeatedly takes for granted this fact, she sees her family as an obstacle to
realising her petty dreams without knowing the agony that comes from
isolation. He finally snaps at her and says being scolded by your family
doesn’t even compare to what it means to be alone, and the fact she could
be jealous “makes him sick”[26]. In a way she’s asking him to see the benefits
of not having family and friends, clan members - think of all the freedom!

The fog which shrouds his mind could easily make him go insane and
Sasuke is beginning to understand this pain. His retort implicitly defends
Naruto by calling her annoying as he is in this stage of being torn away
from everything he had as a child - family, clan, culture and this severing is
a painful pulling away until he is just bone. Sakura is left on her own to
reflect on this, making a whimsical decision to treat Naruto better but such
resolve is broken instantly. If we want to see what real resolution looks like,
look no further than one of the most concise and all-consuming goals in the
entire anime - Sasuke's mission to kill his brother. He openly states his
intent to kill in front of his teacher and teammates : "It seems pointless to
talk about ‘dreams’ … that’s just a word. But what I do have is
determination. I plan to restore my clan. And there’s someone I have sworn
to kill"[27].

Back to the training exercise, where they have to get their hands on the
bells. Sasuke watches Naruto fall into each and every trap and this soothes
his ego as he could never have fallen for such basic trickery. Naruto acts
without any virtue at all, with little respect for his reputation or pride as
there really isn't any. No Uchiha heritage, no discernible destiny he must
fulfil; whereas Sasuke cannot afford to look like an idiot for he is the noble
knight who shall slay Itachi Uchiha, restore the clan and rewrite history.
Kakashi acknowledges Sasuke is different, as he sees the arrogance in him
that he used to have. He sees Obito in Naruto as well and hammers home
the message of the importance of teamwork. During the training exercise

10
we see Sakura starting to think this task is unreachable (literally): "Even if
we couldn't’ manage it this time, I’m sure next time if we give it our
all…"[28]. Come back next year? This rustles the spirit of the avenger in
Sasuke, for he never feels he has enough time - to come back next year is
out of the question. His telos is threatened, and his consciousness falls back
to why he is here in the first place: “Only I can kill him. He made me cry…
My only goal is to have my revenge. I have to become stronger than he is…
Now”[29]. With that odd, fragmented affirmation he continues, while Sakura
thinks he must mean the Sensei.

After many more failed attempts, Kakashi grills each of them for being
individualistic, for not working cohesively as a squad. He squashes Sasuke
like a bug and accuses him of being arrogant, trying to convey to him the
importance of keeping the squad intact, as it is their combined abilities and
group strategy which gets the work done. Whilst it is certainly the
brilliance of a few individuals in key moments, consistent progress is made
together, thus fostering more moments for individuals to shine[30]. Sasuke
huffs in a lowered, accepting tone that this does have some importance and
he combines this idea with the necessary progress of destroying his brother.
It is the freak of the group that adopts these ideas quickly so he can keep
moving forward - "We’ll all need our strength if we’re going to work
together to get those bells. You’re no good to me if you’re just going to be a
liability"[31]. He convinces the other team members to fully accept
companionship - though only he comprehends it, admittedly through a
rather morbid lens. Sasuke will do whatever it takes, including being there
for Naruto.

Kakashi said “A true Shinobi seeks for the hidden meanings within hidden
meanings”[32] so let’s recap on this exercise to try and find those out. The
recurring theme that he set for each of Squad 7 were traps and illusions
which he wanted them to sniff out and subvert, but they fell into all of

11
them. Naruto just assumed Kakashi dropped one of the bells out in the
open and went to grab it, setting off the rope trap and getting tied up. So,
there was an initial hidden meaning behind the innocuous placement of the
bell which was to trap him, but then what is the hidden meaning behind
that? To isolate him. To prevent him from helping his teammates thereby
nullifying potential teamwork - and there goes the only chance at getting
the bells. To immobilise Sasuke in the ground prevents him assisting, and
putting Sakura under genjutsu was the quickest way to render her
immobile. He showed off all three types of jutsu, whilst also illustrating
their biggest weakness. In addition to this, Kakashi made them more
impulsive by not letting them have breakfast. By making them hungrier, it’s
more likely they shall prioritise the food and delay helping their comrade. A
good Shinobi may be able to evade the traps that Kakashi set, which is
useful when going out on missions, but would they have understood the
intention of those traps? We can accept plenty of skillful Shinobi that all
care about themselves and have no interest in working collaboratively,
which will jeopardise the entire mission and eventually weaken the village
itself. This is the reasoning behind his central philosophy:”Those who
violate the rules and fail to follow orders are lower than garbage. However,
those who do not care for and support their comrades are even lower than
that!”[33].

The Land of Waves arc

Now the team is assimilated and imbued with a sense of teamwork, Naruto
obviously takes this as a reason to be given the world as his challenge. He
doesn’t have a clue as to what an A rank mission actually entails and the
only reason this group of disjunct nitwits can pass anything above a D rank
is because of Kakashi.

12
After some renegotiation they get a decent mission which is to escort the
bridge builder to his place of work safely. They’ve barely set foot outside the
village and Naruto tells the bridge builder he is an “elite ninja and one day
the next Hokage”[34]. That he’s doing all the right things for it to succeed
and the bridge builder will be sorry he didn’t respect him now. Naruto
threatens to beat up the client on multiple occasions but they finally get
going… Immediately it becomes apparent the differences in skill level
between the juniors and the seniors. Just as they leave the village Kakashi is
already scanning for potential novelties in his environment as I'm sure he
has had many cases of where a mission has been purposefully under-ranked
due to the client's lack of funding. Due to this apprehensive nature he
already deduces oddities like the appearance of a puddle on a perfectly
sunny day. Sasuke is probably preparing himself for a battle down the road
and Sakura’s preparing for marriage down the road... In fairness to her she
didn't actually buckle under the pressure like Naruto did during the
ambush[35]. Sasuke also rose up to the challenge as he’s probably simulated
that a million times in his mind and practised them almost as often. He
identified their main attack vectors, which in this case was some weird
metal-claw thing, chaining their movement to a tree and then performing
the right attacks which can deliver damage to both at once.

Naruto I don't think wholly coincides with the combative arts of the ninja
beyond just street smarts as he wants to use the path of a Shinobi to get
respected - as all the jutsu he performs reflects his playful childishness; he
doesn't really want to kill or be killed as that is still too far away but now he
has seen how intense a mission is up close and personal. Naruto
acknowledges the distance not just in skill but in composure[36] to Sasuke,
something he thought he already possessed. Naruto will need to admire the
art form and immerse himself but he needs a reason to do so. The land of
waves arc establishes this motivation and makes a ninja out of him in the
end.

13
Another random document with
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 IN WINTER COSTUME

As the law provides that the daughter of a slave must take the
place of her parent, should she die, it is plainly in the interests of the
owner to promote the marriage of his slaves. Slaves who receive
compensation for their services are entitled to marry whom they
please; quarters are provided for the couple. The master of the
house, however, has no claim upon the services of the husband. The
slave who voluntarily assigns herself to slavery and receives no price
for her services may not marry without consent. In these cases it is
not an unusual custom for her master, in the course of a few years,
to restore her liberty.
Hitherto, the position of the Korean woman has been so humble
that her education has been unnecessary. Save among those who
belong to the less reputable classes, the literary and artistic faculties
are left uncultivated. Among the courtesans, however, the mental
abilities are trained and developed with a view to making them
brilliant and entertaining companions. The one sign of their
profession is the culture, the charm, and the scope of their
attainments. These “leaves of sunlight,” a feature of public life in
Korea, stand apart in a class of their own. They are called gisaing,
and correspond to the geisha of Japan; the duties, environment, and
mode of existence of the two are almost identical. Officially, they are
attached to a department of Government, and are controlled by a
bureau of their own, in common with the Court musicians. They are
supported from the national treasury, and they are in evidence at
official dinners and all palace entertainments. They read and recite;
they dance and sing; they become accomplished artists and
musicians. They dress with exceptional taste; they move with
exceeding grace; they are delicate in appearance, very frail and very
human, very tender, sympathetic, and imaginative. By their artistic
and intellectual endowment, the dancing girls, ironically enough, are
debarred from the positions for which their talents so peculiarly fit
them. They may move through, and as a fact do live in, the highest
society. They are met at the houses of the most distinguished; they
may be selected as the concubines of the Emperor, become the
femmes d’amour of a prince, the puppets of the noble. A man of
breeding may not marry them, however, although they typify
everything that is brightest, liveliest, and most beautiful. Amongst
their own sex, their reputation is in accordance with their standard of
morality, a distinction being made between those whose careers are
embellished with the quasi chastity of a concubine, and those who
are identified with the more pretentious display of the mere
prostitute.

A PALACE CONCUBINE

In the hope that their children may achieve that success which will
ensure their support in their old age, parents, when stricken with
poverty, dedicate their daughters to the career of a gisaing, much as
they apprentice their sons to that of a eunuch. The girls are chosen
for the perfect regularity of their features. Their freedom from
blemish, when first selected, is essential. They are usually pretty,
elegant, and dainty. It is almost certain that they are the prettiest
women in Korea, and, although the order is extensive and the class
is gathered from all over the kingdom, the most beautiful and
accomplished gisaing come from Pyöng-an. The arts and graces in
which they are so carefully educated, procure their elevation to
positions in the households of their protectors, superior to that which
is held by the legal wife. As a consequence, Korean folk-lore
abounds with stories of the strife and wifely lamentation arising from
the ardent and prolonged devotion of husbands to girls, whom fate
prevents their taking to a closer union. The women are slight of
stature, with diminutive, pretty feet, and graceful, shapely hands.
They are quiet and unassuming in their manner. Their smile is bright;
their deportment modest, their appearance winsome. They wear
upon state occasions voluminous, silk-gauze skirts of variegated
hues; a diaphanous silken jacket, with long loose sleeves, extending
beyond the hands, protects the shoulders; jewelled girdles, pressing
their naked breasts, sustain their draperies. An elaborate, heavy and
artificial head-dress of black hair, twisted in plaits and decorated with
many silver ornaments, is worn. The music of the dance is plaintive
and the song of the dancer somewhat melancholy. Many movements
are executed in stockinged feet; the dances are quite free from
indelicacy and suggestiveness. Indeed, several are curiously
pleasing.

DANCING WOMEN OF THE COURT

 Upon one occasion, Yi-cha-sun, the brother of the Emperor, invited
me to watch the dress rehearsal of an approaching Palace festival.
Although this exceptional consideration was shown me unsolicited, I
found it quite impossible to secure permission to photograph the
gliding, graceful figures of the dancers. When my chair deposited me
at the yamen the dance was already in progress. The chairs of the
officials and chattering groups of the servants of the dancers filled
the compound; soldiers of the Imperial Guard kept watch before the
gates. The air was filled with the tremulous notes of the pipes and
viols, whose plaintive screaming was punctuated with the booming of
drums. Within a building, the walls of which were open to the air, the
rows of dancers were visible as they swayed slowly and almost
imperceptibly with the music.
From the dais where my host was sitting the dance was radiant
with colour. There were eighteen performers, grouped in three equal
divisions, and, as the streaming sunshine played upon the
shimmering surface of their dresses, the lithe and graceful figures of
the dancers floated in the brilliant reflection of a sea of sparkling
light. The dance was almost without motion, so slowly were its
fantastic figures developed. Never once were their arms dropped
from their horizontal position, nor did the size and weight of their
head-dresses appear to fatigue the little women. Very slowly, the
seated band gave forth the air. Very slowly, the dancers moved in the
open space before us, their arms upraised, their gauze and silken
draperies clustering round them, their hair piled high, and held in its
curious shape by many jewelled and enamelled pins, which sparkled
in the sunshine. The air was solemn; and, as if the movement were
ceremonial, their voices rose and fell in a lingering harmony of
passionate expression. At times, the three sets came together, the
hues of the silken skirts blending in one vivid blaze of barbaric
splendour. Then, as another movement succeeded, the eighteen
figures broke apart and, poised upon their toes, in stately and
measured unison circled round the floor, their arms rising and falling,
their bodies bending and swaying, in dreamy undulation.
The dance epitomised the poetry and grace of human motion. The
dainty attitudes of the performers had a gentle delicacy which was
delightful. The long silken robes revealed a singular grace of
deportment, and one looked upon dancers who were clothed from
head to foot, not naked, brazen and unashamed, like those of our
own burlesque, with infinite relief and infinite satisfaction. There was
power and purpose in their movements; artistic subtlety in their
poses. Their flowing robes emphasised the simplicity of their
gestures; the pallor of their faces was unconcealed; their glances
were timid; their manner modest. The strange eerie notes of the
curious instruments, the fluctuating cadence of the song, the gliding
motion of the dancers, the dazzling sheen of the silks, the vivid
colours of the skirts, the flush of flesh beneath the silken shoulder-
coats, appealed to one silently and signally, stirring the emotions
with an enthusiasm which was irrepressible.
The fascinating figures approached softly, smoothly sliding; and,
as they glided slowly forward, the song of the music welled into
passionate lamentation. The character of the dance changed. No
longer advancing, the dancers moved in time to the beating of the
drums; rotating circles of colour, their arms swaying, their bodies
swinging backwards and forwards, as their retreating footsteps took
them from us. The little figures seemed unconscious of their art; the
musicians ignorant of the qualities of their wailing. Nevertheless, the
masterly restraint of the band, the conception, skill and execution of
the dancers, made up a triumph of technique.
As the dance swept to its climax, nothing so accentuated the
admiration of the audience as their perfect stillness. From the outer
courts came for a brief instant the clatter of servants and the
screams of angry stallions. Threatening glances quickly hushed the
slaves, nothing breaking the magnetism of the dance for long. The
dance ended, it became the turn of others to rehearse their individual
contributions, while those who were now free sat chatting with my
host, eating sweets, smoking cigarettes, cigars, or affecting the long
native pipe. Many, discarding their head-dresses, lay upon their
sitting mats, their eyes closed in momentary rest as their servants
fanned them. His Highness apparently appreciated the familiarity
with which they treated him. In the enjoyment and encouragement of
their little jokes he squeezed their cheeks and pinched their arms, as
he sat among them.

BOYS
 CHAPTER V
The Court of Korea—The Emperor and his Chancellor—The Empress and some
Palace factions

HIS IMPERIAL HIGHNESS, PRINCE YI-

CHA-SUN

A study of the morals and personalities of the Court of Korea

throws no little light upon the interesting phases of its contemporary
condition, even affording some explanation of the political
differences and difficulties which, if now in the past, may be
expected none the less to crop up again. Since the dastardly murder
by the Japanese of the Queen, who held the reins of Government
with strong hands, the power of the Emperor has been controlled by
one or other of the Palace factions. His Majesty is now almost a
cypher in the management of his Empire. Nominally, the Emperor of
Korea enjoys the prerogative and independence of an autocrat; in
reality he is in the hands of that party whose intrigues for the time
being may have given them the upper hand. He is the slave of the
superb immoralities of his women. When he breaks away from their
gentle thraldom, in the endeavour to free himself from their political
associations, his exceedingly able and unscrupulous Minister, Yi
Yong-ik, the chief of the Household Bureau, rules him with a rod of
iron. It matters not in what direction the will of his Majesty should lie,
it is certain to be thwarted with the connivance of Palace concubines
or by the direct bribery of Ministers. If the King dared, Yi Yong-ik
would be degraded at once. No previous Minister has proved so
successful, however, in supplying the Court with money; and, as the
Emperor dreads an empty treasury, he maintains him in his
confidence.
 HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY THE EMPEROR

In the position of Minister of Finance and Treasurer of the Imperial

Palace, which he once filled, Yi Yong-ik opposed foreign supervision
of the revenues of the Maritime Customs. Acting in concert with the
Russian and French Ministers, he was primarily responsible for the
most recent crisis in the affairs of Mr. McLeavy Brown, the Chief
Comptroller and Executive Administrator of the Korean Maritime
Customs. At a time when the Imperial household was in need of
money, Yi Yong-ik created the desire for a loan by withholding the
revenue of the Privy Purse from his master. It was explained to his
Majesty that his financial embarrassments were due to the action of
his Chief Commissioner of Customs in locking up the proceeds of
the Customs. Supported by the influence of the Russian and French
Ministers, Yi Yong-ik suggested that the Customs revenue should
become the security for the loan which was being pressed upon him
by a French syndicate. When Mr. McLeavy Brown heard of the
transaction between the agent of the syndicate and the Minister of
Finance, he at once repudiated any hypothecation of the revenues of
the Customs for such a purpose. In co-operation with the French and
Russian Ministers, Yi Yong-ik, upon a variety of pretexts, attempted
to bring about the peremptory dismissal of the Chief Commissioner
of the Customs. He was foiled in this by the unexpected
demonstration of a British Squadron in Chemulpo Harbour, and the
attendant preparation and embarkation of a field force at Wei-hai-
wei. Upon the withdrawal of the guarantee of the Customs revenue
the Franco-Russian scheme collapsed, the agent of the interested
syndicate returning to Europe to complain of the action of the British
Minister and the Chief Commissioner of Customs.
Yi Yong-ik is an instance, together with that afforded by Lady Om,
of a Korean of most humble birth rising to a position of great
importance in the administration of the country. A man of low
parentage, he attached himself to the fortunes of Min Yeung-ik,
gradually forcing himself upon the notice of his patron, as also of his
sovereign. The services which Yi Yong-ik rendered to the throne
during the émeute of 1884, when he was a chair coolie in the service
of the late Queen, found responsive echo in the memories of their
Majesties, who procured his preferment. He was advanced to a
position in which his admitted sagacity, strength of mind, and
shrewdness were of material assistance, continuing to rise until he
became Minister of Finance. He has thus made his own position
from very insignificant beginnings, and, in justice to him, it may be
said that he serves the interests of his Majesty to the best of his
ability. Nevertheless he is in turn feared and detested. Numerous
attempts have been made against him, while, within the last few
months, failing to take his life by poisoned food, some unknown
enemies discharged an infernal machine in the room at the Seoul
Hospital where he was confined during an attack of sickness.
Alternately upon the crest of the wave or in the backwash of the tide,
Yi Yong-ik remains the most enduring personality in the Court. The
Russian influence is behind him, while the Emperor also is secretly
upon the side of his energetic Minister. At a moment, recently, when
the opposition against him became too strong, Yi Yong-ik took refuge
upon a Russian warship, which at once carried him to Port Arthur.
From this retreat he negotiated for a safe return with his Majesty,
who at once granted him a strong escort. Yi Yong-ik then returned
and, proceeding at once to the Palace, quickly reinstated himself in
the good graces of his master, thus again thwarting the plans and
secret machinations of his opponents.
His Majesty the Emperor of Korea was fifty years old in September
1900, being called to the throne in 1864, when he was thirteen. He
was married at the age of fifteen to the Princess Min, a lady of birth,
of the same age as her husband. It was she who was wantonly
assassinated by the Japanese in 1895. The son of this union is the
Crown Prince. His Majesty is somewhat short of stature, as
compared with the average height of the Korean. He is only five feet
four inches. His face is pleasant; impassive in repose, brightening
with an engaging smile when in conversation. His voice is soft and
pleasing to the ear; he talks with easy assurance, some vivacity and
nervous energy.
During an audience with a foreigner, the manner of the Emperor
has an air of frankness and singular bonhomie. He talks with every
one, pointing his remarks with graceful gestures, and interrupting his
sentences with melodious and infectious laughter. The mark of the
Emperor’s favour is the receipt of a fan. When a foreigner is
presented to him, it is customary to find upon the conclusion of the
audience a small parcel awaiting his acceptance, containing a few
paper fans and sometimes a roll of silk. The Emperor rarely exceeds
this limit to his Imperial patronage, for, like the rest of his people, he
cannot afford to be unduly generous.
The dress of his Majesty upon these occasions is remarkable for
its impressive and Imperial grandeur. A long golden silk robe of
state, embroidered with gold braid, with a girdle of golden cord,
edged with a heavy gold fringe, covers him. While the magnificence
of this attire excites envy in the heart of any one who sees it, the
ease and dignity of his carriage suggest his complete
unconsciousness of the impression which he is creating in the minds
of his guests.
 The Emperor is ignorant of Western languages, but he is an
earnest student of those educational works which have been
translated for the purposes of the schools he has established in his
capital. In this way he has become singularly well informed upon
many subjects. He speaks and writes Chinese with fluency, and he is
a most profound student of the history of his own people. The
method and system of his rule is based on the thesis of his own
personal supervision of all public business. If there be some little
difference between the Utopia of his intentions and the actual
achievement of his government, it is impossible to deny his assiduity
and perseverance. He is a kind, amiable, and merciful potentate,
desirous of the advancement of his country. He works at night,
continuing the sessions and conferences with his Ministers until after
dawn. He has faults, many, according to the Western standards by
which I have no intention of judging him. He has also many virtues;
and, he receives, and deserves, the sympathy of all foreigners in the
vast works of reform which he has encouraged in his dominions.

THE HALL OF AUDIENCE, SEOUL

 His Majesty is progressive. In view of the number and magnitude
of the developments which have taken place under his rule, it is
impossible to credit him with any of those prejudices against
Western innovations which have distinguished the East from time
immemorial. There are special schools in Seoul for teaching English,
French, German, Russian, Chinese and Japanese; there is a School
of Law, a School of Engineering and Science, a School of Medicine,
and a Military Academy. These are but a few minor indications of the
freedom of his rule, the sure sign of a later prosperity. He is tolerant
of missionaries, and he is said to favour their activities. It is certain
that his rule permits great liberty of action, while it is distinguished by
extraordinary immunity from persecution. His reign is in happy
contrast with the inter-regnum of the Regent, Tai Won Kun, who
regarded priests and converts as a pest, and who eradicated them to
the best of his ability.
As the autocratic monarch of a country, whose oldest associations
are opposed to all external interference, the attitude of his Majesty
has been instinct with the most humane principles, with great
integrity of purpose and much enlightenment. It cannot be said that
his reign has been a failure, or that it has not tended to the benefit of
his people and his realms. Certain evil practices still exist, but his
faults as an Emperor are, to a great extent, due to the worthlessness
of his officials. Indeed, he frequently receives the condemnation
which should be passed upon the minds and morals of his Ministers.
Saving Yi Yong-ik, the most important figure in the Court is the
mature and elderly Lady Om, the wife of his Majesty. In a Court
which is abandoned to every phase of Eastern immorality, it is a little
disappointing to find that the first lady in the land no longer
possesses those charms of face and figure, which should explain her
position. There is no doubt that the Lady Om is a clever woman. She
is most remarkably astute in her management of the Emperor,
whose profound attachment to her is a curious paradox. Lady Om is
mature, fat, and feebly, if freely, frolicsome. Her face is pitted with
small-pox; her teeth are uneven; her skin is of a saffron tint. There is
some suggestion of a squint in her dark eyes, a possible reminder of
the pest which afflicts all Koreans. She paints very little and she
eschews garlic. Her domination of the Emperor is wonderful. Except
at rare intervals, and then only when the assent of Lady Om to the
visit of a new beauty has been given, he has no eye for any other
woman. Nevertheless, the Lady Om has not always been a Palace
beauty; she was not always the shining light of the Imperial harem.
Her amours have made Korean history; only two of her five children
belong to the Emperor; yet one of these may become the future
occupant of his father’s throne.

THEIR IMPERIAL HIGHNESSES THE CROWN PRINCE

AND PRINCESS

In her maiden days, she became the mistress of a Chinaman;

tiring of him she passed into the grace and favour of a Cabinet
Minister. He introduced her to the service of the late Queen, whose
acquaintance she made at the house of her father, a Palace
attendant of low degree, with quarters within the walls. By the time
that she became a woman in the service of her Majesty, the Lady
Om had presented a child to each of her respective partners. As the
virtue of the women in attendance upon the Queen had of necessity
to be assured, her previous admirers kept their counsel for the safety
of their own heads. The Lady Om boasted abilities which
distinguished her among the other maids in attendance. She sang to
perfection, danced with consummate grace; painted with no little
delicacy and originality, and could read, write, and speak Chinese
and Korean with agreeable fluency. The Queen took a fancy to her
apparently innocent, guileless, and very lovable attendant. Imitating
the excellent example of his illustrious spouse, his Majesty sealed
the rape of virtue with a kingly smile. The Queen grew restless.
Suspicion, confirmed by appearances, developed into certainty, and
the Lady Om fled from the Palace to escape the anger and jealousy
of her late mistress. The third child, of whom Lady Om became the
mother, was born beyond the capital, in the place of refuge where
the errant Griselle had taken up her abode. Meanwhile, Lady Om
avoided the parental establishment within the purlieus of the Palace.
Upon the death of her third child she sought the protection of another
high official. With him she dwelt in safety, peace, and happiness,
becoming, through her strange faculty of presenting each admirer
with evidences of her innocence, the subject of some ribald songs.
Since her return to Imperial favour, these verses have been
suppressed, and may not be uttered upon pain of emasculation.
It now seemed as if the Lady Om had settled down, but the events
of 1895, culminating in the foul murder of the late Queen, prompted
her to renew her acquaintance with the unhappy Emperor. She
became a Palace attendant again, and at once cleverly succeeded in
bringing herself before the Imperial notice. She was sweetly
sympathetic towards his Majesty; her commiseration, her
tenderness, her suppliant air of injured innocence, almost
immediately captivated him. She was raised to the rank of an
Imperial concubine; money was showered upon her, and she
proceeded immediately to exercise an influence over the Emperor
which has never relaxed. She became a power at Court and once
again a mother. Her influence is now directed towards the definite
maintenance of her own interests. She wishes her son to be the
future Emperor; she is now living in a palace, and, since she is the
apple of his Majesty’s eye, she permits nothing to endanger the
stakes for which she is playing. Recently Kim Yueng-chun, an official
of importance but of precarious position, wishing to secure himself in
the consideration of his sovereign, introduced a new beauty, whose
purity and loveliness were unquestioned. Lady Om heard of Lady
Kang and said nothing. Within two weeks, however, the Minister was
removed upon some small pretext, and subsequently tortured,
mutilated, and strangled. The Lady Kang found that if the mills of
Lady Om grind slowly, they grind exceedingly small.
Lady Om is a lover of ancient customs; by ancient customs she
made her way; by ancient customs she proposes to keep it. Her
power increases daily, and a stately edifice has been erected in the
centre of the capital to commemorate her virtues. A few months
before her marriage to the Emperor, when there was ample
indication of the trend of events, the Emperor published a decree
which declared that Lady Om had become an Imperial concubine of
the First Class. This did not give her Imperial status; but it conferred
upon her son Imperial rank. By reason of this decree, however, he
will, at some future date, ascend the throne, while it opened a way
for Lady Om to secure recognition in Korea as the lawful spouse of
her royal admirer.
A MINOR ROYALTY
 CHAPTER VI
The passing of the Emperor—An Imperial pageant

The Emperor passed one morning in procession from the Imperial

Palace, which adjoins the British Legation upon its south wall, to the
newly erected Temple of Ancestors, the eastern wall of which marks
the limits of the Legation grounds. The festival was in no way public;
yet, such was the splendour of the pageant, that this progress of
eight hundred yards, leaving the Palace by its south gate and
entering again by the eastern gate, cost over two thousand pounds.
No warning of the Imperial plans was given to his Majesty’s subjects.
Just before the hour of his departure, however, the Emperor
expressed the hope that the British Minister and myself would be
interested in the procession, inviting us to watch the spectacle from
the Legation domain. Information of the movements of the Court
was, of course, bruited abroad. Large crowds gathered around the
precincts of the Palace and the Temple, attracted by the efforts
which the soldiers were making to form a cordon round the scene.
Hundreds of soldiers were told off to guard the approaches to the
Temple. One battalion of infantry was installed in the grounds of the
Imperial Korean Customs, another occupied the gates and garden of
the British Legation.
Despite the fact that the route of the procession lay between the
high walls of a private passage, some twenty-five feet wide, leading
from the offices of the Customs to the grounds of the Legation, into
which a postern gate gives access from the Palace, and through
which no Korean is ever permitted to pass, soldiers, one pace apart,
faced one another upon opposite sides of the road. The public,
seeing nothing of the ceremony, gathered such consolation as was
possible from the spectacle of the masses of infantry occupying the
Palace Square. Occasional glimpses of Palace officials were also
secured, and the blatant discord of triumphant song, with which the
private musicians of the Emperor greeted his arrival and the passing
of the Court, fell faintly upon expectant ears. It is, however, the proud
privilege of the Koreans to pay for these promenades of the Court. If
they did not see the august countenance of his Majesty upon this
occasion, it is to be hoped that they derived some consolation for the
heavy taxation, with which they are burdened, from the brave show
made by the brand new uniforms of the troops. The plumes, gold
lace and swords of the officers, and the rifles and bayonets of the
men would have fascinated any crowd. Until the moment of
departure, the army lay around upon the road, sleeping in the dust,
or squatted in the shade upon the steps of buildings, partaking of
breakfast—a decomposed mass of sun-dried, raw fish and rice
which stunk horribly, but which they devoured greedily, tearing it into
shreds with their fingers. Occasionally a loyal citizen brought them
water or passed round a pipe, taking the opportunity to run his finger
along the edge of a bayonet, or over the surface of a coat.
The Emperor was passing in this festive state to pay homage to
the tablets of his ancestors upon their transference to a fresh abode.
The gorgeousness of the pageant burst upon the colourless
monotony of the capital with all the violent splendour and vivid
beauty of an Arabian sunset. It was right and proper that the
magnificence of the celebration should be unrestricted. The
importance of the occasion was without parallel in the festivals of the
year. The momentary brilliancy of the picture, which centres round
the usually secluded sovereign at such a moment, implied the
glorification of a dynasty, which has already occupied the throne of
Korea for more than five centuries. Quaint and stately as the
pageant was, the splendour of a barbaric mediævalism is best seen
in processions of a more public character.