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 SOUTH CHINA SEA
C A M P A I G N

1945
Task Force 38’s bold carrier rampage
in Formosa, Luzon, and Indochina
A I R

MARK LARDAS | I L LU S T R AT E D B Y I R E N E C A N O R O D R Í G U E Z
A I R C A M PA I G N

SOUTH CHINA SEA

1945
Task Force 38’s bold carrier rampage in Formosa, Luzon,
and Indochina

MARK LARDAS | I LLU STR ATED BY IRE N E C AN O R ODRÍG UE Z

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION4

CHRONOLOGY8

ATTACKER’S CAPABILITIES 10

DEFENDER’S CAPABILITIES 22

CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES 31

THE CAMPAIGN 41

AFTERMATH AND ANALYSIS 87

FURTHER READING 93

INDEX95
4 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
As Enterprise steamed into In January 1945, Admiral William “Bill” Halsey was where he wanted to be: with the US
Pearl Harbor on December Navy’s Third Fleet in the middle of the South China Sea. The fleet’s Fast Carrier Force,
8, 1941, Admiral Bill
Halsey, on the carrier’s Task Force 38, was conducting a series of air attacks, hitting Japanese bases and shipping
bridge, could see the throughout its periphery. If the sea was the face of a clock, attacks were planned around it.
aftermath of the previous Hammer blows would fall from Formosa at 1.00 to Luzon at 4.00, Camranh Bay and the
day’s attack by Japan’s
Kido Butai, including the French Indochina coast at 8.00, the Chinese coast from 9.00 to 12.00, then back to Formosa.
still-smoldering wreck of It was a campaign Halsey had longed to undertake for three years, ever since he sailed into
the battleship Arizona. Pearl Harbor on December 8, 1941. As his flagship that day, the aircraft carrier Enterprise,
(AC)
steamed in among the wreckage of the Pacific Fleet’s Battleship Force, he wanted revenge.
As he stood on Enterprise’s bridge surveying the carnage, he declared, “Before we’re through
with ’em, the Japanese language will be spoken only in Hell!”
At the time, it would have been easy for someone, especially a Japanese naval officer,
to dismiss this statement as bluster, a meaningless threat by a man whose pride had been
wounded as badly as the US Pacific Fleet. Japan had sent 353 aircraft against Pearl Harbor. In
two waves of attack, they sank or damaged 20 US Navy warships, including eight battleships,
destroyed over 300 US Navy and US Army Air Force aircraft (most on the ground), and killed
over 2,400 soldiers, sailors, and civilians. Five battleships were at the bottom of Pearl Harbor.
Over the next 90 days, Japan swept over the Pacific and Southeast Asia. It destroyed US
forces in the Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island. It had cleared Great Britain out of Hong
Kong, Malaya, Burma, and its Pacific holdings. It overwhelmed the Dutch East Indies and
chased Australia out of New Ireland, New Britain, and northern New Guinea. It had taken
over French Asian possessions in Southeast Asia, the region known as French Indochina,
before attacking Pearl Harbor.
Even though resistance in the Philippines and other parts of the British and Dutch colonial
empires had continued in March, by June 1942, Japan held a perimeter that stretched
from the Aleutian Islands in the north, swept across the Gilbert and Marshall Islands in
the Central Pacific, south to the Solomon Islands, and from there across northern New
 5

Guinea, the Dutch East Indies, and nearly to the Indian border with
Burma. Japan also controlled large parts of eastern China; this included
the industrialized northern Manchurian region, which Japan turned into
the puppet nation of Manchuko. Land communications with China were
cut off after Japanese captured the Burma Road. Japan thus stood as a
colossus over the quarter of the globe formed by the Pacific Ocean and
Eastern Asia.
When Halsey made his oath on Enterprise’s bridge, the US Navy had
only three fleet carriers in the Pacific. Japan had the Kido Butai’s six fleet
carriers that had hit Pearl Harbor, plus eight light carriers in service. The
US Navy had lost its battle line. Japan had ten battleships immediately
available. Allied air forces facing Japan were also outnumbered and
outclassed. Halsey, and the US Navy faced a long path against long odds
before he could fulfill a second vow he had made shortly after Pearl
Harbor: that he would ride Japanese emperor Hirohito’s white horse
through the streets of Tokyo when the war ended.
Despite the initial odds against him, Halsey worked to fulfill both
oaths over the next three years. He commanded several daring single-
carrier raids against Japanese Pacific island bases in the war’s opening months. In April Admiral William “Bill”
1942, he had commanded the two-carrier task force that launched the Doolittle raid against Halsey in a characteristic
pose at a conference
Japan. Circumstances and illness kept him out of the battles of Coral Sea and Midway, but table: cigarette in hand,
in October 1942 he assumed command of the South Pacific Area and South Pacific forces, with a formidable scowl.
relieving a good friend, Vice Admiral Robert Ghormley. He was the architect of
TF38’s raid into the South
Over the next several months, Halsey turned around a desperate situation in the Solomon China Sea. (AC)
Islands. He led his forces to victory, despite a tactical defeat at the battle of the Santa Cruz
Islands. Favorable outcomes at the two naval battles of Guadalcanal – combined with his
aggressive leadership, Japanese attrition, and US reinforcements – led to ultimate victory in
the Solomons by the end of 1943.
His responsibilities and command grew in 1944. In its opening months, he commanded
the Third Fleet in the central Pacific. It grew from five fleet and four light fast carriers in
February to seven fleet and six light fast carriers in June. The Third Fleet then became the
Fifth Fleet and Halsey turned over command to Raymond Spruance.
It was a notional change; only the fleet number and command staff changed. The same ships
were commanded by a different admiral. The war – and the US Pacific Fleet – had grown in
size to the point where planning grew complex. The Big Blue Fleet – the name given to the
ships that formed the Third Fleet and Fifth Fleet – was now large enough, and its operations
so complex, that trading command of the fleet between operations required two command
staffs. One staff conducted the current operation while a second prepared for the next one.
Halsey regained the Big Blue Fleet in October, leading it during the Philippine invasion.
Over the next three months, it fought the battle of Leyte (the largest naval battle in history),
conducted several carrier raids again Japanese-held islands, and weathered a typhoon that
caused almost as much damage to the Third Fleet as the Imperial Japanese Navy had during
the clashes in Leyte Gulf. Halsey was scheduled to turn over the Big Blue Fleet to Spruance
at the end of January, allowing Spruance to use it for the planned invasion of Iwo Jima.
While the Big Blue Fleet gained power and size, the Imperial Japanese Navy withered away.
Losses in the Solomons left it less able to challenge the US Navy. When it did, it suffered
crippling losses. At the battle of Leyte Gulf, the Kido Butai carrier force had grown so anemic
that it served only as a decoy, to lure TF38 (Task Force 38, the Third Fleet’s fast carriers)
away from the main offensive thrust. After Leyte, the remnants of the fleet withdrew to its
ports in Japan and Japan’s remaining overseas possessions. In December, the US Navy was
seeking ways to find and destroy these surviving ships and Japan’s remaining naval aviation.
 6 Introduction

Allied areas of control as of May 1942

Axis areas of control as of May 1942 USSR
Areas controlled by Japan on December 1944
Allied bases (January 1945)
Japanese bases (January 1945)

OUTER MONGOLIA

Sea of Japan

KOREA JAPAN
Yellow Yokosuka
CHINA Sea Hiroshima
Kure
Sasebo
East
PACIFIC OCEAN
China
Sea
BUTAN RYUKYU
BONIN
Okinawa ISLANDS
INDIA Keelung ISLANDS
Iwo Jima
Hong Kong Formosa
Takao
BURMA RICE
Bay of Haiphong
RICE
Bengal Hainan Philippine Sea
RUBBER
Rangoon MARIANAS
TIN SIAM ISLANDS
Bangkok
RICE FRENCH Manila
PHILIPPINES Saipan
INDOCHINA Guam
Andaman Camranh Bay
Mindoro
RUBBER
Sea Leyte Ulithi
Saigon
South China Sulu
Yap Truk
Sea Sea
PALAU Peleliu
TIN
ISLANDS
CAROLINE ISLANDS
OIL MALAYA Celebes
RUBBER Sea
Borneo
Singapore
OIL
BAUXITE Balkpapan
Sumatra RUBBER Celebes
DUTCH EAST INDIES
Batavia Java Sea
RUBBER Flores Sea
Java

INDIAN OCEAN

N AUSTRALIA
0 500 miles

0 500km
 7

OPPOSITE: STRATEGIC OVERVIEW

The Big Blue Fleet had been at Ulithi in late December 1944, making good the damage
it suffered during the typhoon. It was scheduled to support landings planned for Lingayen
Gulf in Luzon in early January 1945. In mid-December, the Third Fleet had thrown the “Big
Blue Blanket” over the Philippines to cover the Mindoro landings. This consisted of two days
of round-the-clock air operations by TF38’s aircraft over Luzon airfields, which successfully
kept the Japanese from leaving their bases to launch kamikaze attacks.
Halsey wanted to do more than that for the Luzon landings. He wanted to end his tenure
with the Big Blue Fleet with a bang; to send Japan a message signed by Bill Halsey by doing
something never before attempted in naval history. He proposed sending TF38 deep into
the South China Sea on a ten-day raid. It was something he had been advocating all autumn.
On November 21, 1944, following the Leyte landing and before the Mindoro operation,
Halsey had asked permission to enter the South China Sea. At the time, Fleet Admiral
Chester Nimitz, commanding US Navy Forces in the Pacific, had felt it too risky and denied
permission for the operation.
TF38 had launched other strategic carrier raids against Japanese possessions, notably at
Truk in February 1944, and most recently against Formosa in October 1944. Raiding the By October 1944, the
Kido Butai had been
South China Sea took things to a higher level. Previous raids had been one- or two-day reduced to bait during
affairs. While they ventured within range of enemy land-based aircraft, they did not linger the battle of Leyte, to lure
there. Halsey proposed having TF38 operate for an extended period in a sea surrounded by TF38 away from Japan’s
main effort. This is the
enemy-held land, unsupported by any other Allied forces. carrier Zuikaku during that
It was aggressive and audacious: classic Bill Halsey. He convinced his superior, Nimitz, battle. The last survivor of
that while aggressive it was neither reckless nor foolhardy. If successful, it could cut Japan’s the six carriers which
attacked Pearl Harbor was
most important strategic artery. Halsey also successfully argued that a Japan chasing TF38 now camouflaged as a
around the South China Sea would be a nation too preoccupied to seriously challenge the battleship. (AC)
Lingayen Gulf invasion. Nimitz, deciding the possible
gains justified the risk, approved the operation. Halsey
was consequently in the middle of a trailblazing action.
Three years made a big difference. Enterprise, his
flagship on December 8, 1941, was present, but it was
not Halsey’s flagship. He had broken his flag on New
Jersey, an Iowa-class battleship that could make 33 knots.
It had been under construction on December 8, 1941,
and was not launched until a year after that. Admiral
John S. McCain was in charge of TF38, with Essex-class
carrier Hancock as his flagship. Enterprise was one of two
dedicated night-operations aircraft carriers – an important
role, but outside mainstream carrier operations.
TF38’s South China Sea sweep had important
strategic and tactical military objectives. It had an
equally important psychological objective. Halsey was
sending the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japan
a message: “Come out and fight. If you do not, the Big
Blue Fleet will come to you. It will dig you out of your
most secure bases. It will take possession of your strategic
waterways. We can even go into the South China Sea
and you cannot stop us.”
8 Chronology
CHRONOLOGY
1937
July 7 Second Sino-Japanese War begins.
1938
May 13 Japan occupies Amoy.
October 22 Japan occupies Canton.
1939
February 9–11 Japan occupies Hainan.
1940
August 30 Japan wins right to base troops in Luichow.
September 22–26 Japan occupies Tonkin and northern
French Indochina.
September 27 Japan signs the Tripartite Pact with
Germany and Italy, which guarantees that if a
signatory is attacked by a nation with which it is not
currently at war, all signatories will declare war on the
attacking nation.
October 16 US President Franklin Roosevelt imposes
an embargo of scrap iron and steel sales to Japan in
retaliation for Japan’s occupation of Tonkin.
December 9 France and Japan sign a treaty allowing
Japanese forces to occupy all of French Indochina while
allowing France sovereignty over its army and civilian
administration in Indochina.
The 7,500-ton troop transport Kumgawa Maru is torpedoed by a US Avenger off Cape St Jacques (today’s Vung Tau) on the coast
of French Indochina. Kumgawa Maru was one of six vessels sunk by TF38 in that convoy. (USNHHC)
1941
July 26 Roosevelt embargoes petroleum sales to Japan
and freezes Japanese assets in the United States in
retaliation for the announced movements of Japanese
troops into all of French Indochina.
July 28 Japan sends 140,000 troops to French Indochina
in preparation for invading the Dutch East Indies.
December 7 Japan attacks the US Pacific Fleet in Pearl
Harbor and launches concurrent attacks on British,
Dutch, and US holdings in the Far East.
December 10 Japanese troops from Formosa land on
Luzon in the Philippines.
December 25 All Allied forces in Hong Kong
surrender to Japan.
1942
January 2 Manila, the Philippine capital, is declared an
open city by the US and occupied by Japan.
April 10 US resistance on Bataan in the
Philippines ceases.
May 6 Corregidor falls to Japanese invasion and US
forces in the remainder of the Philippines are ordered to
surrender.

1943
February 15–16 Japan occupies Luichow.
1944
October 12–16 TF38 launch air raids against Formosa
in advance of the Leyte landings.
October 23–26 Battle of Leyte fought.
November 21 Admiral Halsey proposes raiding the
South China Sea with Third Fleet.
November 30 Admiral John S. McCain takes
command of TF38.
December 15 Mindoro invaded.
December 28 Admiral Nimitz grants permission for a
South China Sea raid by Third Fleet.
December 30 TF38 and elements of TG30.8 (Task
Group 30.8) depart Ulithi.
1945
January 3–4 TF38 launches airstrikes against Formosa.
January 6 Lingayen Gulf landings on Luzon.
January 6–7 TF38 launches airstrikes against Luzon.
January 9 TF38 launches airstrikes against Formosa.
January 9-10 TF38 enters South China Sea.
January 11 TF38 launches airstrikes against
French Indochina coast, sinking every tanker in a
15-ship convoy.
January 14 TF38 launches airstrikes against Formosa
and the China coast.
January 15 TF38 launches airstrikes against Hong Kong
and Hainan.
January 20 TF38 exits the South China Sea.
January 21 TF38 launches airstrikes against Formosa,
experiencing counterattacks by kamikaze.
January 21 Fourteenth Air Force B-24 sinks the river
gunboat Saga at Hong Kong.
9
January 22 TF38 launches airstrikes against
Nansei Shoto.
January 22 Japan withdraws all air forces from the
Philippines.
January 22 US Army Air Force (AAF) begins bombing
targets in Formosa in daylight attacks.
January 26 TF38 returns to Ulithi.
January 28 Third Fleet becomes Fifth Fleet, Halsey and
McCain are relieved by Spruance and Mitcher.
February 12 AAF begins long-range patrols in the South
China Sea.
February 13 AAF B-25s begin strike missions in South
China Sea.
February 19 US Fifth Fleet invades Iwo Jima.
February 22 First successful strike by B-25s on Japanese
shipping in South China Sea.
February 26 Iwo Jima secured by US forces.
March Formosa neutralized by AAF.
April 1 Invasion of Okinawa.
April 9 Sea lanes across South China Sea
permanently severed.
June 22 Okinawa secured by US forces.
August 6 Japan ceases hostilities.
August 28 Occupation of Japan begins.
September 2 Instrument of surrender signed aboard
USS Missouri in Tokyo harbor.
10 Attacker’s Capabilities

ATTACKER’S CAPABILITIES
Task Force 38 at the height of its power

A formation of Grumman The US Navy’s sweep into the China Sea resulted from the growing capability of its
Avengers forming up for a Pacific Fleet, especially the Fast Carrier Force. The US Navy’s forces in the Pacific grew at
strike. The Avenger was
the US Navy’s primary a phenomenal rate over three years. By December 1944, its Fast Carrier Force consisted
torpedo bomber from of eight fleet carriers and six light carriers, accompanied by nine fast battleships, 16
1942 through to the end light and heavy cruisers, and 74 destroyers. They had a total of 956 aircraft in their air
of the war. Highly
versatile bombers, groups.
Avengers operated off It was a massive number of aircraft, dwarfing the total that the Kido Butai launched
fleet carriers, light against Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Intelligence indicated it exceeded the total
carriers, and escort
carriers. (AC) combat aircraft possessed by Japan within reach of the South China Sea. Moreover,
all these carrier aircraft were leading-edge warplanes, more capable than the front-line
aircraft the Japanese air forces possessed.
Three years of war had honed the US Third Fleet to a deadly and effective weapon; one
that was capable of projecting power and operating independently over long distances.
The US Navy had built a logistics infrastructure to keep it supplied and maintained
across the vast Pacific Ocean. As 1944 ended, the Third Fleet never lacked the necessary
beans, bullets, and black oil it needed to take the war to the enemy. It had effective and
innovative weapons and had evolved offensive tactics that got the most out of them.
The real challenge to an attack into the South China Sea would be logistics. The
nearest fleet anchorage capable of supporting the Third Fleet was at Ulithi, some 1,400
miles from the entrance to the South China Sea. That entrance marked the campaign’s
starting point. Ten days of intense combat operations were planned after that, with
another week of operations following departure from the South China Sea. TF38 needed
to bring with it resupply ships at a scale unprecedented until that point in the war.
It was a test of the attacker’s capabilities, in terms of aircraft, logistics and infrastructure,
and weapons and tactics. No previous air campaign – and few subsequent ones –
had ever required such a test. Coming up short in any of these matters would lead
to disaster.
 11

Aircraft
The aircraft the United States Navy used
offensively during the Third Fleet’s South
China Sea campaign were US Navy carrier
aircraft. US Navy floatplanes on battleships
and cruisers provided rescue and other auxiliary
services. Carrier aircraft were all single-engine
aircraft. The main carrier aircraft used were
the F6F, F4U, SBD, SB2C, and TBF/TBM.
Vought OS2U Kingfishers, catapult-launched
floatplanes, played an important air–sea rescue
role during the carrier raids. Each fleet carrier
carried between 38 and 80 fighters, 15–25
dive-bombers (except for the night-flying
Enterprise, which carried no dive-bombers),
and 15–18 torpedo bombers (again, except
the Enterprise, which carried 27). Each light
carrier held 22–25 fighters and eight or nine
torpedo bombers.
There were more fighters than previously, but significantly fewer dive-bombers. Nearly An F6F-5N flies near a
two-thirds of the aircraft aboard TF38 carriers – 601 out of 956 – were fighters. Many of TF38 aircraft carrier. It is
fitted with an AN/APS-6
these doubled as fighter-bombers. Eighteen were equipped as photo-reconnaissance aircraft radar in a fairing on the
and 38 as radar-equipped night fighters. There were 154 dive-bombers and 201 torpedo outer-starboard wing. The
bombers. One torpedo bomber was equipped for photo-reconnaissance and 35 were radar- US Navy made extensive
use of radar-equipped
equipped night bombers. night fighters and
In addition to TF38, TG30.8 had seven escort carriers accompanying it, each with 26–32 bombers during the
aircraft. While these were primarily intended to provide resupply aircraft to the Fast Carrier January 1945 South
China Sea raid.
(USNHHC)

USS Essex carried two

squadrons of Marine F4U
Corsairs during the
January incursion into the
South China Sea. They are
spotted on Essex’s deck as
part of a deckload strike
in January 1945.
(USNHHC)
12 Attacker’s Capabilities

OPPOSITE: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MAST-TOP BOMBING

By 1945, the United States Navy largely abandoned dive-bombing and torpedo bombing against naval targets in favor
of fighter-bombers conducting mast-top attacks. Mast-top bombing yielded a higher percentage of hits, and the bombers
became fighters once they delivered their ordinance. Against anything except a heavily armored vessel like a fleet carrier,
battleship, or heavy cruiser, it was more effective. The South China Sea was filled with targets perfect for mast-top tactics.

Force, at least one of the seven was used to provide combat air patrol (CAP) for TG30.8.
The F4F-4 or FM Wildcats were used by those escort carriers for that purpose.
The principal aircraft used by the US Navy in the South China Sea were as follows:
Grumman F6F Hellcat: Appearing in late 1943, the Hellcat was designed to fight the
Zero. It was the Allied fighter most feared by Japanese pilots. By 1944, it was the US Navy’s
primary carrier-based fighter, and remained so through 1945. There were two versions used
during this campaign: the F6F-3 and the improved F6F-5 with a more powerful engine. The
F6F-5 had largely superseded the F6F-3 by December 1944. Three-quarters of Hellcats in
this campaign were the F6F-5 variant. It had a maximum speed of 391mph, a cruising speed
of 200mph, a service ceiling of 37,300ft, and a range of 1,500 miles.
All F6F-3s were armed with six .50cal machine guns, while the F6F-5 could be armed
with six .50cal machine guns or two 20mm cannons and four .50cal machine guns. In
practice, only the night-fighter versions of the F6F-5 – the F6F-5N – carried 20mm cannons.
Except for the radar-equipped night fighters, all Hellcats used in this campaign were capable
of carrying six 5in. rockets in under-wing racks, along with up to 4,000lb of bombs in a
centerline mount that carried one torpedo or one bomb of up to 2,000lb or one bomb of
up to 1,000lb under each wing.
Vought F4U Corsair: The Corsair was a single-engine fighter armed with six .50cal
machine guns. It could also be used as a fighter-bomber carrying eight under-wing 5in.
HVARs (High Velocity Aircraft Rockets) or up to 4,000lb of bombs in under-wing or
centerline brackets. It had a top speed of 417mph, a cruise speed of 220mph, a service
ceiling of 36,000ft, and a 1,000nmi (nautical miles) range. Entering combat in early
1943, it ended the war with an 11:1 kill ratio, 11 enemy aircraft being shot down for
every Corsair lost.
Despite being designed as a carrier aircraft, it proved difficult to land on aircraft carriers.
Early in its career it was largely used by land-based Marine fighter squadrons. However, it
was such a good fighter that by late 1944 the Corsair was making a comeback on carriers.
Only one carrier had Corsairs during this campaign, Essex, which had two 18-aircraft Marine
squadrons. One squadron used the F4U-1, the first production version with the “birdcage”
canopy and the 2,000hp R-2800-8 Double Wasp engine. The other was equipped with
the newer F4U-1D, which had a bubble canopy and the more powerful water-injected
R-2800-8W Double Wasp engine with up to 2,250hp.
Curtis SB2C Helldiver: This single-engine dive-bomber was used aboard US Navy aircraft
carriers during the campaign. The Helldiver, which replaced the Douglas Dauntless as the
Navy’s primary dive-bomber in 1944, carried up to 2,500lb of bombs, had a maximum
speed of 295mph, a cruise speed of 158mph, a ceiling of 29,000ft, and a 1,165nmi range.
Only fleet carriers carried dive-bomber squadrons. The Helldiver experienced development
problems in early 1944 that had still not been worked out by the end of the year.
Dive-bombing was the most effective means of attacking large, armored warships. By the
end of 1944, however, the Japanese Navy had relatively few large warships left. Opportunities
where dive-bombing was most useful were scarce. Mast-top bombing was more effective
against unarmored warships and merchant vessels, with low-level bombing more useful
against ground targets such as airfields. These tactics could be more effectively used by smaller,
more survivable fighter-bombers, which could carry bombloads as large as the Helldiver.
 13

F6Fs spot tankers. Tankers spot F6Fs.

F6Fs turn to attack tankers. Tankers turn to escape.

Wingman F6F begins firing machine guns to suppress AA and damage ship.

Lead F6F fires rockets and drops bomb, hitting ship. F6Fs pull up and out.
14 Attacker’s Capabilities

Although a few Helldivers were retained against the hope the remaining Japanese heavy
warships would come out to fight, they had largely been superseded by fighter-bombers.
Grumman TBF/General Motors TBM Avenger: The Avenger was a single-engine torpedo
bomber with a crew of three. It carried a single 18in. aerial torpedo or up to 2,000lb of
bombs, depth charges, or mines. It had a top speed of 275mph, a cruising speed of 145mph, a
service ceiling of 30,000ft, and a 1,000nmi range. Designed and constructed by Grumman, it
was also built under license by General Motors. Aircraft from both manufacturers were used.
The Avenger was much more versatile than the newer and larger Helldiver. It flew as a
torpedo bomber against shipping, or as a medium- or high-altitude level bomber against
airfields or other land targets, all roles for which there was use in this campaign. Versions
including the TBF-1D, TBM-3D, TBM-3E, TBM-3H, and TBM-3N were equipped
with centimeter-wave radar, typically in a radome on the right wing. These were used for
antisubmarine warfare, radar-guided night bombing, or airborne early warning (AEW). They
were used at night as AEW aircraft to help guide night fighters to targets.
Grumman F4F and FM Wildcat: This was the US Navy’s primary fleet fighter when
World War II began. It held its own against the superior Japanese Zero, but was superseded
by the F6F in 1943. The Wildcat was rugged and reliable, with more forgiving takeoff and
landing characteristics than the Hellcat. It was used by most escort carriers, typically with
14–16 carried. Intended for antisubmarine or ground support duties, it frequently defended
escort carrier units against kamikaze attacks. Armed with four .50cal machine guns, it had
a top speed of 331mph and cruised at 155mph, with a service ceiling of 39,500ft, and a
700nmi range. Wildcats manufactured by General Motors were designated FMs.
Vought OS2U Kingfisher: The Kingfisher, a catapult-launched floatplane, operated off
US battleships and cruisers. It had a maximum speed of 171mph, a cruise speed of 152mph,
a service ceiling of 18,000ft, and a 790nmi range. It had one forward-firing fixed .30cal
machine gun and one flexible. 30cal machine gun aft that was fired by the observer. It carried
up to two 325lb depth charges. The Kingfisher was intended to provide reconnaissance, fire
control, and observation for US Navy battleships and cruisers. Radar replaced its gunnery-
spotting function and carrier aircraft supplanted it for reconnaissance. It served as a lifeguard
aircraft during carrier raids, rescuing downed naval aviators.

Facilities and infrastructure

The most important facilities used by aircraft in this campaign were TF38’s 14 fast carriers.
Fleet and light carriers were fast vessels built as warships, with a top speed in excess of
30 knots. The major difference between fleet and light carriers was size and capability.
Fleet carriers in this campaign ranged from 25,000–35,000 tons displacement, carried up
to 120 aircraft, and had sizable antiaircraft batteries, including 5in. guns. Light carriers
displaced between 10,000 and 13,000 tons, carried up to 30 aircraft, and had only light
antiaircraft guns.
All but one fleet carrier in this campaign belonged to the Essex class. Two dozen of them
were built. These carriers displaced 35,000 tons loaded, their waterline was 820ft long, they
had an 862ft flight deck, could reach 32.5 knots, and could cruise 20,000nmi at 15 knots.
They had powerful antiaircraft batteries and excellent internal protection. The other fleet
carrier was Enterprise, sole survivor of the three-ship prewar Yorktown class. It displaced
25,000 tons. While celebrated, it was inferior to the Essex-class carriers and was being
relegated to a backup role. In this campaign, it served as one of two night-operations carriers,
with 65 radar-equipped aircraft.
The US light carriers belonged to the Independence class, conversions modified to aircraft
carriers from Cleveland-class light cruisers while under construction. Each was 600ft long at
the waterline, with a 552ft flight deck. They displaced nearly 15,000 tons fully loaded and
 15

their steam turbines gave a top speed of 31 knots. They could steam 13,000nmi at 15 knots. An Essex-class carrier in a
Designed to carry 45 aircraft, in this campaign they carried just 31. storm in the South China
Sea. The Essex-class
The various battleships, cruisers, and destroyers assigned to TF38 all had the same mission: carriers were the
protect the fast carriers. Their primary function – including the fast battleship, armed with backbone of the Fast
main batteries of nine 16in. guns – was to serve as mobile antiaircraft batteries, shielding Carrier Force. They each
carried up to 100 aircraft
the carriers from air attack. While battleship and cruiser captains dreamed of an opportunity and were excellent sea
for a surface action, their need to defend the carriers came first. The destroyers also provided boats. (AC)
antisubmarine protection.
All warships required food, ammunition, and fuel – beans, bullets, and black oil in Navy
parlance. It had to come from somewhere. Since 1942, the Allies’ Pacific War strategic goal
had been to invade and occupy Japan. Tokyo was nearly 4,500nmi from San Francisco, over
4,200nmi from Sydney in Australia, and 5,700nmi from India’s east coast. These were global
distances. To project power across those distances required a massive and intricately managed
logistical system combining island bases and numerous logistics vessels.
The US Navy began the war with a well-provisioned supply and repair center in the
middle of the Pacific at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, their main prewar base in the region. Japan’s
war-opening attack there concentrated on the US Navy warships in the harbor, neglecting
infrastructure targets such as oil terminals, warehouses, dry docks, and ship and aircraft
repair and maintenance facilities.
As 1945 opened, the war had moved far west of Hawaii. To provide forward bases for its
fleet as it advanced across the Pacific, the US Navy developed anchorages and supply and
repair depots along the way. Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands, taken unopposed by the US
in September 1944, was the US Navy’s westernmost anchorage in January 1945: 2,700nmi
from Pearl Harbor and 1,100nmi from Tokyo.
Ulithi became a major facility with 6,000 ship fitters and other repair personnel. The atoll
provided a sheltered anchorage large enough to comfortably hold every warship in the US
16 Attacker’s Capabilities

Ulithi Atoll was the US Navy, from the smallest PT boat to its largest battleships. It had several floating dry docks,
Navy’s main anchorage including one which could carry an Iowa-class battleship. Other vessels distilled fresh water,
during the winter of
1944–45. It was large baked fresh bread, and provided other comforts to the US Navy’s fleets operating out of the
enough to hold every ship atoll. It even had a concrete-hull ice cream barge capable of producing 500 gallons of ice
in the US Pacific Fleet, cream every six hours and storing 2,000 gallons of it aboard.
with room for more. By
January 1945, it had The US Navy had mastered the art of moving sufficient food, fuel, and munitions to feed
extensive logistics and the fleet operating out of Ulithi, some 4,700nmi from the West Coast. Nevertheless, Ulithi
repair facilities. (AC) was over 1,400nmi from the eastern entrance to the South China Sea, through the gap between
Formosa and Luzon. US Navy warships from Ulithi could reach that distance, conduct combat
operations, and return safely to Ulithi. By December 1944, they frequently had. However, the
Luzon Strait was only the starting point for a move into the South China Sea. Operations were
planned to last ten days, during which TF38 could easily cover another 2,000nmi steaming at
combat speeds. Without resupply, it could end up literally dead in the water.
Even before World War II began, the US Navy led the world’s fleets in underway
replenishment. Anticipating a trans-Pacific campaign, it created a force of fleet oilers which
could fuel its fleet while at sea. After three years of war it had perfected fleet logistics,
expanding it to include transferring supplies and ammunition at sea. TF38 was supported
by TG30.8, the At Sea Logistics Group of Third Fleet. It consisted of 29 fleet oilers, eight
escort carriers, seven ammunition ships, and seven oceangoing tugs, escorted by 14 destroyers
and 25 destroyer escorts.
Of the seven escort carriers, one – USS Altamaha – was an early escort carrier, built under a
Maritime Commission contract at Tacoma, Washington. It displaced 7,900 tons, could make
a maximum of 16 knots, and carried 24 aircraft. The rest belonged to the Casablanca class.
Displacing 11,000 tons, they were mass-produced at Kaiser Corporation shipyards, built
through an initiative of the company’s owner, Henry J. Kaiser. Nicknamed Kaiser carriers,
they were 490ft long, with a 475ft flight deck, and had a maximum speed of 19 knots. They
steamed 10,200nmi at 15 knots and carried 28 aircraft. Fifty Kaiser carriers were built.
 17

Normally, these auxiliaries operated 300–500nmi behind TF38, with TF38 between them TG30.8, the At Sea
and the enemy shore. On previous campaigns, they had fueled the fighting ships a day before Logistics Group of Third
Fleet, accompanied TF38
they attacked. The auxiliaries would then hover near that point as the Fast Carrier Force made into the South China Sea.
a high-speed run to their target, spend a day or two attacking, then make an equally fast exit In addition to fleet oilers,
run. They would then rendezvous with the auxiliaries, refuel, and (if necessary) rearm. From the logistics group
included six Casablanca-
there, the Fast Carrier Force could launch another set of attacks or return to port, whether class escort carriers to
to Pearl Harbor or Ulithi. provide the Fast Carrier
The extended stay planned in the South China Sea made this impractical. In such Force with replacement
aircraft. (AC)
dangerous waters, the Fast Carrier Force could not afford to reduce speed to conserve oil. It
had to keep its fuel topped up to permit continuous high-speed operation. Part of TG30.8
thus accompanied TF38 into the South China Sea to carry replacement aircraft, fuel, and
spare ammunition.
With this fleet train and the mobile airfields provided by aircraft carriers, this would be
the first campaign fought by the US Navy in which all facilities and infrastructure used to
fight the campaign was mobile. Ulithi, which served just as the starting and ending point,
was the only static base used.

Weapons and tactics

The weapons on US Navy carrier aircraft used in the South China Sea included M2 Browning
.50cal machine guns, M1919 .30cal machine guns, M2 20mm cannons, a variety of bombs,
aerial torpedoes, and the 5in. HVAR. Ship-mounted artillery provided antiaircraft protection
for TF38 and TG30.8 against air attack, part of an integrated air defense system.
The M2 .50cal was a highly reliable, air-cooled machine gun. Navy aircraft used a
dedicated aircraft version, the AN/M2. The M2 had a muzzle velocity of 2,910fps and
could fire 750–850 rounds per minute. The gun fired a 52g bullet, capable of penetrating
1in. of armor and the structural steel of unarmored ships. It was a potent weapon against
18 Attacker’s Capabilities
Pallets of HVAR rockets
ready to load on aircraft
preparatory to an
airstrike. These 5in.
rockets traveled at
supersonic speed, adding
kinetic energy to the effect
of the explosive warhead.
(AC)§
ships, ground vehicles, and buildings, as well as other aircraft. The M1919 was lighter, firing
an 11g round with a muzzle-velocity of 2,800fps. Aircraft versions fired 1,200–1,500 rounds
per minute and were effective primarily against aircraft or troops in the open.
The M2 20mm cannon was a US-licensed version of the Hispano-Suiza HS.404 Mk II
20mm cannon and was used by both the US Army Air Force and US Navy. It had a muzzle
velocity of 2,800fps and fired 700–750 rounds per minute. It fired a 4.6oz (130g) projectile,
and had armor-piercing, high-explosive, and incendiary rounds. The high-explosive round
had between 0.21oz and 0.39oz (6–11g) of explosive.
The US Navy used the Mk XIII aerial torpedo against shipping in the South China Sea.
Developed in the 1930s, the Mk XIII became operational in 1938. When the war began it had
to be launched at low speeds as otherwise it would break up when entering the water, which
made it almost useless in 1942. Nevertheless, wartime modifications meant it had evolved
into an effective weapon by 1944. A nose drag ring, tail shroud, and fin stabilizer slowed the
torpedo enough that it neither broke up nor ran wild on hitting the water. It was 13ft 9in.
long, with a 22.4in. diameter, had a 600lb warhead, and could travel 4,000yds at 33.5 knots.
The main bomb used in this campaign was the high-explosive general-purpose bomb.
Parafrag (parachute-retarded fragmentation) bombs were also used, especially against airfields
with aircraft in the open, as were incendiary and phosphorus bombs. The most common
ordinance used was the 500lb M58 and M58A1 semi-armor-piercing bomb. The M57
(250lb) and M65 (1,000lb) bombs were also used. Roughly half the weight in all these bombs
was the steel case, the remainder being made up of explosive, typically TNT.
The 500lb bomb was highly effective against small warships, cargo ships, tankers, and
harbor craft such as tugs and barges. One hit would cripple these vessels, with a good chance
of sinking them. They were also effective against shore installations such as warehouses,
hangars, and machine shops. Frame and metal roof construction proved extremely vulnerable
to 500lb bombs, which could also fracture runways and concrete foundations.
Against larger warships, including light cruisers, 1,000lb bombs were more effective,
although relatively few of these ships were expected to be in the South China Sea. Except
the battleships suspected to be in Camranh Bay in French Indochina, no ships worthy of a
 19

2,000lb bomb were present. Helldivers and

Avengers could carry four 500lb bombs,
allowing multiple attacks. Fighter-bombers
carrying three 500lb bombs or six HVARs
and a 500lb centerline bomb were more
maneuverable and had longer range than
those burdened with 4,000lb of bombs.
The HVAR was an unguided rocket
intended for use against ground targets.
It weighed 134lb, was 68in. long, and
had a 5in. diameter. Its warhead weighed
45.5lb and contained 7.5lb of TNT or
Composition B explosive. It traveled
at supersonic speeds, accelerating past
Mach 1, and was capable of penetrating
4ft of reinforced concrete. A volley would
devastate a transport or tanker. They
could be launched individually, in pairs,
or all together.
For antiaircraft defense, the US Navy
carried 5in./.38cal guns backed up by an
array of 40mm Bofors and 20mm Oerlikon
antiaircraft guns.
The 5in./.38cal gun was World War II’s finest dual-purpose gun. It was effective and A quad-mount 40mm
deadly against aircraft, especially when accurate aircraft altitudes were provided for fusing Bofors antiaircraft gun.
The Bofors was an
or proximity fuses were fitted. The shell weighed 55lb, of which 7.1–8.5lb was the bursting outstanding medium-
charge. It fired 15 rounds per minute, had a 37,200ft ceiling, and could reach low-flying weight antiaircraft
aircraft up to 8½ miles away. weapon. When paired
with the the Mk 14
Proximity fuses used a radar unit inside the projectile. When the radar detected an object gunsight developed by
(hopefully an enemy aircraft), it detonated the shell just after the closest approach, when the Draper Laboratory
range began increasing. This dramatically increased the odds of the shell exploding within (which determined the
appropriate angle to
a burst radius fatal to an aircraft. lead a target), it was
The 40mm gun was a Swedish Bofors design, built under license in the United States. It devastating. (AC)
fired up to 120 2lb explosive rounds per minute, and had a 22,300ft ceiling. To minimize
the danger of friendly fire, rounds were fused to explode after traveling 12,000–15,000ft.
Within that distance they were deadly.
The 20mm Oerlikon, a Swiss design produced under license, fired a 0.27lb projectile. Its
effective rate of fire was 250–320 rounds per minute and it had a 10,000ft ceiling, although
it was rarely effective beyond 3,000ft. US Navy doctrine was to begin firing the 20mm
guns when the target was 3,900ft away, allowing aimed corrections as the target entered
effective range.
Antiaircraft defense started with radar, which guided Allied aircraft towards attacking
Japanese aircraft and controlled fire when enemy aircraft arrived within range of shipboard
artillery. By December 1944, every warship in TF38 and TG30.8 had radar. Large warships
had some version of SK air search radar, which had a 162nmi line-of-sight range. Destroyer
escorts were normally equipped with SA air search radar, although some were fitted
with SK radar.
By 1944, destroyers and larger warships had fire-control radar to provide both the approach
azimuth and altitude of incoming aircraft. These directed the fire of 5in./.38cal antiaircraft
guns comprising destroyers’ main batteries and the secondary batteries of cruisers, aircraft
carriers, and battleships.
20 Attacker’s Capabilities

OPPOSITE: AIRFIELD ATTACK TECHNIQUES

By January 1945, the US Navy had become very good at attacking enemy airfields, employing three basic tactics:
1. low-altitude strafing by fighters;
2. low-altitude bombing using parachute-retarded fragmentation (parafrag) bombs;
3. high-altitude level bombing.
Each technique had different strengths and weaknesses.

The 40mm Bofors used the Mk 37 director, which was originally an optical system
but by late 1944 was radar-equipped. A Mk 51 director developed later improved 40mm
performance. The 40mm and 20mm guns could be directed locally using the Mk 14
gunsight, which used gyroscopes to calculate how much to “lead” a moving target. Most
of these innovations were pioneered by Charles Stark Draper in the MIT (Massachusetts
Institute of Technology) Instrumentation Laboratory.
By late 1944, the US Navy had achieved remarkable competence in containing and
controlling battle damage, especially firefighting. Wartime experience revealed fire as the
biggest combat risk to ships, especially aircraft carriers, filled with explosives and volatile
aircraft fuel. The Navy increased the number of fire mains aboard ships, installing ones
powered independently of ships’ engines or adding portable, gasoline-powered water pumps.
They were equipped with fog nozzles which sprayed water in a fine mist, maximizing the
exposed surface area. Aircraft carriers also carried foaming systems to quench fuel fires.
The Allies developed sophisticated offensive and defensive tactics for aircraft. Offensive
tactics included beginning attacks against ships or airfields with a morning fighter sweep.
This was used to clear the skies of enemy aircraft before committing more vulnerable bombers
and fighter-bombers over enemy airspace. Multiple waves of bombers and fighters were used,
permitting follow-up attacks on previously damaged targets, wearing down their opponents.
Defense tactics were also developed to protect against kamikaze attacks. On strike days,
radar picket destroyers were placed on either side of the axis of attack 60 miles closer to
the enemy than the carriers. They were equipped with air search radar and aircraft homing
beacons. CAP missions were maintained over these “Tom Cat” picket destroyers to deal
with enemy aircraft.
Friendly aircraft returning from missions flew over Tom Cat destroyers, doing a full
360-degree turn over them. The returning strike then flew to the carriers, tracing a dogleg
course. The CAP “deloused” the aircraft over the Tom Cats, identifying friendly and enemy
aircraft, attacking any hostiles attempting to sneak in with the returning strike. Any aircraft
skipping the Tom Cats, flying a straight course to the carriers, were assumed hostile and
intercepted by the carrier group’s CAP.

USS Maddox in World

War II. Maddox served as
a “Tom Cat” delousing
destroyer during the
campaign. It was hit by a
kamikaze off Formosa on
January 21 while
performing that role. (AC)
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 FOOTNOTES:
[9] Gregapojee is mostly abbreviated into Greejee.
[10] This I know practically, as I am well acquainted with
agricultural labour.
[11] I have preserved several specimens of these insects, and
sent them to England.
 CHAPTER VII.
Locusts—The Winged Ant—Its Destructive Nature—Horse
attacked by them—Their Ingenuity in Building—Stock—Great
Want of Mechanics—Portuguese Whydah—Emigrants from
Sierra Leone—Their Deplorable Condition—English at the
Fort of Whydah—Military Resources of Dahomey—Polygamy
—Mode of Shipping Slaves—Brutality on these occasions—
Porto Sogoora—Mr. Lawson’s Slaves—Greejee—Toll
imposed there—Zahlivay—Yakasgo—Badaguay—The
Cabbage Palm-tree—Wooded Scenery—The Palm-tree—
Exploring Visit to the Haho—Misfortunes of Ithay Botho, Capt.
Clapperton’s Servant—Adventures—Curiosity of the Natives
—Podefo and its Market—Alligators—My Crew mutiny from
fear—Hippopotami—Superstition of the Natives—A party of
Fishermen, and their Fish-traps—Base Conduct of the
Fishermen—My Punishment of them and my Crew.
Another very singular animal of the insect tribe which I met with
here, is of the class of locusts, which I have not seen in any other
part of Africa. Its form is similar to that of the grasshopper, but it has
four long transparent wings. The body is of a scarlet colour, the
wings of a bright yellow. It is about four inches and a half long. At a
leap, assisted by its wings, it can clear about twelve yards. Another
insect is the large winged ant, about the dimensions of the wasp in
England. They are well known to all African travellers, although
some of their habits and powers may not have been noticed. One
circumstance I shall relate, which convinced me at least of one
peculiarity in that insect. Yesterday morning, after a night’s heavy
rain, I observed several of them going singly in different directions;
for they seldom go in large companies like other ants. I caught one,
and carried it home in the bend of a twig. It emitted a smell,
immediately upon being caught, of the most offensive and loathsome
kind. I put it into a tin case with some other live insects, but the smell
was so offensive as to compel me to leave the room. In about an
hour and a half I returned, and found all the other insects dead. The
moment I opened the box, the ant again emitted the most offensive
smell.
A thought struck me that instead of the ant destroying the other
insects by violence (as I at first imagined) their death might have
been the result of the poisonous effluvia emitted by this peculiar ant.
I determined, consequently, upon making another trial, and, having
caught several of these insects, amongst which was the large white-
winged ant, with several varieties of beetles, I took the precaution to
fix a partition in the box, that neither party could use violence
towards the other. On re-opening the box, which was perforated with
small air-holes, all the others were apparently dead. I took out all but
the ant. One peculiar sort of beetle seemed to recover a little after
being put in a current of fresh air, but ultimately that died also. I
afterwards caught another ant, and held it near a dog’s nose, upon
which the poor animal struggled and howled. I tried to hold it near my
horse’s nose, but he also rejected it with bitter determination. I left
both ants alive in the box of bamboo, on my bedroom table, and
although well ventilated, I awoke quite sick at the stomach. I then
took some medicine, and put the ants to death.
To some this statement may seem exaggerated, but those who
may be incredulous I would refer to Governor Maclean, late of Cape
Coast, and long an African resident. His veracity is not to be
doubted; or I would refer to any of the British merchants of our
settlements on the African coast.
This species of ant builds hills from twelve to fifteen feet high, and
displays wonderful skill in architecture, both as regards durability and
protection against foul weather. It has a peculiar method of
hardening the mud of which it builds its house, rendering it equal in
hardness to cement: these houses are of a spiral form. This ant is
armed with two large horizontal fangs, with which he secures his
prey, then bites with his teeth perpendicularly to the fangs; these,
aided by a sharp sting, render him (independently of his poisonous
odour) a formidable enemy. Another large ant, though of less
magnitude and without the offensive smell, is also found in this
country, and is probably as dangerous as the former, on account of
its travelling in large armies.
I remember shooting a pigeon near Cape Coast, which fell on one
of their paths. Before I reached the spot, which was not more than
two minutes, they had commenced an attack in hundreds on the
poor pigeon, who was yet struggling to beat them off. I was myself
attacked, and was actually compelled to strip myself naked on the
road, to clear my person of them.
Mr. Hanson, of Accra, informs me of a similar attack made by
these ants upon himself and horse, and declares that they would
have killed the latter had he not had the presence of mind to throw
numerous buckets of water over the poor animal, and dash water up
his nostrils, which were literally filled with them. These ants display
still more taste in their mode of building, and seem to prefer the
Gothic style of architecture. They first build an upright shaft about
three feet, then at intervals of about six inches build circular
apartments, each formed conically round the shaft, very much like a
large bason turned upside down; the shaft resembling a large stick
run through the centre of half a dozen basons. The top apartment
terminates in a spiral cone or pyramid, and is consequently quite
waterproof. From their skill in hardening the clay, the space between
each floor or apartment forms a convenient gallery, where they
exercise in bad weather. These apartments are all honey-combed,
and have a passage, or rather several staircases, from the lower to
the upper apartment through the main shaft.
I ought first, however, to have said something of the higher
animals. Oxen are not so numerous here as in Whydah, no attention
being paid to the breeding; nor are sheep or goats so numerous as
in other parts of this country. The Portuguese and Spaniards are the
principal parties who hold any stock, consequently the breed of oxen
is much inferior in size to those I have observed in many other
places on this coast. Sheep and goats are better bred than oxen; but
horses are not at all bred here. Some of the Portuguese and
Spaniards have small horses, brought from Badagry and Abomey.
Neither the ox nor horse is used for agricultural purposes, although
the soil is so well calculated for the plough, being very level, and
without a stone even of the smallest size. The wild ox is abundant in
the bush near this place, as is also a species of deer, both black and
red. The head is broader and thicker, and its legs less graceful than
those of the red deer, which is lighter, and very much resembles our
small deer in England.
Swine are very superior in this place, being almost equal to those
of England. Wild carnivorous animals abound in the bush in this
neighbourhood, particularly the patakoo, or large hyæna, the
panther, bush-cat, and small wolf.
Fowls are plentiful here, and some are very large, owing to the
breed being crossed by the large Portuguese fowl, which is brought
over from the Brazils by the Portuguese slave-dealers. The Guinea
fowl is found here also in great numbers, running wild in the
neighbourhood.
I felt surprised at first to find this large settlement so destitute of
mechanics. There is not, in fact, to be found here a mechanic
capable of performing even the coarsest piece of workmanship,
either in wood or iron. This, no doubt, is attributable to the extensive
slave-trade formerly carried on here, preventing any attention being
paid to other pursuits. The slave-trade was so profitable a
speculation, that the merchants were enabled to bring everything
necessary for their use from the Brazils. The slave-merchants have
elegant houses, furnished in a handsome manner. The traffic in
slaves, however, is now much reduced on this coast, owing to two
causes; first, the vigilance of the English men-of-war in capturing so
many slave-vessels; and, secondly, from the circumstance that the
slave-dealers are obliged to pay for their slaves in cash, as the
French and English factories established here are able to sell
manufactured goods at twenty-five per cent. less than the Spaniards
or Portuguese can possibly afford to do. This information I obtained
from one of the most respectable slave-dealers in Whydah. He has
only been two years in this trade, into which he embarked in
consequence of having involved himself in difficulties through
speculating in a business with which he was unacquainted in
Madeira, of which island he is a native. He is, I am glad to find,
disgusted with the trade.
 Whydah is divided into three parts, or rather was so formerly.
Besides the real Portuguese, there are numerous slaves who have
obtained their freedom by purchase, and some by returning as
servants or slaves to the slave-dealers who come from Brazil. In
many cases, when a rich slave-dealer dies, he gives, by his will,
freedom to all his slaves, however numerous they may be. The
Portuguese part of Whydah excels, in every sense of the word, both
the English and French. This I consider attributable to their
superiority in the knowledge of agriculture and domestic economy
and comfort of those returned slaves. Great numbers of them have
small farms in a very fair state of cultivation; and they are much more
cleanly in their habits and person than those who have never left
their native country as slaves. They also live in comfort and plenty,
and occupy good and well-furnished houses, while the latter are
wallowing in dirty wretchedness, ignorance, and poverty.
The few families who have lately emigrated hither from Sierra
Leone are the next who have made any attempt worth mention at
cultivation. They seem to strive hard; but without some assistance I
fear their efforts are not likely to be crowned with success, as their
means are not sufficient to enable them to cultivate the land to any
extent, or to export their produce. I am convinced that a great deal
might be done to benefit this country and these poor emigrants from
Sierra Leone, particularly in such a superior soil as that around
Whydah.
Another party, who call themselves English, or belonging to the
English fort, consist of some very old men, who formerly were slaves
in the fort, and some of them soldiers. These poor old men are quite
delighted when mention is made of their early days, and express the
happiness they then enjoyed in comparison to what they now
experience. Their sons and daughters also consider themselves as
belonging to the English. Many years ago the King of Dahomey
issued an order that all the people who acknowledged themselves to
belong to the English fort should from time to time assist in repairing
the fort, and he placed one man (formerly a corporal in Governor
James’s time) in charge of the fort; but, like most Africans, when left
to himself, he displayed but little conscience, and let the fort go to
ruin, except that part occupied by himself and wives. However, Mr. T.
Hutton, of Cape Coast, has now established a tolerable factory in the
old fort, and has put the place into a considerable state of repair,
although more is required to be done.
Another party here is that of the French, which is very small,
having chiefly turned over to the Portuguese. Some few have again
attached themselves to the French fort, now occupied by a French
merchant, who is doing a profitable business in the palm-oil and
ivory trade.
The military resources of the settlement of Whydah are very
deficient, having no regular trained army, but only a few standing or
permanent troops. They are chiefly composed of slaves, who are
summoned to assemble when a slave-hunt is contemplated, and
during this service are compelled to maintain themselves, of course,
by plunder. When the war or hunt is over, the rabble receive each a
piece of cotton cloth to wrap round his loins. They are then
dismissed to their homes, where they remain till their services are
again required. The few constant attendants as soldiers are people
who are serving for punishment for offences of various descriptions.
For instance, if a man commits adultery with the wife of another, and
the case is laid before the King, the offender is doomed to serve so
long as he is able in the capacity of a soldier, and when unfit for that
service, was generally offered as a sacrifice at one of the King’s
annual customs; but the latter part of this cruel sentence has been
abolished by the present King of Dahomey, who is much more
merciful than his predecessors. Polygamy is here unlimited, and
depravity of every description to an extraordinary extent. The longer I
reside here, the more am I convinced, however, that the most
predominant passion of the African is theft. The more they are
taught, the more accomplished rogues they become; and this is one
of the most civilized settlements on the whole of the western coast of
Africa, from the number of liberated slaves who have settled here,
and who become themselves slave-dealers and farmers. In fact, with
the exception of Europeans, these are the only people who show
any signs of civilization. The former name of Whydah was Grihwee
or Grighwee; but since its subjection to Dahomey it has become part
of that territory, and received its present name. During wars the
military of Whydah are attached to the powerful army of Dahomey,
which is of a much superior description.
February 28th.—A slave crew was landed here to-day from the
Hydra steamer. On the 29th I went on board this vessel, and was
kindly received by the officers. Here I met with Mr. M’Gregor, first
lieutenant, who had been transferred from the Prometheus, in which
vessel I was passenger from England.
March 4th.—I went by the Lagoon river again to Ahguay, and
arrived early on the morning of the 5th. All was bustle and
excitement amongst the slave-merchants. They had, late on the
previous evening, shipped five hundred slaves in the short space of
an hour, although the surf is always very bad on this coast.
Unfortunately two of the slaves were drowned during the shipment. It
had been intended to ship six hundred slaves, had the Hydra
steamer not hove in sight. On the following morning the Hydra made
the slaver a prize, to the great mortification of all who had slaves on
board.
It may be interesting to those unacquainted with slave-shipping to
learn something of the mode. When a shipment of slaves is about to
take place, the slaves are taken out, as if for their usual airing,
perhaps ten or twenty on one chain, which is fastened to the neck of
each individual, at the distance of about one yard apart. In this
manner they are thus marched in single file to the beach, without any
intimation of their fate, about which they seem quite indifferent even
when they know it. Every canoe is then put in requisition, and the
little piece of cotton-cloth tied round the loins of the slave is stripped
off, and the gang on each chain is in succession marched close to a
fire previously kindled on the beach. Here marking-irons are heated,
and when an iron is sufficiently hot, it is quickly dipped in palm-oil, in
order to prevent its sticking to the flesh. It is then applied to the ribs
or hip, and sometimes even to the breast. Each slave-dealer uses
his own mark, so that when the vessel arrives at her destination, it is
easily ascertained to whom those who died belonged.
 They are then hurried into a canoe and compelled to sit in the
bottom, where they are stowed as closely as possible till the canoe
reaches the ship. They are then taken on board, and again put into
the chain until they reach their destination, where they are given over
to their intended masters or their agents.
March 6th.—Mr. Hutton having returned from Badagry, where he
had been visiting his factory, we sailed by the lagoon to the
westward, as far as Porto Sogoora, distant by lagoon forty-four
miles. In our passage, we put in at Popoe, and visited my old
acquaintance, Mr. Lawson, and his sons. At the landing-place were a
number of Mr. Lawson’s slaves bathing, all chained together by the
neck. They all seemed very healthy and happy, but I could not help
thinking that it is well for them that their nature and habits partake so
much of the lower animal, otherwise they would be sensible of their
wretched situation.
After a short visit to Mr. Lawson, and an introduction to his two
principal wives, whose large dimensions I have already mentioned,
we again resumed our journey, and after five miles’ sail by lagoon,
though much less geographically, we arrived at Greejee, a town of
great note on account of its market, as I have already mentioned.
Here a toll was demanded of us. About one mile farther up the river,
another barrier crosses the river, and another toll was demanded.
This consisted of two bottles of rum. A great trade is carried on in
this latter place, which is named Zahlivay. It is situated on a rising
ground, on the left bank of the river. The reason of two tolls being
established so near to each other, is, to catch all parties attending
the markets of both the latter places, whether on descending or
ascending the lagoon, each bar being respectively placed below and
above both towns. Greejee contains twelve hundred inhabitants, and
Zahlivay about two thousand.
The river here is at present only four feet and a half deep, and a
quarter of a mile broad; the land, level and rich. The right bank is
well cultivated, and there are a few plantations of cotton three miles
farther up the river. A beautiful belt of cocoa-trees extends along the
land, separating the lagoon from the sea. This belt extended for
several miles, and, with a close cover of shrubs of the laurel tribe,
gives an indescribable effect to the landscape; while, close to the
banks, are different patches of cultivated land. But on neither side of
the river does cultivation extend for any distance. Three miles higher
from the last-named town, and also on the left bank of the river,
running S.E., is a small village of two hundred inhabitants (name not
known); and two miles and a half farther in the same direction, and
on the same bank, is a small town of some note, owing to its
inhabitants performing some feat of valour, according to their ideas.
In the river, opposite this little town of Yakasgo, is a small verdant
island, but uncultivated, perhaps owing to the inundations during the
rainy season. Another village, or kroom, beautifully situated, and only
half a mile distant from the latter, suddenly presents itself, being
almost concealed with cocoa, palm, and cachu-trees. This is a
fishing village, having a great number of canoes, some of the most
simple construction, consisting merely of a cocoa-tree, of about
eighteen inches diameter, and twelve or fifteen feet in length,
hollowed out with the exception of a foot at each end. This
unshapely vessel often carries three boys, who navigate it with a skill
quite astonishing, bringing home sometimes a thousand fish.
About six miles higher, and magnetic west, is another town, called
Badaguay. This town has a weekly market. Its manufactures consist
of cotton cloths, generally blue and white stripe, earthen pots, lime,
indigo, country mats, and grass bags holding about a bushel. This
town is also on the left bank. The river is still only four feet and a half
deep.
Three miles farther, on the right, is a beautiful grove of the
cabbage palm-tree, extending for several miles. The belt of cocoa
terminates where the cabbage-palm commences. The latter tree is of
a very singular and graceful appearance. At the root it is not more
than one foot in diameter, and rises to the height of fifty feet. This
singular tree gradually thickens till it reaches one-third of its height,
its graceful swell increasing its diameter to twenty inches. It then
again decreases in thickness to the commencement of the branches,
or leaves, which resemble a number of ladies’ fans, each leaf
beautifully ribbed like a plaited frill, about four feet long, and
spreading so as to form three-fourths of a circle. To those who have
never seen one of these trees, it seems a wonderful production of
Nature.
The lagoon becomes here half a mile wide, and continues only
four feet deep during the dry season. After ascending six miles
nearly due west, it widens to three-quarters of a mile, and becomes
thickly wooded on the right bank with large trees of different species,
mixed with beautiful shrubs of various kinds of the laurel tribe, and
numerous orchideous and parasitical plants, together with a great
number of singing birds of varied and beautiful plumage. The quiet
stillness of the scene, under the rays of a tropical sun, had, at least
for a short period, a pleasing effect upon my mind, recalling to my
memory scenes of boyhood. Those happy days recur to us now only
as it were in dreams, which quickly float past, and vanish on the
rapid and silent stream of life.
At sunset we arrived at Porto Sogoora, a town of considerable
size, though not of much trade. The chief manufacture here is palm-
oil and cotton cloths. The town is on the right bank of the lagoon, on
a strip of land separating it from the sea; the distance between the
two latter being one mile, and the town equidistant from each, and in
the centre of the bank, which is chiefly sand. The bank close to the
lagoon is thickly wooded with a great variety of large trees, with
underwood and running plants, of at least twenty different kinds. The
palm-tree is cultivated here on account of the nuts, used for oil.
Monkeys are in great abundance, passing in flocks from one tree to
another, as nimbly as if they belonged to the feathered tribe.
Immediately upon arriving at Porto Sogoora, we called upon the
caboceer, or headman of the place, a tall, stout, and good-natured
looking man, about thirty-eight years of age. After the usual formality
of an African visit, Mr. Hutton, who was on his return to Cape Coast,
determined at once to proceed on his journey. Mr. Hanson (agent to
Mr. Hutton, at his factory at Ahguay), and Mr. Henrique, half-brother
to Mr. Ingram, late Governor in the Gambia, accompanied Mr. Hutton
as far as the river Volta. Mr. Hanson and Mr. Henrique promised to
return in three days. In the interval I determined to remain at Porto
Sogoora, with a view to explore a river named Haho, which I have
reason to believe to have its rise in the Kong Mountains, north of
Dahomey. Accordingly I applied to the caboceer for four canoemen
to work the canoe, which he readily agreed to supply, but of course
on being well paid for it. He also offered to supply me with a young
man as servant and cook, which I accepted. I had, in addition, two
volunteers; one old man, named Ithay Botho (and now a fetish-man),
a servant to Captain Clapperton during his last travels in this country,
and another man, a native of Accra.
After giving my canoemen subsistence, my promised servant
presented himself, when, to my great surprise, I recognised in him a
servant of Governor Hill’s at Cape Coast only a few months before. I
was agreeably surprised at this, particularly as he could speak
English. Poor fellow! he was also much pleased at the opportunity of
representing his case to me, and the circumstances under which he
was made a slave. It appeared that, after leaving the service of the
Governor of Cape Coast, he ventured upon a journey along the
coast as far as Little Elmina, a distance of at least two hundred
miles. At the latter place he was requested by an Elmina soldier (if
deserving such rank) to sell a piece of cloth for him. He states that,
after selling the cloth, the soldier accused him of stealing the money.
He was, in consequence, seized by the soldier, and sold to a slave-
dealer at Popoe. Owing, however, to his being able to speak English,
it was not deemed safe to ship him. He was consequently
exchanged with the caboceer of Porto Sogoora for two younger
slaves, the caboceer considering that he might make him useful as
an English interpreter in the course of trade. It is very probable that
the suspicions of the soldier were pretty correct, for I myself had
previous ocular demonstration of his being a thief. Indeed, you will
very seldom err far in suspecting most Africans to be rogues.
March 7th.—At 6 a.m., I called, as is the custom, on the caboceer,
who, upon the whole, behaved pretty well and kindly, although for
pecuniary motives. He called the canoemen and my Cape Coast
servant, and my two volunteers, giving them strict injunctions with
regard to my safety. I had also a boy left with me by Mr. Hanson. My
party altogether amounted to eight in number. We embarked in Mr.
Hanson’s canoe, which was comfortably fitted up, and proceeded up
the lagoon, which now becomes broad, forming a lake six miles in
width and the same in length. On the right bank, and about five miles
from Porto Sogoora, we landed, to visit a small kroom, on account of
its market, in order to purchase some vegetables. This kroom is
distant from the lake one mile, situated on a vast plain of excellent
loamy soil. The inhabitants all turned out armed, but upon their
finding my little party friendly, we were well received, and supplied
with a calabash full of clean water. After purchasing some
vegetables and shooting some wild pigeons, which are here in great
numbers, we visited the market-place, although the weekly market
was held on the following day.
The market is held under the shade of a silk-cotton-tree, the
branches of which extend much farther than any other tree I had
ever seen, and are so close as entirely to shade those under it from
the burning rays of the sun. This is not usual in the cotton-tree,
although they are always, at their full growth, of a great height and
the trunk large.
I here observed also a tree bearing a singular fruit, the name of
which has escaped my recollection. It is larger than, and much
resembles an orange, but has merely a very thin skin, with pores like
the orange, inside of which is a shell as hard as that of the cocoa-
nut. This shell is about the thickness of a half-crown, and the kernel
(which completely fills the shell) is a little thicker in consistence than
butter, and of an acrid taste. This fruit is very valuable in making
soap, and this soap is considered far superior to any other in this
country. A fruit of the same species, but about one-third of the size,
is also found in the neighbourhood, which is cleared of the kernel
and converted into snuff-boxes. This kroom is named Sava.
After remaining here about an hour we again embarked, and
crossed the upper end of the lake to a very large market, bearing N.
15° W. from the last-named place, and distant three miles and a half.
Here we were met by several hundreds of persons, attracted by the
novel appearance of the canoe, which was covered in with painted
canvass, over a frame-work forming a house, with the exception of a
space at each end for the canoemen, who navigate the canoe with
long poles in the lagoon and lake. Hundreds came into the water as
high as their middle to get alongside, no doubt induced by other
motives than curiosity. My people used every effort, particularly my
two volunteers, to keep the people back at a proper distance from
the canoe. Besides the oppressive heat, increased by the crowd, the
very disagreeable odour from their dirty skin is extremely offensive to
those whose nasal organs are not properly seasoned to it. But as
soon as I pushed the jalousies aside, and thrust my head through
the aperture, a speedy and confused retreat was the result. Many
were pushed down in the water and trod upon; but they soon
returned, after being assured that I was quite harmless, and could
not eat black man. No one of the party had ever before beheld a
white man; but it would appear they had always heard, through such
of their friends as had ever been on the coast, that white men always
choose black men for food in preference to any other. All captains of
slavers tell this to the slaves, besides many other absurdities.
This market is well attended, and supplied with every thing
necessary for native consumption. Several articles of European
manufacture are also exposed for sale. It is about fifty yards from the
lake, and entirely void of any shelter or shade, and would not be
known as a market-place as distinguished from any other space of
ground trodden bare of vegetation. The market of Podefo is held
daily, and is chosen as a central position for all the neighbouring
towns. The great advantage of this place and other markets on the
lake and lagoon is convenient water-carriage. The only dress worn at
this place by males, and by those attending the market, is a small
piece of cotton, twisted like a rope, tied round the loins and passed
between the thighs, and drawn tightly round the lower part of their
person. The females generally, who can afford such, wear a cloth
wrapped round the body, just below the breast, and hanging a little
lower than the knee. Slaves are taken in great numbers from this
country.
We next proceeded to the mouth of the river Haho,[12] at the
entrance of which is a small island, the river passing it on both sides.
No doubt this island is formed by the force of the current during the
rainy season, which washes down the soil and meets a check at the
mouth of the river, by the swell on the lake.
 After ascending two miles nearly N., we observed numerous
beautiful species of the crane, white, blue, and brown, as well as the
large pelican. Alligators were also very numerous. My canoemen
now began to show some reluctance to proceed any farther,
assuring me that the river was quite unfrequented by any creatures,
except those we saw—alligators and biped tribes. I affirmed, that
was the very reason why I was determined to proceed, and declared
that the first person who disobeyed my orders I would throw into the
water. This threat I was soon compelled to put into execution, by
throwing overboard the head man of the canoemen. He begged hard
to be allowed to come again into the canoe, promising to go
wherever I chose. This man was the caboceer’s son. I allowed him
again to come into the canoe, but still they worked very lazily. I then
took my double-barrel into my hand, desiring my servant to tell them
that they must not think, because I was a white man and alone, that
they should disobey my orders with impunity, declaring that I would
shoot the first man who should disobey me. After this they
proceeded tolerably well till a large hippopotamus showed his head
above the water. He soon, however, disappeared.
I cannot say that I had not any apprehensions for the safety of the
canoe, particularly as the river here was not more than twenty yards
wide and twelve feet deep. The canoemen showed every symptom
of fear, but by repeated threats they were induced to proceed; and,
until they had passed the place where the hippopotamus had
appeared, they urged the canoe with a speed much beyond any of
their previous exertions. The African is generally a great coward,
particularly if at any distance beyond his own locality. After many
solicitations to allow them to return, finding their appeal of no avail,
the men worked tolerably well, and we ascended the river rapidly,
the current being not more than one mile per hour.
The course of the river changed so much as to make me almost
doubt the accuracy of my compass, but having two on board, I
satisfied myself. After ascending the stream fifteen miles, the
scenery on the banks changed from an open plain on each side, with
long coarse reeds, to banks rising about seven or eight feet, with
large trees of various sorts, many of the drooping kind, their long
fibres falling into the smooth, glassy stream as it stole slowly along.
At this place the current is scarcely perceptible. The jasmine, twining
round some of the smaller trees or shrubs, filled the atmosphere with
its luxurious odours, and close to the water’s edge were beautiful
flags, similar to those of Britain, but bearing a large white flower. The
sun was just sinking below the horizon, and his last rays were
reflected through the openings of the rich foliage on the smooth
surface of the still stream.
Here in the tropics there is no twilight, consequently as soon as
the sun disappears from the horizon all is dark as midnight. As we
had not seen any thing resembling a human habitation, or even the
appearance of a path or footmark, this circumstance, and the
tameness of the birds, large and small, induced me to conclude that
we were at a considerable distance from any kroom or town; I
therefore determined to stop for the night on the first part of the bank
clear of the bush I could find. Fortunately, the moon was bright, and
in about three quarters of an hour I observed a small creek on the
left bank, which we entered, but found that it did not extend more
than a few yards. I rejoiced, however, to find the ashes and marks of
a fire having been recently kindled on the bank. We surveyed all
round, to ascertain if any path led from this place, but being
disappointed we again went on board, and ascended the stream,
convinced from the marks already mentioned that some habitation
was near. The hippopotamus and alligators were now, however,
making desperate plunges into the water at short intervals, from the
banks on either side, rendering the navigation in a narrow river
hazardous. The water was also becoming deep with a mud bottom,
so that poles of fifteen or eighteen feet were of no use. I was now
obliged to take a pole, to show the canoemen how to use them as
oars. Fortunately the current here was scarcely perceptible, and our
progress was greater than I anticipated.
After ascending two miles more, I observed a strong light on the
left bank near at hand. This was a cheering sight to all of us, as we
thought it was a kroom, or at least a habitation; we found it, however,
to be nothing more than a camp of seven fishermen, and ten or
twelve boys. Each of the men stood on the bank, armed with old
muskets, ready, no doubt, to give us a volley in the event of our
being enemies. But I had myself two double-barrels and pistols, as
well as my sabre. Upon being addressed, however, by my old friend
Ithay Botho, they lodged their arms, and we landed, and found that
these people frequently came down the river as far as the place
where we observed the last marks of fire on the banks to catch fish,
but never ventured lower, declaring, that if they proceeded farther,
one large fetish alligator destroyed every person, as well as
smashed the canoe. They accounted for our being permitted to pass
because I was a white man, and that it intended to have some more
of his amphibious friends to witness his grand performance with me.
However, I told them that white man’s fetish had more power than
their fetish alligator. They then described his enormous dimensions
and power, which entirely prostrated all the courage of my
canoemen. I was in hopes that the dread of returning to encounter
such a monster would be an inducement to them to proceed
onwards with less reluctance, as I had assured them we could return
down the Volta. However, the old fishermen pointed out equal
difficulties in ascending, unless great sacrifices were made to
propitiate the river-spirit or fetish. My canoemen seemed now
hemmed in by dangers on all sides.
The party of fishermen had set their fish-traps, a wicker basket, on
the same principle as that used on the rivers in Britain for catching
eels; the light on the bank attracting the fish to the traps, and, as I
also found to my no small annoyance, attracting musquitoes in
swarms. In consequence of which I and two boys returned to the
canoe, thinking to avoid them, but they seemed determined to show
their respects to the stranger, not by drinking water with me (as the
natives do), but by tasting my blood. With such an annoyance,
together with the splashing in the water of different amphibious
creatures, I slept but little. At six in the morning we had breakfast,
having our cooking utensils on board. This consisted of fish and
manioc-root, and a little yam. My servant, the boy from Cape Coast,
intimated to me what he overheard during the night, between the
canoemen and fishermen, to the effect that they had determined
either to descend the river, or, at least, not to proceed any farther up
the stream. If I persisted, however, in proceeding with my two
volunteers and two boys only, they would remain on the bank with
the fishermen, except one who was to volunteer to pilot us to the first
town, about six miles higher up the stream; and when there, the
caboceer would demand a toll higher than I was prepared to pay,
and in that event seize upon my canoe and property.
Being well acquainted with such characters, I was determined,
though alone, not to give way to them. Accordingly, I ordered all my
people on board, which was immediately obeyed; but upon moving
from our position the men headed the canoe down the stream, and
declared their determination not to proceed farther. Upon this I drew
my sword, and drove the whole of the canoemen out of the canoe.
My two volunteers, and myself and boys, being sufficient to man the
canoe, we pushed off, turning down the river. The canoemen, now
finding themselves miserably disappointed, dreaded lest we should
leave them alone, and raised the most piteous yells conceivable,
begging to be again taken on board, and expressing their readiness
to accompany me any where I might think proper. But I had
determined, as a warning, to keep them a little time in suspense, and
proceeded a short distance down the stream; at the earnest entreaty
of old Ithay and my other volunteer, I then returned to take them on
board. By this time, however, the fishermen, who had promised them
patronage and assistance, completed their villany, by declaring them
to be their slaves, and determined to keep possession of them, upon
the pretence that they had been turned ashore through their own
disobedience.
Upon my running the head of the canoe on the bank, to my
surprise I found each of the seven fishermen with his musket
presented towards me. They present their muskets from the hip.
Seeing that they had neglected to take the covers of monkey-skin off
their locks, and knowing that they could not touch the trigger, I
determined to make the first attack, which I knew would be attended
with success. I had a gun in my left hand, and ordered old Ithay to
come in my rear, ready to hand me a second directly I should have
discharged my first two barrels. Mr. Hanson’s boy, who showed as
much coolness as if I were going to shoot a pigeon, stood on my left
with my sword, which was in a canvass case. Standing on the bow of
the canoe, with one foot on the gunwale, I desired Ithay to inform
them that I did not come to make war, but though I was only one
white I would convince them that I did not fear them. They might kill
me, it was true, but before they could accomplish that, I could kill at
least four of them, having four barrels charged with three large slugs
each, adding that the first man who attempted to remove his lock
cover I would instantly shoot.
At this same moment I snatched the sword-blade out of its
scabbard and sprang upon the bank, cut the fore-arm of the man on
the right, so that he dropped his musket instantly, and the next
moment I put the point to the breast of a second. This place being a
small peninsula, and with no means of retreat, except over the place
where I stood, the others threw down their guns and prostrated
themselves, begging me to spare their lives. By this time the
canoemen had tumbled into the canoe, and would doubtless have
left me in turn, could they have done so with safety, but my
volunteers and two boys remained faithful.
In my exasperation I broke one musket against a tree, and
determined to do so with all the others, but relented, satisfying
myself with emptying the priming and dipping the guns in the river. I
then returned to the canoe, taking with me also the old man whose
arm was cut, and whose musket I had broken. He writhed and
groaned as much as if his arm had been amputated. It certainly was
cut to the bone, and perhaps a little beyond; but if taken care of it
would probably not be attended with serious consequences,
although the large blood-vessel on the upper part of the wrist,
running in the direction of the thumb, was separated. I had in my
carpet-bag fortunately two bandages, one of which I used, with some
native cotton, to dress it. This done, I resolved to punish my
canoemen, which measure I put into execution with a good stick. I
also obliged them to ascend the river against their former
determination. This I did more with a view to enforce obedience, than
with any wish to visit the town, still distant six miles. To some it may
seem hard to compel individuals to accompany me against their own
free will; but it must be borne in mind that their services were entirely
voluntary; but they expected, being alone, and when they had me on
the lake, to kill time, and obtain pay for their own pleasure.
After we had proceeded about a mile, I observed two canoes
ahead, containing the other six fishermen and the boys. They had
fled to their canoes, which had been moored a short distance above
the encampment. After advancing another mile, I ordered the canoe
to be brought round, and commence our descent. This gave great
satisfaction to the whole of my party; but very different were the
feelings of my prisoner, who till now was, doubtless, calculating upon
ample revenge for his wound and the loss of his musket. The other
canoes, finding that we were returning, returned also, but could not
be induced to come near to us. In passing the place of the
encampment, my prisoner begged to be landed, but I was
determined to put him to a little more inconvenience, and carried him
a considerable distance farther down, landing him on the worst part
of the bank I could select.

FOOTNOTES:
[12] This river is called the Haho, and the town Hahotia.