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ANATOMICAL TERMS

Anatomical Positions
1. Erect anatomical position:
• This is standard position used to describe the anatomy of the human body.
▪ Human body is standing erect.

▪ Eyes & face are looking forwards.

▪ Upper limbs are hanging by the sides of the body.

▪ Palms are facing forwards.

▪ Thumbs are directed laterally.

▪ The lower limbs are close together.

Erect anatomical position

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2. Supine position: The body lies on its back.

3. Prone position: The body lies on its face.
4. Lateral decubitus position: The body lies on its side (right or left).
5. Lithotomy position: The body lies on its back with flexion of hip and
knee and abduction of hip joints.

Supine position

Prone position

Lithotomy position

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Anatomical Planes
1. Median (Sagittal) plane :
• It is the vertical plane which passes in the middle line of the body
dividing it longitudinally into equal right and left halves.
2. Paramedian plane:

• It is a vertical plane parallel to and nearby the median plane.

• It may be right or left .

• It divide the body into 2 vertical unequal parts .

3. Coronal (Frontal) plane:

• It is a vertical plane which divides the body vertically into an anterior
part towards the front of the body and a posterior part towards the
back.
4. Horizontal plane:
• It is the transverse plane which runs horizontally dividing the body into
an upper and lower parts at any level of the body.

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Planes of the Body
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Anatomical Planes

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Terms of Position

Term Meaning
Anterior = Ventral In front or nearer to the front of the
body.
Posterior = Dorsal = Behind or nearer to the back of the
Retro- body.
Superior =Upper Near to the upper end of body.
=Cranial
Inferior =Lower = Near to the lower end of body.
Caudal
Median Exactly in the middle line
Medial Nearer to the median plane.
Lateral Away from the median plane.
Proximal Nearer to the root of the limb.
Distal Away from the root of the limb.
Superficial Towards the skin or body surface.
External = Outer Nearer or on the surface of the body.
Deep Away from the skin or body surface.
Internal = Inner Inside the organ or the body.
Peri- Around
Endo Inside or lining a structure
Para Beside
Inter Between
Epi and sub Just above and just below respectively
Supra and infra Most superior and most inferior respectively

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Terms of Position

TERMS OF NUMBER
Uni- = Mono- One
Bi- = Di- Two
Tri- Three
Quadri- Four
Multi- = Poly- Many
Oligo- Little

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Example for
Terms of Position

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Example for Terms of Number

Monocytes Biceps Triceps

Quadriceps Multifidus

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FASCIA
⁕ It is a type of connective tissue which have the following features :
▪ It lies deep to the skin.
▪ It covers the body wall and limbs.
▪ It binds and connects different body structures together.
▪ It is divided into superficial, deep and internal fasciae.

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A- Superficial Fascia:
• A layer of loose connective tissue lies immediately deep to the skin.
• It connects the skin to the underlying structures .
• The superficial fascia contains a variable quantity of fat which is more in
females than in males.
▪ Fat is abundant in gluteal region, anterior abdominal wall and breast.
▪ Fat is less in the limbs and absent in the eyelids, penis and scrotum.
• Functions of the superficial fascia:
1. It prevents heat loss from the body, so it acts as thermal insulator
and allows storage of energy (due to the presence of fat).
2. It acts as a medium conducting the cutaneous nerves, blood
vessels and lymphatics which supply the skin.
3. It contains subcutaneous muscles, as in face (muscles of express-
ion), in the neck (platysma) and in the scrotum (dartos muscle).

Muscles of expression Platysma

Dartos muscle Palmaris brevis

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4. It contains special types of glands , as mammary glands, sweat glands,

and superficial lymph nodes.
5. It softens and smoothens the surface of the body.
6. It facilitates the movement of skin over the underlying structures.
7. It gives size & contour of certain parts of the body e.g. breast .

B- Deep Fascia:
• A membrane composed of compact and regular collagen fibers.
• It is inelastic.
• It is well defined in the limbs and very strong and thick in the palm and
sole.
• It is absent in the face and in the anterior wall of abdomen.
• Parts and Functions:
1. Formation of broad sheets:
▪ They surround the muscles and the different structures of the
upper and lower limbs.
▪ They keep the underlying structures in position.
▪ They give attachment to some muscles.

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2. Formation of intermuscular septa and interosseous membranes:

• They separate different groups of muscles which have different
actions and nerve supply.
3. Formation of retinacula: They are localized transverse thick-
ened bands of deep fascia present at wrist and ankle joints. They
keep the tendons in position during movements of joints.
4. Formation of palmar aponeurosis (in palm) and plantar
aponeurosis (in sole): They are very thick, strong and protective
layers of deep fascia. They protect blood vessels, nerves and tendons.
5. Formation of sheaths around big blood vessels: e.g.
▪ Femoral sheath around the femoral blood vessels in lower limb.

▪ Carotid sheath around the carotid arteries and internal jugular

vein in the neck.

Broad sheet of deep fascia Intermuscular septa

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sheaths around big blood vessels Interosseous membrane

Carotid sheath Palmar aponeurosis

Plantar aponeurosis & ankle retinacula

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BONES
⁕ Definition & properties :
▪ It is a special type of hard connective tissue which forms the skeleton.
▪ It is formed of :
 Bone cells .
 Intercelluar matrix composed of collagen fibers , organic protein
substance and inorganic salts ( mainly calcium phosphate & carbonate
which are responsible for handness of bone ).
⁕ Functions of Skeleton:
1-Gives the specific shape to the body.
2-Provides the central axis of the body and the skeleton of both upper
and lower limbs.
3-Protects the vital organs: the skull protects the brain, and thoracic cage
protects the heart and lungs.
4-Provides surface area for muscular attachment.
5- Acts as levers for muscle contraction & movements.
6-Transmits and supports the body weight e.g. vertebral column transmits
the weight of the head and trunk to the bony pelvis then through the
bones of lower limbs to the feet and lastly to the ground.
6-Forms the joints to make an important part of the locomotor system.
7- Forms the blood elements in the red bone marrow.
8-Stores calcium & phosphorus salts.
⁕ Classification of Skeleton:
I) According to the position in the body:
1- Axial skeleton: Skull, mandible, hyoid, sternum, ribs and vertebral
column ( i.e bones of head , neck & trunk ).
2- Appendicular (peripheral) skeleton: in upper and lower limbs

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II) According to the process of ossification (Bone formation):

a-Intra-membranous ossification b-Intra-cartilaginous ossification

▪ e.g. clavicle , mandible and skull ▪ e.g. in long bones, vertebrae, ribs
cap. and base of skull.
▪ The bones develop directly from ▪ The mesoderm is changed at first
mesodermal connective tissue into a cartilage model, and then
membrane . the cartilage is dissolved and
▪ It begins at one or more centers of disappears, and displaced by bone.
ossification.

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▪ Bone formation starts during the 5th. week of intra-uterine fetal life by
appearance of primary centers of ossification and continues after
birth by appearance of secondary centers of ossification .

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Intra-cartilaginous ossification

III) According to structure of bones :

1- Compact ( hard or ivory )bones :
▪ It is the outer hard mass covering the surface of all bones .
2- Cancellous ( spongy ) bones :
▪ It is a network of trabeculae lying inside compact bones espescially
in the ends of long bones ( epiphysis & metaphysis ).
▪ In between these trabeculae there are many spaces filled with bone
marrow .
IV) According to the shape of bones:
1- Long bones
• Site: Present in upper and lower limbs.
• Structure: two ends (epiphyses) and a shaft (diaphysis) in between.

• N.B : Physis means growth plate .

a) Epiphysis:
 It is the expanded upper and lower ends of the long bone.
 It is used for articulation and its articular surface is covered with
a layer of articular hyaline cartilage.

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b)Diaphysis (Shaft):
 A tube of compact bone (cortex) with a central medullary
cavity lined with endosteum and is filled with bone marrow
(soft vascular tissue).This meullary cavity doesn’t extend to the
epiphysis or the metaphysis.
 The shaft is covered with fibro-cellular sheath called periosteum
which formed of :
➢ Superficial layer formed of fibrous tissue.
➢ Deep layer formed of fibrous tissues , osteoblast ( bone forming cells ) ,
sensory nerve fibers and blood vessels ( supply the underlying bone).
 The long bones increase in diameter from periosteum.
 In the growing long bones, the epiphysis and the diaphysis are
separated by a disc of hyaline cartilage called epiphyseal
cartilage which is responsible for the growth in length.
b) Metaphysis:
 It lies in the upper and lower parts of the long bone just close to
the epiphyseal cartilage.
 It is the most active part of long bone and contains the newly
formed bone , formed by the epiphyseal cartilage , which gradually
migrate towards the diaphysis .

Structure of
long bones

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2) Short Bones:
• Site: e.g. carpal bones (in hand) and tarsal bones (in foot).
• Structure: consist of spongy bone covered with thin layer of compact
bone

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3) Flat Bones:
• Site: e.g. bones forming skull cap , scapula and ribs.
• Structure: consist of two thin plates of compact bone with middle
layer of spongy bone. In bones of skull, the plates of compact bone are
called outer and inner tables and the layer of the spongy bone in
between is called diploe.
• Function: 1- Protection. 2- Muscular attachment

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4) Pneumatic Bones: Bones containing air

• Site: Skull bones mainly those surrounding the nose (e.g. maxillary
and frontal bones) and contain air cavities called paranasal sinuses.
• Structure: It is formed of compact bone which may contain one air
cavity (maxillary sinus) or multiple small air cells (mastoid air cells).
• Functions:
1. They decrease the weight of skull.
2. They lead to resonance of voice.
3. They have a highly vascular mucosa to warm the inspired air.

5- Irregular Bones:
• Shape and Site: Bones of irregular shape with projecting processes
e.g. vertebrae.
• Structure: They are similar in structure to the short bones.

Vertebra

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6- Sesamoid Bones:
• Structure: small nodules of bones.
• Site: embedded in some muscle tendons e.g. patella (largest sesamoid
bone, embedded in the tendon of quadriceps femoris in front of knee
joint).
• Function: They diminish friction between tendons and underlying
bones.
7- Sutural bones : Small bones embedded in the sutures of the skull .

❖ N.B: All bones formed of outer layer of compact bone and inner
layer of spongy bone except diaphysis of long bones and
neumatic bones .

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⁕ Growth of bones:

▪ The long bones increase in length from the epiphyseal cartilages

by proliferation of its cells.

 When the bone becomes mature, the cells of the epiphysial plate
stops division and ossifies resulting in fusion between epiphysis and
diaphysis.

 The epiphyseal plate at one end of the shaft of long bone ossifies
earlier than that at the other end, which continues adding bone to
the shaft for another 2 to 3 years before it undergoes ossification as
well. This end is called the growing end.

 Fusion of the epiphysis and diaphysis is under hormonal control.

 It occurs in females earlier than males by about 2 years.

▪ The long bones increase in width from osteoblasts in the

periosteum around the external bone surface. At the same time,
osteoclasts in the endosteum break down bone on the internal bone
surface, around the medullary cavity.

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⁕ Arterial supply of bones :

1) Nutrient artery:

▪ It enters the middle 1/3 of the shaft through an oblique nutrient

foramen and runs away from the growing end of bone.

• N.B : Mnemonic to remember the direction of entry of nutrient

arteries is TOWARDS THE ELBOW I FLOW, AWAY FROM THE KNEE I FLEE.

▪ Then it divides in the medullary cavity into ascending and descending

branches directed towards the upper and lower metaphyses to
anastomose with the metaphyseal arteries.

▪ It supplies the inner 2/3 of the thickness of the cortex of the shaft &
bone marrow.

2) Epiphyseal arteries:

▪ They supply the epiphysis and they anastomose with the metaphyseal
arteries after the ossification of the epiphyseal plate of cartilage.

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3) Metaphyseal arteries:

▪ They enter the bone through minute foramina to supply metaphysis.

▪ They anastomose with the nutrient artery and with the epiphyseal
arteries after ossification of the epiphyseal cartilage.

4) Periosteal arteries: they supply the outer ⅓ of the cortex of the

shaft and they communicate with other arteries.

5) Arteries of the attached muscles .

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⁕ Terms of external features of bones :

• Bony Elevations :

Term Meaning
Head Rounded end of bone , not necessarily directed upwards .
Neck Constricted bone follows the head.
Process It is an elongated projection with a blunt end.
Spine It is an elongated projection with a pointed tip.
Tubercle, They are localized rounded elevations. The tubercle is the
tuberosity smallest while the trochanter is biggest and tuberosity is
and medium-sized.
trochanter
Condyle It is a convex elevated articular surface.
Epicondyle It is a localized elevation of small size situated just above a
condyle or articular surface.
Hamulus It is a slender curved bony process which resembles a hook.
Cornu= It is a curved bony process which resembles a horn.
Coronoid
Crest An elongated ridge which usually lies on the top of a bone.
Ridge A linear elevation.
Line Slightly elevated or just a rough linear landmark.
Border Separates 2 surfaces , it may be sharp or blunt .

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⁕ Bony Depressions, Grooves and Canals :

Term Meaning
Fossa A depression on a surface. Fovea is a small fossa.
Notch A semicircular depression , on a surface or a border. It has
2 limiting edges.
Incisura A notch-like depression on a border.
Groove or An elongated depression
sulcus
Fissure A long cleft between flat bones, e.g. skull.
Hiatus A narrow gap or passage with one opening is seen & the
other is hidden .
Foramen It is a hole through a bone.
Aperture It is a large hole
Canal It is a track of some length in a bone having 2 open ends.
Meatus A bony canal having one closed end
Impression A slight indentation or depression.

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⁕ Sex Differences in Bones :

1- Characters of bones: Male bones are heavy and thick while female
bones are light and thin.
2- Muscle attachment: Tubercles, tuberosities and ridges are more
prominent in male bones and less prominent in female bones.
3- The bony pelvis: The cavity of the pelvis is wider and shorter in female
than male to adapt pregnancy and delivery.

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CARTILAGE

⁕ Properties:

1. It is a rubbery type of connective tissue, it is tough and resilient.

2. It has no blood vessels, nerves or lymphatics.
3. Gets its nutrition by diffusion from the blood vessels of perichondrium.
4. It consists of mature cartilage cells (chondrocytes), fibers and matrix.
5. Resists compression forces and friction.
6. It has great capacity of growth by multiplication of the chondroblasts
(immature cartilage cells).
⁕ Types of Cartilage:
I) Hyaline Cartilage : (Glass-like)
• Characters: Commonest type of cartilage in human body.
• Matrix: Translucent.
• Cartilage cells: numerous small rounded cells.
• Ossification by age: Occurs in certain sites e.g. in larynx and
epiphyseal cartilages.
• Sites:
1) In the developing bones in the fetus.
2) In the epiphyseal plates of the long bones .
3) The articular cartilage in joints.
4) The costal cartilage and xiphoid process .
5) Nasal cartilages .
6) The larynx (except the epiglottis) and tracheal rings.

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II) White fibrocartilage :

• Characters:
a) Matrix: Opaque because it is rich in collagen bundles.
b) Cartilage cells : Few in number.
• Sites: Intervertebral discs & symphysis pubis.
• Ossification in old age: Does not occur.
III) Yellow elastic fibrocartilage :
• Characters:
a) Matrix: Yellow in appearance because it is rich in yellow elastic fibers.
b) Cartilage cells: Abundant.
• Sites:
1. Auricle of the ear.

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2. Epiglottis of the larynx.

• Ossification in old age: Does not occur.

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