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Full download Materials and Processes for Next Generation Lithography 1st Edition Alex Robinson And Richard Lawson (Eds.) file pdf all chapter on 2024
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Frontiers of Nanoscience
Volume 11
Edited by
Alex Robinson
University of Birmingham, Birmingham,
United Kingdom
Richard Lawson
Milliken & Company, Spartanburg, SC,
United States
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-08-100354-1
ISSN: 1876-2778
Panagiotis Argitis
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific
Research “Demokritos”, Athens, Greece
Stuart A. Boden
Electronics and Computer Science, Faculty of Physical Sciences and
Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
Elizabeth Buitrago
Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
Brian Cardineau
Inpria Corporation, Corvallis, OR, United States
Guy A. DeRose
Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA,
United States
Yasin Ekinci
Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
Roberto Fallica
Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
Andreas Frommhold
School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham,
United Kingdom
Marcus Kaestner
Department of Micro- and Nanoelectronic Systems, Institute of Micro- and
Nanoelectronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology,
Ilmenau University of Technology, Ilmenau, Germany
Douglas A. Keszler
Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States;
Inpria Corporation, Corvallis, OR, United States
Yana Krivoshapkina
Department of Micro- and Nanoelectronic Systems, Institute of Micro- and
Nanoelectronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology,
Ilmenau University of Technology, Ilmenau, Germany
Tero S. Kulmala
SwissLitho AG, Zurich, Switzerland
xv
xvi Contributors
Richard A. Lawson
Research Division, Milliken & Company, Spartanburg, SC, United States
Scott M. Lewis
School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
Patrick Naulleau
Center for X-ray Optics, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
United States
Dimitra Niakoula
Heliosphera S.A., Tripolis, Greece
D. Frank Ogletree
Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
United States
Deirdre Olynick
Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
United States
Philip C. Paul
SwissLitho AG, Zurich, Switzerland
Ivo W. Rangelow
Department of Micro- and Nanoelectronic Systems, Institute of Micro- and
Nanoelectronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology,
Ilmenau University of Technology, Ilmenau, Germany
Alex P.G. Robinson
School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham,
United Kingdom
Adam Schwartzberg
Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
United States
Xiaoqing Shi
Electronics and Computer Science, Faculty of Physical Sciences and
Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
James W. Thackeray
Dow Electronic Materials, Marlborough, MA, United States
Willem F. van Dorp
Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Delft,
The Netherlands
Contributors xvii
Veroniki P. Vidali
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific
Research “Demokritos”, Athens, Greece
Andrew K. Whittaker
Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, University of
Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
Dongxu Yang
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham,
United Kingdom
Preface
The modern world is thoroughly populated with integrated circuits (ICs) and other
microelectronic devices. The ubiquity of these devices has come about because their
computing power has increased exponentially over time, while at the same time the
cost per computing power has dropped due to shrinking the sizes of the transistors.
The shrink in feature sizes has been enabled in a large measure by advancements in
lithography, which is the technique used to print the circuit features on silicon wafers
during IC fabrication. The critical pieces required for scaling are both the materials
and the processes used for lithography.
Currently there is significant worldwide research effort both industrially and in
academia into next-generation lithography processes such as EUV, advanced
e-beam, nanoimprint, scanning probe, and ion beam lithography. There is likewise
similar effort in both arenas into next-generation materials for lithography including
numerous novel approaches to resist chemistry and ingenious extensions of tradi-
tional photopolymers. This book therefore aims to bring together some of the
world’s foremost lithographic development scientists from the various communities
to produce in one place a complete description of the many approaches to litho-
graphic materials and process design, development, and characterization.
Resist chemistry for next-generation lithography is likely to be quite distinct from
the well-known process of photochemistry in current use. For noncontact methods the
actinic radiation under consideration is typically far more energetic. This is discussed
in Chapter 1 together with a brief introduction to resist chemistry in EUV and elec-
tron beam lithography, alongside a review of current resist processes. In Chapter 2,
new insights into the mechanisms of EUV resist radiation chemistry are presented
from the perspective of an examination of the fundamental interactions of soft
X-rays with matter, photoionization, and molecular relaxation processes. In Chapter
3, the examination of the EUV resist mechanism is extended further via a detailed
analysis of the interactions of low energy electrons in the resist film, identifying the
many productive (and nonproductive) reaction pathways available.
Chapters 4 and 5 investigate the process and patterning challenges facing EUV
lithographydthe most likely next-generation contender. In Chapter 4, readers are
introduced to the technique of EUV interferometric lithography, which has been
used to generate many of the experimental results seen in later chapters. General
resist material challenges are then examined and potential strategies discussed.
Chapter 5 introduces EUV optical lithographydusing a mask rather than a grating
for pattern generationdand a detailed analysis of the tool challenges faced by indus-
try. One of the most significant problems in EUV lithography relates to stochastic
variations, and this chapter introduces a new model to simulate these effects and
identify areas of most concern. Finally the progress in commercial and research
resists exposed on a mask-based EUV tool is reviewed.
Chapters 6e13 address resist chemistry. Chapter 6 presents progress in resists
that operate via a mechanism of chain scission. These are typically known as
xix
xx Preface
We would like to thank Professor Richard Palmer, the series editor of Frontiers in
Nanoscience, for the opportunity to work on this project that seeks to compile a thor-
ough description of the many current approaches to lithographic materials and pro-
cess design. We would also like to thank all our colleagues whose hard work writing
the chapters made this book possible. A great deal of thanks goes to Sabrina Webber,
the editorial project manager at Elsevier, who was critically helpful through the end
of the process and was exceedingly patient as we slowly delivered all the various
parts of the book. In addition to Sabrina, Hannah Colford and Derek Coleman
were of great help as editorial project managers in various earlier stages of the pro-
cess and were particularly helpful as we got the project off the ground. Additional
thanks also go to other people at Elsevier, including Simon Holt, Susan Dennis,
Mohanambal Natarajan, and many more working behind the scenes. Finally, we
would especially like to thank our families who were exceptionally patient with
all the long hours put into writing and editing and without whose support the project
would not have been completed.
Alex P.G. Robinson and Richard A. Lawson
xxi
List of abbreviations
AA Acid amplifier
AD Adamantyl ester
AEVE Adamantylethyl vinyl ether
AFM Atomic force microscopy
AIL Achromatic interference lithography
ASITPA 4,40 ,400 -tris(Allylsuccinimido)triphenylamine
ATL Achromatic Talbot lithography
BCMTPB 1,3,5-tris[4-(Tert-butoxycarbonylmethoxy) phenyl]
benzene
BCPs Block copolymers
BE Binding energy
BEs Backscattered electrons
BPY 2,20 -Bipyridine
BZA Benzoic acid
CA Chemical amplification
CARs Chemically amplified resists
CD Critical dimension
b-CD b-Cyclodextrins
CMC(n)AOMe p-Chloro methyl methoxy calyx[n]arene molecule
CVD Chemical vapor deposition
DBU 1,8-Diazabicycloundec-7-ene
DCT Dose Calibration Tool
DDRM Dry develop rinse material
DDRP Dry development rinse process
DEA Dissociative electron attachment
DI Dissociative ionization; Dissolution inhibitor
DNQ Diazonaphthoquinone
DOF Depth of focus
DPI-Ts Diphenyliodonium tosylate
DPN Dip-pen nanolithography
DSA Directed self-assembly
DUV Deep ultraviolet
E-beam Electron beam
EBL Electron beam lithography
EMAX Dose for maximum film thickness retention
EN Ethylenediamine
ESIZE Sizing dose
ESR spectroscopy Electron spin resonance spectroscopy
ETMD Electron transferemediated decay
EUV Extreme ultraviolet
EUV resist Extreme ultraviolet resist
EUV-IL Extreme ultraviolet interference lithography
EUVL Extreme ultraviolet lithography
FBM Poly(hexafluorobutyl methacrylate)
fcc Face-centered-cubic
FE Field evaporation
FE-SPL Field emission SPL
FEBID Focused electron beam-induced deposition
FEBIP Focused electron beam-induced processing
xxiii
xxiv List of abbreviations
PBMS Ply(butylmethylsilane)
PBP resists Polymer-bound PAG resists
PBS Poly(1-butene sulfone)
PDA Photo destructive anion; Photodestructive acid
PDBs Photodecomposable bases
PDMS Poly(dimethyl siloxane)
PDN Photodecomposable nucleophile
PEB Post-exposure bake
PEC Proximity effect correction
PGME Propylene glycol methyl ether; Propylene glycol
monomethyl ether
PGMEA Propylene glycol methyl ether acetate
PHEMA Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate)
PHOST Polyhydroxystyrene
PHS Polyhydroxystyrene
D,L-PLA Poly(D,L-lactic acid)
L-PLA Poly(L-lactic acid)
PMGI Polymethylglutarimide
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate
PMPS Poly(methylphenylsilane)
POSS Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane
PPA Polyphthalaldehyde
PS-b-PDMS Polystyrene-block-polydimethylsiloxane
CHAPTER
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Overview of Lithography Process........................................................................... 5
1.3 Lithographic Exposure Sources and Processes....................................................... 7
1.3.1 Ultraviolet Lithography........................................................................ 7
1.3.2 DUV Lithographyd248 nm and 193 nm, Immersion, and Multiple
Patterning.......................................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography ......................................................... 12
1.3.4 E-Beam Lithography ......................................................................... 13
1.3.5 Other Lithography ProcessesdIon Beam, Scanning Probe, and
Nanoimprint .................................................................................... 15
1.4 Characterization and Figures of Merit for Resists ................................................. 18
1.5 Resist Materials and Chemistry ........................................................................... 26
1.5.1 Nonchemically Amplified Resists ....................................................... 26
1.5.2 Chemically Amplified Resists ............................................................ 28
1.5.3 Resist Physical Properties and Etch Resistance .................................. 31
1.5.4 Photoacid Generator Chemistry and Physics........................................ 33
1.5.5 Molecular Resists and Inorganic Resists ............................................. 38
1.6 Challenges in Modern Resist Design.................................................................... 44
1.6.1 Exposure Statistics and Shot Noise .................................................... 45
1.6.2 Photoacid Diffusion .......................................................................... 46
1.6.3 Resolution, Line Edge Roughness, and Sensitivity Trade-off ................. 51
1.6.4 Pattern Collapse............................................................................... 54
1.7 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 60
References ............................................................................................................... 61
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The modern world is thoroughly populated with integrated circuits (ICs) and other
microelectronic devices. These devices are present in all aspects of society and are
integral to the running of government, business, health care, transportation, security,
and even domestic tasks. Once found primarily in computers, ICs are now pervasive
in almost everything one interacts with, including cell phones, automobiles, televi-
sions, toys, even appliances such as refrigerators and coffee makers. They have
changed the way people work, play, and communicate. The ubiquity of these devices
has come about because their computing power has increased exponentially over
time, while at the same time the cost per computing power has dropped. This perfor-
mance and cost has been enabled by the ability of the IC manufacturers to double the
number of transistors per chip roughly every two years.1 This trend is commonly
referred to as Moore’s Law.2,3 Gordon Moore observed this trend in 1965, and he
predicted this scaling would continue for another decade. It continued not only
for another decade, but it has continued for over 50 years. It started as an observation
on scaling, but then became an industry mandate.
The doubling of the number of transistors per chip has been done by shrinking
the sizes of the transistors. The shrink in feature sizes has been enabled in a large
measure by advancements in lithography, which is the technique used to print the
circuit features on silicon wafers during IC fabrication.4 A visual example of the
scale of shrink is shown in Fig. 1, which shows the transistor dimension required
to maintain Moore’s law along with a cross section of the photoresist pattern
FIGURE 1
Transistor dimension required to maintain Moore’s law. The dark rectangles show the scaling
of the photoresist pattern height and width required to produce these transistor dimensions.
Reproduced from Lawson RA, 2011. Molecular resists for advanced lithography e design, synthesis,
characterization, and simulation [Ph.D. dissertation]. Atlanta, GA: Georgia Institute of Technology.
http://hdl.handle.net/1853/39601.
1.1 Introduction 3
the progress in commercial and research resists exposed on a mask-based EUV tool
is reviewed.
From Chapter 6 onward, the book addresses resist chemistry. The first of these
chapters presents progress in resists that operate via a mechanism of chain scission.
These are typically known as nonchemically amplified resists, as one exposure event
leads to a single chemical event in the resist. While such systems are typically
considered to be quite insensitive, new work on high-speed variants is presented.
Chemically amplified systems for EUV lithography are reviewed in Chapter 7.
While many chemically amplified systems are proprietary, and results in the litera-
ture often presented without significant chemical detail, this chapter seeks to identify
the major recent trends in chemically amplified systems.
To date the majority of resist systems have been based on polymeric materials.
However, in the last two decades a significant amount of research into molecular
resist systems has been undertaken. Chapter 8 examines a wide variety of negative-
tone molecular resist systems, primarily but not exclusively operating via cross-
linking mechanisms, while Chapter 9 looks at positive-tone molecular resist systems,
via, for instance, solubility switch mechanism (see Section 1.2 of this chapter for a
discussion of resist tone). Another recent alternative to polymeric resists are inorganic
resists. Chapter 10 introduces the most widely used of the inorganic systems,
hydrogen silsesquioxane (HSQ). The exposure mechanism is radically different to
that of organic systems and is explained in depth, together with a review of process-
ing. Chapter 10 also addresses an exciting new material class: high-Z nanocluster re-
sists, examined via the prototypical hafnium peroxide sulfate (HafSOx). These depart
in almost every way from the traditional paradigm of a photoresist, but nonetheless
have demonstrated outstanding performance. Another novel approach utilizing
organometallic complexes is presented in Chapter 11. By selecting metal atoms of
high EUV absorbance together with appropriate ligands to enable spin coating and
development, a number of high-speed EUV resists have been demonstrated.
Chapter 12 takes a fundamentally different approach to resist development. A
material initially developed to demonstrate high opacity in the UV, so as to allow
its use as an electron beam writable photomask is presented. Good results as a photo-
mask are indeed demonstrated, but serendipitously the resist has also been found to
enable astonishingly high aspect ratio electron beam patterning, primarily due to the
very low-density nature of the film. Electron beam patterning resist features with
aspect ratios far beyond anything that could be achieved in other resists are shown.
Film density is something that will be revisited in Chapter 13, as part of an exami-
nation of a selection of the other novel approaches that have been undertaken
recently. The chapter addresses novel approaches to EUV lithography, including
low and high absorbancy films and novel nanoparticle-based resists.
The last section of the book addresses several new approaches to next-generation
lithography. While EUV is covered extensively across the first 13 chapters, various
other approaches are also under development. Chapter 14 presents a short review of
the challenges and potential solutions of next-generation lithography. In Chapter 15,
the topic of scanning probe lithography is examined in great depth, before focusing
1.2 Overview of lithography process 5
FIGURE 2
Generalized diagram of the optical lithography process. The process starts in upper left and
goes top-to-bottom and then the right side top-to-bottom. Resist is spin coated onto a
substrate consisting of a silicon wafer and other deposited films. The resist is patterned
through a mask to selectively expose areas on the resist and then the wafer is commonly
baked on a hot plate. Development generates the three-dimensional relief pattern in the
resist and that pattern is transferred into the substrate through an etch process.
Finally, the remaining pattern in the developed resist is transferred into the un-
derlying film stack using an etch process. This etch process could be a wet or chem-
ical etch where liquid chemicals selectively remove the underlayer (UL) while
having a minimal effect on the remaining photoresist. However, it is more common
that the etching is done using plasma etching where high energy particles selectively
etch the UL compared to the remaining resist. Plasma etching allows a high level of
control and selectivity at both the nanoscale and wafer size scale by changing the
various parameters in the etch chamber such as etch gases and species, voltage,
bias on the wafer, pressure, and local wafer temperature, among many others. By
controlling the time and type of gases used, plasma etching can go from isotropic
to highly anisotropic etching profiles. Recent advances have even shown the possi-
bility of atomic level control with the introduction of atomic layer etching.6e8
After all the desired modifications are completed in the underlying film stack,
any remaining photoresist is removed through a plasma or chemical stripping pro-
cess. This lithographic process is then repeated (sometimes multiple times) for
each layer of the device to allow for fabrication of complete ICs.
1.3 Lithographic exposure sources and processes 7
printing, the mask is placed in direct contact with the wafer and photoresist. Prox-
imity printing is similar except that a small gap is left between the wafer and
mask. Projection printing collects light from the lamp using a series of lenses and
focuses it onto the mask. The light from the open areas of the mask are then collected
by another lens, which projects the pattern onto the wafer. Contact and proximity
printing tools are less expensive than projection tools because of the simpler setup
that requires much less sophisticated optics and so are commonly used in research
and development labs; however, projection lithography is by far the dominant
method in high volume manufacturing because it has several advantages over the
other two techniques.
Resolution for a lithographic process is the smallest feature that can be success-
fully printed with acceptable quality and control.24 Proximity printing works in the
near-field (Fresnel) diffraction regime and is resolution limited pbyffiffiffiffiffi the wavelength of
light (l) and the gap between the resist and the mask (L) to z lL, about 2e4 mm in
practice. Contact printing improves resolution to about the order of the wavelength
of the light (and potentially, if not practically, higher), but puts the mask and resist at
high risk of damage and defectivity due to the direct contact. Contact and proximity
printing both require masks that are the same size as the wafers, and mask features
the same size as the features to be printed in the resist. Projection printing overcomes
the defectivity issues because the mask is further away from the wafer and is pro-
tected by a pellicle,25e27 which prevents particles from landing on the mask. Projec-
tion printing can also use masks with features larger than the optical patterns at the
wafer level because the process allows for the reduction of the mask image, typically
a 4 reduction in the mask features; this allows for easier mask production. Finally,
projection printing has the big advantage of higher intrinsic resolution. The optical
resolution limit for far field (Fraunhoffer) diffraction limited projection lithography
is given by the Raleigh criterion shown in Eq. (1) where l is wavelength of radiation
used, NA is the numerical aperture of the lens in the exposure system, and k1 is a
process dependent factor that depends on a variety of factors and tool issues. For
many projection tools, k1 is below 0.5 and NA is near 1 (or even greater for immer-
sion lithography), so resolution is actually smaller than the wavelength of light
(compared to several times greater than the wavelength for proximity printing).
l
R ¼ k1 (1.1)
NA
[31]Quantidade, porção.
[32]Talvez.
[33]Um atilho compôe-se de 4 espigas amarradas.
[34]Dois vintens.
[35]Soboró é o grão falhado.
[36]Melado.
[37]Rapadura de assucar.
[38]É este erro commum no interior de todo o Brazil e sobretudo na
provincia de S. Paulo, onde pessoas até illustradas nelle incorrem
com frequencia.
[39]Trem na provincia de Matto-Grosso é uma das palavras mais
empregadas e com as mais singulares accepções. Neste caso
significa objectos, cargas etc.
CAPITULO V
AVISO PREVIO
INNOCENCIA
O NATURALISTA
CAPITULO VIII